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Introductory module
Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting
Issues of Urban Transport
Sustainable Transport:
A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Editor:
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
P.O. Box 51 80
65726 Eschborn, Germany
http://www.gtz.de
I
1. Overview of the Sourcebook 1 References and resources 19
1.1 Rationale 1 References cited in the text 19
1.2 Objective 1 Other resources 19
1.3 The target audience 1 Sustainable development 19
1.4 Putting the Sourcebook to use 2 Transport and poverty 20
Institutional and policy orientation 2 Transport and gender 20
Land use planning and demand Transport and global warming 20
management 3
Transit, walking and cycling 3
Vehicles and fuels 4
Environmental and health impacts 5
Resources 6
1.5 Future directions for
the Sourcebook 6
Dissemination 6
SUTP-Asia 6
Training materials 6
The Sourcebook companion website 6
2. Cross-cutting issues
of urban transport 7
2.1 Sustainable transport:
the ideas and principles 7
2.2 Poverty 9
A multidimensional problem 9
Focusing on the modes used by
the poor 10
Public finances, and equity
considerations 12
The road environment 13
Employment 13
Involving the poor 14
2.3 Gender 14
2.4 Global warming 15
The scientific basis 15
Effects of global warming 15
The transport sector and global
warming 16
Achieving greenhouse gas
emission reductions from
transport in developing cities 18
II
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
1
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
in a range of coun-
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GTZ is committed to actively disseminating conclusions from the case studies in the form of
the Sourcebook through various approaches and recommended policy approaches required for
over an extended period of time. Presentations, effective urban transport institutions.
workshops, brochures, websites, meetings, word 1c. Private Sector Participation in Urban
of mouth, provision of materials, audio-visual Transport Infrastructure Provision (Chris
materials, newsletters, media interviews: all Zegras, MIT)
are viable methods of helping ensure that the This module de- �����������
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section.
carefully considered
Institutional and policy orientation policy recommenda- �������������������������
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stages through to implementation. road pricing and 01d - EI-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:22 AM
2
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
other instruments, showing that a range of often automobile dependency? This module addresses
under-utilised policy options exists for develop- all of these questions and provides policy rec-
ing cities. The module shows how economic ommendations, with several case studies from
instruments can work toward multiple goals, developing cities.
generating revenues and reducing congestion
2b. Mobility Management
while improving air quality. (Todd Litman, VTPI)
1e. Raising Public Awareness about Mobility manage- �����������
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ment, otherwise
GTZ)
known as transport
Public awareness, �����������
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demand management,
support and informa- aims to make the best
tion campaigns are use of existing infra-
crucial to the formu- structure by manag- ���������
different systems
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3
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
3b. Bus Rapid Transit (Lloyd Wright, ITDP) example pilot study conducted in Surabaya.
Bus rapid transit is �����������
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Successful measures in cities such as Bogotá, and
in European cities, is described with a view to
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a remarkable new
phenomenon in the application in developing cities.
world of transit. This
Vehicles and fuels
module provides
4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies
practical guidance on (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,
how a developing city ��������� Umweltbundesamt)
can plan, finance, de-
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Cleaner fuels and �����������
vehicle technologies
world class bus rapid are one of the key
transit system. As a ������������������������� components of any
planning template
������������������������������������
sustainable urban
for developing cities,
03b - BRT-ohne Fläche.indd 1 15.05.2003, 2:12 PM
transport system.
this module can drastically reduce planning and This module, from
consultancy costs which a developing city would two leading experts
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direction to develop-
04a - fuels-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 11:32 AM
nent of a sustainable
oping world are now transport system is an
caught. It introduces in-use vehicle testing
and outlines the
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3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non- tal (emissions) and
motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP) safety (roadworthi- �������������������������
ness) perspective.
