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in the Social Sciences

no.19 1964
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SS. 64. XV. 19 A
Printed in the Workshops of Unesco
place de Fontenoy. Paris 7e - France
0 UNESCO 1965
Attitude change 1
A review and bibliography
of selected research I
by E.'E. Davis
Research Psychologist, Social Science Study Group
for Internationul Problems, Munich
P R E F A C E
In its continued efforts to promote human rights, within the framework of its scientific activities designed to
help in overcoming prejudice and discrimination, Unesco has long been aware that studies of attitude change are
significant in the context of educational activities intended to combat discrimination in all its forms. Follow-
ing an international meeting of experts on 'Youth and Race Prejudice' held at Gauting, Germany, in February-
March 1961, the Secretariat, at the suggestion of the late Professor Alfred Metraux, the anthropologist w h o for
many years was responsible for Unesco's programme on race relations, decided that the present review should
be undertakenand entrusted it to Dr. Earl E. Davis in his capacity as consultant to the Unesco Youth Institute
at Gauting. Dr. Davis is on the teaching and research staff of the Department of Psychology of the University
of Illinois. After specializing in social psychology and mental health, including its pedagogic aspects, he
took up research on attitude change at the international level; he has also co-operated in inquiries -partly
educational and part19 psychological - conducted under the auspices of the Gauting Institute.
It will be seen that in this review, interest centres more specifically on research on attitude change in its
relation to prejudice and discrimination than on the description of problems arising out of racial and other
discrimination. The review, therefore, constitutes one specialized effort among numerous others designed to
assist interested organizations, research institutes and individual scholars in promoting research as well as
in devising educational measures aimed against prejudice.
As things stand, this particular field of research on attitude change has been explored mostly within the
framework of social psychology, a relatively young scientific discipline which has, especially in its earlier
period, been developed more intensively in the United States of America than in any other country. Even nowa-
days, the majority of socio-psychological studies on attitude change have their origin in the United States and
some other English-speaking countries, such as Australia, Canada, lVew Zealand and the United Kingdom.
Social psychology having spread only in recent years to other linguistic areas, there are relatively few studies
on record originating in other parts of the world.
Although responsibility for the contents of this review rests, of course, entirely with the author, who does
not express any official opinion on behalf of Unesco, the Secretariat considers that the interest in such socio-
psychological research is sufficiently large to warrant the publication of this work, in the hope that it will
encourage specialists in different areas to continue, or perhaps to initiate, investigation in this field.
When further information of significance becomes available, it is intended to supplement this first research
review (completed in manuscript form in December, 1961) in order to give it wider international coverage.
C O N T E N T S
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART I: Experimental research on attitude change . . . . .
1 . Personality-oriented research . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . Group-oriented research . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . Persuasive communications research . . . . . . .
4 . Theoretical problems of attitude change research .
PART 11: Action research on intergroup attitudes . . . . . .
1 . Educational programmes in intergroup relations . .
0
2 . Intergroup contact and community studies . . . . .
3 . Cultural influences and the r6le of society . . . . .
Summary and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
13
15
22
27
36
39
41
46
52
56
58
I NTRODUCTI ON
Pur pose of thi s paper
The i mpor t ance of i nt ergroup rel ati ons i n the wor l d
t oday, the devast at i ng ef f ects of conf l i cts bet ween
var i ous raci al , et hni c, rel i gi ous and pol i ti cal gr oups
i n the past , and the acut e danger whi ch such con-
fl i cts r epr esent f or the f ut t we peace and securi t y
of manki nd have been so wel l descr i bed by ot her
wri t ers and ar e so appar ent to ever y i ntel l i gent
per son t oday that i t i s scar cel y necessar y to dwel l
at l engt h upon t hese poi nts her e. I t i s, t hen, not
at al l surpri si ngt hat soci al sci enti sts have i ncr eas-
i ngl y t urned thei r attenti on to t he pr obl emof i nt er-
gr oup rel ati ons. Of cour se, i nt ergroup rel ati ons
have al ways been ext r emel y i mpor t ant , but wher e-
as a f ewdecades ago t hey wer e scar cel y an obj ect
of sci enti f i c i nvesti gati on, empi r i cal r esear ch in
thi s ar ea has prol i f erated i n recent year s. The
body of publ i cati ons deal i ng wi th thi s i ssue has
r eached st aggeri ng pr opor t i ons, t hus creat i ng
an obvi ous need for syst emat i c document at i on and
peri odi c r evi ews of r esear ch. I t was the r ecogni -
ti on of thi s need whi ch pr ompt ed thi s r evi ew.
and l i mi tati ons of the pr esent paper . Fi rst of al l ,
i t must be emphasi zed that i t does not pur por t to
sur vey the whol e fi el d of i nt ergroup rel ati ons.
Such a t ask, i f at al l f easi bl e, cl earl y goes beyond
t he t i me and space avai l abl e for thi s paper , and, i n-
deed, beyondt he compet ence of the pr esent wr i t er ,
si nce such an under t aki ng coul d onl y be car r i ed
out by a l arge t eamof exper t s f r omt he var i ous
di sci pl i nes i nvol ved i n the st udy of i nt ergroup rel a-
ti ons. Nor does thi s paper at t empt to pr ovi de a
compl et e bi bl i ography or exhaust i ve r evi ewof one
of t hese di sci pl i nes, e. g. psychol ogy, soci ol ogy,
etc. I ts scope i s rat her mor e l i mi t ed: i t i s de-
si gned to provi de a r evi ewand sel ect ed bi bl i ography
of some of the mor e i mpor t ant r esear ch rel evant
to at t empt s at changi ng soci al atti tudes, wi th a
vi ewt owar d i mpr ovi ng rel ati ons bet ween var i ous
et hni c, raci al , rel i gi ous and ot her gr oups.
exhaust i ve cover age of t he numer ous ef f orts bei ng
made to i mpr ove i nt ergroup rel ati ons. Ther e i s
no doubt that the est i mat e cont ai ned i n an earl i er
r evi ewby Wi l l i ams to t he ef f ect that ' there ar e
hundr eds of pri vate and gover nment al agenci es em-
pl oyi ngt housands of per sons and spendi ng mi l l i ons
of dol l ars i n a si ncer e ef f ort to do somet hi ng about
the pr obl em' ( Wi l l i ams, 1947, p. vi i )/ I , i s t r uer
t oday t han ever bef ore. I n addi ti on to the agenci es
i n the Uni t ed States of Amer i ca, r ef er r ed to by
I t woul d be appropri at e now to del i neate the goal s
On t he ot her hand, no at t empt can be made at an
Wi l l i ams, t her e ar e numer ous organi zat i ons i n
ot her count r i es, as wel l as at t he i nternati onal
l evel , engaged i n such ef f orts. Such acti vi ty, i ndi -
cati ng that the i mpor t ance of i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup
rel ati ons i s wi del y r ecogni zed t oday, i s hi ghl y
encour agi ng.
These ef f orts have obvi ousl y pr esent ed a chal -
l enge to soci al sci enti sts, both as sci enti sts and
as ci ti zens; f or j ust as our t echni cal wor l d woul d
be i nconcei vabl e wi thout the advances that have
been made i n the nat ural sci ences, t her e i s ever y
r eason to bel i eve that the soci al sci ences have an
i mpor t ant r61e to pl ay i n the sol uti on of the human
pr obl ems of our t i me. The shar p i ncr ease i n
empi r i cal r esear ch deal i ng wi t h t hese pr obl ems
i n r ecent year s i s evi dence of t he f act that soci al
sci enti sts have t aken up thi s chal l enge.
The t er m ' atti tude change' , encount er ed onl y
occasi onal l y up to about f i f teen year s ago, has
occur r ed wi th i ncreasi ng f r equency i n t he pr of es-
si onal l i terature i n r ecent year s and has come to
desi gnat e a speci al i zed ar ea of r esear ch. One may
or may not l i ke such phr ases, whi ch t end to be-
come cat chwor ds of prof essi onal j ar gon, usher i ng
i n a f ad i n r esear ch; however , whet her we l i ke
t hemor not t hey ar e t here and usual l y have thei r
r easons f or exi sti ng. I n t he pr esent case, thi s
r esear ch t rend r epr esent s a ser i ous at t empt at
putti ng s ome of the proposi t i ons upon whi ch a great
deal of ef f ort t owar d i mpr ovi ng i nt er gr oup rel ati ons
i s based to t he cri ti cal test of empi r i cal i nvest i ga-
ti on. Wi t hout l osi ng si ght of the f act that f act ors
ot her t han atti tudes ar e ext r emel y i mpor t ant f or
det er mi ni ng behavi our , we submi t never t hel ess that
soci al atti tudes ar e hi ghl y rel evant to the quest i on
of i nt ergroup rel at i ons, and that t heref ore r esear ch
on atti tude change war r ant s mor e caref ul consi der -
ati on and r evi ew.
si nce earl i er r esear ch i n thi s ar ea has been s um-
mar i zed el sewher e (e. g. Wat son, 1947; Wi l l i ams,
1947; MacI ver , 1948; Rose, 1948; Al l port , 1952;
Saenger , 1953; Si mpson and Yi nger , 1958). We
shal l t ry also to be war y of cert ai n pi tfal l s i nherent
i n such an undert aki ng. One must avoi d t he t emp-
tati on ' to t ake t hese provi si onal resul t s of r esear ch
not f or what t hey ar e, i . e. poi nts f or f urt her
di scussi on, but to t ake t hemas the f i nal answer s,
Emphasi s her e will be upon r ecent r esear ch,
1. Ref er ences, desi gnat ed by the aut hor' s name
and date of publ i cat i on, ref er to t he bi bl i ography
appear i ng at the end of each chapt er or i n that
of a pr ecedi ng chapt er.
7
I ntroducti on
as evi dence that the poi nts i n quest i on have been est a-
bl i shed' /' . Especi al l y non- sci ent i st s, but of ten sci en-
ti sts t hemsel ves, fal l i nto thi s er r or . Nor i s i t the
pur pose of such a r esear ch r evi ewto pr esent past r e-
sear ch as anor mt o whi chf ut ur e r esear ch shoul d
conf or m; our i ntenti on i s rat her, t hr ough a cri ti cal
anal ysi s of cur r ent r esear ch t rends, to i ndi cate pos-
si bi l i ti es f or f ut ure r esear ch. Wi t h t hese not es of
caut i on i n mi nd, i t i s hoped that sci enti sts and
pract i oners al i ke will f i nd thi s r evi ewof use.
Pl an of t he paper
As we have al r eady i ndi cat ed, soci al sci enti sts
have t aken up the chal l enge pr esent ed to t hemby
t he i ni ti ati ve of t he numer ous i ndi vi dual s and or ga-
ni zati ons engaged i n acti on pr ogr ammes on i nt er-
gr oup rel ati ons. Ear l y ef f orts i n thi s ar ea wer e
l argel y under t aken wi thout t he use of sci enti f i c
knowl edge f or pl anni ng and cont rol . Thus many
pr ogr ammes wer e car r i ed out wi thout any sol i d
f oundat i on inf act and wi th l i ttl e possi bi l i ty of de-
t er mi ni ng whet her or not the desi red ef f ects wer e
achi eved.
sci enti sts and practi ti oners was usual l y due both
to a cert ai n scept i ci smon t he part of the pract i -
t i oners as to the ef f i cacy of sci enti f i c met hods f or
sol vi ng practi cal pr obl ems and to a cert ai n ' i vory
t ower ' atti tude on the part of many sci enti sts, who
pri ded t hemsel ves on the ' pure' nat ure of thei r en-
deavour s. Al t hough such atti tudes may sti l l occa-
si onal l y be encount er ed t oday, t hey have become
the except i on rat her t han the rul e. Most pr ac-
ti ti oners ar e wel l awar e that r esear ch, al t hough
of f eri ng no patent f or mul ae or' cure-al l s: does have
i ts i ndi spensabl e r81e to pl ay i n the pl anni ng, eval u-
ati on and cont rol of acti on pr ogr ammes. And most
sci enti sts, i naddi ti on to recogni zi ng thei r obl i ga-
ti on as ci t i zens, real i ze that r esear ch on such
real - l i f e pr obl ems i s most l i kel y to yi el d ri ch
r et ur ns in t er ms of basi c knowl edge about human
behavi our .
Int he l i ght of thi s f undament al i mpor t ance of
soci al sci ence r esear ch to pr ogr ammes of i mpr ov-
i ng i nt er gr oup rel at i ons, Par t I of thi s paper i s
devot ed to a r evi ewof s ome of the mor e i mpor t ant
exper i ment al r esear ch on atti tude change, On
occasi on, basi c r esear ch will be consi der ed, even
t hough t he s. peci fi c atti tudes under i nvesti gati on
ar e not t he soci al atti tudes whi ch ar e our pr i mar y
concer n. Thi s wi l l be done wher e i t i s fel t neces-
sar y to ref er to basi c r esear ch i n or der to arri ve
at concl usi ons whi ch may be usef ul f or t he speci al
appl i ed fi el d inwhi ch we ar e i nt erest ed, Thi s sec-
ti on i s desi gned especi al l y to ai d the r esear cher i n
obtai ni ng an over vi ew and gui de to a r esear ch ar ea
whi ch has become somewhat unwi el dy. Inconsi der -
i ng how best to cl assi f y t he ext ensi ve exper i ment al
wor k in thi s ar ea, a myr i ad of possi bi l i ti es pr e-
sent ed t hemsel ves. An at t empt was made to keep
the number of cat egori es smal l and to al l owthe
mat er i al to fal l i nto nat ural di vi si ons, i nst ead of
i mposi ng an arti fi ci al scheme upon i t. Thi s secti on
i s di vi ded t hen i nto chapt er s on: (1) Personal i t y-
Thi s earl y l ack of co- oper at i on bet ween
Or i ent ed Resear ch; (2) Gr oup- Or i ent ed Resear ch;
(3) Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Resear ch; and
(4) Theoret i cal Pr obl ems of Atti tude Change
Resear ch.
I n Par t 11 of the paper attenti on i s t ur ned to ac-
ti on r esear ch on i nt ergroup atti tudes. As ment i oned
above, no at t empt was made her e to sur vey al l the
var i ous practi cal ef f orts t owar ds i mpr ovi ng i nt er-
gr oup rel ati ons i n var i ous part s of the wor l d. The
emphasi s her e i s rat her upon a f ewsel ect ed ef f orts
i l l ustrati ve of the at t empt to uti l i ze the resul t s of
r esear ch f or the pl anni ng, eval uati on and cont rol
of acti on pr ogr ammes. As represent at i ve of ef -
f orts of thi s t ype, thi s secti on cont ai ns chapt er s
on: (1) Educat i onal Pr ogr ammes i n I nt ergroup
Rel at i ons; (2) I nt er gr oup Cont act and Communi t y
St udi es; and (3) Cul t ural I nf l uences and t he Rbl e of
Soci et y.
In a concl udi ng chapt er an at t empt i s made to
summar i ze cont empor ar y t r ends and to poi nt to
cert ai n pr ospect s f or f uture r esear ch.
A cl ari f i cati on of t er ms
Bef or e cont i nui ng, i t woul d be advi sabl e to cl ari f y
the t er ms of r ef er ence of thi s paper . A wor ki ng
def i ni ti on of the key t er m' atti tude' wi l l be gi ven
and i ts maj or aspect s bri ef l y di scussed. Al so a
di sti ncti on wi u be made bet ween ' atti tude I and a
number of cl osel y rel ated t er ms such as ' opi ni on' ,
' st ereot ype' and ' prej udi ce' . Fi nal l y, si nce our
pur pose i n st udyi ng atti tude change l i es i n i ts rel e-
vance to the pr obl emof i nt ergroup rel at i ons, the
i mpor t ant quest i on of t he rel ati onshi p bet ween atti -
t udes and behavi our will be t ouched upon.
The l i terature on atti tudes i s vol umi nous, the
def i ni ti ons near l y as numer ous as the aut hor s who
have wri tten on the subj ect . The t er m' atti tude'
woul d appear to be one of the most wi del y ( and
di f f erentl y) def i ned t er ms in the whol e of soci al
psychol ogy; and yet , f or some r eason, soci al
sci enti sts appear to under st and each ot her when
usi ng i t ,
of wri ti ng about thi s t er mi s probabl y i ndi cati ve of
the i mpor t ance of atti tudes to soci al psychol ogi cal
phenomena, I ndeed, Al l port (1935) has descr i bed
atti tudes as
We cannot begi n to r evi ew al l or most of the
def i ni ti ons of atti tudes here. However , near l y al l
of t hemseemto have at l east t wo f act ors incom-
mon: Fi r st , atti tude i s an i nf erred enti ty, some-
thi ng whi ch i s not measur ed di rectl y but rat her
deduced f r omot her obser vabl e data. Concept s of
thi s sort have been t er med ' i nt erveni ng vari abl es'
( MacCor quodal e and Meehl , 1948) or ' l atent vari -
abl es' ( Lazar sf el d, 1950). I n a st andard r evi ew,
Gr een (1954, p. 335) s ums up the gener al nat ure
of such vari abl es as f ol l ows: ' I n gener al t er ms, a
l atent vari abl e i s used to descr i be the consi st ency
The vari ety of def i ni ti ons and t he quanti ty
subj ect mat t er of soci al psychol ogy.
1. The Pr event i on of Pr ej udi ce: Repor t of a Meet -
i ng of Exper t s, Gaut i ng, Unesco Yout h I nsti tute,
1961, p. 5.
8
I nt roduct i on
or co- vari at i on of a number of di f f erent r esponses
to st i mul i of the same gener al cl ass. The vari abl e
i s vi ewed as medi at i ngt he st i mul i and the r esponses.
The r esponses ar e sai d to co- var y because t hey ar e
al l medi at ed by the same hypotheti cal vari abl e.
The l atent vari abl e i s usef ul because i t uni f i es a
set of dat a, namel y the obser ved r esponses. Sec-
ond, atti tudes i mpl y s ome sort of t endency to act
t owar d the obj ect t owar d whi ch t hey ar e hel d. To-
get her wi th ext ernal f act ors i n the per son' s envi -
r onment , t hey co- det er mi ne the manner i nwhi ch
he per cei ves and react s t owar d the wor l d. Thus
Kr ech and Crut chf i el d (1948, p. 152) vi ewatti tude
as ' an endur i ng organi zat i on of mot i vat i onal , emo-
ti onal , percept ual and cogni ti ve pr ocesses wi th
r espect to s ome aspect of the i ndi vi dual ' s wor l d' .
Al l port (1935, p. 810) concl udes i n hi s r evi ew: ' An
atti tude i s a ment al and neur al state of r eadi ness
exqrt i ng a di recti ve i nf l uence upon t he i ndi vi dual ' s
r esponse to al l subj ect s and si tuati ons wi th whi ch
i t i s rel ated. '
Hence, as a wor ki ng def i ni ti on we may r egar d
an atti tude as an i nf erred f act or wi thi n the i ndi vi d-
ual whi ch i nvol ves a t endency to percei ve and r e-
act i n a parti cul ar manner t owar d s ome aspect of
hi s envi r onment .
Of cour se, t her e ar e many obj ect s t owar d whi ch
an atti tude can be hel d. However , we ar e i nt eres-
ted her e pr i mar i l y i n soci al atti tudes, i . e. atti tudes
t owar d i ndi vi dual s or gr oups. Campbel l (1950,
pI 31) opeLati onal l y def i nes soci al atti tude as ' an
- / enduri ng/ syndr ome of r esponse consi st ency wi th
r egar d to La set of/ soci al obj ects' .
r evi ewof prej udi ce and ethni c rel at i ons, Har di ng,
Kut ner , Pr oshansky and Chei n (1954, p. 1022) al so
have soci al atti tudes i n mi nd i n thei r def i ni ti on:
' By an atti tude we mean a t endency or cl ust er of
t endenci es to react i n var i ous speci f i c ways to an-
ot her i ndi vi dual or to a gr oup of ot her i ndi vi dual s. '
Inanal ysi ng t he psychol ogi cal pr ocesses whi ch
ar e i nvol ved i n atti tudes, a di sti ncti on i s usual l y
made in t er ms of thei r cogni t i ve, af f ecti ve and
conat i ve component s ( Kr ech and Crut chf i el d, 1948;
Chei n, 1951). Of cour se, thi s tradi ti onal cl assi f i -
cati on r epr esent s onl y one of many possi bi l i ti es i n
t er ms of whi ch atti tudes may be anal ysed.
ever , f or the sake of conveni ence, we shal l retai n
thi s di vi si on f or the pr esent bri ef di scussi on.
The cogni ti ve component of soci al atti tudes i n-
cl udes the per cept i ons, bel i ef s and expect at i ons
that the i ndi vi dual hol ds wi th r espect to member s
of vari ous soci al gr oups. A speci al case of such
not i ons ar e the st ereot ypes whi ch ar e popul arl y
entertai ned concer ni ng var i ous gr oups. These ar e
attri butes nor mal l y used to descr i be an i ndi vi dual
( e, g. , physi cal f eat ur es, i ntel l ectual abi l i ti es,
char act er trai ts, etc. ) appl i ed i nstead to whol e
gr oups. These st ereot ypes ar e usual l y char act er -
i zed by (a) over- general i zat i on (the trai ts ar e at-
tri buted to al l , or near l y al l , member s of a r ace,
nat i on, etc. ); (b) over- si mpl i f i cat i on ( one, or at
most a f ew, charact eri st i cs ar e used to encom-
pass the compl exi t y of a whol e r ace, nat i on, etc. );
.
In thei r
How-
and ( c) ri gi di ty ( due to sel ecti ve percept i on and
i nt erpret at i on, cont r ar y evi dence i s of ten ei ther
i gnor ed or seen as conf i r mi ng the pr econcei ved
noti on). Anot her concept whi ch i s cl osel y rel ated
to that of atti tude but whi ch l i kewi se fal l s mor e i n-
to a purel y cogni ti ve cat egor y i s that of opi ni on.
Of cour se, the boundar i es ar e not shar p; opi ni ons
may al so have af f ecti ve and conat i ve aspect s, but
f or the most part t hey ar e mor e consci ous and
readi l y verbal i zed. They ar e mor e on the sur f ace,
so to speak, wher eas atti tudes ar e deeper l yi ng,
mor e ego- i nvol ved , gener al react i on t endenci es.
Al so, opi ni ons ar e hel d t owar d a part i cul ar ques-
ti on or i ssue, wher eas the obj ect of r ef er ence of
(soci al ) atti tudes ar e i ndi vi dual s or gr oups. These
t wo concept s ar e somet i mes used i nt erchangeabl y
i n the l i terature ( e. g. Abel son, 1959). However ,
al t hough t her e i s s ome over l appi ng, we f eel that
the maj or emphases of the t wo t er ms ar e suf f i -
ci entl y di f f erent to make a di sti ncti on bet ween t hem
necessar y.
The af f ecti ve component of soci al atti tudes
ref ers to the f act t hat , i n addi ti on to bel i ef s about
parti cul ar gr oups, such atti tudes usual l y entai l
f eel i ngs t owar d t hese gr oups as wel l . Most def i ni -
ti ons of prej udi ce emphasi ze thi s emot i onal aspect ,
i n addi ti on to the f eat ures of st ereot ypy descr i bed
above. I t i s cust omar y to consi der af f ects al ong a
posi t i ve- negat i ve cont i nuum. However , Chei n
(19 5 1) di st i ngui shes bet ween ' net posi t i ve- negat i ve
af f ect' and ' speci f i c af f ects' , poi nti ng out that r e-
sear ch has hi therto concent r at ed pr i mar i l y on the
f or mer di mensi on to the negl ect of the l atter.
Sodhi and Ber gi us (1953), inthei r i nvesti gati ons
on nati onal pr ej udi ces, al so cri ti ci ze the t endency
to r egar d the af f ecti ve component of atti tudes as
var yi ng onl y al ong t he posi t i ve- negat i ve di mensi on
and pr opose a mor e el aborat e anal ysi s.
si mpl y to the f act t hat , i n addi ti on to thi nki ng and
f eel i ng a cert ai n way about a soci al gr oup, t her e
i s usual l y al so a pol i cy ori ent at i on, i . e. a t endency
to react i n a part i cul ar way t owar d member s of
thi s gr oup. I t i s thi s f acet of soci al atti tudes
whi ch i s measur ed by such met hods as the Bogar dus
Soci al Di st ance Scal e ( Bogar dus, 1925; Tr i andi s
and Tr i andi s, 1960) and Mor eno' s Soci omet r i c
Techni que ( Mor eno, 1953).
debat ed quest i on of t he rel at i onshi p bet ween i nt er-
gr oup atti tudes and act ual i nt ergroup behavi our .
Thi s i s i n t ur n but a speci al case of a f undament al
quest i on inthe soci al sci ences about whi ch t her e
i s a great deal of di f f erence of opi ni on, the ques-
ti on of to what extent behavi our i s det er mi ned by
vari abl es wi thi n t he per son, of whi ch atti tudes ar e
one exampl e, and to what extent i t i s det er mi ned
by the ext ernal f act ors i n the i ndi vi dual ' s soci al
and physi cal envi r onment . Of cour se, ever yone
agr ees that both ar e i mpor t ant .
cl assi cal f or mul a _B =f. (2,
- Behavi our i s a f unct i on of the _Per son and t he Envi -
r onment , has l ong si nce become a t r ui smin the
The conat i ve component of soci al atti tudes r ef er s
Thi s l atter aspect l eads to t he di ffi cul t and much-
Lewi n' s (1935)
E), to the ef f ect that
9
I ntroducti on
behavi our al sci ences. I t i s mer el y a mat t er of the
rel ati ve emphasi s pl aced upont he t wo f act ors. Un-
f ort unat el y, di scussi ons on thi s i ssue ar e usual l y
gui ded by t he theoreti cal ori entati ons and predi l ec-
ti ons of the var i ous aut hors. I n f act , st ands ar e
f requent l y t aken al ong stri ctl y prof essi onal l i nes:
psycho- anal yst s , cl i ni cal psychol ogi st s and per -
sonal i ty t heori st s emphasi ze the i mpor t ance of
f act ors wi thi n the i ndi vi dual ; soci al psychol ogi st s
seek to bri dge the gap; and soci ol ogi st s, cul tural
ant hropol ogi st s and economi st s emphasi ze t he
i mpor t ance of ext ernal f act ors. I n addi ti on to i ts
theoreti cal i mpor t ance, thi s quest i oni s of i mmense
pract i cal si gni f i cance i n deal i ng wi th pr obl ems of
i nt ergroup rel at i ons, si nce maj or pol i cy deci si ons
ar e l i kel y to be made on the basi s of t he answer s
gi ven. Thus Tumi n, Bar t on and Bur r us (1958),
taki ng i ssue wi th assumpt i ons of a cl ose i nt er-
rel ati onshi p bet ween prej udi ce and di scr i mi nat i on,
ar gue that prej udi ce i s scar cel y amenabl e to i nf l u-
ence t hr ough rati onal evi dence, nor can emot i onal
r e- educat i on be consi der ed a f easi bl e publ i c al ter-
nati ve. They f avour , i nst ead, consi deri ng means
of ef f ecti vel y modi f yi ng behavi our , wi thout neces-
sari l y al teri ng t he prej udi ces t hemsel ves. Tumi n
(1958, p. 35) states the case qui te expl i ci tl y: ' I f
we ar e as successf ul i n the ar ea of bl ocki ng the
i mpul se to di scr i mi nat e as we have been i n bl ock-
i ng the i mpul se to cheat and st eal , we shal l pr oba-
bl y have done a great deal . I t woul d be ut opi an to
expect mor e - at l east i n the near f ut ure. The
cl assi cal i nvesti gati on of L a Pi er e (1934) demon-
strated empi ri cal l y that atti tudes and behavi our
need not be in accor dance wi th one anot her , i n-
deed, that t hey may even be wi del y di sparat e.
Ther e have been f ar too f ewactual i nvesti gati ons
of thi s quest i on, al t hough a mor e r ecent st udy by
Kut ner , Wi l ki ns and Yar r ow (1952) conf i r ms L a
Pi er e' s resul t s; and ot her f i ndi ngs, i ncl udi ng
t hose of Tumi n and co- wor ker s, r ef er r ed to
above, poi nt i n thi s di recti on. However , Kl i ne-
ber g, in comment i ng upon Tumi n' s t hesi s as to
the rel ati onshi p bet ween atti tudes and behavi our
( mor e speci f i cal l y bet ween prej udi ce and di scri -
mi nat i on) adds a not e of cauti on: 'I woul d l i ke
t o_ suggest . . . however , that szyi ng that the t wo
- / pr ej udi ce and di scri mi nat i on/ vary i n di f f erent
di rect i ons, or that t hey do not al ways go t o-
get her , does not mean that t hey ar e not at al l
rel ated. I wonder whet her we shoul d not , i n-
st ead, ask i n gr eat er detai l how t hey ar e rel at ed,
rat her t han comi ng to thi s negat i ve concl usi on'
( Kl i neber g, 1958, p. 47)
We shal l have mor e to say about thi s i mpor t ant
quest i onl at er. Int he f ol l owi ng chapt er s anat t empt
wi l l be made to gi ve a bal anced vi ew of varyi ng
r esear ch resul t s - not i n an at t empt to arri ve at
si mpl e answer s to gl obal quest i ons or patent f or -
ni ul ae, f or compl ex pr obl ems, but r at her i n an
at t empt to obt ai n an over vi ewof r esear ch t r ends
whi ch wi l l enabl e us to ask mor e speci f i c quest i ons
and seek answer s to t hemi n pr esent or f ut ure
r esear ch resul t s.
BI BLI OGRAPHY
ABEL SON, H. I . 1959. Per suasi on: how opi ni ons
and atti tudes ar e changed. New York, Spr i nger
Pub. Co.
ALLPORT, G. W. 1935. Atti tudes. I n: C. Mur -
chi son ( ed. ). A handbook of soci al psychol om,
p. 798-844. Wor chest er , Cl ar kuni ver si t y Pr ess.
. 1952. The resol ut i on of i nt ergroup
t ensi on. New Yor k, Nat i onal Conf er ence of
Chri st i ans and J ews.
BOGARDUS, E .S. 1925. Measur i ng soci al
-
di st ance. J our nal of appl i ed soci ol ogy, 9,
p. 299-308.
CAMPBELL, D. T. 1950. The i ndi rect assess-
ment of soci al atti tudes. Psychol ogi cal Bul l et i n,
47, p. 15-38.
CHEI N, I . 1951. Not es on a f r amewor k f or the
measur ement of di scri mi nat i on and prej udi ce.
I n: M. J ahoda. M. Deut sch and F.W. Cook.
(eds. ). Resear ch met hods i n soci al rel at i ons,
p. 382-90. New York, Dr yden.
GREEN, B. F. 1954. Atti tude measur ement . I n:
G. Li ndzey ( ed .). Handbook of soci al psychol ogy,
Vol . 1, p. 335-69. Readi ng, Mass. , Addi son
Wesl ey Pub. Co.
HARDI NG, J . ; KUTNER , B. ; PROSHANSKY , H. ;
CHEI N, I . 1954. Pr ej udi ce and ethni c rel ati ons.
I n: G. Li ndzey(ed. 1. Handbook of soci al psycho-
=. Vol. 11, p. 1021-1061. Readi ng, Mass. ,
Addi son Wesl ey Pub. Co.
KLI NEBERG, 0. 1958. Comment s. I n: The r61e
of the soci al sci ences i n desegregat i on: a
symposi um, p. 47-48. New Yor k, Ant i -
Def amat i on League.
KRECH, D. ; CRUTCHFI ELD, R. F. 1948.
Theor y and pr obl ems of soci al psychol ogy.
New Yor k, McGr aw Hill.
1952. Ver bal atti tudes and overt behavi our
i nvol vi ng raci al prej udi ce. J our nal of abnor mal
and soci al psychol ogy, 47, p. 649-52.
Soci al f or ces, 14, p. 230-7.
mat i cal f oundat i on of l atent st ruct ure anal ysi s.
KUTNER, B. ; WI LKI NS, C. ; YARROW, P. R.
LA PI ERE, R. T. 1934. Atti tudes ver sus acti on.
L AZARSFEL D, P. F. 1950. Thel ogi c and mat he-
I n: S. A. St auf f er, et al . (eds.). Measur ement
and predi ct i on, p. 362-412. Pr i ncet on, New
J er sey. Pr i ncet on Uni versi t y Pr ess,
LEWI N, K. 1935. A dynami c t heor yof per sonal i t y.
NewYor k, McGr aw Hill.
Mac CORQUODAL E, K. ; MEEHL, P. E. 1948.
On a di sti ncti on bet ween hypotheti cal const ruct s
_.
and i nt erveni ng vari abl es. Psychol ogi cal r evi ew,
55, p. 95-107.
MacI VER, R. M. 1948. The mor e perf ect uni on.
MORENO, J . L. 1953. Who shal l survi ve ( rev.
New Yor k, Macmi l l an,
ed. ). Washi ngt on, Ner vous and Ment al Di sor der
Publ . Co.
ROSE, A. M. 1948. St udi es i n the reduct i on of
prej udi ce ( 2nd ed. ). Chi cago, Amer i can
Counci l on Race Rel at i ons.
10
I nt roduct i on
SAENGER, G. 1953. The soci al psychol ogy of
prej udi ce. New York, Har per .
SI MPSON, G. E. ; YI NGER, J . M. 1958. _Raci al and
cul t ural mi nori t i es: an anal ysi s of prej udi ce and
di scri mi nat i on ( rev. ed.). New York, Har per .
SODHI , K.S.; BERGI US, R. 1953. Nat i onal e
Vorurt ei l e. Berl i n
TRI ANDI S, 1I.C.; TRI ANDI S, L.M. 1960. Race,
soci al cl ass, rel i gi on and nati onal i ty as det er -
mi nant s of soci al di st ance. J our nal of abnor mal
and soci al psychol oq, 61, p. 110-18.
TUMI N, M. 1958. Some pr obl ems f or soci ol ogi cal
r esear ch i n desegregat i on. I n: The r61e of the
soci al sci ences i n desegregat i on: a symposi um,
p. 33-40. New Yor k, Ant i - Def amat i on League.
TUMI N, M. ; BARTON, P. ; BURRUS, B. 1958.
Educat i h, prej udi ce and di scri mi nat i on: a
st udy i n r eadi ness f or desegregat i on. Amer i can
soci ol ogi cal r evi ew, 23, p. 41-9.
WATSON, G. B. 1947. =on and uni ty. New York,
Har per .
WILLIAMS, R. M. , J r . 1947. The reduct i on of
i nt er gr oup t ensi ons: a sur vey of r esear ch on
pr obl ems of et hni c, raci al and rel i gi ous gr oup
rel ati ons. New York, Soci al Sci ence Resear ch
Counci l . (Bul l eti n 57.)
11
P A R T I
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON ATTITUDE CHANGE
13
CHAPTER 1
PERSONALI TY- ORI ENTED RESEARCH
Al t hough r esear ch on personal i t y f act ors has pl ayed
an i mpor t ant r61e i n at t empt s to expl ai n the nat ure
and causes of et hi c pr ej udi ce, one mi ght j usti f i a-
bl y ask why a chapt er on thi s subj ect i s i ncl uded i n
a r evi ewof r esear ch on atti tude change. Do we
mean to i mpl y that personal i t y- ori ent ed appr oaches,
such as, f or i nst ance, i ndi vi dual psychot her apy,
r epr esent a f easi bl e possi bi l i ty f or changi ng nega-
ti ve atti tudes on a l arge scal e? Obvi ousl y we do
not. Why t hen do we i ncl ude thi s quest i on her e?
For one t hi ng, the ver y f act that t hese st udi es
have pl ayed such an i mpor t ant r61e inprej udi ce r e-
sear ch woul d war r ant thei r consi derat i on, at l east
bri ef l y, i n any di scussi on of at t empt s at changi ng
prej udi ced atti tudes; but mor e speci f i cal l y, i t shoul d
be readi l y appar ent t hat , al t hough met hods whi ch
ar e successf ul i nchangi ng an i ndi vi dual ' s atti tudes
may not , i nt hemsel ves, be appl i cabl e on a l ar ge
scal e, such st udi es do contri bute to our knowl edge
of t he pr ocess of atti tude change. The deci si on as
to whi ch met hods to use i n a part i cul ar si tuati on
wi l l depend, of cour se, . on a number of f act ors
among whi ch practi cal consi derat i ons must , of ne-
cessi t y, pl ay a key r6l e. However , r egar dl ess of
the met hods used, atti tudes ar e bei ng changed wi t h-
i ni ndi vi dual human bei ngs and t her ef or e, a know-
l edge of the psychol ogi cal pr ocesses i nvol ved i s
i ndi spensabl e. Personal i t y- ori ent ed r esear ch, i n
addi ti on to t hrowi ngl i ght upon i ndi vi dual di f f erences
whi ch may have to be t aken i nto consi derat i oni n
cert ai n i nst ances, shoul d al so pr ovi de us wi th s ome
i nsi ght i nto the gener al pr ocess of atti tude change.