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4
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
result in around
considering several
04c - 2-3wheelers-ohne Fl.indd 1 03.06.2003, 11:42 AM
a city government
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basic concepts of
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financing.
including their operation, economic aspects, 5c. Noise and its Abatement (Civic Exchange
environmental aspects, refuelling infrastructure, Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA)
and so on. Case studies from developing cities, Noise is emerging as �����������
an insidious problem
in Delhi (provided by CSE India), are provided. in developing cities,
Environmental and health impacts
even though it is not
currently perceived as
5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,
World Health Organisation) a major problem. A
major source of noise
This module serves to ���������
in cities is urban
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basic concepts of
to determine the best �������������������������
measuring noise,
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measures to abate
describes the health
05c - noise-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 12:13 PM
It provides advice on
where governments can take action to reduce
developing legally
noise from transport.
enforceable air qual- �������������������������
5
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Resources �����������
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Training materials
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6
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
2. Cross-cutting issues
Sustainable development –
of urban transport
its origins and meaning
2.1 Sustainable transport: The ideas In 1972 the United Nations convened a con-
and principles* ference in Stockholm, Sweden to give developed
* This section is drawn from an unpublished mission report by
Dr. Axel Friedrich, Umweltbundesamt, for GTZ SUTP, January 2000 and developing countries a better understanding
of how to care for our planet. The United Nations
Mobility of people and of goods is an essential Environment Programme (UNEP) arose out of the
part of all social and economic activities. In Stockholm Conference.
most countries of the world, even develop- In 1983 the United Nations General Assembly
ing countries, passenger cars and trucks have created the World Commission on Environment
become the most important transport modes. and Development (WCED) and appointed Dr. Gro
In many developing cities high growth of the Harlem Brundtland its Chairwoman. The WCED
vehicle fleet has taken place in recent years. was given the task of developing a “global agenda
Non-motorised transport, which in earlier times for change.” Five years later, in 1987, the WCED
published Our Common Future, which agreed a
was the common way of linking together places
definition of sustainable development which is now
of activities, has to a large extent been substituted
generally recognised around the world. According
by the car in daily mobility, and by trucks, for to this definition, sustainable development meets
freight movement. The result of this process has the needs of the present without compromising
also been a significant change in land use patterns. the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
This process began during the 1920s and 1930s
The concepts developed in Our Common Fu-
in the United States and spread in the wealthier
ture and further elaborated in Rio in 1992 and in
countries initially, but subsequently all over Johannesburg a decade later serve as the basis for
the world, including to developing cities. The much of today’s understanding of the link between
shift towards motorised private road transport environment and development. The ‘genius’ of
reduced the share of other modes. The growth sustainable development is that it attempts to re-
of road traffic overwhelmed the development of concile economy and environment, and the access
the city structures and the supply of sufficient to resources of both present and future generations.
infrastructure. Therefore in developing cities (Future generations should have the same right to
more than in developed countries the transport a healthy environment as we enjoy.) In particular,
it is now widely agreed that sustainable develop-
system is inefficient, unsafe, causes environmen-
ment means more than merely conservation, and
tal problems, and disadvantages healthy city
that environmental and economic goals, especially
development. poverty alleviation, are not contradictory but are
The common problems of the transport sector fundamentally intertwined.
in big conurbations are congestion, fatalities and A healthy economy, and especially improving
injuries due to traffic accidents. Furthermore, an the standard of living of people in the world’s deve-
loping countries, is just as essential in satisfying our
increasing demand for mineral oil fuels, severe
material and non-material needs as preserving the
air pollution, increasing noise levels, and a loss
natural foundations of life. And only a society that is
of urban livability and green spaces due to trans- able to develop forms of governance that promote
port activities adversely affects city development. and help attain goals about how people want to live,
In particular the high growth of the transport and is able to distribute its goods and opportunities
related CO2 emissions – compared to other fairly, will be able to preserve that society’s values
economic sectors (see Section 2.4 below) – are and effectively organise the use of resources in a
causing concerns and demand further action. socially sustainable way. Sustainable development
These developments discourage the attractive- therefore relates equally to the three domains of
ness of cities and their economic well-being. economy, environment and society.
7
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Sustainable transport budgets, which are difficult to afford for devel- as far as possible; air quality and noise should
at the international oping countries. This leads to the conclusion: not exceed the health standards suggested
level high per-capita transport activities in terms of by the WHO (World Health Organization);
Particularly important passenger kilometres and ton kilometres, done accident risks should be minimised
initiatives in the transport mainly by passenger cars and trucks, not only Economic: mobility of persons and of goods
sector include: indicate economic progress and welfare but also necessary to achieve prosperous economic
• Initially sustainable trans-
cause severe problems. development has to be provided, avoiding
portation was discussed at
congesting, and without over-burdening the
the 1994 OECD conference The 1992 Earth Conference in Rio adopted
financial limitations of the public and private
“Towards clean Transport: Agenda 21, underlining the principle of sustaina-
Fuel efficient and Clean budgets.
ble development. The June 1997 Special Session
Motor vehicles” in Mexico of the General Assembly of the United Nations As a practical consequence of these (and similar
• The Sustainable Trans-
recalled the need for sustainable development, other) criteria for sustainable transportation, the
portation Principles, as transport sector needs structural changes that
further reinforced in the Johannesburg Summit
discussed and developed can be described as follows:
by the March 1996 OECD
of 2002, and promoted the need for changing
the current patterns of transportation in order to Decrease the demand or at least mitigate
Conference “Towards
avoid unfavourable environmental and health ef- the increase of demand for motorised
Sustainable Transporta-
tion” held in Vancouver, fects. The threats and damages to human health transport of people and goods, for example
Canada; published in the and to the natural environment make current by establishing transport avoiding spatial
Sustainable Development transport structures unacceptable in the light of structures, by applying fiscal incentives and
in Canada Monograph the ideas of sustainability. In this context differ- other policy instruments to promote short
Series: “Sustainable Trans- ent international approaches following the Rio distance access.
portation”, Monograph No.
Earth Conference started to transfer the princi- Shift transport demand from unfavourable
2, Ottawa 1997 transport modes (in terms of environmental,
ple of sustainable development to the transport
• The Vienna Declaration of social and economic impact) to those with
the 1997 UNECE Regional
sector (see margin note). In very simple terms
we can differentiate between the environmental, less negative impact on people and nature.
Conference on Transport
social and economic goals that have to be satis- Ensure the use of best available technology
and the Environment
• Recent work of the OECD fied by a sustainable transport system: (BAT) both for the transport vehicles and for
developing the concept of Environmental: rate of use of non-renewable the management and communication tools in
environmentally sustain- resources should not exceed the rate at which transport.
able transport. renewable substitutes are developed; the rate Promote responsible behaviour of individuals
of pollution emission should not exceed the and responsible decisions by enterprises.
assimilative capacity of the environment; Integrate environmental and social
biodiversity should be protected. considerations into transport policy.
Social: access to all activities necessary to
participate in social life has to be guaranteed
Fig. 1
Global concepts
of sustainability
underlie the concept of
sustainable transport.
Raising the standard
of living in developing
countries is a major
goal of sustainability.
Earth by night. Image by Craig
Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA
GSFC. Based on data from the
Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program, 9 Nov. 2000.
8
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
Table 1: Number of people living on less than $1 per day, 1990 – 1999
UNDP 2002
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Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
povery and impoverishment, and through this poor are faced with a complex trade-off between
understanding to develop strategic ways of ap- residential security, travel time, and travel mode.
proaching and addressing poverty alleviation. It A survey of pavement dwellers in Madras, for
is now accepted that it is not sufficient to merely example, showed that 59% walked to work at
focus on indirect – so-called ‘trickle down’ zero cost. At the other extreme, those opting for
– benefits for the poor. This consensus is re- a degree of residential security on the outskirts
flected in approaches of multilateral institutions of cities pay a high price in terms of access costs.
such as the World Bank. Strategy documents The urban poor in Lima and Rio de Janeiro for
such as the Urban Transport Strategy Review now example are driven out to cheap dwelling space
acknowledge that urban transport improvements in remote locations, 30 or 40 kilometres out
directed at ‘improving the efficiency of the of the employment centre; average commuting
transport system as a whole’, are not sufficient. time per day for the poorest group in Rio de Ja-
In addition to sytem-wide increases in efficiency, neiro exceeding three hours (World Bank 2002).