The f ol l owi ng r evi ewof f i ndi ngs shoul d not be
i nt erpret ed as an ar gument i n f avour of t he pr i mar y
i mpor t ance of personal i t y f act ors i n atti tude change.
Inthe s ame vei n, t he f ol l owi ng chapt er s will ' ar gue'
i n f avour of t he i mpor t ance of gr oup member shi p,
cul tural f act or s, etc. We ar e convi nced that a con-
si derati on of al l t hese f act or s, and especi al l y the
speci f i c manner i n whi ch t hey ar e rel ated and i nt er-
act wi th one anot her , i s essenti al to t he i ntel l i gent
pl anni ng of any acti on pr ogr amme on atti tude
change.
deal i ng wi th t he rel ati onshi p bet ween personal i t y
vari abl es and soci al atti tudes, i n t er ms of i ts
i mpact upon subsequent r esear ch, i s The Aut hor i -
Cert ai nl y t he most i mpor t ant si ngl e publ i cati on
~~ ~-
t ari an Personal i t y by Ador no, Fr enkel - Br unswi k,
Levi nson and Sanf or d (1950). Pr obabl y no ot her
si ngl e wor k has mor e af f ected the soci al sci ences
i n gener al , and the ar ea of soci al prej udi ce i n par -
t i cul ar, i n recent year s, t han thi s monument al
vol ume. Whet her t hey agr ee or di sagr ee wi th i ts
f i ndi ngs, f ew soci al sci enti sts have been unaf f ect ed
by i t. We cannot begi n to summar i ze her e the r e-
sul ts of t he ext ensi ve r esear ch r epor t ed by Ador no
*and hi s co- wor ker s concer ni ng t he rel ati onshi p be-
t ween personal i t y st ruct ure and pr ej udi ced, et hno-
cent ri c atti tudes; nor can we di scuss i n detai l t he
ver y usef ul cri ti cal r evi ewedi ted by Chri st i e and
J ahoda ( 1954) , or ot her mor e r ecent r evi ews r e-
port i ng on the wi despr ead subsequent use of t he
IFt ( Fasci sm) Scal e devel oped by Ador no and hi s
co- wor ker s (e. g. , Ti t us and Hol l ander , 1957;
Chri st i e and Cook, 1958). We shal l be concer ned
her e onl y wi th t he i mpl i cat i ons of t hese f i ndi ngs
f or t he quest i on of atti tude change and shal l r evi ew
a f ew of the empi r i cal i nvesti gati ons whi ch have
been conduct ed to test the hypot heses deduced by
Ador no - et al . f r omthei r f i ndi ngs.
Inexpoundi ng thei r maj or hypot hesi s ' that t he
pol i ti cal , economi c, and soci al convi ct i ons of an
i ndi vi dual of ten f or ma br oad and coher ent pat t ern,
as i f bound t oget her by a "ment al i t y" or "spi ri t",
and that thi s pattern i s an expr essi on of deep- l yi ng
t r ends i n hi s personal i t y' ( Ador no, et., 1950,
p. l ), the aut hor s do not , of cour se, r egar d per son-
al i ty as somet hi ng i nheri ted or unchangeabl e. I n
keepi ng wi th moder n personal i t y t heor y, t hey ex-
pl i ci tl y state that ' personal i t y evol ves under the
i mpact of t he soci al envi r onment and can never be
i sol ated f r omt he soci al total i ty wi thi n whi ch i t
occur s' (I bi d, p. 5).
wi thi n whi ch personal i t y dynami cs ar e consi der ed
i s that of psycho- anal ysi s. However , as opposed
to mor e cl assi cal psycho- anal yt i cal wri t ers on thi s
subj ect , such as Feni chel ( 1946) and Orr (1946),
who deal wi th soci al ci r cumst ances onl y i n an i nci -
dental manner , Ad o r n o s . st r ess the i mpor t ance
of soci al f act ors and the total organi zat i on of t he
soci et y. Concer ni ng t he rel ati onshi p of thei r ap-
pr oach to soci ol ogi cal var i abl es, t hey state: ' The
pr esent r esear ch seeks to di scover correl at i ons
bet ween i deol ogy and soci ol ogi cal f act ors . . . t he
gener al appr oach bei ng to consi der personal i t y as
an agency t hr ough whi ch soci ol ogi cal i nf l uences
upon i deol ogy ar e medi at ed. I f the r61e of per -
sonal i ty can be made cl ear , i t shoul d be possi bl e
better to under st and whi ch soci ol ogi cal f act ors ar e
the most cruci al ones and i n what ways t hey achi eve
thei r ef f ects' (op. ci t. , p. 6).
necessar y i ncompat i bi l i t y bet ween the personal i t y-
ori ent ed appr oaches and gr oup or soci et y- ori ent ed
appr oaches, as s ome wri t ers have seemed to i mpl y;
al t hough, of cour se, personal i t y t heori st s and soci o-
l ogi sts may of ten arri ve at di f f erent concl usi ons as
The basi c f r ame of r ef er ence
Thus t her e i s no
15
Per sonal i t y- Or i ent ed Resear ch
to the most appropri at e pl an of acti on.
What ar e the i mpl i cat i ons of the f i ndi ngs r epor t ed
in The Aut hori t ari an Personal i t y to t he ef f ect that
i ndi vi dual s who ar e ' hi gh scor er s' on scal es of et h-
ni c prej udi ce t end al so to be char act er i zed by such
trai ts as authori tari an submi ssi on, convent i on-
al i sm, ri gi d and st ereot yped thi nki ng, l ack of i nsi ght,
over - concer n wi th power , over- i denti f i cati on wi th
the i n- gr oup, r epr essed hosti l i ty, di spl acement of
hosti l i ty on to out - gr oups, proj ect i on of unaccept -
abl e i mpul ses on to ot her s, etc. ? To speak i n
psycho- anal yt i cal t er ms, t he above- ment i oned
charact eri st i cs ar e i ndi cati ve of ego weakness,
excessi ve use of ego def ence mechani sms, f ai l ure
of super - ego i nternal i zati on and i nabi l i ty of the ego
to deal wi th i d i mpul ses. Cl i ni cal l y speaki ng, t hese
ar e al l i ndi cati ons of pathol ogi cal t endenci es i n
the personal i t y; and al t hough r esear ch does not
compl et el y conf i r mt he rel ati onshi p bet ween aut hor -
i t ari ani sm and tradi ti onal psycho- pat hol ogi cal
di agnoses ( si nce in a support i ng envi r onment the
prej udi ced i ndi vi dual usual l y manages to mai nt ai n
a superf i ci al , t hough pr ecar i ous, adj ust ment ) , t hese
ar e cert ai nl ynot the charact eri st i cs of a heal thy per -
sonal i ty. What , t hen, can be done to change such
i ndi vi dual s? The aut hor s admi t that per sons wi th
such a personal i t y st ruct ure woul d not even be
good ri sks f or psycho- t her apy i ndi vi dual l y, apart
f r omt he f act that t he appl i cati on of i ndi vi dual psycho-
t her apy on a mas s scal e i s not f easi bl e. They
poi nt to the possi bl e appl i cati on of thei r f i ndi ngs to
educat i on, chi l d- reari ng pract i ces and gr oup acti -
vi ti es pat t erned af ter t he knowl edge obt ai ned f r om
gr oup psycho- t her apy. However , t hey st ress the
f act that thei r f i ndi ngs ar e stri ctl y l i mi t ed to t he
psychol ogi cal aspect s of t he pr obl em, and that
psychol ogi cal means al one ar e not suf f i ci ent to
ef f ect maj or changes. Hi st ori cal and economi c
f act ors and ot her maj or f or ces operat i ng wi thi n the
soci ety ar e of great i mpor t ance. I ndeed, t hey l i ken
the t ask to ' that of el i mi nat i ng neur osi s, or del i n-
quency, or nat i onal i smf r omt he wor l d' and concl ude:
' These ar e pr oduct s of the total organi zat i on of
soci ety and ar e to be changed onl y as that soci ety
i s changed . . . The pr obl emi s one whi ch r equi r es
the ef f orts of al l soci al sci enti sts. ' Pendi ng such
a maj or sol uti on, however , ef f orts shoul d be
cont i nued on a br oad f ront. 'It woul d be most
unf ort unat e i f a gr asp of t he t rue enor mi t y of the
f undament al pr obl emshoul d anywher e l ead to a
di mi nut i on of effort. I t i s i mpossi bl e to concei ve
of any way of attacki ng t he pr obl emthat does not
i nvol ve a mul ti pl i ci ty of sub- goal s - to be attai ned
by i ndi vi dual s or by gr oups. Any act , however
l i mi t ed i n t i me and space, that ser ves to count er or
di mi ni sh dest ruct i veness can be r egar ded as a
mi cr ocosm, as i t wer e, of a total ef f ecti ve pro-
gr amme . . . So i t i s wi t h var i ous ot her measur es
whi ch f r omour poi nt of vi ewar e concer ned wi th the
t r eat ment of sympt oms or part i cul ar mani f est at i ons
rat her t han wi th t he di sease i tsel f. Yet we cer -
tai nl y do not wi sh to bel i ttl e, or to ask f or any
r2duct i on i n, such acti vi ti es. Some sympt oms ar e
16
mor e har mf ul t han ot her s, and we ar e somet i mes
ver y gl ad to be abl e to cont rol a di sease even
t hough we cannot cur e i t' ; (g, p 973 et seq. ).
On the basi s of thei r r esear ch f i ndi ngs, t hese
aut hor s add a seri ous not e of caut i on, however , as
to the possi bl e ef f ects of ext ernal mani pul at i on upon
the authori tari an i ndi vi dual : ' But i f i t seems un-
l i kel y that hi s personal i t y will change, t here i s
good r eason to bel i eve that hi s behavi our can be
control l ed. I ndeed he can be t oo easi l ycont rol l ed,
and t herei n l i es one of the maj or t roubl es. Ther e
i s l i ttl e i n hi s make- up to r ender hi mresi stant to
f asci st pr opaganda or to f asci st l eadershi p. . . .
However regret t abl e, f r omt he democr at i c poi nt of
vi ew, thi s suscepti bi l i ty to ext ernal cont rol mi ght
be, the f act r emai ns that i t of f ers the best basi s
f or prevent i ng hi s ant i - democr at i c t endenci es f r om
expr essi ng t hemsel ves i n acti on. The appeal shoul d
not be to hi s sympat hy or to hi s consci ence, but to
hi s f ear and submi ssi veness. He must be convi nced
that ar r ayed agai nst the overt expr essi on of hi s
prej udi ces ar e the l aw, over whel mi ng number s of
peopl e, numer ous convent i onal authori ti es and
prest i ge f i gures.
want to wi n hi m to thei r si de, t hey must do mor e
t han show hi mthat t hey have hi gh i deal s and real -
i sti c pl ans f or soci al i mpr ovement s; t hey must
convi nce hi mthat they al so have st rengt h. Such a
pr ogr amme, unf ort unat el y, i nvol ves an essenti al
par adox: i n i nduci ng hi mto behave i n accor dance
wi th democr at i c pri nci pl es, one i s l i kel y to st r eng-
t hen hi s aut hori t ari ani smand, hence, hi s ant i -
democr at i c potenti al . One coul d not , t her ef or e,
undert ake- so io i nf l uence the cont empor ar y beha-
vi our of / such/ i ndi vi dual s . . . unl ess one exert ed
as much ef f ort t owar d ensur i ng that ant i - democr a-
ti c l eader shi p di d not gai n the ascendancy i n the
f ut ure' (i bi d, p. 816).
Do subsequent r esear ch resul ts suppor t t hese
hypot heses put f orth by Ador no and hi s co- wor ker s?
I n an exper i ment al i nvesti gati on desi gned to test
the hypot hesi s of a rel ati onshi p bet ween atti tude
change and authori tari an per sonal i e, Wagman
(1955) arri ved at some i nteresti ng resul t s. On the
basi s of the Ador no, Fr enkel - Br unswi k, Levi nson
and Sanf or d st udy and t he exper i ment al wor k of
Hof f man (1951) on psychol ogi cal component s of
compul si ve conf or mi t y and of Lasky (1950) on the
rel ati on of exper i ment al l y i nduced changes i n
et hnocent ri c st at ement s to underl yi ng personal i t y
var i abl es, Wagman predi ct ed that: ' (1) Under ex-
posur e to i nf ormat i on t echni ques ai med at cogni ti ve
r est r uct ur i ng, rel ati vel y non- aut hori t ari an , as
compar ed wi th rel ati vel y aut hori t ari an, per sona-
l i ti es will show mor e atti tude change (i n the di rec-
ti on of the i nf ormat i on content); (2) under an
authori tari an suggest i on ur gi ng reduct i on of pr e-
j udi ce t owar ds Negr oes, rel ati vel y authori tari an
personal i t i es, as compar ed wi th rel ati vel y non-
authori tari an personal i t i es, will show mor e
suggest i on accept ance; and ( 3) under an authori ta-
ri an suggest i on urgi ng i ntensi f i cati on of prej udi ce
t owar d Negr oes, rel ati vel y aut hori t ari an, as
I f t hose who st and f or democr acy
Per sonal i t y- Or i ent ed Resear ch
compar ed wi th rel ati vel y non- aut hori t ari an , per -
sonal i ti es will show mor e suggest i on accept ance. '
Usi ng the f ami l i ar ' bef ore- af t er' desi gn, the i n-
vesti gator admi ni st er edt he (F) scal e and f our ot her
scal es desi gned to measur e atti tudes t owar ds vari -
ous t ypes of di scri mi nat i on agai nst Negr oes to f our
gr oups of st udent s. Thr ee gr oups wer e exposed to
t hree di f f erent t ypes of mat er i al desi gned to change
atti tudes, and the f ourth gr oup act ed as a cont rol .
The t hree atti tude change met hods wer e: (a) cogni -
ti ve rest ruct uri ng - a bookl et was pr esent ed pr o-
vi di ng an ' exposur e to i nf or mat i on' as to the nat ure
of i nt ergroup rel at i ons, pr ej udi ce, etc. ; ( b) aut hor -
i tari an suggest i on - i n thi s exper i ment al vari ati on
the st at ement s of busi ness and mi l i t ary l eader s
support i ng a non- di scr i mi nat i on pol i cy wer e pr e-
sent ed; and (c) authori tari an suggest i on r ever se - i n
thi s vari ati on st at ement s of busi ness and mi l i t ary
l eader s support i ng a pol i cy of di scri mi nat i on wer e
pr esent ed. The resul t s of the exper i ment may be
summar i zed as f ol l ows:
1. The predi ct i on that under exposur e to i nf or ma-
ti on t echni ques, rel ati vel y non- aut hori t ari an
subj ect s woul d show mor e atti tude change (i n
the di recti on of t he i nf or mat i on content) was
demonst r at ed i n the expect ed di recti on f or t hr ee
of the f our atti tude change measur es. For the
authori tari an subj ect s, atti tude change opposi t e
to that i nt ended occur r ed ( ' boomer ang' effect).
2. The predi cti on that under an aut hori t ari an sug-
gesti on ur gi ng a reduct i on of prej udi ce t owar d
Negr oes, rel ati vel y aut hori t ari an personal i t i es
woul d show mor e suggest i on accept ance was
conf i r med i n part . For one of the f our mea-
sur es the predi ct ed change was si gni f i cant,
wher eas f or the ot her t hr ee, i t was not.
3. The predi ct i on that under an aut hori t ari an sug-
gest i on ur gi ng i ntensi f i cati on of prej udi ce t owar d
Negr oes, rel ati vel y aut hori t ari an personal i ti es
woul d show mor e suggest i on accept ance was
demonst r at ed i n the expect ed di recti on f or t hr ee
of the f our measur es.
Fur t her mor e, non- aut hori t ari an subj ect s react ed
i n a I boomer angl f ashi on. Thus thi s exper i ment
i ndi cates that f or aut hori t ari an personal i t i es, atti -
t udes of raci al prej udi ce seemmost modi f i abl e i n
ei ther an accent uat ed or di mi ni shed di recti on under
an aut hori t ari an suggest i on met hod. A non- aut ho-
ri tari an i nf or mat i on met hod, whi l e ef f ecti ve f or
non- aut hori t ari an subj ect s, t ends to ' boomer ang'
f or rel ati vel y aut hori t ari an subj ect s. Thi s f i ndi ng
conf i r ms the hypot heses put f orth by Ador no S.
Ot her i nvesti gati ons have conf i r med t hese r e-
sul ts. Li nt on and Gr aham(1959), st udyi ng t he
rel ati onshi p bet ween. suscepti bi l i ty to opi ni on
change and aut hori t ari an atti tudes, used a ques-
ti onnai re dr awn f r omt hree of the scal es pr esent ed
i n The Aut hori t ari an Per sonal i t y, vi z. the Pol i ti co-
Economi c Conser vat i sm( PEC) , the Et hnocent r i sm
( E) and the Fasci sm( F) scal es. Al t hough t he opi n-
i on change gr oups wer e not f ound to di f f er si gni f i -
cantl y i n overal l authori tari an t r ends, as measur ed
by the quest i onnai r e, si gni f i cant di f f erences wer e
f ound when the i t ems of the ( F) scal e wer e gr ouped
accor di ng to the f act ors ref erri ng to the hypot heses
on whi ch the (F) scal e i s based ( Ador no et.,
1950, p. 224 et seq. ). Among ot her t hi ngs i t was
f ound that opi ni on changer s scor ed si gni f i cantl y
hi gher on measur es of aut hori t ari an aggr essi on,
anti - i ntracepti on and power and t oughness.
The aut hors concl ude: ' Opi ni on change i s t hen un-
rel ated to total scor e on the aut hori t ari an quest i on-
nai r e, but i t i s cl earl y rel ated to cert ai n component s
of thi s scor e. I t i s f ur t her mor e rel ated to al l the
sub- scal es that r epr esent vari abl es consi der ed by
t he aut hor s of The Aut hori t ari an Personal i t y to r e-
f l ect personal i t y t r ends pr edi sposi ng a per son to
be aut hori t ari an or not.
scal es ( PEC and E) that ref l ect soci al atti tudes
di rectl y. . . . I t appear s, t hen, that i n a popul at i on
of thi s sort, knowl edge of how aut hori t ari an- ori ent ed
a per son i s does not hel p to predi ct hi s r esponse
to communi cat i ons f r omsour ces such as t he sci en-
ti fi c authori ti es used i n the opi ni on change t est ,
but that an under st andi ng of the pat t ern of hi s r el a-
ti onshi p to authori ty does' ( Li nt on and Gr aham,
1959, p. 86). Kat z and Benj ami n (1960), i n a st udy
of t he ef f ects of whi te aut hori t ari ani smi n bi - raci al
wor k gr oups, al so f ound gr eat er compl i ance on t he
part of aut hori t ari an personal i t i es i n t asks r equi r -
i ng gr oup deci si ons. Aut hori t ari ans f ur t her mor e
rat ed Negr oes si gni f i cantl y hi gher on i nt el l i gence,
mat ur i t y and domi nance.
pret ed by t he aut hor s as bei ng due to t he aut hori -
t ari an' s f ear of reveal i ng ant i - Negr o atti tudes i n a
potenti al l y puni ti ve envi r onment . Anot her i nt erest -
i ng resul t was that aut hori t ari ans wer e si gni f i cantl y
l ess product i ve i n t wo- man gr oups requi ri ng co-
operat i on.
Ot her i nvesti gati ons have studi ed t he rel at i on-
shi p bet ween personal i t y vari abl es cl osel y asso-
ci ated wi th t hose descr i bed by Ador no et. and
atti tude change. Sarnof f andKat z (19541, i n a paper
descri bi ng t he theoreti cal f r amewor k f or a subse-
quent pr ogr amme of r esear ch on the mot i vat i onal
basi s of atti tude change, poi nt out that any atti tude
may be r egar ded as ser vi ng one or mor e of t hr ee
maj or mot i vat i onal det er mi nant s: real i ty testi ng;
r ewar d and puni shment ; and ego def ence. Kel man
(1956) descr i bes t hree pr ocesses i n atti tude change
r esembl i ng the above anal ysi s of mot i vat i onal
pat t erns: (a) i nternal i zati on or i ncorporat i ng t he
i deati onal cont ent of the atti tude; (b) compl i ance
i nduced by ext r aneous r ewar d and puni shment ; and
(c) i denti f i cati on t hr ough t aki ng the r6l e of ot hers.
I n l i ght of the compl exi t y of human f unct i oni ng, al l
of t hese det er mi nant s ar e pr obabl y i nvol ved i n any
atti tude, al t hough t hey undoubt edl y cont ri but e i n a
di f f erenti al manner . Ther ef or e, i n consi der i ng
the pr obabl e ef f ect i veness of any t echni que of atti -
t ude change, i t i s necessar y to know whi ch parti -
cul ar mot i vat i onal sour ce i s suppor t i ng the atti tude
under i nvesti gati on. I t i s appar ent that atti tudes
ser vi ng t he f uncti on of real i ty testi ng ar e most
l i kel y to be af f ected by i nf ormat i onal appr oaches
di rect ed at cogni ti ve r eor gani zat i on, wher eas t hose
I t i s unrel at ed to t he t wo
These resul t s wer e i nt er-
17
Per sonal i t y- Or i ent ed Resear ch
associ at ed wi th mot i vat i ons of r ewar d and puni sh-
ment ar e most l i kel y to r espond to soci al sancti ons.
On the ot her hand, i n seeki ng to change atti tudes
whi ch have an ego def ensi ve f unct i on, emot i onal
resi st ance i s l i kel y to be encount er ed, and the
personal i t y dynami cs i nvol ved must be t aken i nto
consi derat i on.
J ani s and Feshbach ( 1953) have demonst r at ed
that communi cat i ons whi ch ar ouse a hi gh degr ee of
f ear or anxi et y i n the reci pi ent t end to st i mul at e
def ensi ve react i ons whi ch i nterf ere wi th accept ance
of t he communi cat or ' s message. I n a subsequent
i nvesti gati on of personal i t y di f f erences associ at ed
wi th r esponsi veness to f ear - ar ousi ng communi ca-
ti ons ( J ani s and Feshbach, 1954). t hese aut hors
f ound that subj ect s who wer e hi gh i n anxi et y,
measur ed by a personal i t y i nvent or y, wer e consi s-
tentl y l ess i nf l uenced by st r ong appeal s wi th r espect
to dental hygi ene pract i ces t han wer e l owanxi ety
subj ect s. However , Feshbach (1961) has caut i oned
agai nst over - gener al i zi ng t hese f i ndi ngs, poi nti ng
out that under cert ai n ci r cumst ances di f f erent r e-
sul ts mi ght be arri ved at. Ber kowi t z and Cot t i ng-
ham( 1960) , f or i nst ance, have shown that the r e-
acti on to f ear - ar ousi ng communi cat i ons depends
upon the i nterest val ue and r el evance of t he mat e-
ri al to t he subj ect , Gol dst ei n' s ( 1959) i nvesti gati on
on the rel ati onshi p bet ween copi ng and avoi di ng be-
havi our and r esponse to f ear - ar ousi ng pr opaganda
al so suggest s a modi f i cat i on of the J ani s- Feshbach
resul t s, showi ng that t he react i on to a st r ong f ear
appeal depends not onl y upon the l evel of anxi ety
but al so upon the manner i n whi ch the subj ect copes
wi th such anxi et y. I n t he ar ea of ethni c atti tudes,
Cooper and J ahoda ( 1947) f ound that hi ghl y pr ej u-
di ced i ndi vi dual s react def ensi vel y, bl ocki ng and
di storti ng mat er i al s di rect ed at cari cat uri ng thei r
bel i ef s; and Bet t el hei mand J anowi t z ( 1950) r e-
port ed that many prej udi ced i ndi vi dual s r eact ed to
' pr o- t ol er ance' pr opaganda by i ndi cati ng shi f ts i n
t he di recti on of great er prej udi ce as a resul t of
r eadi ng i t . Feshbach and Si nger ( 1957) have al so
demonst r at ed that prej udi ce may be i ncr eased under
the i mpact of communi cat i ons per cei ved as ar ous-
i ng a per sonal threat.
In an i nvesti gati on conduct ed wi thi n the t heor e-
ti cal f r amewor k of the Sarnof f and Kat z ( 1954)
paper , Kat z , McCl i nt ock and Sarnof f ( 1956) studi ed
the rel ati onshi p bet ween ego- def ence and atti tude
change. Usi ng a number of pr ocedur es, i ncl udi ng
proj ecti ve t echni ques, t hey cat egori zed the ego-
def ensi ve t endenci es of thei r subj ect s as bei nghi gh.
medi umor l ow. Bef or e- and- af t er atti tudes t owar d
Negr oes wer e assessed by means of speci al l y de-
vi sed scal es. I n one exper i ment al gr oup t he atti tude
change t echni que was i nf ormat i onal i n nat ur e, wher e-
as i n a second exper i ment al gr oup i nterpretati ve
mat er i al s desi gned to show the rel ati onshi p bet ween
mechani sms of ego def ence and ant i - Negr o atti tudes
wer e pr esent ed; a thi rd gr oup ser ved as the con-
trol and was not exposed to any i nf l uence pr ocedur e.
The f i ndi ngs conf i r med i n gener al the t heor y that
af f ect - l aden atti tudes ar e mor e ef f ecti vel y i nf l uenced
as
t hr ough at t empt i ng to gi ve i nsi ght i nto the sel f t han
t hr ough provi di ng i nf ormat i on. However , subj ect s
hi ghest i n ego- def ensi veness wer e shown to be most
di ffi cul t to change t hr ough sel f - i nsi ght pr ocedur es.
I n a f urt her i nvesti gati on ( Kat z, McCl i nt ock and
Sar nof f , 1957) , the predi cti on was conf i r med that
medi umego def ender s woul d change most af ter
exposur e to mat er i al s desi gned to gi ve sel f - i nsi ght.
L ow ego def ender s wer e not usi ng thi s mechani sm
and wer e t hus l i ttl e af f ected by i nsi ght i nto i t ,
wher eas hi gh ego def ender s, by r eason of thei r ego
def ensi veness, wer e resi stant to i nsi ght.
Fur t her evi dence of such resi st ance i s provi ded
by Cul ber t son ( 1955) i n a st udy on the modi f i cat i on
of emot i onal l y hel d atti tudes t hr ough r61e pl ayi ng.
Thi s aut hor f ound r6l e- pl ayi ng to be a general l y
ef f ecti ve t echni que f or changi ng such atti tudes;
however he f ound cl ear evi dence that subj ect s scor -
i ng hi gh on the (F) scal e wer e l ess i nf l uenced by
rbl e- pl ayi ng as a means of changi ng atti tudes t o-
war d Negr o i ntegrati on i n housi ng t han wer e l ow
( F) subj ect s. McCl i nt ock ( 1956) arri ved at resul ts
i n a si mi l ar vei n, showi ng f ur t her mor e that i ndi vi -
dual s hi gh i n ego- def ensi veness, or hi gh i n ot her -
di r ect edness, t ended to accept i nf ormat i onal
communi cat i ons provi di ng rati onal i zati ons f or the
mai nt enance of prej udi ci al atti tudes t owar dNegr oes,
movi ng f urt her i nt he di recti on of pr ej udi ce, wher e-
as i ndi vi dual s l ow in def ensi veness, or l ow i n
ot her - di r ect edness , t ended to rej ect thi s i nf l uence
and moved agai nst i t , i . e. became l ess prej udi ced
t owar d Negr oes, An encour agi ng resul t of the i n-
vesti gati on by Kat z, McCl i nt ock and Sarnof f ( 1956)
was the exi st ence of a ' sl eeper ef f ect' on the part
of t hose whose scor e wi th r espect to ego def ensi ve-
ness was medi um, i . e. a t endency to cont i nue to
change i n a posi ti ve di recti on over t i me, as shown
by a f ol l ow- up i nvesti gati on.
The si gni f i cance of thi s whol e l i ne of r esear ch
f or any pr ogr amme of atti tude change i s stated
succi nctl y by Kat z and Stotl and ( 1959, p. 463):
' Our maj or thesi s has been that si nce atti tudes
ser ve di f f erent needs and f unct i ons, t hey can be
changed onl y t hr ough rel ati ng t he change pr ocedur e
to the appropri at e mot i ve pat t ern. I n gener al , thi s
cal l s f or separat i ng subj ect s on the basi s of thei r
needs and val ues to begi n wi th and maki ng di f f eren-
ti al predi ct i ons f or vari ous change met hods, Thus
f ar t he great er bul k of the r esear ch on atti tude
change has started wi th the atti tude i tsel f and has
assumed a common mot i ve pat t ern f or al l peopl e.
Our own met hod . . . i s to begi n wi th measur es of
ego- def ensi veness as one of the maj or sour ces of
atti tudes t owar d mi nor i t y gr oups and to gear i n-
f l uences di rect ed at change to t he anti ci pated mot i ve
pat t erns ,' Kel man ( 1956) , whose di sti ncti on ( des-
cri bed above) of t hr ee pr ocesses i n atti tude change
r esembl es the Sarnof f and Kat z ( 1954) anal ysi s of
mot i vat i onal pat t er ns, has l i kewi se st ressed the
necessi t y of consi deri ng mot i vat i onal condi ti ons i n
at t empt s at atti tude change ( Kel man and Cohl er ,
1959; Kel man, 1960, 1961a).
Anot her ver y i mpor t ant l i ne of r esear ch, whi ch
18
Per sonal i t y- Or i ent ed Resear ch
deal s wi th i ndi vi dual di f f erences i n suscepti bi l i ty
to atti tude change, i s r epr esent ed i n the ext ensi ve
wor k of I . J ani s and C . I . Hovl and, edi tors of the
Yal e St udi es inAtti tude and Communi cat i on, and
thei r co- wor ker s. Vol ume I1 of thi s seri es i s de-
vot ed to the subj ect of Personal i t y and Per sua-
si bi l i ty ( J ani s and Hovl and, 1959). The thesi s i s
devel oped i n thi s wor k that t her e exi sts a f act or of
' general persuasi bi l i ty' . The aut hors descr i be thi s
as ' a predi sposi t i onal f act or ref l ecti ng an i ndi vi -
dual ' s suscepti bi l i ty to i nf l uence f r ommany di f f e-
rent sour ces, on a wi de vari ety of t opi cs, and
i rrespect i ve of the medi a empl oyed. In i ts wi dest
sense, gener al persuasi bi l i ty shoul d be f ree of i n-
f l uences emanat i ng f r omany parti cul ar or speci f i c
aspect of the per suasi on si tuati on' ( J ani s and Hov-
l and, 1959, p. 225). Insummar i zi ng t he evi dence
of r esear ch i n suppor t of t he exi st ence of such a
f act or, the aut hors concl ude: ' The pr esent ser i es
of studi es i ndi cate that t here i s such a f act or as
general persuasi bi l i t y, al t hough t here ar e cert ai n
l i mi tati ons to i ts general i ty i mposed by the exper i -
ment al pr ocedur es empl oyed.
that persuasi bi l i ty exi sts as al l content f r ee" f act or;
that i s, i t exi sts i ndependent l y of the subj ect mat t er
or appeal s pr esent ed i n any parti cul ar communi ca-
ti on' ( m, p. 225 et sea. ). In addi ti on to the per -
sonal i ty f act ors r ef er r ed to i n the chapt er byLi nt on
and Gr aham(1959). to whi ch we ref erred above, a
number of addi ti onal personal i t y charact eri st i cs
wer e i nvest i gat ed, as wel l as i ndi vi dual di f f erences
i n i ntel l i gence, sex, devel opment al f act or s, etc.
On the ot her hand, the quest i on of whet her or not
persuasi bi l i ty to mas s medi a communi cat i ons was
the s ame as suscepti bi l i ty to i nt er - per sonal i nfl u-
ence was l eft open. Kat z (19601, i n summar i zi ng
the J ani s and Hovl and resul t s, poi nts out that
al t hough, ingener al , t here was s ome t endency f or
t he accept ance of the i nf l uence of one communi ca-
ti on to be associ at ed wi th the accept ance of ot her
i nf l uences, onl y a smal l number of the correl at i on
coef f i ci ents f ound wer e stati sti cal l y si gni f i cant.
Kat z concl udes:
al suscepti bi l i ty to i nf l uence, i t i s apparent l y not
a potent f act or and account s f or a smal l amount of
var i ance i n atti tude change' (N. , p. 204). Thi s
aut hor emphasi zes, as i n pr evi ous publ i cat i ons,
the necessi t y of consi der i ng t he rel evant mot i va-
ti onal basi s of atti tudes i n det er mi ni ng the r eac-
ti ons to at t empt s at atti tude change.
Anot her f act or whi ch has been f ound to be as-
soci ated wi th et hnocent ri c, prej udi ced atti tudes,
namel y that of ri gi di ty ( Ador no etal., 1950; Rokeach,
1948, 1960; Schnei der , 1958; etc . ), has al so been
i nvesti gated i n rel ati on to atti tude change. For d
(1956), f or i nst ance, f ound a posi ti ve rel ati onshi p
bet ween dogmat i sm and resi st ance to atti tude
change, and Boomer (1959) f ound subj ect i ve cer -
tai nty on the part of hi s subj ect s to bz posi ti vel y
rel ated to resi st ance to change.
studi es of the i nf l uence of soci al pr essur e on at-
ti tude change, has al so shown evi dence f or the
Ther e i s evi dence
' Though t her e may be s ome gener -
Fi nal l y, r esear ch of qui te anot her sor t , i . e.
i mpor t ance of i ndi vi dual di f f erences. Asch (1951),
whose wor k on t he ef f ects of gr oup pr essur e on
atti tude change ar e wel l known, has al so shown i n
hi s st udi es on i ndependence and conf or mi t y that
i ndi vi dual di f f erences pl ay an i mpor t ant r6l e ( Asch,
1956). He states: ' Ther e ar e t wo di rect i ons open
f or an i nterpretati on of t he obser ved i ndi vi dual
di f f erences. They may be t he pr oduct of momen-
t ar y, epi sodi c ci r cumst ances.
f uncti on of consi st ent per sonal qual i ti es whi ch i n-
di vi dual s bri ng i nto the exper i ment al si tuati on and
whi ch have as deci si ve a bear i ng on thei r act i ons
as any of the ot her condi t i ons we have st udi ed. . . .
Al t hough such cont i ngent condi t i ons pr obabl y pl ayed
a par t , t her e ar e st r ong gr ounds f or hol di ng that
t hey account ed f or t he resul t s onl y parti al l y. The
evi dence ci ted i n thi s chapt er , parti cul arl y that
pert ai ni ng to the di f f erent modes of r eact i on, pr o-
duces the i nsi stent convi ct i on that the r esponses
to the exper i ment al condi t i ons wer e f uncti onal l y
connect ed wi t h cruci al l y i mpor t ant char act er qual -
i ti es' (I bl d. , p. 51). Thi s concl usi on has al so
been conf i r med by ot her aut hor s ( e. g. , Fl ament ,
1958; Nadl er , 1959).
compel l i ng evi dence st emmi ng f r ompersonal i t y-
ori ent ed r esear ch? Cert ai nl y one possi bl e concl u-
si on i s that i ndi vi dual l y ori ent ed appr oaches to
atti tude change mi ght be hi ghl y ef f ecti ve on an
i ndi vi dual basi s. I ndeed, most i nvesti gati ons have
shown that psychot her apy, whi ch l eads to a mor e
heal t hy personal i t y gener al l y, al so usual l y resul t s
i n a si gni f i cant posi ti ve change i n negat i ve i nter-
gr oup atti tudes t er med pr ej udi ce, even t hough such
t her apy was not speci f i cal l y ai med at thi s goal .
Thus Bar on (1957) f ound that psycho- anal yt i cal l y
ori ent ed psychot her apy resul t ed i n si gni f i cant
changes i n t he di rect i on of mor e l i beral atti tudes
on the part of the pati ents; and Pear l (1955) l i ke-
wi se f ound that psychot herapeut i c exper i ence r e-
duced et hnocent r i sm, wher eby gr oup psychot her apy
was f ound to be mor e ef f ecti ve t han i ndi vi dual
t r eat ment . Wi t h chi l dr en, Axl i ne (1948) f ound
pl ay gr oup t her apy to be an ef f ecti ve means of
r educi ng r ace conf l i ct inyoung chi l dren. Kel man
(1952) has suggest ed a concept ual anal ysi s i n t er ms
of whi ch the rel ati onshi p bet ween gr oup t her apy
and adul t educat i on and ot her gr oup wor k may be
f rui tf ul l y consi der ed.
Al t hough the possi bi l i ty of practi cal l y appl yi ng
such met hods i s not to be al t oget her r ej ect ed, as
we poi nted out at the begi nni ng of t he chapt er , our
mai n r eason f or present i ng t he resul t s of per sona-
l i ty- ori ented r esear ch i s not that we necessari l y
consi der the di rect appl i cati on of such met hods on
a l arge scal e to be f easi bl e. Rat her we have sought
to show that an under st andi ng of t he psychol ogi cal
pr ocesses i nvol ved i n atti tude change i s i ndi s-
pensabl e i f we wi sh to under st and the rel ati onshi p
bet ween psychol ogi cal , soci al - psychol ogi cal ,
soci ol ogi cal and ot her f act ors. I t i s onl y when
we under st and such i nt errel at i onshi ps that we can
i ntel l i gentl y pl an pr ogr ammes of acti on. Al so, in
Or t hey may be t he
What concl usi ons may be dr awn f r omthi s r at her
19
Personality-Oriented Research
certain cases it m a y be necessary to take into con-
sideration individual differences, if we wish to avoid
the danger that our efforts remain without results
or even, possibly, have results opposite to those
intended.
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21
CHAPTER 2
GROUP- ORI ENTED RESEARCH
Si nce the det er mi nant s of atti tude change ar e compl ex
and hi ghl y i nt errel at ed, any at t empt at cl assi f yi ng
r esear ch resul t s i nto var i ous cat egori es must neces-
sari l y be arbi t rary. We have seen, f or i nst ance i n the
l ast chapt er that cert ai n gr oup- or i ent ed r esear ch has
r el evance to the quest i on of i ndi vi dual di f f erences or
personal i t y f act ors. On the ot her hand, i n the ver y
ext ensi ve r esear ch on i nt erpersonal communi cat i ons
as a means of changi ng atti tudes, the gr oup si tuati on
i n whi ch such communi cat i ons ar e present ed i s of
great i mpor t ance. Inconsi der i ng an i nvesti gati on of
the ef f ects of gr oup di scussi onon atti tude change f ol -
l owi ng the present at i on of a fi l m, both gr oup pr o-
cesses and the ef f ects of mas s communi cat i on medi a
ar e i nvol ved. Fur t her mor e i n t he ext ensi ve l i terature
on conf or mi t y to soci al nor ms and the ef f ects of
soci al pr essur e, a di sti ncti on i s of ten not made
bet ween soci al pr essur e i n the di recti on of conf or -
mi t y to the nor ms of smal l er pr i mar y or secondar y
r ef er ence gr oups, or to the nor ms or expect ed
behavi oural pat t erns of a communi t y or the soci ety
as a whol e. Our attenti on her e will be di rect ed
pr i mar i l y to the i nf l uence of the gr oup, i n the nar -
r ower soci al psychol ogi cal sense of the t er m, upon
atti tude change.
The recogni t i on of the i mpor t ance of the i nf l uence
of the gr oup and the soci al envi r onment general l y upon
the i ndi vi dual may be consi der ed one of the most i m-
port ant l andmar ks i n the pr ogr ess of the sci enti f i c
st udy of human behavi our. Inthe Ni net eent h cent ur y,
when sci enti f i c psychol ogy may be sai d to have had i ts
begi nni ngs, the emphasi s of r esear ch was pr i mar i l y
upon gener al l aws to expl ai n t he ment al ( pr i mar i l y
congi ti ve) f uncti oni ng of human bei ngs, wi th l i ttl e
r egar d bei ng pai d to i ndi vi dual di f f erences. Towar d
the end of the Ni net eent h cent ur y the emphasi s
shi f ted to i ndi vi dual di f f erences; and the st udy of
char act er ol ogy, and l ater personal i t y t heor y,
f l ouri shed. As a react i on to the pr evi ous t r ends,
i ndi vi dual i ty was over - emphasi zed by s ome school s,
to the negl ect of , or even deni al of , l awf ul ness i n
human behavi our . Thi s di f f eri ng emphasi s bet ween
the i ndi vi dual and the gener al has been char ac-
t eri zed by G. W. Al l port (1937) as t he i deographi c
ver sus the nomot het i c appr oach ( adapt ed f r omthe
t er mi nol ogy of Wi ndel band) .
ref l ected thi s s ame t r end, expl ai ni ng soci al behav-
i our i n t er ms of i nherent t endenci es wi thi n the
i ndi vi dual , such as i nsti nct, sent i ment , etc. ( e. g.
McDougal l , 1908). I t may be saf el y sai d that i t was
not unti l the 1920's. as moder n empi r i cal met hods
began to be appl i ed to an appreci abl e extent i n
22
Ear l y appr oaches to soci al psychol ogy of ten
soci al psychol ogy, that the i mpor t ance of soci al
i nf l uences upon the i ndi vi dual was ful l y real i zed
( e. g. F. H. Al l port , 1924; Becht er ewanddel ange,
1924). As Lewi n (1935) has shown, thi s devel op-
ment i n psychol ogy paral l el s a si mi l ar earl i er
devel opment i n physi cs i n the transi ti on f r om
Ari stotel i an to Gal i l ean modes of t hought : I n Ar i s-
totel i an physi cs, t he t endency of a l i ght obj ect to
go upwar ds and of a heavy obj ect to f al l downwar ds
was expl ai ned on the basi s of i nherent propensi t i es
wi thi n the obj ect s t hemsel ves; si nce Gal i l eo, we
know that the behavi our of a body i s a pr oduct of
the total fi el d f or ces acti ng upon the body at any
gi ven t i me and t hat , f or i nst ance, even the wei ght
of an obj ect i s not absol ut e but i s rel ati ve to t he
obj ect ' s sur r oundi ngs. Si mi l ar l y, we know t oday
that an i ndi vi dual consi der ed i n a vacuum, i . e.
apart f r omt he soci al i nf l uences of hi s envi r on-
ment , i s a f i cti on.
I t i s nei t her possi bl e, nor i ndeed necessar y, to
sket ch f urt her her e t he vast body of wel l - known
r esear ch whi ch has been amassed to demonst r at e
thi s poi nt. We shal l consi der rat her some of the
mor e i mpor t ant r esear ch bear i ng di rectl y on the
quest i on of gr oup i nf l uence upon atti tude change.
Amongt he most cl assi cal st udi es of the i nf l uence
of the gr oup si tuati on upon the f or mat i on and change
of atti tudes and nor ms ar e t hose of Sheri f (1936,
1937), usi ng the autoki neti c phenomenon. When
a si ngl e smal l sour ce of l i ght i s pr esent ed i n an
ot her wi se compl et el y dar k r oom, i t appear s af ter
a short t i me to move i n an errati c and i rregul ar
f ashi on, si nce t her e i s not hi ng i n the r oomi n
r ef er ence to whi ch one can l ocate i t . I f asked to
est i mat e the di st ance t hr ough whi ch the l i ght
appear edt o move, the subj ect i s at a loss f or any
obj ecti ve st andar d of compar i son. Under t hese
ci r cumst ances, Sheri f demonst r at ed that subj ect s
t end to establ i sh a subj ecti ve r ange of extent ( a
scal e), and a poi nt wi thi n that r ange ( a st andar d
or nor m) , whi chi s pecul i ar to the i ndi vi dual . Thus
t he subj ect est abl i shes f or hi msel f a f r ame of r e-
f er ence in an ot her wi se unst abl e percept ual fi el d.
When thi s s ame exper i ment i s conduct ed i n a gr oup
si tuati on, wher eby each i ndi vi dual can hear t he
oral l y gi ven j udgement of the ot her member s of
t he gr oup, a gr oup nor mt ends to become est a-
bl i shed wi thi n a short peri od of t i me, to whi ch t he
i ndi vi dual member s of the gr oup conf or mi n thei r
j udgement s. I f , f ur t her mor e, the ot her member s
of t he gr oup ar e conf eder at es of the exper i ment er ,
who gi ves pr edet er mi ned j udgement s, t he exper i -
ment al subj ect s will usual l y conf or mto thi s
Gr oup- Or i ent ed Resear ch
pre- est abl i shed nor m. An i nteresti ng f i ndi ng of
thi s l atter exper i ment al si tuati on i s that the con-
ver gence t owar d the pr e- det er mi ned nor mdoes not
di sappear when the subj ect i s al one i n a subsequent
sessi on. I n f act , on the whol e, conver gence t owar d
the pr escr i bed nor mi s great er inthe sessi on al one
t han i n the i ni ti al sessi on when the soci al i nf l uence
was pr esent .
That the phenomenon descr i bed by Sheri f i s of a
gener al nat ure and not dependent upon t he part i cu-
l ar exper i ment al si tuati on i s demonst r at ed by the
f act that si mi l ar f i ndi ngs have been f ound by ex-
per i ment er s usi ng di f f erent st i mul us modal i t i es,
such as cut aneous percept i on of war mt h ( McCor d,
1948), durat i on of percept ual phenomena ( Si nha,
1952). est i mat es of si ze ( Bovar d, 1951; Mausner ,
1954) and of number ( Bovar d, 1953; Sodhi , 1953)
and aestheti c j udgement ( Mausner , 1953). Sodhi
(1953) has f ur t her mor e shown that thi s t endency
t owar ds conver gence i s a f uncti on of the l evel of
di ffi cul ty i n maki ng j udgement s; as the l evel of
di ffi cul ty i ncr eases, conver gence t owar ds a com-
mon nor mi s mor e mar ked.
The i mpl i cat i ons of the above resul t s f or the
f or mat i on and change of soci al atti tudes general l y
ar e qui te obvi ous. Sheri f and Sheri f (1956, p. 488)
i n di scussi ng t hese i mpl i cat i ons concl ude: ' The
exper i ment s . . . showi n a si mpl e wayt he basi cpsy-
chol ogi cal pr ocess i nvol ved i n the est abl i shment
of soci al nor ms. The psychol ogi cal basi s of est ab-
l i shed soci al nor ms such as st er eot ypes, f ashi on,
convent i ons, cust oms and val ues i s the f or mat i on
of common r ef er ence poi nts or anchor ages as a
pr oduct of i nteracti on among i ndi vi dual s. Once
such anchor ages ar e establ i shed and i nternal i zed
by the i ndi vi dual t hey become i mpor t ant f act ors i n
det er mi ni ng or modi f yi ng hi s react i ons to the si tu-
ati ons that he will f ace l ater al one. . . . '
Al so among the most compel l i ng evi dence f or
the i nf l uence of the gr oup upon the i ndi vi dual atti -
t ude i s the wel l - known wor k of Asch (1951, 1952).
These exper i ment s wer e concer ned wi th condi t i ons
under whi ch i ndi vi dual s ei ther resi st , or ar e i n-
duced to yi el d t o, gr oup pr essur es when the l atter
ar e per cei ved to be cont r ar y to f act. The f ol l owi ng
exper i ment al t echni que was used i n thi s seri es of
st udi es. I n a gr oup si tuati on the subj ect s had t he
t ask of j udgi ng rat her si mpl e, cl earl y st r uct ur ed,
percept ual rel ati ons: t hey wer e to mat ch the l engt h
of a gi ven l i ne wi th one of t hree unequal l i nes, The
j udgement s wer e gi ven oral l y so that each subj ect
was awar e of the j udgement s gi ven by the ot her
member s of the gr oup. I n f act , however , al l me m-
ber s of the gr oup except one, the exper i ment al sub-
j ect , wer e conf ederat es of the exper i ment er and
had i nstructi ons to r espond at desi gnat ed t i mes wi th
wr ong - and unani mous - j udgement s. The magni -
t ude of the er r or s made by the maj or i t y was con-
si derabl y great er t han that whi ch coul d be attri buted
to chance. Thus the exper i ment al subj ect f ound
hi msel f i n a si tuati on of bei ng a mi nor i t y of one in
the mi dst of a unani mous maj or i t y. A number of
vari ati ons of thi s exper i ment al t echni que wer e
conduct ed, but the gener al resul t was that a l arge
per cent age of i ndi vi dual s yi el ded to t he pr essur e
of the unani mous maj or i t y, even t hough thi s maj or -
i ty Wac, ver y cl earl y i n er r or . Inot her wor ds,
t he pr essur e of maj or i t y opi ni on was so great that
the i ndi vi dual r esponded wi th j udgement s cont r ar y
to that whi ch he fel t to be cor r ect . I n many sub-
j ects t her e occur r ed a pr ocess wher eby t hey rat i on-
al i zed thi s di scr epancy, t hus maki ng i t possi bl e
to conf or mto the maj or i t y opi ni on.
We have di scussed t hese resul ts of Sheri f and
Asch i n such detai l f or ver y good r eason: i f t he
ef f ect of such exper i ment al l y cr eat ed gr oups - i . e. ,
per sons who wer e unknown to the subj ect previ ousl y
and who ar e of no parti cul ar si gni f i cance to hi m-
upon the nor ms and atti tude of t he i ndi vi dual i s so
compel l i ng, how much mor e compel l i ng must the
ef f ect on the i ndi vi dual be of gr oups who have ver y
def i ni te emot i onal and practi cal si gni f i cance f or
hi m? We mi ght l ogi cal l y expect that t he ef f ect of
such r ef er ence gr oups upon t he i ndi vi dual wi l l be
even gr eat er .
One of the most i mpr essi ve i nvesti gati ons of
the ef f ect of r ef er ence gr oups upon atti tude change
i s t he wel l - known ' Benni ngt on St udy' ( Newcomb,
1943, 1948). In thi s i nvest i gat i on, the enti re
st udent body of a smal l l i beral arts col l ege i n t he
Uni t ed St at es was studi ed ( mor e t han 600 i ndi vi dual s).
Benni ngt on Col l ege was not ed f or the general l y
l i beral at mospher e whi ch prevai l ed wi t h r espect
to a wi de r ange of soci al atti tudes. The st udent s
came most l y f r omf ami l i es of upper - mi ddl e or
upper cl ass soci o- economi c status whose soci al
atti tudes wer e r at her conser vat i ve. Syst emat i c
st udy showed a pr ogr essi ve change i n soci al atti -
t udes f r omconser vat i ve to l i beral dur i ng the f our
year s of st udy at thi s school . Fur t her mor e, the
change was proport i onat e to the extent to whi ch
t he col l ege communi t y, whi ch was the member shi p
gr oup, became t he r ef er ence gr oup for the st udent s.
A f ol l ow- up i nvesti gati on ( Newcomb, 1950) showed,
mor eover , that the l onger the r esi dence i n thi s
' cl osel y kni t , i nt egrat ed communi t y' t he gr eat er
was the change i n the l i beral di recti on and the
great er was the persi st ence of the changed atti tudes
(i bi d. , p. 206 et seq. ).
These f i ndi ngs, and parti cul arl y Newcomb' s
di sti ncti on bet ween member shi p gr oups and r ef er -
ence gr oups, have ver y i mpor t ant pract i cal i mpl i -
cat i ons and have been conf i r med by subsequent
i nvest i gat i ons. Si egel and Si egel (1957) studi ed
atti tude changes among women uni versi t y st udent s
whi ch occur r ed over t i me when r ef er ence gr oups
and member shi p gr oups wer e i denti cal and when
t hey wer e di sparat e. When di vergent member shi p
gr oups wi th di sparat e atti tude nor ms wer e soci al l y
i mposed on the basi s of a r andomevent , atti tude
change i n t he subj ect s over t i me was a f uncti on of
the extent to whi ch the subj ect s came to t ake the
i mposed, i ni ti al l y non- pr ef er r ed , member shi p
gr oup as thei r r ef er ence gr oup.
shown that thi s f actor of conf or mi t y to t he nor ms
An earl i er st udy by Si ms and Pat r i ck (1936) had
23
Gr oup- Or i ent ed Resear ch
of the gr oup of whi ch one i s a member , and whi ch
one comes to a great er or l esser extent to t ake as
a r ef er ence gr oup, may resul t i n atti tude change
i n a negat i ve di recti on as wel l . These aut hors
studi ed the atti tudes of whi te st udent s f r om
Nor t her n homes i n the Uni t ed States attendi ng a
Sout her n col l ege.
gr oup hel d atti tudes onl y sl i ghtl y l ess f avourabl e
t owar d the Negr o t han t hose of Nor t her n col l ege
st udent s i n thei r fi rst year . However , by the thi rd
and f ourt h year of r esi dence i n the Sout her n col l ege,
t he st udent s f r omNor t her n homes had shi f ted thei r
atti tudes t owar ds Negr oes i n a negat i ve di recti on
ver y near l y to t he posi ti on of thei r Sout her n cl ass-
mat es.
More recent r esear ch has conf i r med the f act
that the i nf l uence of the r ef er ence gr oup can change
t he i ndi vi dual ' s atti tude i n ei ther a posi ti ve or a
negat i ve di recti on. Kel l ey and Woodr uf f ( 1956) con-
duct ed an exper i ment wi th a gr oup of st udent s at a
t eacher s' col l ege whi ch demonst r at ed thi s poi nt.
By r eason of thei r trai ni ng t hese st udent s wer e
commi t t ed to posi ti ve atti tudes t owar d moder n, as
opposed to tradi ti onal , t eachi ng pract i ces. These
atti tudes wer e a part of thei r f i r ml y hel d gr oup
nor ms. The exper i ment er s pr esent ed t he st udent s
wi th a r ecor ded speech whi ch ar gued i n f avour of
the use of tradi ti onal r at her t han moder n t eachi ng
pr act i ces, t hus goi ng count er to the establ i shed
gr oup nor ms. Sever al t i mes duri ng the speech
a mai n poi nt made by the speaker was f ol l owed by
r ecor ded appl ause. The exper i ment was conduct ed
i n a seri es of smal l gr oup sessi ons, wher eby s ome
of the gr oups wer e tol d that the speech had been
r ecor ded at a meet i ng of the f acul ty of thei r school ,
wher eas ot her gr oups wer e tol d that t he speech was
r ecor ded at a gener al publ i c meet i ng i n anot her
communi t y. Thus the f or mer t hought that thei r
own t eacher s ( who wer e part of thei r r ef er ence
gr oup) wer e appl audi ng poi nts cont r ar y to thei r
nor m, wher eas the l atter t hought that the appl ause
was comi ng f r ompeopl e whomt hey di d not know.
The resul ts showed that t hose st udent s who wer e
tol d that the appl ause was comi ng f r omthei r own
f acul ty changed thei r atti tudes mor e i n f avour of
tradi ti onal t eachi ng pract i ces t han di d t hose st u-
dent s who t hought that the appl ause was comi ng
f r oman unknown gr oup.
A l arge number of f urt her i nvesti gati ons have
shown that member shi p in peer gr oups on the part
of school chi l dren and uni versi t y st udent s may have
an i ncreasi ngl y great er ef f ect upon changi ng the
atti tudes of the subj ect s as t hese member shi p
gr oups i ncreasi ngl y become r ef er ence gr oups f or
t he i ndi vi dual s. The concl usi on that may be dr awn
f r omt hese st udi es i s that al t hough negat i ve i nt er-
gr oup atti tudes most f requent l y devel op as a resul t
of adopt i ng the nor mof the f ami l y uni t as the pri -
mar y gr oup, and pr ogr ammes of acti on mi ght wel l
di rect attenti on to par ent s as i nst r ument s of atti -
t ude change, we need not be di scour aged by the
obvi ous di ffi cul ti es whi ch such a pr ogr amme of
acti on pr esent s; f or peer gr oups, especi al l y as
24
The f i rst - year st udent s i n thi s
t hey devel op i n school and i n uni versi ty set t i ngs,
may wel l become r ef er ence gr oups and have a
posi ti ve ef f ect i n changi ng atti tudes, t hus count er -
acti ng the ' cul tural l ag' whi ch i s so appar ent i n our
soci ety t oday. Nowak (1960) has demonst r at ed thi s
f act ver y cl earl y i n hi s st udy of egal i tari an atti tudes
of War saw st udent s. Thi s aut hor f ound that soci o-
economi c status and occupat i onal cat egori es act ed
as a r ef er ence gr oup f or the st udent s (the hi gher
the r ef er ence gr oup i s l ocat ed i n the strati f i cati on
of i ncome, the l ess egal i tari an t he atti tudes are);
on the ot her hand, he al so f ound a weakeni ng over
t i me of the associ at i on bet ween egal i t ari ani smand
par ent s' i ncome. The aut hor postul ated her e the
operat i on of a pr ocess of soci al i zati on or adapt a-
ti on to the st andard and nor ms of the respect i ve
school envi r onment and desoci al i zati on f r omthe
f ami l y envi r onment .
f ace gr oups to be especi al l y i mpor t ant i n atti tude
change. For i nst ance the degr ee of correl at i on
bet ween egal i t ari ani smand soci o- economi c back-
gr ound was l ess among t hose st udent s l i vi ng i n
dor mi t or i es, i . e. , i n mor e f ace- t o- f ace cont act
wi th thei r f el l owst udent s.
I n addi ti on to school and uni versi ty gr oups,
member shi p i n a number of di f f erent gr oups may
gi ve t hese gr oups, to a cert ai n ext ent , the char ac-
t er of r ef er ence gr oups and t hus change the atti -
t udes of thei r member s. Br ophy (1946). f or i nst ance,
f ound l arge di f f erences i n atti tudes t owar d Negr oes
among whi te seamen bel ongi ng to t hree di f f erent
t rade uni ons who di f f ered wi th r espect to thei r
ant i - di scri mi nat i on pol i ci es. Gundl ach ( 1950)
i nvesti gated the atti tudes of whi t e f emal e f act ory
wor ker s i nNew Yor k Ci ty who bel onged to a ' l eft
wi ng' t r ade uni on wi th a mi l i tant ant i - di scri mi na-
ti on pol i cy and f ound t hemto have a surpri si ngl y
l owdegr ee of prej udi ce t owar d Negr oes. The f ac-
t ory wor ker s i nvesti gated by Gundl ach wer e al so
si gni f i cantl y l ess prej udi ced t han whi te housewi ves
i n a non- segr egat ed New Yor k Ci ty housi ng proj ect
( Deut sch and Col l i ns, 1951). I n anot her i nvest i ga-
t i on, Wat son ( 1950) studi ed 45 New Yor k Ci ty resi -
dent s who r epor t ed that t here had been a mar ked
change i n thei r atti tudes t owar d Negr oes or J ews.
I n i ntensi ve i nt er vi ews wi th t hese subj ect s, i t was
f ound that mor e t han hal f of t hemreport ed that the
change had been pr eceded by thei r ent ry i nto some
new i nsti tuti onal i zed gr oup whose st andar ds wer e
di f f erent f r omthei r pr evi ous ones.
atti tudes whi ch ar e cont r ar y to the gr oup nor ms?
Kel l ey andVol kar t ( 1952) have shown that at t empt s
to change gr oup- anchor ed atti tudes usual l y meet
wi th r esi st ance, the amount of resi st ance usual l y
dependi ng upon t he degr ee to whi ch the gr oup i n
whi ch t he atti tudes ar e anchor ed i s consi der ed by
the i ndi vi dual to be a r ef er ence gr oup. In a f urt her
i nvest i gat i on, Kel l ey( 1955) demonst r at ed mor e ful l y
t he posi ti ve rel ati onshi p bet ween ' sal i ence of me m-
ber shi p' and resi st ance to change of gr oup- anchor ed
atti tudes. These resul ts have l i kewi se been
conf i r med by Fur uya ( 1958) i n a di f f erent cul tural
He f ound the r61e of f ace- t o-
What happens when at t empt s ar e made to i nduce
Gr oup- Or i ent ed Resear ch
f rustrati ng rel ati ons wi th one anot her. As a
resul t , f eel i ngs of i n- gr oup sol i dari ty devel oped,
but al so unf avour abl e st ereot ypes came to be
used wi th r egar d to out - gr oup member s. I t
mi ght be sai d that negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes
had devel oped. (I t must be not ed, however ,
that such atti tudes do not necessar i l y devel op;
her e f rustrati ng si tuati ons wer e del i beratel y
creat ed exper i ment al l y. )
3. St age of reduct i on of i nt er gr oup f ri cti on: as a
means of i mpr ovi ng i nt er gr oup rel ati ons and
changi ng negat i ve atti tudes and st er eot ypes, the
t wo gr oups wer e br ought i nto si tuati ons i n whi ch
desi rabl e super - or di nat e goal s exi sted whi ch
necessi t at ed co- oper at i ve i nt er- act i on bet ween
t he t wo gr oups. Fol l owi ng t hi s, a decr ease i n
i nt ergroup t ensi on and a change i n the negat i ve
atti tudes and st ereot ypes resul t ed.
The hypot heses wer e conf i r med that ' when gr oups
i n a state of f ri cti on ar e br ought i nto cont act under
condi t i ons embodyi ng super - or di nat e goal s, whi ch
ar e compel l i ng, but whi ch cannot be achi eved by
t he ef f ort s of one gr oup al one, t hey will t end
to co- oper at e t owar d the common goal, and co-
operat i on bet ween gr oups necessi t at ed by a seri es
of si tuati ons embodyi ng super - or di nat e goal s will
have a cumul at i ve ef f ect i n the di recti on of r educ-
ti on of exi sti ng t ensi on bet ween gr oups' . (ibid., p.
318 et seq. ) . The f i ndi ngs of thi s i ngeni ous st udy
have obvi ous i mpl i cat i ons f or i nt ergroup rel ati ons
and atti tude change on a l ar ger scal e.
In concl usi on, we have seen r at her compel l i ng
evi dence that an i ndi vi dual ' s atti tudes do not f or m
and persi st i n a vacuum but ar e dependent to a
l arge degr ee upon the atti tudes and nor ms of t he
gr oups whi ch f or mhi s f r ame of r ef er ence. I n the
f ol l owi ng chapt er we shal l see f urt her evi dence of
soci al i nf l uence upon the atti tudes of the i ndi vi dual
t hr ough the ef f ect of i nt erpersonal communi cat i ons
and mas s communi cat i on medi a.
setti ng; however , thi s aut hor' s f i ndi ngs suggest ed
a mor e compl ex hypot hesi s, i . e. that pr essur e i n
a gr oup si tuati on to change gr oup- anchor ed nor ms
may succeed i f the pr essur e i s great enough, but
t her e t hen resul t s a stabi l i zati on of the exi sti ng
atti tudes whi ch ar e resi stant to l ater change. Thi s
poi nt has al so been demonst r at ed byKel man( 1952) .
Anot her i mpor t ant l i ne of gr oup- or i ent ed r e-
sear ch on atti tude change has been that associ at ed
wi t h the noti on of ' gr oup deci si on' ( Lewi n,
1958). In t hese st udi es, whi ch had thei r ori gi n
duri ng Wor l d War I 1 wi th the obj ecti ve of changi ng
t he f ood habi ts of Amer i can f ami l i es to i ncl ude
i t ems usual l y not f ound desi rabl e by t hem, f or i n-
st ance beef hear t s, ki dneys, etc. , a ' l ecture me-
t hod' was compar ed wi th a ' di scussi on met hod' . In
the l ect ur es, var i ous appeal s wer e used: i nf or ma-
ti on was pr ovi ded, i nstructi on was gi ven on at t rac-
ti ve ways of pr epar i ng t hese cut s of meat and
mi meogr aphed r eci pes wer e di stri buted. In the
di scussi on gr oup, i nf or mat i on was al so gi ven, but
the gr oups wer e t hen st i mul at ed to di scuss t hei ssue
and arri ve at a gr oup deci si on.
ti gati on to see whet her or not the subj ect s had
actual l y i ncl uded t hese f ood i t ems i n thei r meal s
showed that wher eas onl y 3 per cent of the subj ect s
exposed to the l ect ures had been i nf l uenced to i n-
cl ude t hese f ood i t ems i n thei r menus, 32 per cent
of the i ndi vi dual s i n the di scussi on gr oups had done
so. Mor e recent i nvesti gati ons ( Levi ne and But l er ,
1953) have conf i r med t hese resul t s, showi ng the
compel l i ng i nf l uence of ' gr oup- deci si on' on the
atti tudes and behavi our of the i ndi vi dual .
i n the setti ng of the I ndi an cul ture have poi nted to
the possi bi l i ty that t hese resul ts ar e dependent
upon cul tural nor ms. Inexper i ment s at t empt i ngt o
change cast e atti tudes of secondar y school st udent s
i n I ndi a usi ng vari ous met hods, l ect ures empl oyi ng
emot i onal appeal s br ought about gr eat er changes
t han the di scussi on met hod. Fur t her cr oss- cul t ur al
r esear ch i s necessar y i n or der to det er mi ne the
si gni f i cance of t hese di f f erences.
per i ment al appr oach to the devel opment and change
of i nt ergroup atti tudes i s the so- cal l ed ' Robber s
Cave St udy' by Sheri f and co- wor ker s ( Sheri f ,
Har vey, Whi t e, Hood and Sheri f , 1954) . The i nves-
ti gati on was carri ed out i n Robber s Cave State Par k
i n Okl ahoma, U. S. A. ; subj ect s wer e 22 boys of
about 11 year s of age, comi ngf r omthe est abl i shed,
mi ddl e soci o- economi c cl ass and havi ng above-
aver age I Q. All wer e heal t hy, soci al l y wel l - adj ust ed
boys. The exper i ment was conduct ed i n t hree
st ages :
1. The stage of i nt ergroup f or mat i on: the subj ect s
wer e di vi ded i nto t wo gr oups (of mat ched pai rs)
and al l owed to f or mgr oup st ruct ures and nor ms
of thei r own natural l y and devel oped i n- gr oup
f eel i ngs. The t wo gr oups adopt ed the names
' Rat t l ers' and ' Eagl es' , respect i vel y.
2. The st age of i nt ergroup f ri cti on and conf l i ct:
the t wo gr oups wer e brought i nto compet i ng and
1953,
A f ol l ow- up i nves-
However , Mur phy' s ( 1953) compar at i ve studi es
One of the most i nteresti ng exampl es of an ex-
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atti tudes of whi t e wor ker s i n uni on shops.
Amer i can psychol ogi st , 5, p. 300 ( abst r. ) .
KELLEY, H.H. 1955. Sal i ence of member shi p and
resi st ance to change of gr oup- anchor ed atti tudes.
Human rel at i ons, 8, p. 275-90.
;, VOLKART, E. H. 1952. The resi st ance
to change of gr oup- anchor ed atti tudes.
Amer i can soci ol ogi cal r evi ew, 17, p. 453-65.
react i ons to appar ent gr oup appr oval of a
count er - nor mcommuni cat i on. J our nal of
abnor mal and soci al psychol opy, 52, p. 67-74.
LEVI NE, J . ; BUTLER, J . 1953. Lect ur e ver sus
gr oup deci si on i n changi ng behavi our. I n: D.
Car t wr i ght and A. Zander ( eds .). Gr oup dynami cs:
r esear ch and t heory. Evanst on, I l l i noi s, Row
Pet er son.
LEWI N, K. 1935. Adynami c t heor y of personal i t y,
New Yor k, McGr aw Hi l l .
Car t wr i ght and A. Zander (eds.). Gr oup dyna-
mi cs: r esear ch and t heory. Evanst on, I l l i noi s,
Row Pet er son.
. 1958. Gr oup deci si on and soci al change.
I n: E.E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L.
Hart l ey ( eds .). Readi ngs i n soci al psychol ogy, 3rd
ed. , p. 197-211. NewYor k, Hol t , Rhei nhar t and
Wi l son.
MAUSNER, B. 1953. St udi es i n soci al i nt er- act i on.
(111) Ef f ect of vari ati on i n one part ner' s pr es-
ti ge on t he i nt er- act i on of obser ver pai rs.
J our nal of appl i ed psychol ogy, 37, p. 391-4.
; WOODRUF F , C. L. 1956. Member s'
. 1953. St udi es in gr oup deci si on. I n: B.
MAUSNER, B. 1954. The ef f ect of pri or r ei n-
f or cement on the i nt er- act i on of obser ver
pai rs. J our nal of abnor mal and soci al psy-
chol ogy, 49, p. 65-8.
Mc CORD, F. 1948. The f or mat i on of gr oup
nor ms. J our nal of soci al psychol ogy, 27,
p. 3-15.
Mc DOUGAL L , W. 1908. I ntroducti on to soci al
psychol ogy. London, Met huen and Co.
MURPHY, G. 1953. Inthe mi nds of men. New
Yor k, Basi c Books.
NEWCOMB, T. M. 1943. Personal i t y and soci al
change. New Yor k, Dr yden.
. 1948. Atti tude devel opment as a f uncti on
of r ef er ence gr oups. I n: M. Sheri f (ed.). & I
outl i ne of soci al psychol ogy. NewYor k, Har per .
. 1950. Soci al psychol ogy. New Yor k,
~ ~~~
Dr yden Pr ess.
st udent s. Amer i can soci ol ogi cal r evi ew, 25,
NOWAK, S. 1960. Egal i t ari an atti tudes of War saw
p. 219-31.
SHERI F, M. 1936. The psychol ogy of soci al
nor ms. New Yor k, Har per .
st udy of atti tudes. Soci omet r y, 1 , p. 90-8.
W. R. ; SHERI F, C . W. 1954. Exper i ment al
st udy of posi ti ve and negat i ve i nt er - gr oup
atti tudes bet ween exper i ment al l y pr oduced
gr oups: Robber s Cave st udy. Nor man, Okl a. ,
Uni versi t y of Okl ahoma (mul ti l i thed) .
. 1937. An exper i ment al appr oach to the
; HARVEY, O. J . ; WHI TE, B. J . ; HOOD,
; SHERI F, C. W. 1953. Gr oups i n
har mony and t ensi on.
. 1956. An outl i ne of soci al
psychol ogy, ( r ev. ed. ). New Yor k, Har per .
gr oups, member shi p gr oups, and atti tude
New Yor k, Har per .
___
SI EGEL, A. E. ; SI EGEL, S. 1957. Ref er ence
change.
psychol ogy, 55, p. 360-4.
J our nal of abnor mal and soci al
SI MS. B. M. ; PATRI CK, J . R. 1936. Atti tude
t owar d t he Negr o of Nor t her n col l ege
I -
st udent s. J our nal of soci al psychol ogy, 7,
p. 192-204.
SI NHA, D. 1952. An exper i ment al st udy of a
soci al f act or i n percept i on: the i nf l uence of
an arbi t rary gr oup st andard. Pat na Uni versi t x
j our nal , Pat na.
Kr af t f el d,
SODHI , K.S. 1953. Urt ei l sbi l dung imSozi al en
WATSON, J . 1950. Some soci al and psycho-
mt t i ngen, Ver l ag f ur Psychol ogi e .
l ogi cal si tuati ons rel ated to change i n atti tudes.
Human Rel at i ons, 3, p. 15-56.
26
CHAPTER 3
PERSUASI VE COMMUNI CATI ONS RESEARCH
As the maj or t ext books of soci al psychol ogy cor -
rectl y poi nt out , communi cat i on i s the cor ner st one
of man' s soci al behavi our . I t i s pr i mar i l y the
abi l i ty to communi cat e on a symbol i c pl ane t hr ough
the use of l anguage that di f f erenti ates Homosapi ens
f r omot her speci es and makes the human bei ng a
soci al ani mal . Any at t empt to per suade, change t he
atti tude of , or ot her wi se i nf l uence our f el l owman
must necessari l y make use of communi cat i on. Thus
communi cat i on woul d seemto be basi c to our whol e
subj ect mat t er , I ndeed, l ogi cal l y speaki ng, the
r esear ch whi ch we shal l cover her e cut s acr oss
near l y all of the var i ous di sci pl i nes. On t he one
hand, at t empt s at atti tude change t hr ough i nt er-
per sonal communi cat i ons i nvol ve the personal i t y of
the reci pi ent of the communi cat i on and of the com-
muni cat or hi msel f , as wel l as the rel ati onshi p
bet ween the communi cat or and hi s audi ence and t he
dynami cs of t he gr oup pr ocess mani f est i n t he
exper i ment al si tuati on. On the ot her hand, as we
have al r eadypoi nt ed out , a di sti ncti oni s of ten not
made bet ween i nt erpersonal communi cat i ons, wher e
t her e i s f ace- t o- f ace cont act bet ween the com-
muni cat or and hi s audi ence, and communi cat i ons
t hr ough mass medi a wher e such cont act i s l acki ng.