targeted interventions to achieve poverty al-
leviation are required. Multilateral and bilateral “Eradicating poverty is the greatest
aid and development agencies are developing
global challenge facing the world
increasingly sophisticated tools to understand
– and alleviate – poverty. These include, for ex- today and an indispensable
ample, toolkits, websites, guidelines and manu- requirement for sustainable
als in the “References” section of this module. development, particularly for
Focusing on the modes used by the poor developing countries”
The transport needs of the poor differ from the United Nations, Report of the World Summit on
non-poor. The poor typically make 20 – 30% Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002
less trips, and rely much more on non-motorised
and public transport (Figure 2). The poor have a Much attention in the form of international
Fig. 2 more limited range of destinations, being much events, seminars, conferences, training materi-
more focused on core destinations such as work als and so on, is devoted to issues of vehicle
In Agra as in other
developing cities, urban places, schools, markets, places of worship and and fuel technologies. While this high level of
poor are more reliant health clinics. attention to technology is understandable and
on non-motorised helpful in addressing tailpipe emissions, it often
modes of transport. In developing cities land values often reflect does not address the most direct transport needs
Lloyd Wright, GTZ Urban Transport accessibility of an area to key destinations. The of the urban poor in developing countries. We
Photo CD 2002
often hear of seminars and workshops elaborat-
ing the results of the latest comparison of CNG
versus clean diesel, or even trials of fuel cells or
electric vehicles. But seldom do we hear of a
high profile international seminar focusing on
walkway design, or non-motorised transport
in developing countries. This is despite the fact
that in many developing cities, car-owners are
still a small minority of the population. Public
transport users, pedestrians and cyclists represent
a large majority in many developing cities, rang-
ing from Belgrade to Metro Manila to Bogotá
to Shanghai. Private motor vehicle ownership
is beyond the reach of the urban poor, with the
possible exception of motorcycles in cities such
as Denpasar and Ho Chi Minh in which public
transport provides less than 5% of trips.
10
DEDICATD TO MAKING A DIFFERENCE
The poor in developing cities cannot afford cars. Percentage of all trips
They rely primarily on walking, cycling and 80
public transport for gaining access to jobs, serv- Walking Auto Public transport
ices and social events. Figure 3 presents data for
Santiago, Chile. Figures for other cities will vary, 60
contribute to poverty alleviation. Many other sible to the urban poor, as described in Module
interventions can contribute to povery allevia- 3a: Mass Transit Options, and Module 3b: Bus
tion. Module 2a: Land Use Planning and Urban Rapid Transit.
Transport, sets out a diverse agenda of policy re- It is also important to avoid the misconception
forms which can promote transit, pedestrian and and stigma that non-motorised transport (such
non-motorised transport friendly development. as walking and cycling) and public transport
More effective transport and land use planning is for the poor. Module 3d: Preserving and
is an urgent requirement in many developing Expanding the Role of Non-motorised Transport,
cities experiencing rapidly growing urban sprawl shows that poverty alleviation is only one of
and car-dependency. Similarly, the mobility the many benefits of improving conditions for
management measures described in Module 2b: non-motorised transport. Benefits of improving
Mobility Management, lead to less automobile- non-motorised transport for the urban poor
oriented urban development patterns. are, nevertheless, potentially large. GTZ and
Improving public transport is a key component ITDP showed in a pilot project in Surabaya that
of any pro-poor urban transport agenda in a even in poor neighbourhoods, some 60% of
developing city. In many cities, policy-makers trips between 1 and 3 km were undertaken by
have strictly regulated fares under a misguided motorised means, due mainly to the very poor
conception that this alone would guarantee pub- conditions for walking, cycling and pedicabs in
lic transport access for the urban poor. Rather, Surabaya. Perhaps even more surprisingly, 20%
the outcome of poor regulation and misguided of trips less than 1 km in length were made by
fare controls have almost everywhere been a motorised means, despite the fact that both areas
declining level of service of public transport, of the pilot projects were low income neighbour-
and a ‘vicious cycle’ of declining investment hoods. One conclusion of the study was that:
and market share, as described in Module 3c: Even low income people are forced to use motorised
Bus Regulation and Planning. The Sourcebook travel even for extremely short trips, leading to
modules on Transit, Walking and Cycling show conditions where the working poor spend an
11
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
estimated 20% of their household income on to benefit the urban poor, to improve social
transport. Improved conditions for non-motorised integration, to enhance air quality, to improve
travel in the study area would yield $250,000 the productivity of the city, and to enhance the
in benefits to these low income families each year. quality of life of all citizens. The example of
(GTZ SUTP/ITDP 2000) Bogotá – and the policy underpinning it – is
elaborated by the man who inspired it, former
Public finances, and equity considerations
Opportunity costs of transport investments mayor Enrique Peñalosa, in Module 1a: The Role
of Transport in Urban Development Policy.