The quest i on of mass medi a as a means of atti tude
change r ai ses, i n t ur n, br oad i ssues whi ch must
be consi der ed f r omthe vi ewpoi nt of t he soci ety or
cul ture as a whol e. Never t hel ess, an i nspect i on
of the l i terature on atti tude change ver y cl earl y
shows a l arge body of r esear ch cent r ed ar ound
what may be cal l ed per suasi ve communi cat i on, We
shal l t heref ore at t empt to sket ch her e the maj or
recent t r ends i n thi s ar ea whi ch has gr own so
rapi dl y i n ver y recent year s.
As has been poi nted out by a number of wr i t er s,
earl i er r esear ch on changi ng atti tudes t hr ough
communi cat i on was charact eri zed by a ' scarci t y of
wel l - pl anned exper i ment s i n the bul k of r esear ch
r epor t s' (Sheri f and Sher i f , 1956, p. 555). Thi s
r esear ch actual l y has a rat her l ong hi st ory, as f ar
as the rel ati vel y young sci ence of psychol ogy i s
concer ned. A sur vey of the l i terature r eveal s
a f ai r amount of such r esear ch as earl y as the
1 9 2 0 ' ~ ~ wi th the number of studi es i ncr easi ng i nto
the 1930's. The gener al f or mof t hese st udi es has
been to use some st andard i nst r ument f or atti tude
measur ement , such as a Thur st one or Li ker t - t ype
scal e, i n a ' bef ore- af t er' desi gn, wi th the i nf l uence
pr ocedur e ( wri t t en mat er i al s, speeches, di scus-
si ons, debat es, mot i on pi ct ur es, cour ses of st udy,
etc. ) pr esent ed i n bet ween. Exper i ment s whi ch
wer e r easonabl y wel l - pl anned usual l y used t wo
gr oups of subj ect s, an exper i ment al and a cont rol
gr oup.
As earl i er sur veys ( Mur phy, Mur phy and New-
comb, 1937; Wi l l i ams, 1947) have shown, most
such exper i ment s di d show s ome change of atti tude
i n t he di recti on of the communi cat i on, as measur ed
by t he i nst r ument s. However , the st udi es showed
l i ttl e agr eement as to t he ' best' met hod of changi ng
atti tudes t hr ough communi cat i on; and not a smal l
number of t hemshowed no si gni f i cant change, or
even change inthe opposi t e di recti on to that whi ch
was i nt ended. The r eason f or t hese vari abl e r e-
sul ts i s ver y pr obabl y to be f ound i n the f act that
the desi gn of such r esear ch di d not t ake i nto con-
si derat i on knowl edge of i nt erpersonal rel at i ons,
gr oup pr ocesses, communi cat i on t heor y, and ot her
f act ors i nvol ved inthe pr ocess of atti tude change,
about whi ch we know consi derabl y mor e t oday.
No at t empt will be made to r evi ewt hese pr e-
vi ous st udi es. The emphasi s her e will be upon
mor e r ecent r esear ch on the ef f ecti veness of
communi cat i ons i n atti tude change, whi ch has t aken
s ome of t hese mor e di f f erenti al f act ors i nto con-
si derati on. Ear l y r esear ch will be r ef er r ed to only
occasi onal l y wher e i t i s necessar yt o do so in or der
to el uci date t he i ssues i nvol vedi n cur r ent r esear ch.
Wi t hout at t empt i ng any compl et e anal ysi s of t he
var i ous aspect s i nvol vedi n the ef f ects of communi -
cati on upon changi ng atti tudes, we shal l consi der
di f f erenti al l y t he ef f ects of the f ol l owi ng f act ors:
the communi cat or ; t he communi cat i on; and t he
reci pi ent of t he communi cat i on. Ln the f ol l owi ng
chapt er we shal l r evi ews ome theoreti cal pr obl ems
i nvol ved i n the pr ocess of atti tude change t hr ough
communi cat i on.
The Communi cat or
Al t hough i t woul d appear a pri ori r at her obvi ous
that the f act or of who says or pr esent s a c ommu-
ni cati on ( or i n t he case of mas s medi a, to whi ch
sour ce the communi cat i on i s attri buted) must be
of great i mpor t ance, thi s f act or was surpri si ngl y
negl ect ed i n earl i er r esear ch. Thi s negl ect may
wel l have been responsi bl e f or s ome of t he di scr ep-
anci es i n t he f i ndi ngs of pr evi ous st udi es. Thus,
f or i nst ance, Hovl and (1958), i n r evi ewi ng r esear ch
on t he r61e of pr i macy and r ecency i n per suasi ve
communi cat i on ( whi ch we shal l di scuss at gr eat er
l engt h bel ow) , suggest s that t he di scr epancy be-
t ween the f i ndi ngs of an earl i er i nvesti gati on by
Lund (1925) and t hose of a mor e r ecent st udy
by Cr omwel l (1950), usi ng the s ame exper i ment al
27
Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Resear ch
desi gn, may be i n part attri butabl e to the ef f ects
of the communi cat or ; wher eas i n Lund' s st udy t he
exper i ment er was al so the i nst ruct or of the sub-
j ect s, t hus i ncr easi ng the mot i vat i on to l ear n the
f i rst - present ed communi cat i on, Cr omwel l , i n hi s
i nvest i gat i on, used a neut ral exper i ment er (i n an
at t empt to mi ni mi ze the ef f ect of thi s f actor), t hus
arri vi ng at resul ts whi ch di d not conf i r mLund' s
f i ndi ngs as to the i mpor t ance of pr i macy i n the
present at i on of the mat eri al .
Mor e r ecent exper i ment al i nvesti gati ons desi gned
speci f i cal l y to st udy the i nf l uence of the commu-
ni cat or or sour ce of the communi cat i on have con-
f i r med the si gni f i cance of thi s vari abl e.
and Wei ss (1951). usi ng col l ege st udent s as
subj ect s, f ound that by var yi ng t he sour ce of com-
muni cat i on, the s ame communi cat i on had a great er
ef f ect when the subj ect s r egar ded i ts sour ce as
t r ust wor t hy and rel i abl e t han when t hey consi der ed
the sour ce to be unt r ust wor t hy. I n one case the
st udent s wer e tol d that the aut hor of the com-
muni cat i on was a pr omi nent sci enti st i n thei r own
count r y, and i n the ot her t he sour ce was i denti f i ed
as bei ng a St at e- cont rol l ed newspaper of anot her
nati on whi ch was not r egar ded by the st udent s as
bei ng t r ust wor t hy ( onl y the subj ecti ve eval uati on of
the subj ect s i s i mpor t ant ; the actual rel i abi l i ty of
the sour ces i s not under di scussi on here) . These
resul t s have been conf i r med i n anot her st udy by
Kel man and Hovl and (1953), usi ng hi gh school st u-
dent s as subj ect s. These subj ect s wer e pr esent ed
wi th a r ecor ded educat i onal radi o pr ogr amme,
wher e by t hree di f f erent speaker s or ' c ommuni c a -
t or s' t ook an i denti cal st and on the i ssue of how to
treat j uveni l e del i nquency, al l advocat i ng a pol i cy
of great er l eni ency. The t hr ee speaker s coul d be
char act er i zed as ' posi ti ve I , ' negat i ve' , and ' neu-
tral ' . The ' posi ti ve' communi cat or (i denti f i ed as
a hi ghl y r espect ed, wel l - i nf or med j udge i n a j uve;
ni l e court ) had consi derabl y mor e ef f ect on chang-
i ng the subj ect s' atti tudes t han di d the ' negat i ve'
communi cat or (i denti f i ed as a rat her ' shady'
and not ver y l aw- abi di ng i ndi vi dual ); the ' neut ral '
communi cat or (i denti f i ed as a member of the radi o
audi ence who was chosen at r andom) had an ef f ect
whi ch was i nt er medi at e bet ween the ot her t wo.
Anot her st udy by Hovl and and Mandel l (1952) has
shown that the subj ect ' s eval uat i on of the c ommu-
ni cat or i n t er ms of hi s i mparti al i ty si gni f i cantl y
af f ects the degr ee of atti tude change achi eved by
the communi cat i on. Inthi s i nvesti gati on st udent s
wer e pr esent ed wi th a gener al di scussi on of the
Amer i can monet ar y syst em, l eadi ng to a concl u-
si on i n f avour of deval uat i on of the cur r ency. In
t wo vari at i ons of the exper i ment al pr ocedur e, an
i ntroducti on to the communi cat or was gi ven whi ch
i n one case l ed to a suspi ci on of hi s mot i ves (i . e. ,
he was i nt roduced as the head of a l arge i mpor t i ng
f i r mwho woul d prof i t f r omdeval uati on), wher eas
i n the ot her case the communi cat or 's i mparti al i ty
was emphasi zed( i . e. , he was i nt roduced as a wel l -
known pr of essor of economi cs) . The resul ts showed
that the communi cat or who was r egar ded as bei ng
28
Hovl and
i mpart i al had a consi derabl y great er effect upon
changi ng atti tudes t han di d the one whose mot i ves
wer e suspect . A number of r ecent i nvesti gati ons
have conf i r med t hese f i ndi ngs as to the i mpor t ant
ef f ect to ' communi cat or credi bi l i ty' upon atti tude
change ( e. g. , Fi ne, 1957); Ludl um, 1958; Choo,
1960; etc. ). Past or e and Hor owi t z (1955) have
al so demonst r at ed the i nf l uence of the mot i ve attri b-
uted to the communi cat or on the accept ance of
a st at ement .
Ont he ot her hand, a number of studi es i ndi cate
that the ef f ects of hi gh- credi bi l i ty sour ces ar e not
ver y endur i ng. Hovl and and Wei ss (1951) and
Kel man and Hovl and (1953) f ound i n f ol l ow- up
exper i ment s that the di f f erenti al ef f ecti veness of
hi gh- credi bi l i ty sour ces had di sappear ed af ter a
peri od of af ew weeks. Hovl and, J ani s and Kel l ey
(1953) concl ude: ' The mai n i mpl i cat i on of t he pr e-
sent resul ts i s that the credi bi l i ty of the com-
muni cat or may under cert ai n ci r cumst ances . . .
be i mpor t ant onl y wi th r espect to the amount of
i mmedi at e opi ni on change pr oduced' ( p. 39). How-
ever , as t hese aut hors poi nt out , the effect of the
communi cat or may be much mor e l asti ng when a
ver y cl ose associ at i on exi sts bet ween the sour ce
and cont ent of the communi cat i on. When, f or i n-
st ance, the sour ce of t he communi cat i on consti tutes
some f or mof r ef er ence syst emf or the subj ect ,
and when t he cont ent of the communi cat i on seeks
to change atti tudes inthe di recti on of conf or mi t y
to nor ms of thi s r ef er ence syst em, the effect of
the sour ce i s l i kel y to be ver y great . Thi s i s es-
peci al l y the case when the sour ce of the communi -
cati on i s an i mpor t ant r ef er ence per son f or the
subj ect ( e. g. , a communi cat i on f r oma parent cal l -
i ng upon a chi l d to change hi s behavi our i n s ome
manner or ot her has ver y di rect i mpl i cat i ons i n
t er ms of the rel ati onshi p bet ween the chi l d and the
parent and i s l i kel y to be f ol l owed) or a r ef er ence
gr oup. An exampl e of the l atter i s the st udy by
Kel l ey and Woodr uf f (19561, di scussed i n t he l ast
chapt er , i n whi ch atti tude change on the part of
st udent s was much great er i n the case wher e the
sour ce of the communi cat i on i s percei ved as bei ng
appr oved by t he st udent ' s own f acul ty t han when i t
was appr oved by per sons unknown to t hem. I n thi s
case pr obabl y both prest i ge f act ors and the i nf l u-
ence of r ef er ence gr oup nor ms wer e i nvol ved.
exper i ment er on conf or mi t y behavi our , J ones,
Zel l and Tor r ey (1958) have shown that the beha-
vi our of the communi cat or i n the cour se of t hei nt er-
acti on si tuati on (f or i nst ance, i n t er ms of appr oval
or di sapproval ) wi l l have an i mpor t ant ef f ect upon
the subj ect i n t er ms of hi s conf or mi t y i n the di r ec-
ti on of the communi cat i on' s cont ent .
An i nteresti ng st udy showi ng the i nt i mat e r el a-
ti onshi p bet ween communi cat or and the cont ent of
t he message i s that of Tannenbaum(1956). Thi s
aut hor f ound that not onl y di d subj ect s tend not to
accept st at ement s attri buted to per sons t owar d
whomt heyhad negat i ve f eel i ngs, but vi ce ver sa, i f
the subj ect ori gi nal l y f avour ed the vi ewpr esent ed,
I n a st udy on t he ef f ects of ' f eed- back' f r omthe
Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Resear ch
hi s atti tude t owar d the sour ce to whi ch the vi ewwas
attri buted became mor e f avourabl e. For exampl e,
subj ect s wi th negat i ve f eel i ngs t owar d l abour
l eader s t ended to rej ect ar gument s inf avour of
l egal i zed gambl i ng when t hese wer e attri buted to the
l abour l eader s. On t he ot her hand, subj ect s who
ori gi nal l y f avour ed l egal i zed gambl i ng devel oped
mor e posi ti ve atti tudes t owar ds l abour l eader s upon
r eadi ng a communi cat i on f avouri ng thei r vi ewwhi ch
was attri buted to l abour l eader s.
Communi cat i on
Shi f ti ng our f ocus of attenti on now f r omthe com-
muni cat or to the communi cat i on i tsel f , we ar e l ed
to ask not onl y who sai d i t but al so what was sai d
( or communi cat ed) and how. Speci f i cal l y we shal l
consi der: (a) the cont ent of the communi cat i on;
(b) the nat ur e of the appeal ; (c) the manner of pr e-
sentati on; and ( d) the medi umof communi cat i on.
Cont ent of the communi cat i on. That t he ef f ect
of a communi cat i on upon t he atti tude of t he r eci p-
i ent
act ual cont ent of the communi cat i on i s rat her
apparent . Especi al l y i n the ar ea of mas s c ommu-
ni cati ons medi a, concer ni ng whi ch a vast body of
r esear ch resul ts has gr own up i n r ecent year s whi ch
we cannot begi n to r evi ewi n detai l her e, the ques-
ti on of the cont ent of the communi cat i on has r e-
cei ved consi derabl e attenti on. For a mor e detai l ed
descri pt i on of t he t echni que of cont ent anal ysi s i n
communi cat i on r esear ch, the r eader i s r ef er r ed
to the excel l ent r evi ewby Ber el son (1954). To
ment i on j ust a coupl e of i l l ustrati ve exampl es as
an i ndi cati on of the i mpor t ance of thi s l i ne of
r esear ch, Ber el son and Sal ter ( 1946) anal ysed
short st ori es i n wi del y ci rcul ated Amer i can maga-
zi nes and f ound that member s of the ' maj or i t y' wer e
typi cal l y shown to be ' ni ce peopl e' , her oes, et c. ,
wher eas member s of mi nor i t y gr oups wer e most f r e-
quentl y shown i n negat i ve rbl es; and Shuey (19531,
i n an anal ysi s of pi ct ures i n magazi ne advert i se-
ment s, f ound member s of a di scr i mi nat ed mi nor i t y
consi stentl y pr esent ed i n i nf eri or soci al and occu-
pati onal rdl es (i n di sproport i ont o the actual di stri -
buti on of occupat i ons accor di ng to census f i gures).
A l arge number of ot her i nvesti gati ons have l i ke-
wi se shown how such cont ent of mass communi ca-
ti on medi a hel ps to perpet uat e popul ar st ereot ypes
and thus ret ard pr ogr ess t owar d compl et e equal i ty.
Apar t f r omthi s t ype of anal ysi s, i t i s necessar y
al so to consi der the ef f ect of the cont ent of a com-
muni cat i on inrel ati onshi p to t he reci pi ent and hi s
exi sti ng atti tudes. An i mpor t ant l i mi tati on of the
ef f ects of mass communi cat i on upon atti tude change
may be seen int he sel ecti vi ty of t he reci pi ent s.
Lazar sf el d , Ber el son and Gaudet (1944) have shown,
f or i nst ance, that duri ng a pol i ti cal campai gn t hose
peopl e who have a ver y def i ni te opi ni on on a parti -
cul ar i ssue or candi dat e sel ecti vel y react to com-
muni cat i ons i n such a manner as to attend to news-
paper s, speeches, etc. whi ch ar e i n accor dance
i s dependent among ot her thi ngs upon the
wi th thei r vi ews and i gnor e t hose whi ch ar e not i n
accor dance wi th t hem. Hyman and Sheat sl ey (1947),
inthei r anal ysi s of ' some r easons why i nf or mat i on
campai gns f ai l ' , have shown that wi th the s ame ex-
posur e to var i ous mass medi a the amount of i nf or-
mat i on actual l y absor bed concer ni ng cert ai n i ssues
was di rectl y rel ated to t he amount of i nterest i n
t hem. Thus i nf or mat i on on an i ssue in whi ch the
per son was not i nt erest ed was not absor bed. Mor e
r ecent evi dence of such sel ecti vi ty has been pr o-
vi ded by Mi l l s, Ar onson and Robi nson (1959). As
Fl ower man ( 1949) has poi qted out , i nf or mat i on whi ch
r uns count er to est abl i shed gr oup nor ms i s al so not
l i kel y to have much ef f ect on reci pi ent s who ar e
member s of t hese gr oups no mat t er how ' f actual '
or ' sci enti f i c' i t mi ght be. Inthe l ast chapt er we di s-
cussed exper i ment al evi dence demonst r at i ng that
' gr oup anchor ed' atti tudes ar e resi stant to change
( Kel l eyandVol kar t , 1952; Kel l ey, 1955).
Nat ur e of appeal . A maj or pr obl emi n consi der i ng
what t ype of appeal shoul d be used i n a communi -
cati on desi gned to pr oduce atti tude change has been
that of t he rel ati ve ef f ect i veness of ' emot i onal '
ver sus ' rati onal ' appr oaches. lnt he past , many
pr ogr ammes of acti on desi gned to change atti tudes
have been based on the assumpt i on that negat i ve
i nt er gr oup atti tudes ar e mer el y a resul t of ' f al se
i nf or mat i on' , and that t he most ef f ecti ve way of
changi ng negat i ve st ereot ypes and prej udi ce i s t he
di ssemi nat i on of ' f actual i nf ormat i on' .
Ther e i s no quest i on about the desi rabi l i ty of
di stri buti ng i nf or mat i on based upon sci enti f i c f acts
as wi del y as possi bl e, and undoubt edl y such ef f orts
have an i mpor t ant r61e to pl ay inchangi ng negat i ve
i nt ergroup atti tudes. On the ot her hand, we r ea-
l i ze t oday that t he mat t er i s not qui te as si mpl e as
al l that. Lear ni ng t heori st s know that neur osi s i s
based upon cert ai n ' f al se' or mal adapt i ve, l ear ned
associ at i ons. However , psychot her api st s know
that present i ng a neurot i c wi t h a book or pamphl et ,
or gi vi ng hi ma l ect ure on the nat ur e of neur osi s,
i s not , i n i tsel f , l i kel y to resul t i n a change of the
neurot i c behavi our . I f mat t er s wer e so si mpl e, t he
pr ocess of psychot her apy and the enti re fi el d of
ment al hygi ene woul d be a ver y easy mat t er i ndeed.
Wi t hout necessar i l y i mpl yi ng that thi s anal ogy
di rectl y paral l el s the pr obl emof prej udi ce or neg-
ati ve i nt er gr oup atti tudes, we know that present i ng
a hi ghl y prej udi ced per son wi th a book or pamphl et ,
or gi vi ng hi ma l ect ure desi gned to ' correct ' hi s
' f al se' i deas, will not necessar i l y be successf ul i n
achi evi ng t he desi red goal s. For one t hi ng, he i s
ver y l i kel y not to r ead the pri nted mat er i al or at-
t end the l ect ur e, or i f he i s f or ced to do so, he i s
l i kel yto mi sper cei ve or fai l to per cei ve t he i nf or-
mat i on pr esent ed to hi mor i n s ome ot her manner
engage i n ' resi st ance' (cf . Cooper and J ahoda,
1947).
On the ot her hand, i n t he cour se of r ecent hi s-
t ory we have of ten enough been wi t ness to the sad
f act that hi ghl y emot i onal appeal s on the part of
bi gots and despot s have been ver y successf ul in
29
Persuasive Communications Research
changingthe attitudes of large numbers of people and
of movingthem to engage in actions which were any-
thing but conducive to healthy intergroup relations.
In attempting to change negative intergroup atti-
tudes, which appeal, then, should we use? Should
w e resort to the emotional appeals of the rabble
rouser? H o w can w e get round the obstacle of
resistance to purely rational appeals? Past exper-
imental research on this question has produced
contradictory results. For instance, Hartmen
(1936) and Menefee and Granneberg (1940) have
reported experimental data showing that commu-
nications with 'emotional' appeals were relatively
more effective than those using purely 'rational'
appeals. O n the other hand, Knower (1935) arrived
at results showing that 'emotional' appeals m a y be
less effective than 'rational' ones. One reason for
such conflicting results is very probablyto be found
in the lack of unambiguous definition as to what
constitutes 'rational' or 'emotional' appeals. More
recent research by Janis and Feshbach (1953, 1954).
Feshbach and Singer (1957) and Feshbach (1961)
have dealt with the problem of one particular type
of emotional appeal, namely fear-arousing or
threat appeals. Janis and Feshbach(l953) demon-
strated that communications designed to change
attitudes by means of threat m a y elicit defensive
responses which reduce the intended effect of the
communication. Feshbach and Singer (19571,
referring to the earlier studies and pointing also to
clinical evidence showing that threat m a y elicit
hostility as well as avoidant behaviour, examined
'conditions under which threatening situations
elicit hostility and effect the expression of social
prejudice'. The results of their investigation
confirmed the hypothesis that communications per-
ceived as a personal threat result in an increase
in social prejudice. At the same time, however,
their investigation showed that communications
interpreted as a shared threat resulted in a decrease
in social prejudice. These results are suggestive
of those of Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood andSherif
(1954), who demonstrated that activity directed
toward super-ordinate goals requiring the co-
operation of groups led to a reduction of aggressive
tension between the groups.
These results, providing empirical verification
of hypotheses derived from clinical work as to
defensive reactions to fear or threat, must be
seriously taken into consideration before any attempt
is made to change intergroup attitudes by means of
such appeals. Extrapolating from these results,
it m a y be hypothesized that communications arous-
ing guilt feelings, which is often the case in efforts
designed to reduce prejudice or discrimination,
may, under certain circumstances, also result in
defensive reactions and thus not have the desired
effect. Indeed Haefner (1956), examining the ef-
fects of both fear-arousal and guilt-arousal, found
a lesser degree of acceptance of the content of
communications when strong feelings gf fear or
guilt were elicited. Of course, this evidence does
not mean that no attempt should be made to point
out inequities or to admonish the majority group
for their discriminatory treatment of minorities.
As Feshbach (1961, p. 12) has pointed out, 'the
effectiveness of an emotional appeal will in part
depend upon the particular behaviour that the com-
municator is interested in encouraging'. Referring
to evidence put forward by Taylor (1956) showing
that the arousal of anxiety tends to interfere with
complex learning, but to facilitate simple learning,
Feshbach concludes: 'In order for the strong
appeal to have maximal effects, the response to be
encouraged should not only be a simple behavioural
act but should also be a relatively immediate one . . .
if time is permitted to elapse between the presen-
tation and the performance of the desired behaviour
there will be a greater opportunity for defensive
behaviour to occur. . . . Hence, where there is a
concern for the audience's future as well as imme-
diate behaviour, a minimal anxiety arousing appeal
again takes precedence over a strong anxiety arous-
ing communication' (Feshbach, 1961, p. 12).
Although these results should not be over-genera-
lized, they must be taken into consideration in
deciding upon the type of appeal to be used in com-
munications designed to produce attitude change.
The precise nature of the communication which
would be most appropriate will depend, of course,
upon the particular concrete situation in which it
is to be employed and upon the specific goals that
are to be achieved.
Manner of presentation. One of the mpst classical
questions concerning the relationship between the
effectiveness of a communication and its manner
of presentation has revolved around the question of
the relative supremacy of 'primacy' or 'recency'.
In an earlier investigation, Lund (1925) presented
college students with mimeographed communica-
tions supporting first one side and thenthe opposite
side of a controversial issue. The results of this
experiment showed that the side of the issue pre-
sented first had the greatest effect upon the atti-
tudes of the students. O n the basis of these results,
Lund enunciated a L a w of Primacy in persuasion,
stating as a general principle tht the side of an
issue presented first will have a greater effective-
ness than the side presented subsequently. How-
ever, Cromwell (1950), in a later investigation,
found a significantly greater change produced in
the direction of that side of the issue presented
last, thus obtaining a recency effect rather than a
primacy effect. In an attempt to investigate further
this discrepancy, Hovland and Mandell (1957)
conducted an investigation in which every effort
was made to follow Lund's procedure as closely as
possible. The results of this replication were
again unclear, with some groups showing primacy
and other groups showing recency effects. In view
of this lack of clear-cut results, Hovland andMandell
(1957) replicated the Lund experiment once again,
using this time topics of prequmably greater cur-
rent interest. Again an absence of evidence for
primacy effects under the given conditions was
30
Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Res e ar ch
f ound, t hus rai si ng ser i ous doubt s as to the gener -
al i ty of the resul t s obtai ned by Lund.
I t woul d appear , t hen, that under cert ai n condi -
ti ons pr i macy ef f ects ar e operat i ve and under ot her
condi t i ons r ecency ef f ects. Fur t her exper i ment a-
ti on was desi gned to assess the i nf l uence of cert ai n
vari abl es on the rel ati ve pr eval ence of r ecency or
pr i macy i n per suasi ve communi cat i ons. Hovl and
- et al . (1957), in summar i zi ng the resul t s of a
seri es of exper i ment s deal i ng wi th thi s pr obl em,
have poi nted out a number of f act ors that ar e pr ob-
abl y operat i ve. Hovl and, Campbel l and Br ock
(1958) studi ed the ef f ect of publ i c ' commi t ment ' to
a posi ti on af ter hear i ng onl y one si de. When the
i ndi vi dual i s i nduced to t ake an acti on on t he basi s
of hear i ng onl y the f i rst si de of an i ssue, i . e.
publ i cl y commi t hi msel f to the posi t i on, a pr i macy
ef f ect i s l i kel y to occur . These aut hor s pr esent ed
one si de of a cont roversi al i ssue to one gr oup of
subj ect s and t hen asked t hemto wri t e thei r opi ni on
on t he i ssue f or publ i cati on i n a magazi ne to be
r ead by thei r peer s. Cont r ol subj ect s l i kewi se
wr ot e thei r opi ni ons, but t hese wer e anonymous
and no ment i on was made of possi bl e publ i cati on.
Subsequent l y, and wi thout pri or announcement , t he
ot her si de of the i ssue was present ed to both gr oups
and atti tude measur es wer e agai n obt ai ned. The
resul t s show that the publ i c expr essi on of opi ni on
t ended to ' f reeze' the subj ect s' vi ews and make
t hemresi stant to i nf l uence by the second si de of t he
i ssue. The aut hor s hypot hesi zed that thi s ef f ect
i s medi at ed t hr ough soci al r ewar ds and t he need
f or soci al appr oval on the part of the subj ect s.
Hovl and and Mandel l (1957) f urt her i nvesti gated t he
possi bi l i ty that pri vat e ' commi t ment ' af ter hear i ng
onl y one si de of the i ssue woul d l ead to si mi l ar r e-
sul ts. However , no si gni f i cant di f f erences wer e
f ound bet ween the exper i ment al and cont rol subj ect s.
Anot her f act or whi ch may expl ai n the ' pr i macy'
ef f ect obser ved i n a number of i nvesti gati ons i s the
Ei nst el l ungs ef f ect , or set , creat ed by f i rst i m-
pr essi ons. Asch (1946) has shown thi s to be the
case i n f or mi ng i mpr essi ons of personal i t y. Luchi ns
(1958 a), i n a mor e recent st udy, has al so demon-
strated the exi st ence of thi s ef f ect. The i mpl i -
cat i ons of t hese f i ndi ngs f or i nt ergroup atti tudes
general l y ar e appar ent . The persi st ence and r e-
si st ance to change of st ereot ypes concer ni ng gr oups
may wel l be expl ai ned partl y on the basi s of thi s
Ei nst el l ungs ef f ect , wher ei n ot her f act or s, such
as the l aw of Pr agnanz may cont ri but e to expl ai n
thi s phenomenon ( al t hough, as we have not i ced pr e-
vi ousl y, t her e ar e wi de i ndi vi dual di f f erences in
t hese tendenci es). On the mor e posi ti ve si de,
Luchi ns, i n f urt her exper i ment s, studi ed possi bi -
l i ti es of mi ni mi zi ngt he i mpact of f i rst i mpr essi ons,
that i s to say r educi ng the Ei nst el l ungs ef f ect
( Luchi ns, 1958 b). The resul ts show that ef f ort s to
mi ni mi ze Ei nst el l ungs ef f ects wer e successf ul to
a cert ai n extent. ' When an expl i ci t admoni t i on
agai nst the devel opment of a set or Ei nst el l ung was
gi ven at the outset . . . somewhat l ess Ei nst el l ungs
ef f ect was obt ai ned. Such an admoni t i on was even
mor e ef f ecti ve i f pl aced i mmedi at el y af ter t he set -
i nduci ng pr obl ems and j ust pri or to t he test pr ob- .
l ems I , (E. , p . 64). Once agai n t he i mpl i cat i ons
of t hese resul ts f or i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup atti tudes
ar e appar ent . I t i s general l y agr eed that the goal
i n changi ng negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes i s not that
of substi tuti ng ri gi d, st ereot yped not i ons of a
negat i ve sort wi th equal l y ri gi d and st ereot yped
not i ons of a posi ti ve sor t , but rat her to decr ease
the degr ee of st ereot ypi ng. An ext rapol at i on f r om
Luchi ns' resul ts woul d suggest that gener al admo-
ni ti ons agai nst st ereot ypy or pr ej udgi ng, i n t de
hope that t hese woul d have an ef f ect i n s ome l ater
si tuati on when the subj ect i s conf ront ed wi th st er eo-
t yped mat er i al and t empt ed to accept s ame, woul d
be l ess ef f ecti ve t han present i ng the subj ect s wi th
concr et e exampl es of st ereot ypi ng, or of t he
Ei nst el l ungs ef f ect, and t hen ' exposi ng' or expl ai n-
i ng thi s t endency, caut i oni ng agai nst st ereot ypi ng
and prej udgi ng.
Vi ewed i n thi s l i ght, no bl anket answer can be
gi ven to the quest i on of . pr i macy , versus r ecency
si nce a mor e detai l ed anal ysi s of the pr obl emi s
necessar y. Hovl and, J ani s and Kel l ey (1953) have
st r essed t he necessi t y of consi der i ng di f f erenti al l y
the r6l e of such f act ors as attenti on, l earni ng and
accept ance. In a s ummar y of r esear ch deal i ng
wi th t he ef f ects of or der of present at i on i n per sua-
si on, Hovl and (1957, p. 154 et seq. ) concl udes:
' The combi ned f i ndi ngs f r omal l of the di f f erent
st udi es r epor t ed suggest that the si de of an i ssue
pr esent ed f i rst i s l i kel y to have a di sproport i onat e
i nf l uence on opi ni ons under t he f ol l owi ng condi t i ons:
(1) when cues as to t he i ncompati bi l i ty of di f f erent
i t ems of i nf or mat i on ar e absent , (2) when t he con-
t radi ct ory i nf or mat i on i s pr esent ed by t he s ame
communi cat or , (3) when commi t t i ng act i ons ar e
t aken onl y af ter one si de of the i ssue has been pr e-
sent ed, (4) when the i ssue i s an unf ami l i ar one,
and (5) when the reci pi ent has onl y a superf i ci al
i nterest i n the i ssue ( l owcogni ti ve need). '
In addi ti on to the pr i macy- r ecency i ssue, a
quest i on whi ch has been the obj ect of many i nves-
ti gati ons i s that of whet her i t i s better to pr esent
one si de or both si des of a cont roversi al i ssue.
Thi s quest i on i s not an easy one to answer .
number of st udi es have shown that when both si des
of a quest i on whi ch i s i mpor t ant to t he reci pi ent
ar e communi cat ed to hi mby t wo sour ces per cei ved
to be appr oxi mat el y equal i n rel i abi l i ty, t her e i s
a t endency f or t he subj ect to si mpl y l i ne up wi th
the si de whi ch cor r esponds to hi s ori gi nal opi ni on
on the i ssue ( e. g. J arret t and Sheri f f s, 1953). On
the ot her hand, Lumsdai ne and J ani s (1953) have
shown def i ni te advant ages to present i ng both si des
of an i ssue. These aut hor s exposed t wo gr oups of
st udent s to per suasi ve communi cat i ons on a part i c-
ul ar i ssue. One gr oup was pr esent ed wi th a one-
si ded ar gument , wher eas the ot her one was pr e-
sent ed wi th a communi cat i on arri vi ng at the s ame
concl usi on but i ncl udi ng ar gument s on the ot her
si de of the quest i on as wel l . Bot h gr oups wer e
i nf l uenced i n t he di recti on of t he per suasi ve
A
31
Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Resear ch
communi cat i on. However , upon l ater exposur e
to ' count er - ar gument ' , the gr oup whi ch had been
pr esent ed wi th t he one- si ded ar gument was shi f ted
back under the i nf l uence of the opposi ng ar gument ,
wher eas t hose who had been present ed wi th both
si des to begi n wi th wer e consi derabl y l ess i nf l u-
enced by thi s count er ar gument . They had al r eady
been ' i mmuni zed' , so to speak. Abel son (1959,
p. 2) summar i zes the i mpl i cat i ons of t hese and
si mi l ar f i ndi ngs as f ol l ows: When t he audi ence i s
general l y f ri endl y, or when your posi ti on i s the
onl y one that will be pr esent ed, or when you want
i mmedi at e, t hough t empor ar y, opi ni on change,
pr esent one si de of the ar gument . When the au-
di ence starts out di sagr eei ng wi th you, or when
i t i s pr obabl e that the audi ence will hear the ot her
si de f r omsomeone el se, pr esent both si des of t he
ar gument . '
Sti l l anot her quest i on whi ch ari ses i n connexi on
wi th the manner i n whi ch communi cat i ons shoul d
be pr esent ed i s whet her the communi cat i on shoul d
dr aw a concl usi on f or the audi ence or l et t hemar -
ri ve at thei r own concl usi ons. Hovl and and Mandel l
(1952) f ound that dr awi ng a concl usi on i s mor e ef f ec-
ti ve t han not doi ng so when the cont ent pr esent ed
i s ( a) compl ex, hence not cl earl y st r uct ur ed, and
(b) not i nt i mat el y rel ated to i nt ense atti tudes of the
subj ect s. The f i ndi ngs of Hovl and, J ani s and Kel l ey
(1953) i ndi cat e, however , that the r ever se i s l i kel y
to be the case i f t he subj ect of the communi cat i on
i s ego i nvol ved, i . e. , i f atti tudes ar e ar oused
whi ch have per sonal meani ng f or the subj ect s.
Medi umof communi cat i on. The quest i on of t he
ef f ecti veness of t he mas s medi a of communi cat i on
has been a subj ect of consi derabl e di sagr eement .
Most studi es and r evi ews have i ndi cated that the
var i ous mass medi a do have s ome effect i n chang-
i ng atti tudes or opi ni ons i n the i nt ended di recti on
( Pet er son and Thur st one, 1933; Hovl and, Lums -
dai ne and Shef f i el d, 1949; Hovl and, 1954; etc. ).
On the ot her hand, many st udi es have shown no
change or even changes i n t he ' wr ong' di recti on
( boomer ang ef f ect), i ndi cati ng that the mat t er i s
not as si mpl e as was previ ousl y t hought , and poi nt-
i ng out t he need f or consi derat i on of mor e di f f eren-
ti al f act or s, as we have at t empt ed to i ndi cate her e.
Fl ower man ( 1949), di sagr eei ng wi th the concl usi ons
arri ved at by Rose (1948), de- emphasi zes t he val ue
and ef f ecti veness of mas s pr opaganda as a means
of r educi ng prej udi ce and suppor t s, i nst ead, t ech-
ni ques, based upon gr oup st ruct ures and i nt er per -
sonal rel ati onshi ps. On the ot her hand, Tumi n' s
f i ndi ngs wi th r espect to r eadi ness f or desegr e-
gati on i n the Sout h of t he Uni t ed States i ndi cate a
posi ti ve rel ati onshi p bet ween exposur e to mas s
medi a and r eadi ness f or desegr egat i on. Thi s
ef f ect i s f ound even when the f act or of educat i onal
legel i s hel d const ant . Thi s aut hor states: ' Wi t hi n
any educat i onal gr oup, my dat a suggest the mor e
exposur e to mas s medi a t he mor e r eady f or de-
segr egat i on i s the per son' ( Tumi n, 1958, p. 36).
One pr obabl e r eason f or t he di f f erence i n the
concl usi ons arri ved at by Fl ower man and Tumi n
i s the t i me ( appr oxi mat el y one decade) i nt erveni ng
bet ween the t wo j udgement s. Fl ower man i s cer -
tai nl y cor r ect i n sayi ng that mass communi cat i on
medi a whose cont ent r uns count er to establ i shed
gr oup nor ms i s not l i kel y to have much ef f ect.
However , a decade l ater mass medi a expr essi ng
di sapproval of segregat i on and st r ong appr oval of
equal ri ghts appear s to be expr essi ve of ( or per haps
hel ped to creat e) a gr oup nor mof the Amer i can
soci et y, as a whol e.
Tumi n' s f i ndi ngs qui te under st andabl e.
The quest i on of the rel ati ve ef f ecti veness of the
var i ous medi a of communi cat i on, especi al l y the
mas s medi a, i s a fi el d of i ts own whi ch we cannot
begi n to r evi ewext ensi vel y her e. We shal l mer el y
i ndi cate ver y bri ef l y some of the resul ts whi ch mor e
or l ess cor r espond to what woul d be expect ed.
One general i zat i on that can be made f r ompr e-
vious r esear ch and whi ch i s most l i kel y sti l l val i d
i s that oral present at i on of mat er i al i s mor e
ef f ecti ve t han pri nted present at i on i n changi ng at-
ti tudes ( Wi l ke, 1934; Knower , 1935, 1936; Hovl and,
1954). The ef f ecti veness of f i l ms i n compar i son
wi th ot her mass medi a has al so been ext ensi vel y
i nvesti gated. Hoban and van Or mer (1951), i nt hei r
r evi ew, arri ve at the concl usi on that i n the fi el d
of educat i on, ef f ecti ve f i l ms ar e appr oxi mat el y
equal to an i nst ruct or i n t er ms of communi cat i ng
the desi red mat er i al . Tel evi si on has al so been
compar ed wi th ot her medi a wi th r espect to i ts ef -
f ect i veness and, as coul d be expect ed, the resul ts
f avour ed tel evi si on. One l aborat ory exper i ment
by Gol dber g( l 950) has shownt el evi si on to be supe-
ri or to radi o i nt er ms of ef f ecti vel y communi cat i ng
the desi red cont ent . However , as Hovl and (1954)
has poi nted out, f urt her r esear ch must be awai t ed
i n or der to det er mi ne whet her thi s superi ori ty
i s i ntri nsi c or due to the rel ati ve newness of tel e-
vi si on as a mass communi cat i on medi um.
Thi s consi derat i on makes
The reci pi ent of the communi cat i on
That the ef f ecti veness of a communi cat i on, will
depend i n l arge part upon the reci pi ent hi msel f i s
sel f - evi dent . I n Chapt er 1 we deal t at l ength wi th
the r61e of personal i t y di f f erences i n rel ati onshi p
to atti tude change. Such personal i t y vari abl es
as aut hor i t ar i ani sm, ego- def ensi veness, ri gi di ty,
etc. , wer e f ound to be si gni f i cant i n det er mi ni ng
the i ndi vi dual ' s suscepti bi l i ty to change. Thus,
f or i nst ance, Zaj onc (1960) showed that cogni ti ve
uncert ai nt y was i nt i mat el y rel ated to cogni ti ve
change. McDavi d (1958) i nvest i gat edt he di f f erence
bet ween sour ce- or i ent ed and message- or i ent ed
subj ect s, showi ngt hat t he message- or i ent ed gr oup
was general l y l ess suscept i bl e to i nf l uence.
Fur t her mor e, recent r esear ch ( e. g. Mi ddl et on,
1960) has conf i r med earl i er f i ndi ngs that mor e
prej udi ced i ndi vi dual s wer e l ess suscept i bl e to
per suasi on t han l ess prej udi ced i ndi vi dual s, parti c
ul arl y wi th r espect to the ef f ects of mass com-
' muni cat i ons medi a. Mani s (1960) has al so shown
32
Per suasi ve Communi cat i ons Re sear ch
that the i nterpretati on of communi cat i ons i s a f unc-
ti on of the reci pi ent ' s atti tude.
We have al so ref erred to r esear ch showi ng that
the rel ati onshi p of the reci pi ent to the gr oup i s of
si gni f i cance in det er mi ni ng the ef f ect of c ommu-
ni cati ons upon hi m. Thus, f or i nst ance, Mi t ni ck
(1958) f ound that the i nf l uence of a f i l mcommuni -
cati on upop et hnocent ri c atti tudes was consi derabl y
great er when the cont ent of the filmwas l ater di s-
cussed i n a gr oup si tuati on.
i ent s,
i ents
ti onabl y of great i mpor t ance.
i ndi cated soci al cl ass di f f erences in the react i on
to per suasi ve communi cat i ons ( Ramseyer , 1939;
Wi ese and Col e, 1946), and many st udi es have
shown di f f erences among di f f eri ng educat i onal
gr oups (e. g. Tumi n, Bar t on and Bur r us, 1958).
A quest i on of parti cul ar i mpor t ance, but one on
whi ch t here has been al most no r esear ch, i s that
of cross- cul t ural di f f erences i n react i ons to com-
muni cat i ons at t empt i ng to change atti tudes. A whol e
body of soci ol ogi cal and cul tural ant hropol ogi cal
evi dence poi nts to the f act that such di f f erences
exi st and ar e pr obabl y ver y i mpor t ant . Unf or t u-
nat el y, most of the wor k done so f ar has been con-
duct ed i n the Uni t ed States of Amer i ca, wi thl i ttl e
opport uni t y f or cross- val i dat i ng t he resul t s by
studi es i n ot her cul tural setti ngs. As Hovl and
(1954, p. 1089) has ver y aptl y comment ed:
' Too many of t he general i zat i ons about react i ons to
communi cat i on ar e based excl usi vel y on Amer i can
audi ences (thi s i s not to ment i on t he extent to whi ch
t hey ar e based mai nl y on Amer i can col l ege sopho-
mor es I). As the wor l d becomes smal l er and soci al
sci enti sts begi n to dr aw practi cal concl usi ons f r om
thei r studi es on the i mpor t ance of communi cat i on
by communi cat i ng mor e wi th each ot her , i t i s
hoped that thi s shor t comi ng can be over come. '
We have poi nted to the i mpor t ance of the com-
muni cat or , the communi cat i on and t he reci pi ent of
t he communi cat i on as f act ors i n det er mi ni ngt he ef -
f ects of per suasi ve communi cat i ons. Thi s di vi si on
was somewhat arti fi ci al si nce t her e i s a hi gh degr ee
of i nterrel ati on bet ween t hese f act ors. I ndeed,
many exper i ment al f i ndi ngs whi ch ar e i mpor t ant f or
the t heor y of atti tude change coul dnot be di scussed
under any one of the above chapt er s or t opi cs, si nce
t hey deal t pr i mar i l y wi th the manner i n whi ch t hese
var i ous f act ors ar e i nterrel ated. I n t he next chap-
t er , t her ef or e, we shal l di scuss s ome of t hese f i nd-
i ngs wi th r espect to the t heor y of atti tude change.
.In addi ti on to i ndi vi dual di f f erences among r eci p-
soci al and cul tural di f f erences among r eci p-
of per suasi ve communi cat i ons ar e unques-
Some st udi es have
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35
CHAPTER 4
THEORETI CAL PROBL EMS OF ATTI TUDE CHANGE RESEARCH
As the pr evi ous chapt er s have cl earl y shown, r e-
sear ch on atti tude change cut s acr oss many di sci -
pl i nes and t ouches upon many f undament al quest i ons
of human behavi our . I t i s, t her ef or e, not sur pr i s-
i ng that such r esear ch rai ses many quest i ons whi ch
ar e of f undament al theoreti cal i mpor t ance i n the
soci al sci ences. We cannot begi n to descr i be i n
detai l her e the ver y i nvol ved theoreti cal i ssues
t ouched upon by such r esear ch. However , some
of t hese i ssues, ari si ng f r omthe resul t s of empi -
ri cal r esear ch, ar e not onl y of theoreti cal si gni f i -
cance but al so have i mpl i cat i ons whi ch ar e of great
practi cal i mpor t ance inmaki ng pol i cy deci si ons as
to pr ogr ammes of acti on. We shal l , t her ef or e,
ref er ver y bri ef l y her e to s ome of the theoreti cal
pr obl ems rai sed by recent r esear ch f i ndi ngs and
thei r practi cal i mpl i cat i ons.
soci at ed wi th atti tude change, s ome r esear ch has
al so addr essed i tsel f to the quest i on of the actual
pr ocess i tsel f , that i s to say to the t heor y of atti -
t ude change. One of the mor e recent t heori es
whi ch has st i mul at ed a great deal of r esear ch i s
Fest i nger ' s ( 1957) ' t heory of cogni ti ve di ssonance' .
Accor di ng to thi s t heor y, when a per son i s con-
f ront ed wi th a communi cat i on (e. g. an at t empt at
changi ng hi s atti tude), the cont ent of whi ch i s at
var i ance wi th hi s pr esent atti tude, cogni ti ve di s-
sonance i s cr eat ed, i . e. psychol ogi cal t ensi on
havi ng dri ve charact eri st i cs and seeki ng reduct i on.
Thi s thesi s of a t endency on the part of the i ndi vi -
dual to mai nt ai n l ogi cal consi st ency among hi s
cogni t i ons ( and bet ween hi s cogni t i ons, af f ects and
mor e gr oss behavi our ) actual l y has a l ong hi st ory.
Space does not per mi t us even to l i st the l ar ge
number of aut hors i n recent t i mes whose t heori es
cont ai n such a not i on, l et al one to ref er back to t he
pr ecur sor s of thi s i dea i n the wri t i ngs of earl i er
t hi nkers. J ust by way of i l l ustrati on, we mi ght
ment i on Sumner ( 1907) who speaks of a ' strai n
t owar d consi st ency' , Lund' s ( 1925) ' need f or con-
si st ency' , or Newcomb' s ( 1953) ' strai n t owar d
symmet r y' . Mor e recent l y Hei der ' s ( 1946, 1958)
' bal ance t heor y' has i nf l uenced a good deal of
r esear ch.
I f such t endenci es do exi st , and a l arge body of
exper i ment al evi dence poi nts cl earl y to t he f act
that t hey do, how t hen can we expl ai n t he many i n-
st ances to be obser ved i n ever yday l i fe whi ch ar e
i n cont radi ct i on to thi s t endency, The cl assi cal
i nvesti gati on of L a Pi er e ( 1934) and the mor e r ecent
conf i r mat i on by Kut ner , Wi l ki ns and Yar r ow ( 19521,
as wel l as a l arge number of r esear ch resul t s i n a
36
I n addi ti on to i nvesti gati ng the many f act ors as-
si mi l ar vei n, mer el y demonst r at e a f act to be ob-
ser ved i n dai l y l i fe wi th di scomf or t i ng f r equency,
i . e. that di scr epancy of ten exi sts bet ween atti tudes
and behavi our and, f or that mat t er , bet ween var i ous
l ogi cal l y rel ated atti tudes hel d by t he s ame i ndi vi -
dual . Obvi ousl y t hen, f act ors ot her t han the
t endency t owar d l ogi cal consi st ency or ' cogni ti ve
consonance' ar e operat i ve. What i s the exper i -
ment al evi dence i n f avour of the assumpt i on that
cogni ti ve di ssonance may pr oduce atti tude change ?
Under what condi t i ons will cogni ti ve di ssonance
most l i kel y be cr eat ed? Under what condi ti ons ar e
opposi ng t endenci es oper at i ve, and what ar e t hese
t endenci es? We can onl y i ndi cate her e ver y bri ef l y
s ome recent r esear ch on t hese quest i ons.
t ency and atti tude change i s most i nt erest i ng, both
f or i ts theoreti cal and i ts practi cal i mpl i cat i ons.
Wher eas most t echni ques of atti tude change i nvol ve
present i ng the subj ect wi th a per suasi ve message
f r oman ext ernal sour ce, McGui r e, pr oceedi ng
f r omthe postul ate of cogni ti ve consi st ency, demon-
strated that the mer e t empor al l y cont i guous el i ci -
tati on of opi ni ons whi ch ar e l ogi cal l y i nconsi stent
wi t h each ot her wi l l bri ng a t endency t owar d con-
si st ency to bear upon t hemand t hus pr oduce atti -
t ude change. Usi ng what he t er ms the ' Socrati c
met hod' , McGui r e el i ci ted the subj ect s' opi ni ons
r egar di ng the subj ecti ve probabi l i ti es and desi r a-
bi l i ti es of 48 proposi t i ons pr esent ed i n r andom
or der but i n f act consti tuti ng 16 sets of syl l ogi sms
( maj or proposi t i on, mi nor proposi t i on, concl usi on).
The subj ect s' r esponses devi at ed si gni f i cantl y f r om
purel y l ogi cal expect at i ons, showi ng a cert ai n de-
gr ee of i nconsi st ency among atti tudes. In a second
el i ci tati on of t he subj ect s' opi ni ons, a si gni f i cant
decr ease i n l ogi cal i nconsi st ency was shown, t hus
demonst r at i ng that the Socrat i c met hod of si mpl y
aski ng t he per son to state cont i guousl y hi s opi ni ons
on l ogi cal l y rel ated i ssues will resul t i n atti tude
change. McGui r e (1960 a, 1960b) has f ur t her mor e
shown that per suasi ve communi cat i ons di rect ed at
an expl i ci t i ssue t end to change, al so, the subj ect s'
opi ni ons on l ogi cal l y rel ated deri vati ve i ssues i n
a consi st ent di rect i on, i . e. , i n the di recti on of
r educi ng l ogi cal i nconsi st ency. Ther e wer e even
i ndi cati ons that t he i mpact of the per suasi ve mes -
sages had cont i nued to seep down i nto the deri ved
i ssues wi th t i me. Thus i n t he sessi on i mmedi at el y
f ol l owi ng the messages, the opi ni ons on deri ved
i ssues had shown onl y 52 per cent of the l ogi cal l y
r equi r ed amount of change, wher eas one week l ater
91 per cent of the r equi r ed amount of change had
McGui r e' s ( 1960 a) r esear ch on cogni ti ve consi s-
Theoret i cal Pr obl ems of Atti tude Change Resear ch
he woul d avoi d i f possi bl e, he exper i ences no
di ssonance. The quest i on i s, t hen, woul d a f ai t
accompl i , i . e. an event outsi de the per son' s cont r ol ,
creat e di ssonance or not . Br ehm' s ( 1959) exper i -
ment demonst r at es a si tuati on i n whi ch a f ai t
accompl i does appear to have i ncr eased cogni ti ve
di ssonance; i n thi s case, when the event woul d
have l ed to the opposi t e behavi our had i t been
predi ct abl e at a pri or choi ce poi nt. I n a f ur t her
exper i ment , Br ehmandCohen( 1959) dTmonst r at ed
that a chance event may af f ect the magni t ude of
di ssonance and consequent atti tude change, but onl y
under condi t i ons of hi gh choi ce. Exper i ment al l y
mani pul at i ng the vari abl e of choi ce, t hese aut hor s
f ound that i n a l ow choi ce si tuati on, i . e. wher e
the subj ect fel t he had l i ttl e al ternati ve but to do
what was r equi r ed of hi m, no si gni f i cant atti tude
change occur r ed. Ont he ot her hand, the subj ect ' s
atti tude t owar d the fai t accompl i became si gni f i -
cantl y mor e posi ti ve under condi ti ons wher e t hey
fel t t hey had a hi gh degr ee of choi ce. The i mpl i ca-
ti ons of t hese resul t s f or atti tude change i n act ual
soci al l i fe ar e appar ent .
We have di scussed a f ewexper i ment s showi ng
that cogni ti ve di ssonance occur s when a per son' s
pri vat e opi ni on i s seen to be at var i ance wi th t he
opi ni on of ot her s,
opi ni on or behavi our , and have seen that such
cogni ti ve di ssonance may l ead to atti tude change.
What ot her f act ors ar e at wor k to pr event atti tude
change, and what ot her ways ar e t her e of r educi ng
cogni ti ve di ssonance besi des changi ng one' s atti -
t udes? We have al r eady ment i oned McGui r e' s con-
cept of ' wi shf ul t hi nki ng' as a t endency wor ki ng
agai nst cogni ti ve consi st ency. Si mi l ar l y, Rosenber g
and Abel son ( 1960) have shown t hat , i n addi ti on to
t he mot i vat i on t owar d achi evi ng ' bal ance ' bet ween
atti tude component s (i . e. bet ween af f ecti ve and
cogni ti ve component s of an atti tude), t here i s al so
somet i mes a ' hedoni c t endency' , i . e. a stri vi ng
f or the maxi mi zat i on of potenti al gai n and mi ni mi -
zati on of potenti al loss. Inthe chapt er on per sonal -
i ty- ori ented r esear ch we di scussed a number of
f act or s, such as ego- def ence mechani sms, etc. ,
whi ch may resi st the accept ance of anot her atti tude
even t hough l ogi cal evi dence f avour s i t .
Fest i nger and hi s co- wor ker s have also shown
that t here ar e a number of possi bi l i ti es of r educi ng
cogni ti ve di ssonance ot her t han changi ng one' s own
atti tudes. Thus i n addi ti on to such mechani sms
as bl ocki ng, r epr essi on, sel ecti ve per cept i on, and
sel ecti ve attenti on, etc. , the subj ect may rej ect ,
di scredi t or ot her wi se oppose the communi cat or or
sour ce of the communi cat i on. Al l yn and Fest i nger
( 1961) f ound, f or i nst ance, that unant i ci pat ed
per suasi ve communi cat i ons wer e mor e ef f ecti ve
t han anti ci pated communi cat i ons. The expl anat i on
i n t er ms of di ssonance t heor y woul d be that t he
pr epar ed subj ect s r educed the cogni ti ve di ssonance
by rej ecti ng the communi cat or , wher eas the un-
pr epar ed subj ect s r educed the di ssonance by
changi ng thei r opi ni ons.
or wi th hi s publ i cl y stated
.
The f oregoi ng has been an at t empt mer el y to
37
occur r ed. Of cour se, the changes both wi th and
wi thout per suasi ve messages wer e not as great as
woul d be r equi r ed f or perf ect l ogi cal consi st ency.
McGui r e r egar ds ' wi shf ul thi nki ng' as acti ng i n
opposi ti on to l ogi cal thi nki ng.
One of the deri vat i ons of Fest i nger ' s t heor y i s
that publ i cl y maki ng a st at ement or engagi ng i n an
act whi ch i s not consonant wi th one' s pri vate opi n-
i on can creat e cogni ti ve di ssonance and t hus, under
cert ai n ci r cumst ances, l ead to atti tude change.
J ani s and Ki ng ( 1954, 1956) have shown that when
subj ect s ar e i nduced to engage i n r61e pl ayi ng
acti vi ty whi ch i s at var i ance wi th thei r pri vate
opi ni on, t here will be a t endencyf or such behavi our
to resul t i n atti tude change, wher eby i mpr ovi sed
r6l e pl ayi ng was shown to be mor e ef f ecti ve t han
non- i mpr ovi sed r6l e pl ayi ng. The aut hors expl ai n
t hese resul ts i n t er ms of ment al r ehear sal and
thi nki ng up new ar gument s. However , i n t er ms of
di ssonance t heor y a sl i ghtl y di f f erent expl anat i on
i s possi bl e ( Fest i nger , 1957, chapt er 4): I f a per -
son pri vatel y hol ds opi ni on ' XI , but as a resul t of
pr essur e br ought to bear on hi mhas publ i cl y stated
that he bel i eves ' not XI , hi s cogni ti on of hi s pri vate
bel i ef i s di ssonant wi th hi s cogni ti on concer ni ng hi s
actual publ i c st at ement . However , the knowl edge
that he has sai d ' not X' consonant wi th the
r easons, pr essur es, pr omi ses of r ewar ds and/ or
ef f ecti ve puni shment whi ch i nduced hi mto say ' not
XI. It t hus f ol l ows t hat , everyt hi ng el se bei ng hel d
const ant , hi s total magni t ude of di ssonance woul d
decr ease as the number andi mpor t ance of t he pr es-
sur es whi ch i nduced hi mto say ' not X' i ncr eases.
Hence, i f hi s overt behavi our was br ought about
by of f ers of r ewar d or t hreat s of puni shment ,
the magni t ude of di ssonance shoul d be maxi mal
when t hese pr omi sed r ewar ds or t hreat ened puni sh-
ment s ar e j ust barel y suf f i ci ent to i nduce hi mto
say ' not XI. Beyond thi s poi nt , as the pr omi sed
r ewar ds or t hreat s of puni shment became l ar ger ,
the magni t ude of di ssonance becomes smal l er . And
ot her thi ngs bei ng equal , amount of atti tude change
will be rel ated to magni t ude of cogni ti ve di ssonance.
The resul ts of an earl i er exper i ment by Kel man
( 1953) have been descr i bed by Fest i nger and Car l -
smi t h ( 1959) as bei ng consi st ent wi th thi s t heor y.
Kel man f ound that a l arge r ewar d pr oduced l ess
subsequent opi ni on change t han di d a smal l er r e-
war d wi th a gr oup of school chi l dren. Fest i nger
and Car l smi t h ( 19591, i n an exper i ment speci f i cal l y
desi gned to test t hese deri vat i ons of di ssonance
t heor y, arri ved at resul t s whi ch cl earl y showed
that (a) i f a subj ect i s i nduced to do or say some-
thi ng cont r ar y to hi s pri vate opi ni on, t her e will be
a t endency f or hi mto change hi s opi ni on so as to
bri ng i t i nto cor r espondence wi th that whi ch he has
done and sai d, and (b) the l ar ger the pr essur e used
to el i ci t the overt behavi our ( beyond the mi ni mum
neededt o el i ci t it), the weaker will be thi s t endency.
Br ehm( 1959) has i nvesti gated some of the
condi t i ons under whi ch cogni ti ve di ssonance t akes
pl ace. As var i ous studi es have shown, i f a per son
i s compl et el y f or ced to behave i n a manner whi ch
Theoret i cal Pr obl ems of Atti tude Change Resear ch
suggest s ome of the compl ex i ssues i nvol ved i n
recent r esear ch on the t heor y of atti tude change.
J udgi ng by cur r ent r esear ch t r ends, thi s ar ea of
r esear ch has r eached a st age wher e at t empt s ar e
bei ng made to i ntegrate previ ousl yi sol at ed and i n
part di scr epant , resul t s i nto consi st ent theoreti cal
syst ems whi ch woul d per mi t the deduct i on of
f urt her hypot heses f or exper i ment al i nvesti gati on.
Owi ng to l i mi tati ons of space i t was unf ortunatel y
not possi bl e even to ment i on, l et al one descr i be i n
detai l , most of t he maj or t heori es whi ch have shown
t hemsel ves to be qui te frui tful i n st i mul at i ng r e-
sear ch. Of parti cul ar i nterest ar e the theoreti cal
f or mul at i ons and exper i ment al resul ts of Kel man
(1960,1961a. 1961b) who has pr esent ed amodel per mi t -
ti ng the expl anat i on of many of the exper i ment al
resul ts whi ch we have di scussed so f ar and suggest ed
ar eas of f urt her exper i ment at i on. Unf or t unat el y,
however , i t i s scar cel y possi bl e to descr i be thi s
theoreti cal f r amewor ki n af ew sent ences ( see espe-
ci al l y Kel man, 1961 a). Ander son (1959) has al so
suggest ed a ( mat hemat i cal ) model of atti tude change.
Al t hough thi s chapt er must of necessi t y r emai n
i ncompl et e, i t i s hoped that i t has shown, i n a
suggest i ve manner , s ome of the recent exper i men-
tal t r ends pert ai ni ng to a t heor y of atti tude change.
For t he practi ti oner thi s r esear ch has i mpl i cat i ons
of whi ch the practi cal si gni f i cance i s appar ent .
For the r esear cher , the f ew studi es ci ted her e can
mer el y poi nt out s ome cur r ent r esear ch t r ends.
BI BLI OGRAPHY
ALLYN, J . ; FESTI NGER, L. 1961. The ef f ec-
t i veness of unanti ci pated per suasi ve c ommu-
ni cati ons. J our nal of abnor mal and soci al
psychol ogy, 62 (l), p. 35-40.
ANDERSON, N. H. 1959. Test of a model f or
opi ni on change. J our nal of abnor mal and soci al
psychol ogy, 59, p. 371-81.
BREHM, J . W. 1959. I ncr easi ng cogni ti ve di sso-
nance by a fai t accompl i . J our nal of abnor mal
and soci al psychol opy, 58, p. 379-82.
chance rel ati ve depri vat i on as det er mi nant s
of cogni ti ve di ssonance. J our nal of abnor mal
and soci al psychol ogy, 58, p. 383-7.
di ssonance. Evanst on, I l l i noi s, Row Pet er son
Co.
; CARLSMI TH, J . H. 1959. Cogni t i ve
consequences of f or ced compl i ance. J our nal of
abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy, 58, p. 203-10.
; COHEN, A. R. 1959. Choi ce and
FESTI NGER, L. 1957. A t heor y of cogni ti ve
HEI DER, F. 1946. Atti tudes and cogni ti ve or gani -
. 1958. The psychol ogy of i nt erpersonal
zati on. J our nal of psychol ogy, 21, p. 107-12.
rel ati ons. New Yor k, Wi l ey.
t ude organi zat i on and change. New Haven,
Yal e Uni versi t y Pr ess. ( Yal e studi es i n atti tude
and communi cat i on, vol . 111. )
of r61e pl ayi ng on opi ni on change. J our nal of
abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy, 49, p. 211-18.
HOVLAND, C. I . ; ROSENBERG, M. 1960. Atti -
-
J ANI S, I . L. ; KI NG, B. T. 1954. The i nf l uence
KELMAN, H. C. 1953. Atti tude change as a
f uncti on of r esponse restri cti on. Human
rel at i ons, 6, p. 185-214.
. 1960. Ef f ects of rbl e- ori ent at i on
and val ue- ori ent at i on on the nat ure of atti tude
change. Paper r ead at the meet i ngs of East er n
Psychol ogi cal Associ at i on, New York.
Publ i c opi ni on quar t er l y, 25, p. 57-78.
atti tude change. Paper r ead at the Four t eent h
I nternati onal Congr ess of Appl i ed Psychol ogy,
Copenhagen.
KI NG, B. T. ; J ANI S, I . L. 1956. Compar i son of
the ef f ecti veness of i mpr ovi sed ver sus non-
i mpr ovi sed r81e pl ayi ng i n pr oduci ng opi ni on
. 1961 a. Pr ocess of opi ni on change.
. 1961 b. Thei nduct i on of acti on and
~~
change. Human rel at i ons, 9, p. 177-85.
KUTNER, B. : WI LKI NS. C. and YARROW. P. R.
. .
1952. ' Ver bal atti tudes and overt behavi our
i nvol vi ng raci al prej udi ce' J our nal of abnor mal
and soci al psychol ogy, 47, p. 649-52.
LA PI ERE, R. T. 1934. ' Atti tudes ver sus Act i on' ,
Soci al For ces, 14, p. 230-37.
LUND, F. H. 1925. The psychol ogy of bel i ef .
J our nal of abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy,
20, p. 63-81.
McGUI RE, W. J . 1960 a. Cogni t i ve consi st ency
and atti tude change. J our nal of abnor mal and
soci al psychol ogy, 60, p. 345-53.
. 1960b. Di rect and i ndi rect per -
suasi ve ef f ects of di ssonance- pr oduci ng
messages. J our nal of abnor mal and soci al
NEWCOMB, T. M. 1953. An appr oach to the
psychol ogy, 60, p. 354-8.
st udy of communi cat i ve act s. Psychol ogi cal
r evi ew, 60, p. 393-404.
Anal ysi s of af f ecti ve- cogni ti ve consi st ency. I n:
Hovl and, C . I . and Rosenber g, M. ( eds .).
Atti tude organi zat i on and change. New Haven,
Yal e Uni versi t y Pr ess. ( Yal e st udi es i n
atti tude and communi cat i on, vol . 111. )
ROSENBERG, M. ; ABEL SON, R. P. 1960.
SUMNER, W. G. 1907. Fol kways. Bost on, Gi nn.
38
P A R T I1
ACTION RESEARCH ON INTERGROUP ATTITUDES
39
CHAPTER 1
EDUCATI ONAL PROGRAMMES I N I NTERGROUP RELATI ONS
We shal l now t urn our attenti on to the quest i on of
speci f i c pr ogr ammes of acti on desi gned to change
atti tudes i n the di recti on of i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup
rel ati ons. Of cour se, a compl et e r evi ewof the
count l ess ef f orts bei ng made t hr oughout the wor l d
t owar ds thi s end cannot be gi ven her e. Our pur pose
i s r at her to di scuss bri ef l y the val ue of such at-
t empt s gener al l y, to descr i be af ew sel ect ed, i l l us-
trati ve exampl es of acti on r esear ch and, especi al l y,
to at t empt to poi nt the way to a great er i ntegrati on
of exper i ment al r esear ch and acti on r esear ch or
acti on pr ogr ammes desi gned to i mpr ove i nt ergroup
rel ati ons.
Cert ai nl y educat i on i s one of the most pr omi s-
i ng ar eas i n whi ch soci al atti tudes may be changed
wi th a vi ewto i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel ati ons. The
young human bei ng i s much mor e amenabl e to
change t han ar e adul ts; i ndeed, as count l ess st ud-
i es have shown, the ver y young chi l d i s total l y
wi thout the prej udi ces of adul ts and acqui r es t hese
onl y in the cour se of the so- cal l ed soci al i zati on
pr ocess, fi rst wi thi n the f ami l y, and l ater inthe
school setti ng. I n the parent - chi l d rel at i onshi p, we
f ace the di l emma that i n or der to bri ng up chi l dren
i n a manner whi ch woul d be conduci ve to better
i nt ergroup rel at i ons, i t woul d be necessar y f i rst
of al l to change the parent s. However , educat i on
has now become an accept ed and i mpor t ant part of
ever y chi l d' s l i fe; and, when one consi der s t hat i n
near l y al l count ri es of the wor l d I ever y chi l d, f r om
the age of 6 ( or of ten f r omthe age of 4 or 5) unti l
wel l i nto adol escence or even i nto young adul t hood,
spends the maj or i t y of hi s t i me i n school or i n
ot her acti vi ti es associ at ed wi th f or mal educat i on,
the potenti al i nf l uence of thi s ar ea upon f or mi ngor
changi ng t he chi l d' s atti tudes i s at once apparent .
The educat i onal pr ocess i s ver y compl ex, i nvol v-
i ng essenti al l y al l the ar eas of exper i ment al r e-
sear ch whi ch we have di scussed i n pr evi ous chapt er s.
The resul ts of personal i t y- ori ent ed r esear ch ar e
i mpor t ant i n thi s connexi on, si nce not onl y will t he
react i ons of i ndi vi dual st udent s depend upon di f f er-
ences i n thei r personal i t i es, but al so t he school -
chi l d i s sti l l i n the pr ocess of devel opi ng hi s
personal i t y; and the school exper i ence can pl ay a
maj or r61e indevel opi ng parti cul arl y such aspect s
of the personal i t y as ar e rel ated to the chi l d' s
soci al i nteracti ons. Especi al l y i mpor t ant i s t he
appl i cati on of gr oup- or i ent ed r esear ch si nce, as
we know, the educat i onal pr ocess does not consi st
mer el y of i mpar t i ng i nf or mat i on, but, i s, rat her, a
hi ghl y compl ex phenomenon of gr oup dynami cs i n-
vol vi ng the i ntri cate rel ati onshi p bet ween pupi l and
educat or , and especi al l y bet ween the pupi l and hi s
peer gr oup. To the extent to whi ch the peer gr oup
becomes a f r ame of r ef er ence for the chi l d, i t wi l l
be i mpor t ant i n f or mi ng and changi ng hi s soci al
atti tudes. The i mpor t ance of communi cat i ons r e-
sear ch f or a better under st andi ng of the educat i onal
pr ocess i s sel f - evi dent , si nce any at t empt to edu-
cat e the chi l d i nvol ves a f or mof ' per suasi ve' com-
muni cat i on, be i t i n r ef er ence to parti cul ar f acts
or i n the devel opment or change of soci al atti tudes.
What i s t he empi r i cal evi dence as to the ef f ec-
t i veness of educat i on i n changi ng i nt ergroup atti -
t udes i n a posi ti ve di rect i on? Earl i er r esear ch
had shown hi ghl y i nconsi st ent f i ndi ngs: s ome st ud-
i es showed posi ti ve change, ot her s showed no
si gni f i cant change, whi l e sti l l ot her s showed change
in a di recti on opposi t e to that whi ch was desi red
( boomer ang ef f ect). Thus, f or i nst ance, Schl orf f
(1930) f ound that weekl y cl asses over a peri od of
one semest er deal i ng wi th the hi st ory and status
of Negr oes resul t ed i n a si gni f i cant, posi ti ve shi ft i n
r anki ng Negr oes on the part of ni nt h- gr ade school -
chi l dren as compar ed wi th a cont rol gr oup. ( The
r ank assi gned to Negr oes by the exper i ment al
subj ect s was, however , sti l l at the l ower end of
t he scal e. ) On the ot her hand, Young (1927),
st udyi ng the resul t s of a cour se on r ace rel at i ons,
and Dr oba (1932), anal ysi ng the ef f ects of a cour se
on t he Amer i can Negr o i n a col l ege cur r i cul um,
both f ound no si gni f i cant change i n atti tudes f ol l ow-
i ng thi s at t empt at educat i onal i nf l uence. Li kewi se,
Manske (1935) f ound that of 22 hi gh school cl asses
exposed to ten l essons on the Amer i can Negr o,
onl y t wo cl asses shi f ted thei r atti tudes i n t he di r ec-
ti on of thei r t eacher ' s st and, wher eas ei ght cl asses
showed changes i n a di recti on opposed to the
i nf l uence desi red by t he t eacher s; t he r emai ni ng
cl asses wer e unchanged. Lat er r esear ch resul ts
have al so shown s ome vari abi l i ty. However ,
Har di ng, Kut ner , Pr oshansky and Chei n (1954, p.