Urban transport policy has major implications
for city government finances. City government Bogotá is also an example of a city which has
spending in turn carries major opportunity leveraged the potential of economic instruments
costs. Scarce development funds spent on expen- as a way of achieving multiple transport objec-
sive rail-based mass transit systems, for example, tives including provision of funds, reduced con-
could be spent on more cost effective approaches gestion, progressive taxation, and environmental
such as bus rapid transit, with the resulting improvements. Advice on the use of economic
savings invested in health, public space and instruments including road pricing, fuel taxa-
educational facilities to benefit the urban poor. tion, parking, vehicle taxation, environmental
Possibly even worse than ill-advised mass transit trust funds and other measures is provided in
system investments, spending on new road Module 1d: Economic Instruments.
infrastructure, as well as being regressive in that Equity and transport in developing cities
it benefits primarily the richest (car-owning)
portion of the population, may actually worsen Equity considerations dictate that transport
urban transport conditions through induced planners in developing cities should favour
traffic and sprawl. modes of walking, cycling, and public transport.
In wealthier cities the urban poor are often a
Private sector participation in urban transport minority. Although equity considerations are
infrastructure provision can be an effective important in all cities (see text box “Evaluating
method for developing city governments to transportation equity”), in wealthy cities equity
3 Patterns
provide&infrastructure
Challenges and services. Advice is
DEDICATD TO MAKING A DIFFERENCE considerations are often focused on politically
And not just in the developed
provided on this topic in Module 1c: Private justifying urban transport subsidies of public
Sector Participation in Urban Transport Infrastuc- transport systems used by only a minority of
world
ture Provision. the population. In many developing cities, on
The city of Bogotá, Colombia provides a recent the other hand, the urban poor represent the
Developing world vehicle ownership rates 1960-1995
example of the effective use of public finances majority of the population. This is reflected
350
300
1960
1980
250
1995
200
Motor vehicles per 1000 people
150
100
50
Fig. 4 0
Czechoslovakia
Malaysia
Poland
FSU
Hungary
Brazil
Mexico
Argentina
China
South Africa
India
South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Vehicle ownership
rates in selected
countries of the
developing world.
Thorvik, WBSCD 2002
12 Source: Wards/Pemberton, World Vehicle Forecasts and Strategies: The Next 20 Years, 1996.
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
13
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
drivers in Bogotá are described in Module 3b: sion of gender in the Urban Transport Strategy
Bus Rapid Transit, and initiatives to improve the Review is worth quoting at length:
livelihood of pedicab drivers in Indian cities are Many activities typically undertaken by women
described in Module 3d: Preserving and Expand- (child-care, household management, informal
ing the Role of Non-motorised Transport. sector employment, etc) require them to make more
and shorter trips than men, more trips at off-peak
Involving the poor
hours and off the main routes, and engage in more
Sustainable urban transport measures will not complicated multi-leg trips, all of which tend
succeed without the support of the local people. to make their movements relatively expensive to
Many of the modules in the Sourcebook describe provide for by public transport, and hence highly
various forms of participatory planning processes. priced or poorly supplied. Women are very vulner-
Information campaigns, as described in Module able to these cost characteristics as they frequently
1e: Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable have less capacity to pay than male household
Urban Transport, are essential. It is necessary to members, who also control any bicycles or other
create awareness about the transportation system vehicles available to the household. Cultural
the people of a city deserve for existing and factors may constrain women’s ability to use public
future generations. This is a way for projects to transport or bicycles. In many countries there is
become “owned” by the community. In this way also a problem of the “social safety or security”
participation of the local people can be increased, of public transport for women, especially in the
resulting in greater benefits and making projects evening hours. This may force them to depend on
politically, socially and financially feasible.