1047), i n r evi ewi ng st udi es of the ef f ects of spe-
ci fi c educat i onal measur es, concl ude that ' report s
of si gni f i cant f avour abl e changes i n atti tude out -
number the r epor t s of i nsi gni f i cant changes or no
change by about t wo to one' .
a number of i nvesti gati ons have
shown that whet her educat i on has a posi ti ve or a
negat i ve i nf l uence may al so depend upon the or i en-
tati on of the educat or s and the peer gr oup. We '
have al r eady ci ted an earl i er st udy by Si ms and
Pat ri ck (1936) i n whi ch at t endance of a Nor t her n
gr oup at a uni versi ty wher e i nt ol erance was the
nor mi ncr eased atti tudes of i nt ol erance ont he part
Of cour se,
41
Educat i on Pr ogr ammes i n I nt ergroup Rel at i ons
of t hese st udent s. These and ot her i nvesti gati ons
have l ed s ome aut hors to concl ude that i t i s possi bl e
to educat e young peopl e i n any desi red di recti on
what soever , ei ther tol erant or i ntol erant. Al t hough
t her e i s no quest i on that educat i onal i nf l uences, i f
di ctated by nati onal i sti c, i ntol erant atti tudes, can
i nf l uence the i ndi vi dual i n t he di recti on of i nt er-
gr oup hosti l i ty and conf l i ct,
di recti on of heal t hy i nt ergroup rel ati ons , never -
t hel ess t her e seems to be some evi dence i n f avour
of cert ai n l i mi tati ons to thi s negat i ve pr ocess. The
vi ews of the earl y rati onal i sts, al t hough i n need
of consi derabl e modi f i cat i on i n l i ght of moder n
knowl edge, may, never t hel ess, have a cert ai n
amount of val i di ty. Ador no, et al . (1950, p. 10
et seq. ) have expr essed si mi l ar vi ews. They state:
' Ther e i s one expl anat i on f or the exi st ence of an
i ndi vi dual ' s i deol ogy that has not so f ar been con-
si der ed: that i t i s the vi ew of the wor l d whi ch
a r easonabl e man, wi th s ome under st andi ng of the
rBl e of such det er mi nant s as t hose di scussed above,
and wi th compl et e access to the necessar y f act s,
will or gani ze f or hi msel f . Thi s concept i on, t hough
i t has been l eft to the l ast , i s of cruci al i mpor t ance
f or a sound appr oach to i deol ogy. Wi t hout i t we
shoul d have to shar e the dest ruct i ve vi ew, whi ch
has gai ned some accept ance inthe moder n wor l d,
that si nce al l i deol ogi es, al l phi l osophi es, deri ve
f r omnon- rat i onal sour ces, t here i s no basi s f or
sayi ng that one has mor e mer i t t han anot her . A
number of studi es suppor t thi s vi ew. The i nvest i ga-
ti ons of McGui r e (1960 a, b) to whi ch we r ef er r ed
above, have shown f or i nst ance that at t empt s to
i nf l uence an i ndi vi dual i n the di recti on of l ogi cal
i nconsi st ency will meet wi th great r esi st ance,
wher eas at t empt s to i nf l uence hi mi n t er ms of
gr eat er consi st ency will mor e l i kel y meet wi th
success. Of cour se, i t can be ar gued that t her e
ar e i deol ogi es and f r ames of r ef er ence i n t er ms
of whi ch i nt ol erance and i nt ergroup t ensi on ar e
l ogi cal l y consi st ent . However , i t woul d appear
that the nor ms of manki nd as a whol e, as t heyhave
devel oped i n the moder n wor l d t hr ough great er
soci al awar eness and cl oser i nteracti on brought
about by moder n means of communi cat i on and
t echnol ogy, ar e i nconsi stent wi th hosti l e i nt er-
gr oup atti tudes. The l atter may be r egar ded as
l ef t - overs of manki nd' s dar k ( al t houghunf ort unat el y
not t oo di stant) past . Thus educat i onal i nf l uences,
wi th the backgr ound of thi s prevai l i ng nor m, ar e
l i kel y, by provi di ng mor e i nf or mat i on and great er
under st andi ng, to wor k i n t he di recti on of i m-
pr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel at i ons.
educat i on, most r evi ews (e. g. Wi l l i ams, 1947; Rose,
1948) have concl uded that wi t h i ncr eased f or mal
educat i on negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes decr ease.
One of the most ext ensi ve i nvesti gati ons suppor t -
i ng thi s concl usi on was a nat i on- wi de r epr esent a-
ti ve sur vey made by the Nat i onal Opi ni on Resear ch
Cent r e i n 1944 i n the Uni t ed States of Amer i ca
( Samel son, 1945). In a mor e recent st udy, Pl ant
( 1956) i nvesti gated atti tude changes associ at ed wi th
42
rat her t han i n the
-
Wi t h r espect to the gener al ef f ect of f or mal
a t wo- year col l ege exper i ence and f ound concl usi ve
evi dence that st udent s who had compl et ed t wo year s
i n a Cal i f orni a col l ege had changed si gni f i cantl y
i n t he di recti on of l ess et hnocent ri c atti tudes, as
compar ed wi th cont rol subj ect s who had not had
col l ege exper i ence duri ng thi s t i me. A mor e r e-
cent r evi ewby Wi l l i ams (1958) has report ed a
great er i nf l uence of educat i on i n i mpr ovi ng i nt er-
gr oup atti tudes to the extent that the br oader nor ms
' of the soci ety ar e congr uent wi th such at t empt s.
The st udy by Nowak (1960), to whi ch we ref erred
pr evi ousl y, showi ng an i ncr ease i n egal i tari an
atti tudes on the part of War saw st udent s, exem-
pl i fi es thi s poi nt.
Tumi n, Bar t on and Bur r us (1958), i n summar i z-
i ng the ef f ects of educat i on on pr ej udi ce, di scr i mi -
nati on and r eadi ness for desegr egat i on i n the Sout h
of the Uni t ed St at es, have concl uded that as f or mal
educat i on i ncr eases t here t end to occur not i ceabl e
shi f ts f r om: (a) nat i onal i smto i nt ernat i onal i sm, i n
pol i ti cal poi nt of vi ew; ( b) t radi t i onal i smto secu-
l ar i sm, i n gener al soci al phi l osophy; (c) common-
sense to sci ence, as accept abl e evi dence; (d)
puni shment to r ef or m, i n penol ogi cal t heor y;
(e) vi ol ence and di rect acti on to l aw, as agent s
of pol i cy; (f) ri gi di ty to per mi ssi veness, i n chi l d
r ear i ng; (g) pat ri archy to democr acy, i n spouse
rel at i onshi ps; ( h) anaest hesi a to creati vi ty, i n
pat t erns of recreat i on. Thi s s ummar y woul d seem
to i ndi cate that educat i on causes af ar - r eachi ng and
deep- goi ng change i n soci al atti tudes general l y i n
a di recti on mor e l i kel y to be conduci ve t owar d
heal t hy, const ruct i ve i nt ergroup rel ati ons. Of
cour se, sub- cul t ural gr oup nor ms may wor k agai nst
t hese t endenci es, causi ng resi st ance to change.
For i nst ance, Young, Benson and Hol t zman (1960)
i nvesti gated changes i n atti tudes t owar d the Negr o
among st udent s at a uni versi ty i n the Sout h of the
Uni t ed States bet ween the year s 1954 (j ust shortl y
af ter t he Uni t ed States Supr eme Cour t deci si on
concer ni ng segr egat i on, but bef ore actual desegr e-
gati on had t aken pl ace) and 1958. These aut hors
f ound no si gni f i cant change i n gr oup means i n atti -
t udes t owar d the Negr o duri ng thi s per i od, i n spi te
of the many cont roversi al event s whi ch had occur r ed
( e. g. the Li ttl e Rock i nci dent , etc. ). A popul ar
hypot hesi s was t hat , al t hough t her e may have been
no change i n mean scor es, t he br each bet ween
advocat es of segregat i on and advocat es of desegr e-
gati on had become great er as a resul t of the
cont roversi al nat ur e of the i ssue. However , the
f i ndi ngs of t hese aut hors f ai l ed to suppor t thi s
hypot hesi s, si nce t here was no change ei ther i n
mean scor e or var i ance of scor es. The onl y si gni -
f i cant change not ed was uncover ed when men and
women i n the t wo sampl es wer e anal ysed separ a-
tel y; wher eas the women st udent s appear ed to be
sl i ghtl y mor e tol erant of the Negr o i n 1958, the
men had moved i n the opposi t e di recti on.
These resul ts poi nt once agai nt o the i mpor t ance
of f i r ml y anchor ed gr oup nor ms;
general l y t hey suggest the necessi t y of basi ng any
educat i onal pr ogr amme upon moder n knowl edge
but mor e
Educat i on Pr ogr ammes i n I nt er gr oup Rel at i ons
concer ni ng atti tude f or mat i on and change. As
one aut hor has poi nted out i n a st udy desi gned
to devel op a r esour ce uni t f or the trai ni ng of
secondar y t eacher s i n pr obl ems and i ssues
i nvol vi ng mi nor i t y gr oups ( Pi t ki n, 1950), i t i s
necessar y f or the educat or to become a capabl e
di agnosti ci an. It i s necessar y f or hi mto t ake
i nto account i ndi vi dual di f f erences i n per sonal -
i ty and exi sti ng atti tudes on t he part of hi s
pupi l s, di f f erences wi th r espect to backgr ound,
gr oup member shi p and r ef er ence gr oups, per -
sonal and gr oup dynami cs i nvol ved i n atti tude
change, and a l arge number of f urt her f act ors
associ at ed wi th condi t i ons under whi ch at t empt s
at f or mi ng or changi ng the atti tudes of hi s
pupi l s i n the di recti on of mor e posi ti ve i nt er- -
gr oup rel ati ons ar e l i kel y to be successf ul or
not.
Al t hough, as we have poi nted out pr evi ousl y, i t
i s hi ghl y desi rabl e to di ssemi nat e f actual knowl edge
as wi del y as possi bl e, i t i s hi ghl y unl i kel y that thi s
met hod al one will be ver y ef f ecti ve i n changi ng
exi sti ng negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes. Thi s gener al -
i zati on hol ds, by the way, not onl y f or at t empt s at
changi ng negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes, but f or the
educat i onal pr ocess as a whol e. Moder n educat i on-
al t heor y has real i zed that the mer e present at i on
of i nf or mat i on i s not enough to achi eve the goal s of
educat i on, but that the total personal i t y and espe-
ci al l y the gr oup si tuati on i nvol ved i n the l earni ng
pr ocess i s of pr i mar y i mpor t ance. Kur t Lewj n,
one of the f or emost pi oneer s i n acti on r esear ch on
gr oup dynami cs, and hi s co- wor ker s have done
much to poi nt the way t owar d thi s new ori entati on
i n educat i on. Lewi n has emphasi zed the necessi t y
of seei ng educat i on as a gr oup pr ocess; t hus, the
i ndi vi dual ' s sense of parti ci pati on i n the gr oup at-
mospher e i s of pr i me i mpor t ance i n acqui ri ng new
i deas. Lewi n (1948, p. 59) states: ' Much st ress
i s l ai d on the cr eat i on, as part of the r e- educat i ve
pr ocess, of an at mospher e of f r eedomand spont a-
nei ty. Vol unt ary at t endance, i nf ormal i t y of meet -
i ngs, f r eedomof expr essi on i n voi ci ng gr i evances,
emot i onal securi t y and avoi dance of pr essur e, al l
i ncl ude thi s el ement . . . If r e- educat i on means the
est abl i shment of a new super - ego, i t necessar i l y
f ol l ows that the obj ecti ves sought wi l l not be r eached
as l ong as t he new set of val ues i s not exper i enced
by the i ndi vi dual as somet hi ng f reel y chosen. ' In
a pr evi ous chapt er we have r ef er r ed to the earl i er
studi es of Lewi n on ' gr oup deci si on' as a means of
atti tude change. Kel man' s (1953) i nvesti gati on
whi ch we ci ted earl i er ( showi ng that a hi gh degr ee
of restri cti on resul t s i n conf or mi t y but not atti tude
change, wher eas a low degr ee of restri cti on resul ts
i n mor e atti tude change i n the l ong run) , has i mpor -
t ant educat i onal i mpl i cat i ons whi ch ar e i n l i ne wi th
Lewi n' s f or mul at i ons.
All t hi s, of cour se, means that heavy demands
must be made on the educat or i f he i s to be suc-
cessf ul in changi ng atti tudes i n the di recti on of
i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel at i ons. The pessi mi st i c
vi ews of cert ai n aut hors as to the ef f ecti veness of
educat i on as a means of i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel a-
ti ons i s j usti f i ed i f educat i on i s consi der ed i n t he
cl assi cal sense as bei ng mer el y the i mpar t i ng of
i nf ormat i on. However , t her e i s no r eason why
moder n knowl edge cannot be i mpar t ed to the educa-
tor so that he can mor e ef f ecti vel y ful fi l hi s t ask.
Thi s does not mean that ever y t eacher must be a
t rai ned psychol ogi st , soci ol ogi st , etc. , but t he
essenti al pri nci pl es of psychodynami cs, gr oup
dynami cs and soci ol ogy mi ght wel l be i ncl uded i n
hi s t rai ni ng. Al t hough thi s i s not t he pr i mar y pur -
pose of the pr esent paper , i t i s possi bl e to t r ans-
l ate the resul ts of r esear ch so as to make t hem
under st andabl e to educat or s wi thout any great t ech-
ni cal knowl edge of soci al sci ence r esear ch. And
of cour se i t i s possi bl e to change the curri cul a of
t eacher s' trai ni ng i nsti tuti ons so as to i ncl ude a
wi der cover age of subj ect s di rectl y rel ated to t he
pr obl emof i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel ati ons. As
Wat son (1956, p. 309) has poi nted out , ' We shal l
have to tal k not about modest addi ti ons to our pr e-
sent pr ogr amme but about basi c t r ansf or mat i ons
of our cur r i cul um, our pr ocess of t eacher sel ect i on,
and the whol e concept i on of publ i c educat i on . . .
We shal l be thi nki ng . . . about the need of al l
educat i onal l eader s f or reori ent at i on and f or ski l l s
of st at esmanshi p.
si ons of our pr evi ous pr ogr ammes and our pr esent
pr obl ems i s f or mi dabl e. I
All thi s poi nts to a great er need f or cl ose
co- oper at i on bet ween ' pure' and ' appl i ed' sci ence,
bet ween r esear cher s i n the fi el d of i nt er gr oup r el a-
ti ons and educat or s and ot her practi ti oners who,
i n the f i nal anal ysi s, must appl y t hese r esear ch
f i ndi ngs i n actual pract i ce. Of cour se, such
co- oper at i on has enor mousl y pr ogr essed in r ecent
year s and the curri cul a of t eacher s' trai ni ng i nsti -
tuti ons t oday i ncl ude many cour ses i n the soci al
sci ences. In a number of school syst ems, t oo,
acti on pr ogr ammes based on the soci al sci ences
have been i mpl ement ed ( e. g. , Vi cker y and Col e,
1944; Br amel d, 1946; MacI ver , 1948; Cook, 1950;
Cook and Cook, 1954; Ogawa, Ki har a, Kubaya and
Tanaka, 1957; f or a recent r evi ewof pr ogr ammes
i n the Uni t ed St at es, see Si mpson and Yi nger , 1958).
Thi s pr ocess i s, however , pr oceedi ng at a di f -
f erent rat e i n di f f erent cul t ur es, dependi ng upon
the st age of devel opment of soci al sci ence and upon
a number of ot her f act ors. The necessi t y of al ter-
i ng the cur r i cul umof a t eacher s ' trai ni ng i nsti tu-
ti on i s dr amat i cal l y shown i n an i nvesti gati on by
Tausch (1961). Usi ng a test to measur e the degr ee
of under st andi ng of chi l dren on the part of t eacher s
and t eacher- t rai ni ng candi dat es, thi s aut hor f ound
a wi despr ead l ack of under st andi ng and f r equent
atti tudes of cri t i ci smand bl ame; i ndeed, t he
di f f er ences i n thi s r espect bet ween st udent s i n t he
fi rst semest er , i n the f ourth semest er , and expe-
ri enced t eacher s wi th an aver age of 15 year s'
t eachi ng exper i ence wer e not si gni f i cant. A f urt her
i nvesti gati on showed that a speci al l y desi gned cour se
i n educat i onal psychol ogy, l asti ng one semest er ,
resul t ed i n a si gni f i cant i ncr ease i n the under st andi ng
The di spari ty bet ween the di men-
43
Educat i on Pr ogr ammes i n I nt ergroup Rel at i ons
of chi l dren' s behavi our on t he part of t eacher -
trai ni ng candi dat es, wher eas the usual cour ses i n
gener al psychol ogy and pedagogy di d not l ead to any
si gni f i cant changes. An i nvesti gati on of the ef f ec-
t i veness of speci f i c trai ni ng i nhandl i ng pr obl ems
of i nt ergroup rel ati ons woul d pr obabl y show si mi l ar
di f f erences. Tausch used knowl edge deri ved f r om
non- di rect i ve gr oup psychot her apy i n her trai ni ng
exper i ment ( Roger s, 1951), demonst r at i ng that
such pri nci pl es ar e appl i cabl e i n the educat i onal
f i el d. Wi eder (1951), in a ' compar at i ve st udyof
t he rel ati ve ef f ecti veness of t wo met hods of t each-
i ng a t hi rt y- hour cour se i n psychol ogy i n modi f yi ng
atti tudes associ at ed wi th raci al , rel i gi ous and et h-
ni c prej udi ce' , l i kewi se showed the appl i cabi l i ty
of gr oup t her apy pr ocedur es. Wher eas the t r a-
di ti onal l ect ure - di scussi on met hod di d not si gni f i -
cant l ymodi f y i nt ergroup atti tudes, a second met hod
i nvol vi ng pri nci pl es of gr oup t her apy, non- di rect i ve
met hods and soci o- dr ama was hi ghl y successf ul i n
doi ng so. The non- di rect i ve and r el e- pl ayi ngt ech-
ni ques cont ri but ed to per sonal gxowt h as ref l ected
i n i ncr eased sel f i nsi ght , gr eat er sel f accept ance
and a decr ease i n atti tudes associ at ed wi th raci al ,
rel i gi ous and ethni c prej udi ce.
We may concl ude, t hen, that we do possess the
knowl edge, whi ch i f appl i ed on a wi de scal e, coul d
l ead to the accompl i shment of our obj ecti ves of
i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup atti tudes and i nt ergroup r el a-
ti ons. Of cour se, the pr obl emari ses of how to
i mpI ement t hese met hods on a l arge scal e. On thi s
poi nt , s ome aut hor s have expr essed a r at her pes-
si mi st i c vi ew. Mer t on (1957, p. 183) f or i nst ance
wri t es: ' The appeal to educat i on as a "cure- al l " f or
t he most vari ed soci al pr obl em. . . i s none the l ess
i l l usory . . . f or how woul d thi s pr ogr amme of raci al
educat i on pr oceed? Who i s to do t he educat i ng?
The t eacher s i n our communi t i es? But i n s ome mea-
sur e . . . the t eacher s shar e t he s ame prej udi ces
t hey ar e ur ged to combat . . . Educat i on may ser ve
as an operat i onal adj unct but not as the chi ef basi s
f or any but excruci at i ngl y sl owchange i n the pr e-
vai l i ng pattern of r ace rel ati ons. ' Si mpson and
Yi nger (1958) agr ee wi th thi s di ffi cul ty but poi nt
out: ' Despi t e the cl ose connexi on bet ween f or mal
educat i on and the rest of soci et y, t here i s a mea-
sur e of aut onomy i n the school syst em. Thi s aut o-
nomy i s easy to exagger at e, but i t i s a strategi c
er r or to di smi ss i t too l i ghtl y, as Mer t onber haps
does , . .
cat i on, because of thei r f uncti onal r6l e i n soci et y,
ar e somewhat mor e concer ned wi th t he pursui t of
t rut h, a l i ttl e l ess l i kel y to be provi nci al . I n our
soci ety they ar e al so i ncl i ned to be somewhat mor e
l i beral t han the aver age, al t hough s ome ar e t i mi d,
and ot hers emot i onal l y i denti f y wi th the upper
cl asses. Those who cont rol the school syst ems,
mor eover (the school boar ds and trustees), ar e not
i ncl i ned to det er mi ne ever y acti on of the t eacher ,
because t hey ar e to s ome degr ee dependent on hi m
as the conser ver and pur suer of knowl edge, as the
expert and t rai ner of exper t s, who, despi te the
di sdai n i n whi ch he i s hel d by t he "practi cal " man,
44
Those prof essi onal l y connect ed wi th edu-
i s i ndi spensabl e to our soci ety. An i deol ogy of
f r eedomf or the t eacher i s al so i nvol ved. The r e-
sul t i s that the t eacher has s ome aut onomy, some
power to attack prej udi ce i f he want s to - and some
t eacher s want t o' (i bi d. , p. 758 et seq. ).
In concl usi on, i t may be sai d that we possess
the knowl edge ( al t hough, of cour se, we need mor e) ,
but thi s knowl edge must be made readi l y avai l abl e
and appl i ed. Ther e ar e di f f i cul ti es i nvol ved i n
doi ng t hi s, but t hey ar e not i nsur mount abl e. Thus
seen, educat i onal pr ogr ammes have a ver y def i ni te
r81e to pl ay i n changi ngnegat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes
and i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel ati ons.
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VI CKERY , W. ; COLE, S. G. 1944. I ntercul tural
educat i on i n Amer i can school s. New Yor k,
Har per Bros.
WATSON. G. 1956. Educat i on and i nt er - gr oup
- -
rel ati ons. Col ombi a Teacher s Col l ege r ecor d,
57, p. 305-9.
WI EDER, G. S. 1951. A compar at i ve st udy of
t he rel ati ve ef f ecti veness of t wo met hods of
t eachi ng a t hi rt y- hour cour se i n psychol ogy
i n modi f yi ng atti tudes associ at ed wi th raci al ,
rel i gi ous and ethni c prej udi ce. Unpubl i shed
Ph. D. di ss. , New Yor k Uni ver si t y, New
Yor k.
WI LLI AMS, R. M. J r . 1947. The reduct i on of
i nt er - gr oup t ensi ons: a sur vey of r esear ch
on pr obl ems of et hni c, raci al and rel i gi ous
gr oup rel ati ons. New Yor k, Soci al Sci ence
Resear ch Counci l . (Bul l eti n no. 57 . )
I n: J . B. Gi ttl er (ed. ). Revi ewof soci ol ogy.
New Yor k, Wi l ey.
YOUNG, D. 1927. Some ef f ects of a cour se
i n Amer i can r ace pr obl ems on t he r ace
prej udi ce of 450 under gr aduat es at the
. 1958. Raci al and cul tural rel ati ons.
Uni versi t y of Pennsyl vani a. J our nal of
abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy, 22,
p. 235-42.
YOUNG, R.K.; BENSON, W.M.; HOLTZMAN,
W.H. 1960. Change i n atti tudes t owar d
t he Negr o i n a Sout her n uni versi t y. J our nal
of abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy, 60.
p. 131-3.
45
CHAPTER 2
I NTERGROUP CONTACT ANDCOMMUNI TY STUDI ES
Inaddi ti on to the school as a f ocus of attenti on f or
changi ng atti tudes det ri ment al to heal t hy i nt ergroup
rel at i ons, a vari ety of acti on pr ogr ammes outsi de
the school have been conduct ed i n an ef f ort to i m-
pr ove rel ati ons bet ween vari ous raci al , rel i gi ous
and ot her gr oups. Exampl es of t hese ar e adul t
educat i on campai gns; pr ogr ammes f or provi di ng
cont act bet ween the member s of vari ous gr oups,
both among chi l dren and adul ts; and proj ect s car -
ri ed out at the l ocal or communi t y l evel . Adul t
educat i on campai gns usual l y i nvol ve ei ther mas s
communi cat i ons medi a or i nt er - per sonal per sua-
si ve communi cat i ons such as l ect ur es, di scussi on
gr oups, etc. We have di scussed at l engt h, i n pr evi ous
chapt er s, the pr obl ems associ at ed wi th the use of
mass medi a and ot her per suasi ve communi cat i ons
as wel l as di scussi on and ot her gr oup- or i ent ed
t echni ques i n changi ng i nt ergroup atti tudes. I n
thi s chapt er we shal l di scuss pr i mar i l y acti on
pr ogr ammes associ at ed wi th contact bet ween
member s of vari ous gr oups and communi t y proj ect s.
Cont act and atti tude change
One of the most popul ar and wi despr ead not i ons
concer ni ng the i mpr ovement of i nt ergroup rel ati ons
i s that ' cont act ' i s, i n any case, a good thi ng. Peopl e
shoul d ' get to know each ot her better' , and once
t hey have done so, al l of thei r pr econcei ved not i ons
shoul d di sappear and t hey shoul d become ' good
nei ghbour s' . Thi s i s an i nvi ti ng proposi t i on i n
whi ch t her e i s no doubt a good deal of t rut h.
Cert ai nl y ani nest i mabl e amount of ef f ort i s bei ng
expended i n the wor l d t oday to i mpr ove i nt ergroup
and i nt ernat i onal underst andi ng whi ch i s based upon
t he si mpl e assumpt i on that thi s proposi t i on i s t rue.
However , i nl i ne wi th the thesi s stated i n the i nt ro-
duct i on to thi s paper that ' goodwi l l ' al one i s not
enough, i t i s l ogi cal that we ask our sel ves whet her
acti on r esear ch conf i r ms thi s supposi t i on.
As wi th many ot her quest i ons, t here i s no si mpl e,
gl obal answer to the quest i on of whet her cont act
i s an ef f ecti ve means of i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup atti -
t udes and i nt ergroup rel ati ons. Fi rst of al l ,
' cont act ' i s of t ent aken to mean qui te a number of
di f f erent t hi ngs. Cert ai nl y cont act i s i nvol ved when
member s of vari ous gr oups l i ve t oget her , wor k
t oget her or engage i n ot her acti vi ti es t oget her over
a l ong peri od of t i me. On the ot her hand, a di f f e-
rent degr ee ( and ki nd) of cont act i s i nvol ved when
gr oups or i ndi vi dual s, who ar e ot her wi se separ at ed
f r omeach ot her , make bri ef vi si ts to each ot her' s
homes, pl aces of wor k, pl aces of wor shi p, etc.
46
And i s ' contact' i nvol ved when, f or i nst ance, a
di pl omat or some ot her sel ect ed represent at i ve of
a nati on or ot her gr oup makes an ' of f i ci al ' vi si t to
anot her nati on or anot her gr oup?
The conf l i cti ng resul ts of earl i er studi es ar e
cer t ai nl yt obet r aced backt ot hese var yi ng def i ni -
ti ons of what i s i nvol ved i n cont act , and to a l ack
of speci f i cati on of the condi t i ons under whi ch con-
tact t akes pl ace. In one earl y st udy, f or i nst ance,
Dodd ( 1935) studi ed the ef f ects of bri ef cont act s
bet ween member s of di f f erent ethni c gr oups i n the
Near East . The gr oups wer e t aken to vi si t each
ot her 's rel i gi ous edi f i ces; when the st udent s' atti -
t udes wer e re- t est ed f ol l owi ng t hese exper i ences
no si gni f i cant changes i n thei r atti tudes t owar ds
each ot her wer e f ound. I f anyt hi ng, an i ncr ease i n
the i ntensi ty of ' i n- gr oup' atti tudes coul d be not ed.
Inanot her earl y st udy, however , Smi t h ( 1937) f ound
si gni f i cant posi ti ve changes in atti tudes among
whi te graduat e st udent s who spent t wo weekends
i n Har l em ( NewYor k) getti ng to know l eadi ng
member s of the Negr o communi t y. Mussen ( 1950)
i nvesti gated the ef f ect of cont act bet ween whi te and
Negr o boys i n a f our - week, unsegr egat ed s ummer
camp. I n compar i ng bef ore and af ter resul ts of
atti tude measur ement , i t was f ound that about 25 per
cent of the whi te boys showed mor e prej udi ce f ol l ow-
i ng the cont act and about 25 per cent showed l ess
prej udi ce; the mi ddl e 50 per cent showed no si gni -
f i cant changes. A mor e detai l ed anal ysi s of the
subj ect s showed the posi ti ve or negat i ve changes
to be associ at ed wi th i ni ti al atti tude and personal i ty
f act ors (the prej udi ced became mor e pr ej udi ced,
the l ess prej udi ced became l ess pr ej udi ced, and
the mi ddl e gr oup r emai ned unchanged) as was
predi ct abl e by the hypot heses of the ' authori tari an
personal i t y' ( Ador no, 3. , 1950). I n a mor e
recent st udy, Fest i nger and Kel l ey ( 1951) studi ed
the ef f ects on atti tude change of soci al cont act s
among resi dent s i n a new housi ng proj ect. The
subj ect s of the i nvesti gati on wer e charact eri zed
by soci al i sol ati on and unf avour abl e atti tudes t o-
war d thei r f el l ow resi dent s and t owar d resi dent s
of the t own as a whol e at t he begi nni ng of the st udy.
Fol l owi ng the cont act si tuati ons brought about by
the i nvest i gat ors, atti tude
such that the i ni ti al l y f avourabl e subj ect s changed
i n a posi ti ve di rect i on, wher eas t hose whose atti -
t udes wer e i ni ti al l yunf avourabl e showed ei ther no
posi ti ve change or , i n some cases, an i ncr ease
i n thei r unf avourabl e atti tudes.
Our pr esent knowl edge, based on the exper i ence
of a l arge number of acti on pr ogr ammes the resul ts
changes wer e once agai n
I nt ergroup Cont act and Communi t y St udi es
of whi ch have been control l ed by sci enti f i c met hods
of atti tude measur ement , per mi t s us to predi ct
mor e accurat el y what t ype of cont act , and under
what condi t i ons cont act i s most l i kel y to l ead to
posi ti ve atti tude change and i mpr ovement i n i nt er-
gr oup rel ati ons.
I n gener al , i t may be sai d that cont act s bet ween
member s of vari ous gr oups ar e most l i kel y to l ead
to atti tude change i n a posi ti ve di recti on when
(a) the cont act s ar e on a basi s of equal status;
(b) co- oper at i ve i nteracti on or super - or di nat e goal s
ar e i nvol ved; and (c) the cont act i s of si gni f i cant
durat i on.
Al l port andKr amer (1946) f ound that cont act on
an equal status basi s bet ween member s of var i ous
raci al and rel i gi ous gr oups was l i kel y to l ead to a
posi ti ve change i n atti tude, wher eas cont act s on an
unequal status basi s was l i kel y to l ead ei ther to
no change or to a negat i ve change i n atti tudes.
MacKenzi e (1948) l i kewi se f ound that equal status
cont act s bet ween Negr o and whi te uni versi t y st u-
dent s was most l i kel y to l ead to posi ti ve atti tude
change.
The ' Robber s Cave' exper i ment , r ef er r ed to
i n Par t I , Chapt er 2 ( Sheri f , Har vey, Whi t e, Hood
and Sheri f , 1954), demonst r at ed that cont act al one
was not suf f i ci ent to i mpr ove atti tudes bet ween the
t wo exper i ment al l y creat ed gr oups.
super - or di nat e goal s wer e i nvol ved, i . e. the t wo
gr oups had a t ask to per f or mwhi ch r equi r ed thei r
co- oper at i ve ef f ort, was t here a posi ti ve change
i n atti tude and a br eakdown i n negat i ve out - gr oup
st ereot ypes. A number of ot her ' real l i fe' i nves-
ti gati ons have shown that cont act s i nvol vi ng j oi nt
co- oper at i ve ef f ort l ead to posi ti ve atti tude change.
One of the most i mpr essi ve of t hese st udi es was
an i nvesti gati on of t he ef f ect of i ntegrati ng Negr o
i nf antry pl at oons i nto ot her wi se whi t e i nf antry
compani es i n the Uni t ed States Ar my t owar d the
end of Wor l d War 11. Up unti l the t i me of thi s
i nt egrat i on, i t had been t he gener al pol i cy of the
Uni t ed St at es Ar my to keep Negr o t r oops out of
combat assi gnment s. Inthe spri ng of 1945, how-
ever , Negr o pl at oons wer e assi gned to s ome whi t e
i nf antry compani es i n el even combat di vi si ons
operat i ng i n Eur ope. A st udy conduct ed l ater
( St ar , Wi l l i ams and St ouf f er, 1958) showed that
of the whi te enl i sted men i n compani es to whi ch
Negr o pl at oons had been assi gned, 64 per cent
t hought that thi s was a good gener al pol i cy f or the
ar my to f ol l ow, wher eas i n di vi si ons cont ai ni ng no
Negr o combat pl at oons, onl y 18 per cent of t he
l i sted men t hought that Negr o pl at oons woul d be a
good i dea; 62 per cent of the men i n t hese l atter
di vi si ons t hought that t hey woul d di sl i ke ver y much
ser vi ng i n a company wi th aNegr opl at oon, wher e-
as onl y 7 per cent of the men who had had such
exper i ence sai d t hey woul d di sl i ke i t ver y much.
A number of ot her studi es have shown that when
member s of previ ousl y segr egat ed gr oups ar e
br ought t oget her i n occupat i onal si tuati ons (i . e.
si tuati ons usual l y i nvol vi ng co- oper at i ve ef f orts),
posi ti ve atti tude change occur s, even t hough
Onl y when
pr evi ous negat i ve atti tudes and prej udi ces wer e
qui te st rong. We have r ef er r ed previ ousl y to the
i nvesti gati on by Br ophy (1946) i n whi ch the ef f ects
of whi te and Negr o mer chant seamen wor ki ng t o-
get her wer e i nvest i gat ed. Among whi t e seamen
who had never shi pped wi th Negr oes, 33 per cent
wer e f ound to be rel ati vel y unpr ej udi ced, as mea-
sur ed by a t en- i t ematti tude scal e.
seamen who had shi pped once wi th Negr oes, the
per cent age of non- pr ej udi ced atti tudes i ncr eased
to 46, f or t hose who had shi pped t wi ce to 62; and
of t hose who had shi pped f i ve or mor e t i mes wi th
Negr o seamen, 82 per cent wer e f ound to be r el a-
ti vel y unpr ej udi ced. Al so Har di ng and Hogr ef e
(1952) f ound that whi t e depar t ment st ore empl oyees
changed thei r atti tudes t owar d Negr oes, at l east
i n the occupat i onal spher e, af ter t he st ores had
begun to empl oy Negr o co- wor ker s.
I n spi te of f ri cti on that has occur r ed i n cert ai n
i nst ances, somet i mes even to the poi nt of vi ol ence,
as a resul t of the i ntegrati on of housi ng among
previ ousl y segr egat ed gr oups, a number of st udi es
have shown that l i vi ng t oget her i n cl ose pr oxi mi t y
has a posi ti ve ef f ect upon atti tudes. The wel l -
known st udy by Deut sch and Col l i ns (1951) has
demonst r at ed thi s poi nt ver y cl earl y. These aut hor s
studi ed the atti tudes of whi t e housewi ves t owar d
Negr oes i n t wo i nt egrat ed, i nterraci al publ i c
housi ng pr oj ect s, as compar ed wi th the atti tudes
of si mi l ar subj ect s i n t wo segr egat ed housi ng pr o-
j ects. The resi denti al cont act bet ween di f f erent
ethni c gr oups i n the i nt egrat ed housi ng proj ect s
consti tuted anon- compet i t i ve , equal - st at us cont act
si tuati on of l ong durat i on and, as was expect ed,
resul t ed i n substanti al f avourabl e changes i n
i nt ergroup atti tudes. The aut hor s f ound that 53 per
cent of the housewi ves i n the i nt egrat ed housi ng
proj ect s f avour ed a pol i cy of i nterraci al i nt egra-
ti on f or ci ty housi ng proj ect s i n gener al wher eas
onl y 5 per cent of the whi te housewi ves i n t he
segr egat ed proj ect s f avour ed such a pol i cy. Thi s
exper i ence i ni nt erraci al l i vi ng al so made t he house-
wi ves mor e wi l l i ng to accept Negr oes as f el l ow
wor ker s on a j ob, as f el l owmember s i n an i nf or mal
soci al cl ub, as school mat es f or thei r chi l dr en,
and mor e r eady to accept a Negr o as mayor of
thei r ci ty. By r eason of the uni que exper i ment al
desi gn of thi s i nvest i gat i on, t he aut hors wer e abl e
to show that t he changes i n atti tude t ook pl ace al ong
a number of di mensi ons, e. g. si gni f i cant changes
t ook pl ace i n bel i ef s about Negr oes (cogni ti ve com-
ponent ) , f eel i ngs t owar d Negr oes (af f ecti ve com-
ponent ) and pol i cy ori entati on t owar d Negr oes
( conat i ve component ) . Al t hough t her e may have
been some di f f erence i n i ni ti al atti tude among the
whi t e housewi ves i n the i nt egrat ed, as compar ed
wi th the segr egat ed, housi ng pr oj ect s, the aut hor s
wer e abl e to show by di f f erenti al anal ysi s that such
i ni ti al di f f erences coul d have account ed to onl y a
ver y sl i ght degr ee f or the di f f erences i n atti tude
f ound af ter sever al year s of l i vi ng i n the proj ect .
Thus t her e i s no doubt that t he actual cont act si t ua-
ti on i tsel f was l argel y responsi bl e f or the atti tude
For t hose whi t e
47
I nt ergroup Cont act and Communi t y St udi es
change. An i nteresti ng f urt her resul t of thi s i nves-
ti gati on was' rel ated to the quest i on of the extent to
whi ch chaQges i n atti tude t owar d one ethni c gr oup
t end to be accompani ed by si mi l ar changes i n atti -
t ude t owar d ot her gr oups. The i nt ervi ewschedul e
i ncl uded soci al di st ance quest i ons wi th r egar d to
Chi nese and Por t o Ri cans as wel l as to Negr oes.
The f or mer gr oups wer e al most enti rel y absent
f r omthe pr oj ect s, so that any di f f erences i n atti -
t ude t owar d t hemi n the i ntegrated pr oj ect s, as
compar ed to the segr egat ed ones, must be attri -
but ed ei ther to t he ef f ects of t he somewhat great er
i hi ti al l i beral i smof the t enant s i n the i ntegrated
proj ect or to the ef f ects of af unct i onal rel ati onshi p
bet ween atti tudes t owar d t hese gr oups and atti tudes
t owar ds Negr oes. Wher eas atti tudes t owar d Por t o
Ri cans wer e onl y sl i ghtl y mor e f avourabl e i n the
i ntegrated proj ect s ( no mor e t han woul d be expect ed
f r omthe di f f erences i n educat i on and pol i ti cal l i ber-
al i sm of the subj ects), atti tudes t owar d Chi nese
wer e substanti al l y mor e f avourabl e i n the i nt egrat ed
pr oj ect s, especi al l y wi th r espect to wi l l i ngness to
have Chi nese t enant s i n the s ame bui l di ng. These
di f f erences wer e t ool ar ge to be expl ai ned i n t er ms
of sampl i ng er r or or i n t er ms of i ni ti al di f f erences
i n atti tude. The aut hor s concl ude that among thei r
subj ect s t her e was s ome f uncti onal rel ati onshi p
bet ween atti tudes t owar d Negr oes and atti tudes
t owar d Chi nese, but l i ttl e or no f uncti onal rel ati on-
shi p bet ween atti tudes t owar dNegr oes and atti tudes
t owar d Por t o Ri cans. The necessi t y of f urt her
studi es to cl ari f yt hese resul ts was st r essed. Ot her
i nvesti gati ons ( e. g. Wi l ner , Wal kl ey and Cook, 1952;
Sussman, 1957; I ri sh, 1952) have conf i r medt hese
f i ndi ngs, i . e. that cont act of the t ype whi ch i s
br ought about by l i vi ng t oget her i n i nt egrat ed
proj ect s def i ni tel y t ends to bri ng about posi ti ve
changes i n i nt ergroup atti tudes.
One ver ymaj or ar ea i n whi ch ' contact' bet ween
member s of vari ous gr oups may take pl ace and be
of si gni f i cance f or f or mi ng or changi ng i nt ergroup
atti tudes i s the school i tsel f . I n addi ti on to the
mor e f or mal aspect s of l earni ng i n the school ,
or of speci f i c pr ogr ammes desi gned to change
i nt ergroup atti tudes ina posi ti ve di recti on ( such
as speci al cour ses, educat i onal f i l ms, etc . ) ,
the school i s a maj or experi enti al fi el d i n whi ch
chi l dren can l ear n heal t hy, democr at i c i nt ergroup
behavi our t hr ough actual exampl e, i . e. , t hr ough
coLoperat i ve i nteracti on bet ween var i ous gr oups
wi thi n the school . The segregat i on of school s al ong
raci al , rel i gi ous or ot her gr oup l i nes deni es chi l d-
r en the opport uni t y f or such heal thy exper i ence
and i s, i n f act , cont r ar y to the i dea of democr at i c
i nteracti on among school gr oups. One of the most
cruci al exampl es of soci al change i n thi s r espect
taki ng pl ace i nthe wor l d t oday i s the desegr egat i on
of publ i c school s i nthe Sout h of the Uni t ed States
of Amer i ca, wher e the pr evi ous segregat i on al ong
raci al l i nes was decl ar ed unconsti tuti onal by the
Uni t ed States Supr eme Cour t i n 1954. Thi s
pr ocess of change i s sti l l goi ng on and a huge body
of sci enti f i c r esear ch resul ts has accumul at ed
"
concer ni ng vari ous aspect s of the pr obl em. Even
a bri ef r evi ewof r esear ch resul ts i n thi s ar ea
woul d exceed the space avai l abl e her e, and f ur -
t her mor e, a number of excel l ent r evi ews of such
r esear ch exi st ( e. g. , Tumi n, 1957, 1960;
Suchman, Dean and Wi l l i ams, 1958).
We shoul d l i ke to ment i on her e j ust one aspect
of thi s pr obl emwhi ch i s most l i kel y to be appl i -
cabl e to school segregat i on al ong raci al , rel i gi ous
or ot her l i nes whi ch exi sts i n ot her part s of the
wor l d. I t has l ong been known and demonst r at ed
i n a number of i nvesti gati ons that such segregat i on
has har mf ul ef f ects upon chi l dren bel ongi ng to the
mi nor i t y gr oup. They tend to i ncorporat e the pr e-
j udi ces of the maj ori t y gr oup and devel op f eel i ngs
of i nsecuri t y, l ack of sel f - est eem, et c. However ,
as St evens ( 1958) has poi nted out , such segregat i on
i s har mf ul to the chi l dren bel ongi ng to the maj ori t y
gr oup as wel l . Ref er r i ng to segr egat ed school s i n
t he Sout h of the Uni t edst at es, St evens states: ' The
whi t e chi l d i n our soci ety who l ear ns to be pr e-
j udi ced has been subj ect ed to soci al si tuati ons
contai ni ng i nherent i nconsi st enci es. He i s taught
j usti ce and f ai r pl ay by t he s ame per sons and i nsti -
tuti ons who puni sh hi mf or pl ayi ng wi th a chi l d of
a di f f erent col our , or who encour age hi mto f eel
a superi ori t y whi ch the chi l d of ten senses has an
unreal i sti c basi s. The f act that the react i ons of
chi l dren to soci al and parent al pr essur e to commi t
speci f i c prej udi ced acts ar e general l y sub- cl i ni cal
i n nat ure i s not i ndi cati ve of an absence of har m-
f ul ness. Most negat i ve exper i ences of chi l dren
whi ch contri bute to l ater mal adj ust ment al so have
sub- cl i ni cal i mmedi at e react i ons' (i bi d. ,
et seq. ).
Deut scher and Chei n showed i n a sur vey of mor e
t han 500 soci al sci enti sts, 83 per cent of the soci al
sci enti sts who repl i ed to thei r quest i onnai re hel d
the opi ni on that raci al segr egat i on had det ri ment al
psychol ogi cal ef f ects on member s of the pri vi l eged
gr oup. Al t hough, as f ar as we know, t here i s a
l ack of empi r i cal evi dence, we must hypot hesi ze
that school segregat i on al ong raci al , rel i gi ous or
ot her gr oup l i nes in many part s of the wor l d has
det ri ment al ef f ect s, not onl y on the mi nor i t y chi l d-
r en, but on the maj or i t y chi l dren as wel l . Thus
' cont act ' i s not onl y a met hod whi ch may be usef ul
i n changi ng negat i ve i nt ergroup atti tudes, but may
be r egar ded as a condi ti o si ne qua non f or the
devel opment of heal t hy, democr at i c i nt ergroup
atti tudes i n a pl ural i sti c soci et y.
Anot her ar ea i n whi ch ' cont act ' has been used
ext ensi vel y as a means of changi ng i nt er gr oup, i n
thi s case i nt ernat i onal , atti tudes has been that
of i nternati onal exchange pr ogr ammes. Ther e
has been a t r emendous amount of ef f ort and a f ai r
amount of r esear ch i n thi s ar ea, so that a speci al
paper woul d be necessar y to cover thi s topi c al one;
we shal l make onl y a f ew tangenti al r ef er ences
her e.
Such pr ogr ammes have i ncl uded i nternati onal
s ummer camps, or ot her meet i ngs among yout hs
p. 31
St evens i s not al one i n hi s j udgement . As
48
I nt ergroup Cont act and Communi t y St udi es
of di f f erent nat i ons; exchanges of st udent s i nvol v-
i ng st ays of one year or mor e i n ot her count ri es;
vi si ts of l esser durat i on by yout hl eader s, commu-
ni t yl eader s, busi ness l eader s, gover nment of f i ci al s,
et c. Bj erst edt (1958), f or exampl e, i n i nvesti gati ng
the ef f ects of i nternati onal chi l dren' s camps upon
nati onal st er eot ypes, f ound i ndi cati ons of r educed
prej udi ce f ol l owi ng such exper i ence; however , the
aut hor rai ses certai n obj ecti ons to the manner i n
whi ch such wor k has hi therto been conduct ed.
Danckwor t t ( 1956) i n st udyi ng the ef f ects of i nt erna-
ti onal wor k camps f or adol escent s has al so poi nted
out that such cont act may or may not l ead to posi -
ti ve atti tude change and i mpr oved i nternati onal
under st andi ng, dependi ng upon the manner i n whi ch
the pr ogr ammes ar e carri ed out . A l ar ge number
of pr ogr ammes and organi zat i ons ar e dedi cat ed to
i nternati onal yout h exchange both on an i ndi vi dual and
gr oup basi s. A descri pt i on of a number of such
pr ogr ammes i s cont ai ned i n a report of a st udy semi -
nar hel d at the Unesco Yout h I nsti tute, Gaut i ng/ l ,
I n addi ti on to yout h exchange pr ogr ammes, i nt er-
nati onal exchange pr ogr ammes i nvol vi ng uni versi t y
st udent s st udyi ng f or a year or mor e i n anot her
count ry have recei ved consi derabl e attenti on.
Recent exampl es of such studi es ar e Coel ho ( 1958) ,
st udyi ng the react i ons of I ndi an st udent s i n the
Uni t ed St at es, and Kel man ( 1960) on Scandi navi an
st udent s i n the Uni t ed St at es. Smi t h ( 1956) has
r evi ewed a number of such studi es car r i ed out i n
1955. Gul l ahor n and Gul l ahor n ( 1960) have pr o-
vi ded a ver y i nteresti ng di scussi on of ' the r6l e of
the academi c man as a cr oss- cul t ur al medi at or ' .
have been st udi ed. Exampl es of such st udi es ar e
t hose of Wat son and Li ppi tt ( 1955) , who studi ed
ar eas of ' def ensi veness' and ' sensi ti vi ty' on the
part of Ger man l eader s vi si ti ng the Uni t ed St at es,
and Ri egel ( 1953) . who studi ed especi al l y the
' resi dual ef f ects' of exchange of per sons, i . e. what
happens to the vi si tors af ter t hey have r et ur ned to
thei r own count r y. Anumber of ot her st udi es have
been made of thi s quest i on. Danckwor t t ( 1959) has
compi l ed af ai rl y compl et e bi bl i ography of r esear ch
on exchange of per sons up to 1959.
An exampl e of an at t empt to i ntegrate thi s t ype
of r esear ch i nto the br oader ar ea of atti tude change
i s cont ai ned i n a speci al recent i ssue of the Publ i c
Fur t her exchanges of per sons of a wi de vari ety
Opi ni on Quar t er l y, edi ted by D. Kat z, i n whi ch
J acobson, Kumat a and Gul l ahor n ( 1960) r evi ew
a number of studi es consti tuti ng ' cross- cul t ural
cont ri but i ons to atti tude r esear ch' . As a f i nal
gener al r emar k to thi s t ype of st udy, i t must be
concl uded that most studi es of the ef f ects on atti -
t ude change resul ti ng f r omi nternati onal exchange
pr ogr ammes have a l ong way to go i n or der to
meet the st andar ds of recent exper i ment al r esear ch
pertai ni ng to the quest i on of atti tude change. Of
cour se, t her e ar e consi derabl e di f f i cul ti es i nherent
i n such st udi es, si nce i n i nvesti gati ng the ef f ects
of such gl obal exper i ences as a year ' s st ay abr oad
i t i s di ffi cul t to i sol ate speci f i c i nf l uences on
atti tude change. Recent studi es i n thi s ar ea ar e
emphasi zi ng the need f or a mor e caref ul exper i -
ment al desi gn.
Communi t y studi es
One of the most seri ous l i mi tati ons on the acti on
pr ogr ammes di scussed t hus f ar , such as educa-
t i on, per sonal and gr oup cont act s, et c. , i s that
t hey usual l y r each a rat her l i mi t ed number of
i ndi vi dual s; and what i s mor e i mpor t ant , ef f orts
i n thi s di recti on of ten ar e at var i ance wi th l ar ger
sub- cul t ural or gr oup nor ms. We have r ef er r ed
previ ousl y ( Par t I , Chapt er 2) to the i mpor t ance of
gr oup nor ms f or the f or mat i on and change of i nt er-
gr oup atti tudes. MacI ver ( 1948) has s ummed up
thi s poi nt ver y succi nctl y: ' However prej udi ce
may f i rst ar i se, a maj or det er mi nant of i ts per pe-
tuati on i s si mpl y the t endency of the member s of
any gr oup to t ake on the col orat i on of t he est abl i shed
mor es' (ibid., p. 198).
St udi es whi ch have the communi t y as a f ocus
t ake cogni zance of thi s f act i n t ryi ng to ' swi ng'
whol e communi t i es, as i t wer e, to change est a-
bl i shed nor ms and pract i ces i n the di recti on of
i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup atti tudes and establ i shi ng
equal i ty f or al l gr oups. Thi s usual l y i nvol ves
enl i sti ngthe ai d of pol i ti ci ans, communi t yl eader s ,
l ocal newspaper s and radi o st at i ons, and ot her
' opi ni on maker s' to bri ng about changes on a com-
muni t y- wi de basi s. Of cour se thi s i s easi er sai d
t han done, si nce preci sel y t hose i ndi vi dual s whose
ai d must be enl i sted may be among the most
pr ej udi ced, or may have vest ed i nterests i n mai n-
tai ni ng the status quo. On the ot her hand, as
Si mpson and Yi nger ( 1958, p. 769) have poi nted
out , the bel i ef , i n equal i ty i s i n many cases ' wi del y
shar ed but . . . i ts vi ol ati on has of ten been over l ooked
because many peopl e di d not bel i eve that di scr i mi -
nati on exi st ed, or t hey fel t no sense of per sonal
responsi bi l i t y, or tl i ey saw no way i n whi ch t hey
coul d t ake ef f ecti ve acti on' .
One of the most i nteresti ng and pr omi si ng of
communi t y- or i ent ed pr ogr ammes that has been
devel oped i n recent year s i s t he so- cal l ed ' com-
muni t y sel f - sur vey t echni que ' devel oped by C . S.
J ohnson and associ at es at Fi sk Uni versi ty(Sel 1i tz
and Wor ms er , 1949; Wor ms er and Sel l i tz, 1951).
Inthi s met hod, hel p i s enl i sted of pr omi nent ci ti zens
of t he communi t y whose opi ni ons car r y wei ght ,
and the ai mi st o gat herf act s and pr epar e a r epor t
upon the actual si tuati on i n thei r own communi t y.
Thi s avoi ds the char ge of ' i nt erf erence f r om
wi thout' . Al so, as Har i ng ( 1949) has poi nted out ,
even i ndi vi dual s who ar e t hemsel ves prej udi ced
can scar cel y deny f acts gat hered by such a gr oup.
I n l i ne wi th the pri nci pl es of gr oup dynami cs,
parti ci pati on i n such acti vi ty i tsel f i s ver y l i kel y
to have an ef f ect on the parti ci pants' atti tudes.
1. An Anal ysi s of the I mpact of I nternati onal Tr avel
and Exchange Pr ogr ammes on Young Peopl e:
Repor t of a St udy Semi nar , 9- 13 May 1960,
Gaut i ng/ Muni ch, Unesco Yout h I nsti tute, 1960.
49
I nt er gr oup Cont act and Communi t y St udi es
Si mpson and Yi nger (1958, p. 768 et seq. ) descr i be
thi s ef f ect: ' The f act that t hey ar e wor ki ng t oget her
on a c ommon t ask, af f ects thei r atti tudes. They ar e
mor e l i kel y to accept dat a whi ch t hey t hemsel ves
have gat her ed, for the f acts become their f act s;
thei r uni ty as a f uncti onal gr oup obscur es the ethni c
l i nes that di vi de t hem; and the gr oup f actor - the
devel opment of i n- gr oup suppor t to new i deas and
f eel i ngs - al so makes f or accept ance. '
Wi t hout quest i on f urt her wor k al ong t hese l i nes
woul d pr ove f rui tf ul . Al t hough basi c r esear ch on
var i ous aspect s of atti tudes and atti tude change i s
hi ghl y usef ul - i ndeed i ndi spensabl e - one must not
l ose si ght of the f act that acti on pr ogr ammes
di rect ed at soci al change must t ake i nto consi der a-
ti on t he total soci al si tuati on wi thi n whi ch atti tudes
or behavi our ar e to be f ound. Thus soci ol ogi cal
appr oaches ar e i ndi spensabl e f or the success of
maj or pr ogr ammes of acti on. The wor k of Tumi n
and hi s associ at es ( Tumi n, Bar t on and Bur r us,
1958) i s a pr omi si ng exampl e of thi s t ype of ap-
pr oach. On the ot her hand i t cannot be st ressed
too st rongl y that an i nterdi sci pl i nary appr oach i s
essenti al . I t i s to be hoped that we shal l cont i nue
to see the devel opment of sci enti sts and pract i -
t i oners who, i n addi ti on to thei r compet ence and
expert i se i n thei r own f i el d, have an appreci at i on
of the contri buti on made by r esear ch f i ndi ngs i n
anci l l ary f i el ds and ar e capabl e of wor ki ng t oget her
i n i nterdi sci pl i nary t eams.
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51
C HA P T E R 3
CULTURAL I NFLUENCES AND THE ROLE OF SOCI ETY
That the cuPt ure or soci ety as a whol e i s of great
i mpor t ance f or the f or mat i on, mai nt enance and/ or
change of soci al atti tudes i s a sel f - evi dent pr opo-
si ti on to whi ch we have r ef er r ed on a number of
occasi ons. But to what extent ar e practi cal pr o-
gr ammes of acti on wi th such a br oad ori entati on
f easi bl e? How can cul t ur e, backed by cent uri es of
tradi ti on, be changed or whol e soci eti es modi f i ed?
Of cour se, i n a moder n democr at i c pl ural i sti c
soci ety i t i s scar cel y possi bl e for one or a f ew
i ndi vi dual s to make radi cal changes i n the whol e
soci ety overni ght . Ont he ot her hand, i t i s beyond
quest i on that gr oups of i ndi vi dual s, t hr ough con-
cert ed ef f orts and the appl i cati on of moder n know-
l edge, can and shoul d wor k t owar d speedi ng up
soci al change and over comi ng cert ai n ' cul tural l ags I.
Whi l e one must guar d agai nst over - opt i mi sm,
we cannot agr ee wi th t hose pessi mi st s who cont end
that no maj or changes ar e possi bl e. Thi s poi nt of
vi ew, by the way, i s of ten hel d by represent at i ves
of qui te di f f erent di sci pl i nes. On the one hand,
cert ai n psychol ogi cal l y- ori ent ed r esear cher s hol d
the ext r eme vi ew that prej udi ce i s an expr essi on
of deep- l yi ng , i rrati onal t endenci es whi ch ar e
essenti al l y unchangeabl e; thi s fi ts i n wi t h the
' you- can' t - change- human- nat ur e' vi ew, whi ch has
l ong been the rati onal i zati on of scept i cs, and whi ch
has of t enf ound some cr edence wi th the l ayman. On
the ot her hand, cert ai n st udent s of soci al st ruct ure
have arri ved at si mi l ar concl usi ons; pr oceedi ng
f r omthe obser vat i on that cert ai n soci al phenomena
have thei r causes and f unct i on, and poi nti ng out
that ' al l ' soci eti es at al l t i mes that we have studi ed
have mani f est ed t hese phenomena, t hey ar gue that
the status quo can scar cel y be changed - ' What i s
and al ways has been will l ogi cal l y cont i nue to be. '
One wel l - known r esear cher i n the ar ea of pr e-
j udi ce, i n pr opoundi ng thi s poi nt of vi ewduri ng a
di scussi on of the pr obl em, went so f ar as to state
that t eacher s coul d scar cel y be expect ed to hel p i n
over comi ngpr ej udi ce si nce the ' r6l e' of a t eacher ,
hi s ' f uncti on' i n the soci et y, was to t r ansmi t the
exi sti ng cul tural val ues, and si nce t hese val ues
i ncl uded pr ej udi ce, t he t eacher must t r ansmi t such
prej udi ce i n or der to ful fi l hi s ' f uncti on' and I rSl e'
i n the soci ety. To the extent that t hese r emar ks
wer e mer el y desi gned to poi nt to cert ai n di ffi -
cul ti es encount er ed i n an at t empt to change soci al
nor ms, t hey certai nl y have thei r val ue. On the
ot her hand, to the extent that t hey ar e t aken to
mean that maj or soci al changes ar e i mpossi bl e,
we must di sagr ee r at her sharpl y.
What empi r i cal evi dence have we that soci al
changes ar e possi bl e? Bogar dus (1958) i nvesti gated
changes i n ' soci al di st ance' among vari ous raci al
and ethni c gr oups i n the Uni t ed States over a thi rty-
year peri od. Al t hough some gr oups showed an
amazi ng degr ee of stabi l i ty i n the amount of soci al
di st ance attri buted to t hemby the r espondent s over
the t hi rt y- year per i od, and the total soci al di st ance
scor es hadnot decr eased appr eci abl y, on the ot her
hand, mar ked changes wer e to be f ound among a
number of gr oups wi th r espect to soci al di st ance.
These wer e pri mari l yposi t i ve changes (l ess soci al
di st ance) i n atti tude t owar d t hose gr oups wi th r es-
pect to whomt her e had been concer t ed ef f orts i n
the Uni t ed States dur i ngt he past decades to r educe
prej udi ce and di scri mi nat i on, andnegat i ve changes
t owar d cert ai n ot her gr oups due to maj or pol i ti cal
and mi l i t ary event s. These data show qui te con-
cl usi vel y that concer t ed pr ogr ammes to i mpr ove
i nt ergroup atti tudes have al ong- t er msuccess, and
that maj or pol i ti cal and ot her event s can al so have
mar ked ef f ects upon atti tudes. Gi l bert (1951),
i n a repl i cati on of the ori gi nal st udy by Kat z and
Br al y (1933) on st er eot ypes, used a compar abl e
gr oup of subj ect s and f ound that t her e was appr e-
ci abl yl ess r eadi ness on the part of the st udent s to
general i ze about ethni c gr oups t han had been the
case 18 year s previ ousl y. Not onl y di d thi s l ater
generat i on of st udent s assi gnt rai t s muchl ess f r e-
quentl y to vari ous gr oups, but a si gni f i cant number
of t he subj ect s spont aneousl y voi ced a ' protest
agai nst the unr easonabl e t ask of maki ng gener a-
l i zati ons about peopl e - especi al l y t hose t hey had
har dl yever met ' ( Gi l ber t , 1951, p. 251). We have
r ef er r ed previ ousl y to the concl usi ons arri ved at
byTumi n, Bar t on andBur r us (1958) as to the per -
vasi ve ef f ects of f or mal educat i on upon atti tudes.
I n a sl i ghtl y di f f erent ( t hough ver y perti nent) ar ea,
Br onf enbr enner (1958) has shown that maj or and
si gni f i cant changes i nchi l d- reari ng pract i ces have
t aken pl ace i n the Uni t ed States over a t went y- f i ve-
year per i od, and f ur t her mor e that t hese ' shi f ts i n
t he pattern of i nf ant car e - especi al l y on the part
of mi ddl e- cl ass mot her s - show a stri ki ng cor r es-
pondence to t he changes i n pract i ces advocat ed
i n successi ve edi ti ons of U. S. Chi l dren' s Bur eau
bul l eti ns and si mi l ar sour ces of expert opi ni on' .
trati ve of the f act that maj or changes in atti tudes
and behavi our on the part of a soci ety as a whol e
over a peri od of t i me ar e possi bl e. Numer ous
ot her i nvesti gati ons coul d be ci ted to pr ove thi s
poi nt. These changes ar e probabl y a cumul at i ve
resul t of the combi ned ef f orts of many i ndi vi dual s
The above- ment i oned studi es wer e mer el yi l l us-
52
Cul t ural I nf l uences and the R61e of Soci et y
and organi zat i ons, usi ng a number of di f f erent
met hods and appr oaches. The quest i on whi ch
i nterests us her e, however , i s to what extent ar e
appr oaches on a soci et y- wi de basi s f easi bl e. We
can' t di scuss i n detai l her e the br oad i ssues of
soci al t heory i mpl i ci t i n thi s quest i on. However ,
we do wi sh to poi nt to s ome of the met hods whi ch
ar e f easi bl e at thi s l evel . For exampl e, t her e i s
no doubt that t he publ i c st at ement s of t op gover n-
ment of f i ci al s and ot her l eadi ng personal i ti es whose
opi ni on i s r espect ed by the popul ace can have a
wi despr ead ef f ect upon the atti tudes and behavi our
of a whol e popul at i on. Anot her somewhat mor e
bi ndi ng met hod by whi ch soci ety may make i ts wi l l
fel t upon i ndi vi dual member s may be seen i n l egal
measur es. Al so of cruci al i mpor t ance f or t he
ever yday l i f e, and hence f or t he atti tudes and
behavi our , of i ndi vi dual s ar e cert ai n economi c
f act ors preval ent i n t he soci ety as a whol e. Fi nal l y,
we shoul d l i ke to ment i on certai n br oad i ssues
associ at ed wi th the use of mass communi cat i ons
medi a, si nce t hese consti tute one of t he pr i mar y
vehi cl es by means of whi ch the soci ety conveys i ts
cul tural norms and expect at i ons to i ts member s.
Numer ous i nvesti gati ons have shown that t he
st at ement s of i mpor t ant pol i ti cal l eader s and ot her
i nf l uenti al personal i ti es may af f ect the atti tudes
and behavi our of the popul ace ( e. g. , Hovl and,
Lumsdai ne and Shef f i el d, 1949; Hovl and and Wei ss,
1951). One r ecent st udy has demonst r at ed thi s
poi nt qui te vi vi dl y. Fol l owi ng the epi demi c of
ant i - Semi t i c i nci dents whi ch began wi th t he dese-
crat i on of the J ewi sh Synagogue i n Col ogne, on
Chr i st mas eve 1959, and spr ead not onl y t hr ough
west er n Ger many but al so t hr ough var i ous ot her
count ri es, the I nsti tute f or Soci al Resear ch in
Fr ankf ur t a m Mai n conduct ed an i nvesti gati on of
t he atti tudes of Fr ankf ur t resi dent s t owar d t hese
i nci dents ( Schonbach, 1961). Atti tudes t owar d
vari ous i ssues rel ated to the i nci dents wer e assessed
by means of i nt ervi ews. Among ot her t hi ngs, i t
was det er mi ned whet her or not the r espondent s
fel t t hese i nci dents to be pol i ti cal l y si gni f i cant
or l argel y attri butabl e to pr anks, etc. By coi nci -
dence, j ust sl i ghtl y l ess t han hal f of t he i nt er vi ews
had been conduct ed when, on the eveni ng of 16
J anuar y 1960, Feder al Chancel l or Adenauer com-
ment i ng upon t hese i nci dents i n a radi o and
t el evi si on speech sai d ' But i n most cases t hey
- / t he i nci dents/ seemto have been pr anks wi t hout
pol i ti cal f oundat i on. Thi s i s al so, as I was tol d,
the gener al opi ni on of the heads of the securi t y of -
f i ces of the Lander' / l . In compar i ng t he answer s
of t hose subj ect s who wer e i nt ervi ewed bef ore
Dr. Adenauer ' s spe' ech wi th t hose who wer e
i nt ervi ewed af t er war ds, i t was f ound that wher e-
as onl y 7 per cent of t hose i nt ervi ewed bef ore
the speech r egar ded the i nci dents as pr anks, 18
per cent of t hose subj ect s i nt ervi ewed af ter t he
speech hel d thi s opi ni on (thi s di f f erence i s stati s-
ti cal l y si gni f i cant at the 5 per cent l evel ). Thus
i t may be concl uded that the publ i c st at ement of
an i mpor t ant pol i ti cal l eader had a si gni f i cant
ef f ect upon t he opi ni on of the popul ati on.
I n cont rast to an opi ni on whi ch hel d cert ai n
cur r ency a number of year s ago, most soci al
sci enti sts and ot her s concer ned wi th i nt er gr oup
rel ati ons ar e agr eed t oday that l egal measur es
have a ver y i mpor t ant r6l e to pl ay i n i nt er gr oup
rel ati ons. As Raab and Li pset (1959, p. 41 et seq. )
have poi nted out , ' the i mpor t ance of l awi s not that
i t prohi bi ts or el i mi nat es prej udi ced behavi our and
atti tudes - but that i t changes the soci al si tuati ons
and communi t y pract i ces wni ch br eed prej udi ced
behavi our and atti tudes. Si nce t hese si tuati ons and
pract i ces ar e the pr i me l earni ng i nf l uences wi t h
r espect to prej udi ce, l awt hen must be per cei ved
as a pr i me educat i onal weapon i n combat i ng prej -
udi ce . . . Laws hast en t he el i mi nat i on of pr ej u-
di ced "cues" inthe communi t y' . A number of ot her
aut hors have st r essed t he i mpor t ance of l egal meas-
ur es
crati c i nt er gr oup atti tudes and behavi our (e.g.
Myr dal , 1944). Masl ow and Robi nson (1953) and
Ber ger (1952, 1954) have gi ven excel l ent account s
of t he r61e of l egi sl ati on i n i nt er gr oup rel ati ons in
the Uni t ed St at es. Of cour se, one of the most i m-
portant exampl es i n thi s r espect in recent year s
was the Uni t ed St at es Supr eme Cour t deci si on of
1954 decl ari ng raci al segr egat i on i n school s to be
unconsti tuti onal . Al t hough much wor k sti l l r emai ns
to be done bef ore t he ful l i mpl ement at i on of thi s
deci si on has been accompl i shed, i t must not be
f orgot t en ami dst the headl i ne- maki ng i nst ances of
vi ol ence f ol l owi ng thi s deci si on, that the maj or i t y
of l ocal i ti es have accept ed and i mpl ement ed thi s
deci si on, t hus ef f ecti vel y shat t er i ng l ong- est abl i shed
pat t erns of i nequal i ty. I ti s not wi thout s ome pri de
that soci al sci enti sts not e that thi s i mpor t ant
deci si on was based to a si gni f i cant extent upon t he
expert t est i mony of qual i f i ed soci al sci enti sts who
demonst r at ed the har mf ul ness of such segr egat i on,
and ef f ecti vel y count er ed t he pseudo- sci ent i f i c
ar gument s i nf avour of segregat i on. Cl osel y rel at ed
to di rect l egal measur es ar e admi ni st rat i ve pr o-
cedur es rel ati ng to i nt er gr oup rel ati ons. Raci al
i ntegrati on i n t he Uni t ed St at es Ar med For ces was,
f or i nst ance, conduct ed by admi ni st rat i ve or der .
Al so i n the ar ea of publ i c housi ng much has been
accompl i shed by admi ni st rat i ve pr ocedur es. As
Deut sch an2 Col l i ns (1951) have shown, such
measur es can have a ver y posi ti ve ef f ect upon i nt er-
gr oup rel ati ons. However , as McEnt i r e (1957)
has shown, much r emai ns to be done i n thi s ar ea.
The r61e of economi c f act ors has been st r essed
by a number of aut hors. Har di ng, Kut ner ,
Pr oshansky and Chei n (1954) poi nt to the i nconsi s-
t ency among t he numer ous correl at i onal st udi es
of the rel ati onshi p bet ween prej udi ce and soci o-
economi c status. However , most aut hors st r ess-
i ng economi c f act ors have poi nted r at her to t he
basi c economi c st ruct ure of t he soci ety t han to t he
as a means of ef f ecti vel y changi ng undemo-
1. Di e ant i semi t i schen und nazi st i schen Vor f Ul e,
Wei ssbuch und Er kl ar ung der Bundesr egi e r ung,
Bonn, Bundesr egi er ung, 1960, p. 40.
53
Cul t ural I nf l uences and the R61e of Soci et y
economi c status of i ndi vi dual s. Opi ni ons var y her e
ver y wi del y, wi th cert ai n cl assi cal psychol ogi st s
mi ni mi zi ngt he i mpor t ance of economi c f act ors and
many soci ol ogi sts and economi st s emphasi zi ng
t hese f act ors. I ndeed, soci al sci enti sts wi th a
cl assi cal Mar xi an ori entati on r egar d the i mpor t -
ance of economi c f act ors as cruci al and even many
psycho- anal yt i c al l y ori ent ed wri t ers have s tre s sed
the i mpor t ance of the total soci o- economi c st r uc-
t ure of the soci ety ( e. g. Hor ney, 1937; Ador no
et al . , 1950; F r omm, 1955). To s umup, most
soci al sci enti sts woul d agr ee t hat t hese f act ors ar e,
qui te i mpor t ant and Al l port ' s (1959) st at ement pr ob-
abl y expr esses t he vi ewof the maj ori t y of t hem:
' Economi c i nsecuri t y br eeds the f rustrati on and
f ear that ar e part of the soi l of scapegoat i ng. Rut h-
l ess economi c compet i t i on of ten means that one
man' s success r equi r es anot her' s f ai l ure. The "i ns"
i nsi st that i f anyone fai l s i t shal l be the "out s". The
basi c r emedi es woul d seemto be: ( a) rai si ng the
st andard of l i vi ng of al l , t hus el i mi nat i ng the need
f or compet i t i on f or survi val among mar gi nal gr oups;
(b) establ i shi ng soci al and educat i onal securi t y f or
the i ndi vi dual , t hus enhanci ng hi s f eel i ngs of status
and l esseni ng f eel i ngs of i nf eri ori ty and appr ehen-
si on; and (c) pr oper vocat i onal gui dance and pl ace-
ment to hel p pr event f eel i ngs of di ssati sf acti on and
j eal ousy amongmember s of both maj ori t y and mi nor -
i ty gr oups' (=. , p. 36).
as a maj or sour ce of soci al i nf l uence
we shoul d l i ke to ment i on bri ef l y the mass com-
muni cat i ons medi a. We have di scussed previ ousl y
( Par t I , Chapt er 3) exper i ment al f i ndi ngs rel ati ng
to the ef f ects of mas s communi cat i ons medi a.
However , f r omt he br oader perspect i ve of mass
medi a as an i nst r ument of soci ety to change the
atti tudes of i ndi vi dual s i n a desi red di rect i on, i t
i s i mpor t ant to consi der the quest i on of the i ntent
of mass medi a communi cat i ons; or , i n ot her
wor ds, the quest i on of who cont rol s t hese medi a.
Of cour se, thi s i s a ver y cont roversi al quest i on,
wi th f ar - r eachi ng pol i ti cal i mpl i cat i ons whi ch we
shal l not di scuss her e. We do wi sh to poi nt out ,
however , that thi s quest i on cannot be i gnor ed i n
the l ong r un. Indi f f erent count r i es, di f f erent f or ms
of cont rol ar e exer ci sed over the mass communi ca-
ti on medi a. I n s ome, t hese medi a ar e consi der ed
as ' busi ness' and, i n l i ne wi th the pri nci pl es of
' f ree ent erpri se' , ar e owned or control l ed by pri -
vate i ndi vi dual s or gr oups of i ndi vi dual s. A number
of aut hor s have poi nted out cert ai n danger s whi ch
may be i nvol ved when t hese medi a become con-
cent rat ed i n t he hands of vest ed i nterests ( e. g.
Dur r , 1954; Lee, 1954). I n ot her count r i es, such
medi a ar e State cont rol l ed. I n sti l l ot her coun-
t ri es, t hey ar e control l ed by i ndependent com-
mi ssi ons composed of represent at i ves of the many
di f f erent i nt er est - gr oups wi thi n a pl ural i sti c
soci et y. I n al l cases, the quest i on must be asked:
to what extent do t hese medi a ser ve the i nterests
of soci ety as a whol e (i . e. the whol e human soci ety),
and how can t hey best be empl oyed to change
atti tudes i n a di recti on whi ch i s i n accor dance
-
Fi nal l y,
wi th the pri nci pl es of peacef ul
rel ati ons bet ween al l gr oups?
and har moni ous
BI BLI OGRAPHY
ADORNO, T.W.; FRENKEL- BRUNSWI CK, E.
LEVI NSON, D. ; SANFORD, R. N. 1950.
The authori tari an personal i t y. NewYor k,
Har per Br os.
ALLPORT, G. W. 19 59. ABC 's of scapegoat i ng,
( 3r d ed .) New Yor k, Ant i - Def amat i on League.
BERGER, M. 1952. Equal i t y by statute. New
Yor k, Col umbi a Uni versi t y Pr ess,
. 1954. _Raci al equal i ty and the l aw.
Par i s, Unesco.
BOGARDUS , E. S. 1958. Raci al di stance changes
i n the Uni t ed States duri ng the past thi rty year s.
Soci ol ogy and soci al r esear ch, 43, p. 127-34.
soci al cl ass t hr ough t i me and space. I n: E. E.
Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Hart l ey
( eds .). Readi ngs i n soci al psychol ogy. New
Yor k, Rei nhart and Wi nst on.
DURR, C. J . 1954. Fr eedomof speechf or whom?
I n: D. Kat z, D. Car t wr i ght , S. El eder svel d
and A. M. Lee (eds. ). Publ i c opi ni on and
pr opaganda. New Yor k, Dr yden Pr ess.
FROMM, E. 1955. The sane soci et y. NewYor k,
Rei nhar t and Co.
GI LBERT, G. M. 1951. St er eot ypes, persi st ence
BROFENBRENNER, U. 1958. Soci al i zati on and
and change among col l ege st udent s. J our nal of
abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy, 46, p. 245-54.
HARDI NG, J , ; KUTNER, B. ; PROSHANSKY, H. ;
CHELN, I . 1954. Pr ej udi ce and ethni c
rel ati ons. I n: G. Li ndzey . Handbook of soci al
psychol ogy, vol . 11. Readi ng, Mass, , Addi son
Wesl ey Pub. Co.
HORNEY, K. 1937. The neurot i c personal i ty of
our t i me. New Yor k, Nor t on and Co.
HOF L mC. I . ; L UMSDAI NE , A. A. ; SHEFFI ELD,
F. D. 1949. Exper i ment s on mass communi -
cat i ons, Pr i ncet on, Uni versi t y Pr ess.
of sour ce credi bi l i ty on communi cat i on ef f ec-
t i veness. Publ i c opi ni on quar t er l y, 15,
; WEI SS, W. 1951. The i nf l uence
p. 635-50.
KATZ, D. ; BRALY, K.W. 1933. Raci al
st ereot ypes of one hundr ed col l ege st udent s
Journal of abnor mal and soci al psychol ogy,
28, p. 280-90.
LEE, A. M. 1954. Fr eedomof the pr ess. I n:
D. Kat z, D. Car t wr i ght , S. El der svel d and
A. M. Lee (eds. ).
pr opaganda. New Yor k, Dr yden Pr ess.
ri ghts l egi sl ati on and the fi ght f or equal i ty,
1862-1952.
Publ i c opi ni on and
MASL OW, W. ; ROBI NSON, J . B. 1953. Ci vi l
Uni versi t y of Chi cago l awr evi ew,
20, p. 363-413.
McENTI RE, D. 1957. Gover nment and raci al
di scri mi nat i on i n housi ng. J our nal of soci al
i ssues, 13, p. 60-7.
54
Cul t ural I nf l uences and the R61e of Soci et y
MYRDAL, G. 1944. An Amer i can di l emma. SCHONBACH, P. 1961, Reakt i onen auf di e ant i semi -
The Negro pr obl emand moder n democr acy. ti sche Wel l e imWi nt er 1959-1960, Fr ankf ur t er
New Yor k, Har per Br os. Bei t r age zur Sozi ol oae , Sonderhef t 3. Fr ankf ur t
and soci et y. New York, Ant i - Def amat i on TUMI N, M. ; BARTON, P. ; BURRUS, B. 1958. Edu-
League.
RAAB, E. ; LI PSET, S. M. 1959. Pr ej udi ce a m Mai n.
cat i on, prej udi ce and di scri mi nat i on: a st udy i n
r eadi ness for desegr egat i on. Amer i can soci ol o-
gi cal r evi ew, 23, p. 41-9.
55
SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS
Al t hough the sci enti f i c st udy of i nt ergroup rel ati ons
i s appr oxi mat el y a hal f cent ur y ol d, and practi cal
ef f orts to i mpr ove i nt ergroup rel ati ons have been
made i n i ncreasi ng number and i ntensi ty i n the past
t hr ee or f our decades, the bul k of sci enti f i c r e-
sear ch di rect ed at the quest i on of ' atti tude change'
has devel oped wi thi n the past 15 year s, and espe-
ci al l y wi thi n the past decade.
i t was not our i ntent to r evi ewt he whol e vast fi el d of
raci al or ot her i nt ergroup rel ati ons/ l ; nor coul d
we at t empt a compl et e r evi ewof the many acti on
pr ogr ammes to i mpr ove i nt ergroup rel ati ons bei ng
conduct ed t hroughout the wor l d. Especi al l y i n the
fi el d of educat i on we shoul d l i ke to have di scussed
a f ew excel l ent exampl es of acti on r esear ch i n
great er detai l ; f ort unat el y, however , thi s has been
done ver y adequat el y i n ot her publ i cati ons ( e. g. ,
J ames and Tenen, 1953; Cl ar k, 1955; Bi bby,
1959)/2. Our ai m, r at her , was pr i mar i l y to r evi ew
and poi nt to the practi cal i mpl i cat i ons of thi s
recent r esear ch on atti tude change.
A cri ti cal r evi ewof the exper i ment al and acti on
r esear ch i n thi s ar ea unf ort unat el y l eads to the
s ame concl usi on arri ved at by pr evi ous aut hors:
wi th af ew not abl e except i ons, t her e i s f ar t oo l i ttl e
( and i n the l arge number of cases, next to no) co-
operat i on bet ween exper i ment al r esear ch and acti on
pr ogr ammes, bet ween sci enti sts and pract i t i oners.
Especi al l yi nl i ght of the rapi d pr ogr ess i n exper i -
ment al r esear ch and attendant t heory i n thi s ar ea
i n ver y recent year s, such co- oper at i on becomes
mor e i mpor t ant t han ever bef ore ( and, unf ort una-
t el y, at the same t i me mor e di ffi cul t), i f the gap
bet ween the t wo i s not to become unbri dgeabl e. As
we have ment i oned bef or e, such co- oper at i on i s
mut ual l y advant ageous, si nce not onl y will t he ap-
pl i cati on of recent knowl edge make practi cal ef f orts
mor e ef f ecti ve, but at the same t i me our knowl edge
of human behavi our i s most l i kel y to be enri ched
by tackl i ng such chal l engi ng pr obl ems. On the
basi s of cur r ent r esear cht r ends, we woul d predi ct
that r esear ch i n the near f uture will be char act er -
i zed by ever great er sophi sti cati on of exper i ment al
desi gn and i ntegrati on of the pr obl ems associ at ed
wi t h atti tude change i nto the br oader f r amewor k of
t heori es of human behavi our .
One of the maj or unr esol ved i ssues i n the f i el d
of i nt ergroup rel ati ons i s the quest i on of the r el a-
ti onshi p bet ween atti tudes and behavi our . We have
t ouched upon thi s quest i on bef ore and unf ortunatel y
space does not per mi t a detai l ed theoreti cal di scus-
si on of i t her e. Pr esent t r ends woul d seemto i ndi -
cat e that the ' behavi our ' gr oup i s gai ni ng gr ound.
As we cl earl y st at ed,
We have al r eadyment i onedt he vi ews of Tumi n and
co- wor ker s i n thi s r espect ( Tumi n, Bar t on and
Bur r us, 1958). Rose (1956) has t aken an even
mor e ext r eme vi ew, asserti ngf l atl y that ' prej udi ce
has l i ttl e to do wi th i nt ergroup rel ati ons. . . The
l aws, . . . whi ch gover n one are i ndependent of t hose
gover ni ng the ot her. One i s soci o- geni c and the
ot her psycho- geni c, and whi l e t hey may both i n-
habi t the s ame i ndi vi dual at the s ame t i me, t hey al so
may not' . Thi s aut hor goes ont o sayt hat wher eas
' t here ar e undoubt ed advant ages to i nterdi sci pl i nary
co- oper at i ve r esear ch. . . , t here ar e somet i mes
also advant ages to di vi si on of l abour , to the cul ti -
vati on of one' s own speci al i zed gar den' (i bi d. , p.
176). Thi s quest i on i s not onl y of great theoreti cal
i mpor t ance, but al so of even great er practi cal
si gni f i cance. I f behavi our has not hi ng ( or pract i -
cal l y nothi ng) what soever to do wi th atti tudes or
ot her i nt erveni ng vari abl es wi thi n the i ndi vi dual , but
i s dependent mer el y upon ext ernal ci r cumst ances
and may be mani pul at ed at will; i f i ndeed our ai m
i n i mpr ovi ng i nt ergroup rel ati ons i s mer el y to
mani pul at e behavi our , wi th no concer n what soever
f or atti tudes, what , t hen, will pr event a mani pul a-
t i oni nt l e opposi t e di recti on at s ome f uture poi nt?
Ar e ci vi l cour age and i nner convi ct i ons to be
consi der ed mer e f i cti ons? Bef or e embar ki ng on a
pr ogr amme
sol e ai m, i t may be wel l to consi der agai n the
wor ds of war ni ng gi ven by Ador no, et., (1950)
to whi ch we have r ef er r ed previ ousl y (cf . Par t I ,
Chapt er 1 , p. 12 et seq. ). I nst ead of aski ngt he
quest i on whet her behavi our or atti tude i s mor e
i mpor t ant , i t woul d pr obabl y be wi se to heed
Kl i neber g' s ( 1958) wor d of advi ce and ask, i nst ead,
j ust howt hese t wo ar e rel at ed.
Anot her quest i ont o whi ch pr esent r esear ch has
gi ven no sati sf actory answer i s the extent to whi ch
pr esent f i ndi ngs can be general i zed and appl i ed to
di f f erent cul t ures. Unf or t unat el y, most of the
publ i shed r esear ch on atti tude change t hus f ar has
been l i mi t ed to the cul tural setti ng of the Uni t ed
1. For a ver y usef ul gui de to studi es i n the mor e
gener al ar ea of r ace rel at i ons, see J . Vi et,
' Sel ect ed document at i on f or the st udy of r ace
rel ati ons' . Repor t s and Paper s i n the Soci al
Sci ences, 1958, No. 9, Par i s, Unesco, 1958.
2. For a descri pt i on of s ome practi cal cl assr oom
t echni ques, see the Unesco pamphl et Educat i on
f or I nternati onal Under st andi ng: Exampl es and
Suggest i ons f or Cl assr oomUs e, Par i s, Unesco,
1959.
wi th mani pul at i on of behavi our as the
56
Summar y and Pr ospect s
on the so- cal l ed Asch phenomenon, ar e appl i ed to
the quest i on of i nternati onal t ensi ons. I t i s our pr e-
di cti on and our hope that thi s ar ea will i ncreasi ngl y
recei ve the attenti on of soci al sci enti sts and that
r esear ch on atti tude change will mor e and mor e
be conduct ed wi thi n the f r amewor k of thi s l ar ger
perspect i ve.
States of Amer i ca, whi ch i s ref l ected by the pr e-
ponder ance of Amer i can studi es i n thi s paper .
Al t hough we may have mi ssed a f ew si gni f i cant
studi es conduct ed i n ot her count r i es, si nce t he
faci l i ti es at our di sposal wer e f ar f r omadequat e,
i t i s ver y pr obabl e that t he proport i on r epr esent ed
i n thi s paper i s i ndi cati ve of the t rue state of af f ai rs,
The quest i on of raci al and ot her i nt ergroup rel ati ons
has recei ved r esear ch attenti on i n ot her coun-
tri es/ l . However , as f ar as we can det er mi ne on
the basi s of publ i shedl i t erat ure, and on t he basi s
of ext ensi ve cor r espondence wi th col l eagues t hr ough-
out the wor l d, i n most ot her count ri es the st age of
r esear ch on the pr obl emof atti tude change has not
yet been f ul l y r eached. The f ewcross- cul t ural st ud-
i es that have been conduct ed have yi el ded i nt erest -
i ng resul ts ( see f or i nst ance, J acobson, Kumat a and
Gul l ahor n, 1960), but t her e i s a pr essi ng need f or
mor e such studi es. Meanwhi l e, great caut i on must
be exerci sed i n gener al i zi ngf r omthe resul ts f ound
wi thi n one cul tural setti ng. Scht i nbach (1961) has
i l l ustrated thi s poi nt ver y cl earl y by i ndi cati ng
si gni f i cant di f f erences bet ween hi s st udy of ant i -
Semi t es i n Ger many, to whi ch we ref erred i n
the l ast chapt er , and the resul t s of a si mi l ar
Amer i can i nvesti gati on ( Gal t ung, 1960).
As a fi nal concl udi ng r emar k concer ni ng pr os-
pect s f or f ut ure r esear ch on atti tude change, we
shoul d l i ke to add a not e of caut i on and at the same
t i me an expr essi on of hope. The not e of caut i on
concer ns the danger of resol vi ng i nt ergroup t en-
si ons wi thi n a parti cul ar nati on or ot her l ar ger
gr oup by an appeal f or uni ty based on ani mosi t y
t owar d s ome ot her nati on or l ar ger gr oup, be i t on
pol i ti cal , rel i gi ous or ot her gr ounds. We f eel that
thi s r epr esent s a maj or danger i n the wor l d t oday.
We can f ol l owthe devel opment of manki nd f r om
the t i me when f ami l i es or cl ans consti tuted ' i n-
gr oups ' and battl ed agai nst each ot her , t hr ough
successi ve st ages up to the poi nt of the devel op-
ment of nat i on- St at es, and we have seen that as
the ant agoni zi nguni t s become l ar ger the resul t s of
conf l i cts bet ween t hemhave become mor e devas-
tati ng. Hence t oday t her e ar e ant agoni sms i nthe
wor l d bet ween whol e nat i ons or bl ocs of nat i ons,
and the resol ut i on of t ensi ons bet ween t hese gi - oups
i s the par amount t ask f aci ng manki nd t oday. As
Sheri f andSher i f (1956) have poi nted out , the r eso-
l uti on of smal l er ant agoni sms by t he creat i on of
l ar ger ones may pr oduce a cer t ai nt empor ar y success,
but i s l i kel y i n the l ong r un to l ead to even l ar ger
conf l i cts. An exampl e of an appr oach to thi s br oader
quest i on i s a recent arti cl e by Br onf enbr enner
(1961), i n whi ch some of the resul ts of gr oup-
ori ent ed r esear ch, especi al l y the exper i ment s
BI BLI OGRAPHY
ADORNO, T. W. ; FRENKEL- BRUNSWI CK, E. ;
LEVI NSON, D. ; SANFORD, R. N. 1950. The
authori tati anpersonal i ty. NewYor k, Har pey
Br os.
London, Hei nemann.
of Sovi et - Amer i can rel ati ons. J our nal of soci al
BI BBY, C. 1959. Race, prej udi ce and educat i on.
BRONFENBRENNER, U. 196 1. The ' mi r r or i mage
i ssues, 17.
CLARK, K. B. 1955. Pr ej udi ce i n your chi l d.
Bost on, Beacon Pr ess.
a st udy of Amer i can hi gh school st udent s. Oslo,
I nsti tute f or Soci al Resear ch ( mi meo) .
J ACOBSON, E . ; KUMATA, H. ; GULLAHORN, J . E.
1960. Cr oss- cul t ur al cont ri but i ons to atti tude
r esear ch. Publ i c opi ni on quar t er l y, 24, p. 205-23.
J AMES, H. E. O. , TENEN, C. 1953. The t eacher
was bl ack. London, Hei nemann.
KLI NEBERG, 0. 1958. Comment s. I n: The r61e
of the soci al sci ences i n desegregat i on:
symposi um, p. 47-8.
ti on League.
prej udi ce: perti nent t heor y f or the st udy of
soci al change. Soci al pr obl ems, 4, p. 173-6.
semi t i sche Wel l e imWi nt er 1959-1960. Fr ank-
f urter Bei t rage zur Sozi ol ogi e, Sonderhef t 3,
Fr ankf ur t a m Mai n.
SHERI F, M. ; SHERI F, C. W. 1956. An outl i ne
of soci al psychol ogy, (rev. ed. ) New Yor k,
Har per Br os.
TUMI N, M. ; BARTON, P. ; BURRUS, B. 1958.
Educat i on, prej udi ce and di scri mi nat i on: a
st udy i n r eadi ness for desegregat i on. Amer i can
soci ol ogi cal r evi ew, 23, p. 41-9.
GALTUNG, J . 1960. Ant i - Semi t i smi n the maki ng:
a
New Yor k, Ant i - Def ama-
ROSE, A. M. 1956. I nt er - gr oup rel ati ons ver sus
SCHONBACH, P. 1961. Reakt i onen auf di e anti -
1. For a r evi ewof r ecent r esear ch on raci al r el a-
ti ons i n var i ous part s of t he wor l d, see the t wo
speci al i ssues of the I nternati onal Soci al Sci ence
Bul l eti n, vol . X, no. 3, 1958. and vol . XI I I ,
no. 2, 1961.
57
AUTHORS I NDEX
ABELSON, H. I . (1959) 9, 10, 32, 33
ABELSON, R. P.
ADORNO, T. W. ; (1950) 15, 16, 17, 19,20,
FRENKEL- BRUNSWI K, E. ; 42, 44, 46, 50,54.
see ROSENBERG, M.
LEVI NSON, D. ; &
SANFORD, R. N.
ALLPORT, F. H.
ALLPORT, G. W.
ALLPORT, G. W. &
KRAMER, D. M.
ALLYN, J . &
FESTI NGER, L.
ANDERSON, N. H.
ARONSON, E.
ASCH, S. E.
AXLI NE, V. M.
BARON, L. K.
BARTON, P.
BECHTEREW, V. M.
BENJ AMI N, L.
BENSON, W. M.
BERELSON, B.
& DE LANGE, M.
BERELSON, B. &
SALTER, P. J .
BERGER, M.
BERGI US, R.
BERKOWI TZ. L 8~
56, 57
(1924) 22, 25
(1935) 8, 9, 10
(1937) 22, 25
(1952) 7, 10
(1959) 54
(1946) 47, 50
(1961) 37, 38
(1959) 38 - see al so
REI GROTSKI , E.
see MI LLS, J .
(1946) 31, 33
(1951) 19, 20, 23, 25
(1952) 23, 25
(1956) 19, 20, 25
(1948) 19, 20
(1957) 19, 20
see TUMI N. M.
(1924) 22, 25
see KATZ, I.
see YOUNG, R. K.
(1954) 29, 33 - see also
LAZARSFELD , P. F.
(1946) 29, 33
(1952) 53, 54
(1954) 53, 54
see SOHDI , K. S.
COTTI NGHAM, D. R. (1960) 18, 20
BETTELHEI M, B. &
J ANOWI TZ, M.
BI BBY, C.
BJ ERSTEDT, A.
BOGARDUS, E. S.
BONI LLA, F.
BOOMER, D. F.
BOVARD, E. W. J r .
BRALY, K. W.
BRAMELD, T.
BREHM, J . W.
(1950) 18, 20
(1959) 56, 57
(1958) 49, 50
(1925) 9, 10
(1958) 52, 54,
(1959) 19, 20
(1951) 23, 26
(1953) 23, 26
(1946) 43, 44
(1959) 37, 38
see WI LSON, E. C.
see KATZ, D.
BREHM, J . W.
(1959) 37, 38
BROCK, T. see HOVLAND, C. I.
BRONFENBRENNER , U (1958) 52, 54
COHEN, A. R.
BROPHY, I . N
BURRUS, B.
BUTLER, J .
(1961) 57
(1946) 24, 26, 47, 50
see TUMI N. M.
see LEVI NE, J .
CAMPBELL, D. T. (1950) 9. 10
CAMPBELL, E. H.
CARLSMI TH, J . H.
CARTWRI GHT, D. 8~
CHEI N, I . (1951) 9, 10 - see also
CHOO, T. (1960) 28, 33
CHRI STI E, R. &
COOK, P. (1958) 15, 20
CHRI STI E, R. &
J AHODA, M. (1954) 15, 20
CLARK, K. B. (1955) 56, 57
COELHO, G. V. (1958) 49, 50
COHEN, A. R. see BREHM, J . W.
COHLER , J . see KELMAN, H. C.
COLE, S. G. see VI CKERY, W.
WI ESE, M. J .
COLLI NS, M. E, see DEUTSCH. M.
COOK, E. see COOK, L. A.
COOK, L. A. (1950) 43, 44
COOK, L. A. &
COOK, E. (1954) 43, 44
COOK, P. see CHRI STI E, R.
COOK, S. W. see WI LNER, D. M.
COOPER, E.
COOPER, E. &
COTTI NGHAM, D. R.
CROMWELL, H. (1950) 27, 30, 33
CRUTCHFI ELD, R. F. seeKRECH, D.
CULBERTSON, F. J . M. (1955)
see HOVLAND, C. I.
see FESTI NGER ,L.
ZANDER, A. (1953) 26
HARDI NG, J .
DI NNERMAN, H. (1951) 33
J AHODA, M. (1947) 18, 20, 29, 33
see BERKOWI TZ , L.
18, 20
DANCKWORTT, D.
DEAN, J . P.
DEUTSCH, M. &
DI NNERNLAN, H.
DODD, S. C.
DROBA, D. D.
DURR, C. 6.
COLLI NS, M. E.
(1956) 49, 50
(1959) 49, 50
see SUCHMAN, E. A.
(1951) 24, 26, 47, 50, 53
(1935) 46, 50
(1932) 41, 44
(1954) 54
see COOPER, E.
59
FENI CHEL, 0. (1946) 15, 20
FESHBACH, S. (1961) 18, 20, 30, 33
FESHBACH, S. &
see also J ANI S 1953
SI NGER, R. (1957) 18, 20, 30, 33
see also J ANI S, I .
1953, 1954
FESTI NGER, L. (1957) 36, 37, 38
see also ALLYN, J .
FESTI NGER, L. &
CARLSMI TH, J . H. (1959) 37, 38
FESTI NGER, L.
KELLEY, H. H. (1951) 46, 50
FI NE, B. J . (1957) 28, 33
FLAMENT, C. (1958) 19, 20
FLOWERMAN, S. H. (1949) 29, 32, 33
FORD, L. I . (1956) 19. 20
FRENKE L- BRUNS WI K , E. see ADORNO, T. W.
FROMM. E. (1955) 54
FURUYA, T. (1958) 24, 26
GALTUNG, J .
GAUDET, H.
GI LBERT, G. M.
GOLDBERG, H. D.
GOLDSTEI N, M. J .
GRAHAM, E.
GRANNEBERG, A. G.
GREEN, B. F.
GULLAHORN, J . E.
GULLAHORN, J . T. &
GULLAHORN , J . E.
GUNDLACH. R. H.
HAEFNER, D. P.
HARDI NG, J . &
HOGREFE, R.
HARDI NG, J . ;
KUTNER, B. ;
PROSHANSKY, H.
& CHEI N, I .
HARI NG, J .
HARTMEN, G. W.
HARVEY, 0. J .
HEI DER, F.
HOBAN. C. F. &
HOFFMAN, M. L.
HOGREFE, R.
HOLLANDER, E. P.
HOLTZNLAN, W. H.
HOOD, W. R.
HORNEY, K.
HOROWI TZ, M. W.
HOVLAND, C. I .
VAN ORMER, E. B.
(1960) 57
(1951) 52, 54
(1950) 32, 33
(1959) 18, 20
see LAZARSFELD, P. F
see LI NTON, H.
see MENEFEE, S. C.
see GULLAHORN, J . T.
(1954) 8, 10
(1960) 49, 50
(1950) 24, 26
(1956) 30, 33
(1952) 47, 50
(1954) 9, 10, 41, 44, 53,
(1949) 49, 50
(1936) 30, 33
(1946) 36, 38
(1958) 36, 38
54
see SHERI F, M.
(1951) 32, 33
(1951) 16, 20
see HARDI NG, J .
see TI TUS, H. E.
see YOUNG, R. K.
see SHERI F, M.
see PASTORE, N.
(1937) 54
(1954) 32, 33
(1957) 31, 34
(1958) 27, 33
see also J ANI S, I .
KELMAN, H. C.
HOVLAND, C. I . ;
CAMPBELL, E. H.
& BROCK, T. (1958) 31, 34
J ANI S, I . ( L. ) &
KELLEY. H. H. (1953) 28, 31, 32, 34
LUMSDAI NE, A. A. &
SHEFFI ELD, E. D. (1949) 32, 34, 53, 54
MANDELL, W. (1952) 28, 32, 34
(1957) 30, 31, 34
HOVLAND, C. I . ;
HOVLAND, C. I . ;
HOVLAND, C. I .
HOVLAND, C. I. &
HOVLAND, C. I . 8z
HYMAN, H. H. &
ROSENBERG, M. (1960) 38
WEI SS, W. (1951) 28, 34, 53, 54
SHEATSLEY, P. B. (1947) 29, 34
I RI SH, D. P. (1952) 48, 50
J ACOBSON. E. ;
KUMATA, H. &
GULLAHORN, J . E. (1960)
J AHODA, M.
J AMES, H. E. 0. &
J ANI S, I . &
TENEN, C. (1 953)
FESHBACH. S. (1953)
(1954)
J ANI S, I . ,
J ANI S, I . ( L. ) &
J ANOWI TZ, M.
J ARRETT, R. F. &
J ONES, E. ; ZELL, H.
HOVLAND, C. I . et al. (1959)
KI NG, B. T. (1954)
SHERI FFS, A. C. (1953)
& TORREY, R.
KATZ , D.
KATZ, D. &
KATZ , D. ;
BRALY, K. W.
McCLI NTOCK, C.
& SARNOFF, I .
KATZ, D. &
KATZ, I . &
KELLEY, H. H.
STOTLAND, E.
BENJ AMI N, L.
49, 50, 57
see CHRI STI E, R.
COOPER, E.
56, 57
18, 20, 30, 34
18, 20, 30, 34
see also HOVLAND, C. I .
KI NG, B. T
LUMSDAI NE, A. A.
19, 20
37, 38
see BETTELHEI M, B.
31, 34
(1958) 28, 34
(1960) 19, 20
see also SARNOFF, I .
(1933) 52, 54
(1956) 18, 20
(1957) 18, 20
(1959) 18, 20
(1960) 17, 20
(1955) 24, 26, 29, 34
see also
HOVLAND, C. I .
FESTI NGER, L.
60
KELLEY, H. H. &
VOLKART, E. H. (1952) 24, 26, 29, 34
KELLEY, H. H. &
WOODRUFF, C. L. (1956) 24, 26. 28, 34
KELMAN, H. C. (1952) 19, 20, 25
(1953) 37, 38, 43, 44
(1956) 17, 18, 20
(1960) 18, 20, 38, 49,50
(196l)(a) 18, 20, 38
(1961)(b) 38
KELMAN. H. C.
KELMAN, H. C. &
KI HARA , K. see OGAWA, T.
KI NG, B. T.
COHLER , J . (1959) 18, 21
HOVLAND, C. I . (1953) 28, 34
J ANI S, I . L. (1956) 37, 38
see also J ANI S, I . L.
KLI NEBERG , 0. (1958) 10, 56, 57
KNOWER, F. H. (1935) 30, 32, 34
KRAMER, D. M. see ALLPORT, G. W.
KRECH, D. &
KUKAYA, S. see OGAWA, T.
KUMATA, H. see J ACOBS0N. E.
KUTNER, B. ;
WI LKI NS, C.
YARROW, P. R. (1952) 10, 36, 38
(1936) 32, 34
CRUTCHFI ELD, R. F.(1948) 9, 10
see also HARDI NG, J .
DE LANGE, M.
LA PI ERE, R. T. (1934) 10, 36, 38
LASKY, J . J . (1950) 16, 21
LAZARSFELD, P. F. (1950) 8, 10
LAZARSFELD, P. F. ;
BERELSON, B. &
GAUDET, H. (1944) 29, 34
see BECHTEREW, V. M.
LEE, A. M. (1954) 54
LEVI NE, J . &
LEVI NSON, D. see ADORNO, T. W.
LEWI N, K. (1935) 9, 10, 22, 26
BUTLER, J . (1953) 25, 26
(1948) 43, 44
(1953) 25, 26
(1958) 25, 26
LI NTON. H.
GRAHAM, E. (1959)
LI PPI TT , R.
LI PSET, S. M.
LUCHI NS, A. S.
LUDLUM, T. M. (1958)
LUMSDAI NE, A. A.
& J ANI S, I . L. (1953)
(1 958) (a)
(1958)(b)
LUND, F. H. (1925)
17, 19. 21
see WATSON, J .
see RAAB, E.
31, 34
31, 34
28, 34
31, 34
see HOVLAND, C. I.
27, 30, 34. 36. 38
MAC CORQUODALE, K.
MAC I VER, R. M. (1948) 7, 10, 43, 44, 49,50
& MEEHL, P. E. (1948) 8, 10
MAC KENZI E, D. K. (1948) 47, 50
MANDELL, W.
MANI S, M. (1960) 32, 34
MANSKE, A. J . (1935) 41, 44
MASLOW, W. &
ROBI NSON, J . B. (1953) 53, 54
MAUSNER, B. (1953) 23, 26
(1954) 23, 26
McCLI NTOCK, C. G. (1956) 18, 21
see HOVLAND, C, I.
1952, 1957
see also KATZ, D.
1956-57
McCORD, F. (1948) 23, 26
McDAVI D, J . W. J r . (1958) 32, 34
McDOUGALL, W. (1908) 22, 26
McENTI RE, D. (1957) 53, 54
Mc GI NNI ES , E. see MI TNI CK, L. L.
McGUI RE, W. J . (1960)(a) 36, 38, 42
(1960)(b) 36, 38, 42
MEEHL, P. E.
MENEFEE, S. C. &
GRANNEBERG, A. G. (1940) 30, 34
MERTON, R. K. (1957) 44
MI DDLETON. R. (1960) 32, 34
MI LLS, J . ;
MAC CORQUODALE, K.
ARONSON. E. &
ROBI NSON, H. (1959) 29, 34
MI TNI CK, L. L. &
McGI NNI ES, E. (1958) 33, 34
MORENO, J . L. (1953) 9, 10
MORRI SSETTE , J . see ZAJ ONC, R. B.
MURPHY, G. (1953) 25, 26
MURPHY, G. ;
MURPHY, L. D. &
NEWCOMB, T. M. (1937) 27, 34
MURPHY, L. D. see MURPHY, G.
MUSSEN, P. H. (1950) 46, 50
MYRDAL, G. (1944) 53, 55
NADLER , E. B. (1959) 19, 21
NEWCOMBE, T. M. (1943) 23, 26
(1948) 23, 26
(1950) 23, 26
(1953) 36, 38
see also MURPHY, G
NOWAK, S. (1960) 24, 26, 42, 44
OGAWA, T. ;
KI HARA, K. ;
KUKAYA, S. &
TANAKA, K. (1957) 43, 44
ORR, D. (1946) 15, 21
PASTORE, N.
HOROWI TZ, M. W. (1955) 28, 34
PATRI CK, J . R.
PEARL, D. (1955) 19, 21
PETERSON, R. C.
THURSTONE, L. L. (1933) 32, 34
PI TKI N, V. E. (1950) 43, 44
see SI MS, B. M.
61
PLANT, W. T.
PROSHANSKY. H
RAAB, E. &
LI PSET, S. M.
RAMSEYER, L. L.
REI GROTSKI , E. &
ANDERSON, N.
RI EGEL, 0. W.
ROBI NSON, J . B.
ROBI NSON, H.
ROGERS, C. R.
ROKEACH, M.
ROSE, A. M.
ROSENBERG, M. 8.t
ABELSON, R. P.
SAENGER, G.
SALTER, P. J .
SAMELSON, B.
SANFORD, R. N.
SARNOFF, I &
KATZ, D.
SCHLORFF , P. W.
SCHNEI DER , E.
SELLI TZ, C.
SCHONBACH, P.
WORMSaR, M. H.
SHEATSLEY, P. B.
SHEFFI ELD, F. D.
SHERI F. C. W.
SHERI F, M.
SHERI F, NI. ;
HARVEY, 0. J . ;
WHI TE, B. J . ;
HOOD, W. R.
SHERI F, C. W.
SHERI F, M. &
SHERI F, C. W.
SHERI FFS, A. C.
SHUEY, A. M.
SI EGEL, A. E. i%
SI EGEL, S.
SI EGEL, S.
SI MPSON, G. E. 2k
YI NGER, J . M.
SI MS, B. M. &
SI NGER, R.
SI NHA, D.
SMI TH, B. L. &
SMI TH, C. M.
PATRI CK, J . R.
(1956) 42, 45
see HARDI NG, J .
(1959) 53, 55
(1939) 33, 35
(1960) 50
(1953) 49, 50
see MASLOW, W.
see MI LLS, J .
(1951) 44, 45
(1948) 19, 21
(1960) 19, 21
(1948) 7, 10, 32, 35, 42,
(1956) 56, 57
45
(1960) 37, 38
(1953) 7, 11
(1945) 42, 45
see HOVLAND, C. I .
see BERELSON, B.
see ADORN0. T. W.
(1954) 17, 18, 21
(1930) 41, 45
(1958) 19, 21
(1961) 53, 55, 57
see also KATZ, D.
(1949) 49, 50
SMI TH, C. M. see SMI TH, B. L.
SMI TH, F. T. (1937) 46, 51
SMI TH, M. B. (ed.) (1956) 49, 51
(1953) 23, 26 SODHI , K. S.
SODHI , K. S. &
STAR, A. ;
BERGI US, R. (1953) 9, 11
WI LLI AMS, R. M. J r .
& STOUFFER, S. A. (1958) 47, 51
STEVENS, R. B. (1958) 48, 51
STOTLAND, E. see KATZ, D.
see STAR, A. STOUFFER, S. A.
SUCHMAN, E. A. ;
DEAN, J . P. &
WI LLI AMS, R. M. J r . (1958) 48, 51
SUMNER, W. G. (1907) 36, 38
SUSSMAN, M. D. (1957) 48, 51
TAMAKA, K. see OGAWA, T.
TANNENBAUM, P. (1956) 28, 35
TAUSCH, A. M. (1961) 43, 45
TAYLOR, J . A. (1956) 30, 35
TENEN, C. see J AMES, H. E. 0.
THURSTONE, L. L. see PETERS0N. R. C.
TI TUS, H. E. /k
HOLLANDER, E. P. (1957) 15, 21
TORREY, R.
TRI ANDI S, H. C. &
TRI ANDI S , L. M.
TRI ANDI S , L. M.
TUMI N, M.
see also WORMSER. M. H.
TUMI N, M. ; see HYMAN, H. H.
see HOVLAND, C. I .
see SHERI F. M.
1953-54-56
(1936) 22, 26
(1937) 22, 26
(1 954)
(1953)
(1956)
(1 953)
(1957)
(1958)
(1936)
(1952)
(1956)
25, 26, 30, 35, 47,
50
26
23, 26, 27, 35, 57
see J ARRETT , R. F.
29, 35
23, 26
see SI EGEL, A. E.
7, 11, 43, 44, 45
49, 50
23, 26, 41, 45
see FESHBACH, S.
23, 26
50
BARTON, P. &
BURRUS. B.
VAN ORMER, E. B.
VI CKERY, W. &Z
COLE, S. G.
VOLKART. E. H.
WAGMAN, M.
WALKLEY, R. T.
WATSON, G.
WATSON, J .
WATSON, J .
WEI SS. W.
WHI TE, B. J .
WI EDER, G. S.
WI ESE, M. J . &
COLE, S. G.
WI LKE, W. H.
WI LKI NS. C.
LI PPI TT, R.
see J ONES, E.
(1960) 9, 11
(1957) 48, 51
(1958) 10, 1 1 , 32, 35
(1960) 48, 51
see TRI ANDI S, H. C.
(1958) 10, 11. 33, 35, 42,
45, 50, 51, 52, 55,
56, 57
see HOBAN, C. F.
(1944) 43, 45
see KELLEY, H. H.
(1955) 16, 21
(1947) 7, 11
(1956) 43, 45
(1950) 24, 26
see WI LNER, D. M.
(1955) 49, 51
see HOVLAND, C. I .
see SHERI F, M.
(1951) 44, 45
(1946) 33, 35
(1934) 32, 35
see KUTNER, B.
WI LLI AMS, R. M. J r . (1947) 7, 1 1 , 27, 35, 42,
45
62
(1958) 42, 45
see also STAR, A.
SUCHMAN, E. A.
WI LNER, D. M. ;
WALKLEY, R. T. 8~
COOK, S. W. (1952) 48, 51
BONI LLA, F. (1955) 51
WI LSON, E. C. 8~
WOODRUFF, C. L.
WORMSER, M. H. &
see KELLEY, H. H.
SELLI TZ, C. (1951) 49, 51
see also SELLI TZ, C.
YARROW, P. R. see KUTNER, B.
YI NGER, J . M.
YOUNG, D. (1927) 41, 45
YOUNG, R. K. ;
see SI MPS0N. G. E.
BENSON. W. M. &
HOLTZMAN, W.H. (1960) 42, 45
ZAJ ONC, R. B. 8~
ZANDER, A. see CARTWRI GHT, D.
ZELL, H. see J ONES, E.
MORRI SSETTE, J . (1960) 32, 35
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BEOCRAn