Gender aspects of rural road
2.3 Gender maintenance in Costa Rica
Gender awareness is seeping into the transport In Costa Rica, GTZ has been co-operating with
sector. Although there were few studies on the local governments since 1990 in establishing a
practical road maintenance system. Its principles
subject as recently as 1998, a growing number of
are straightforward:
projects are beginning to address gender imbal-
Everyone has to join in – No road repairs
ances in the burden of transport, and endeavour are possible without the participation of the
to expand the range of transport choices, and local residents and the people’s assuming
reduce the costs of transport, for women. responsibility.
Everyone has to pay – Ministries and local
Gender analysis is justified in terms of greater
governments with money, and local residents
efficiency of transport interventions and
with their labour.
therefore greater impact on poverty reduction The right technology counts – Simple but
that it enables. Transport facilities can be bet- essective solutions are required, above all for
ter matched to the needs of users through an road drainage.
understanding of gender aspects of transport. In Not without the women – Women have proven
Surabaya, Indonesia, for example, a GTZ/ITDP to be especially important in organising local
(2000) study showed that a large majority of road maintenance committees and in winning
cyclists are men and a large majority of cycle over people’s support.
rickshaw passengers are women. Policy interven-
tions aiming to reduce the transport burden on “We’ll get our husbands to work!”
the urban poor in Surabaya need to take account A Costa Rican road committee member
of these gender-based variations for maximum
effectiveness. An increasing number of gender- The results of this approach have been remark-
able, including greatly increased access to health
related tools are becoming available to policy-
and education services, regular bus sevices, a road
makers, although so far the major resources have
maintenance fund, growth in the area under culti-
tended to focus on rural areas. vation by 7.5% per year, greatly reduced travel times
Along with poverty, gender related disadvantage and vehicle maintenance costs, and integration into
is also endemic in developing cities. The discus- the long term planning of the local governments.
14
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
more expensive alternatives. Peripheral location socio-economic systems, but the larger the
may be particularly damaging to women’s employ- changes and rate of change in climate, the more
ment potential. But there remains a heavy agenda the adverse effects predominate. When consid-
of necessary gender related research. This includes ered by region, adverse effects are projected to
a need for more ac tivity, as opposed to trip-based, predominate for much of the world, particularly
research; better estimates of the economic value of in the tropics and sub-tropics.
women’s time; and direct evaluation of the impacts
Climate change is projected to increase threats
of some gender related projects.
to human health, particularly in lower income
populations, predominantly within subtropic
2.4 GlobaL warming and tropical countries. Climate change can affect
The scientific basis human health directly (e.g. loss of life in floods
The “Greenhouse Effect”, which rose to promi- and storms) and indirectly through changes in
nence on political and research agendas in the the range of disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes),
1990s, refers to the warming which occurs when water-borne pathogens, water quality, air quality,
certain gases allow sunlight to penetrate to the
earth but partially trap the planet’s radiated
infrared heat in the atmosphere. Some such Minimising greenhouse gas
warming is natural and necessary, but increasing emissions from mobile sources
concentrations of these ‘greenhouse gases’ are
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causing serious climate changes. 44 19The main
19 greenhouse
18 gases (see chart) are
carbon dioxide (CO2) [44%], methane (CH4) [19%],
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is by far the most nitrous oxides (NOx) [19%], and the chloro-fluoro
important greenhouse gas. Scientists can study hydrocarbons (CFCs) [18%].
the composition of air in the past by examining
Chlorofluoro-
air trapped in Antarctic ice. Analysis of these carbons
bubbles shows that CO2 concentrations are now Carbon
higher than at any time in the past 420,000 Dioxide
15
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
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Comparison and food availability and quality. Impacts will be The transport sector and global warming
Recent
Recent regional
regional changes
changes in in climate,
climate, particularly
particularly increases
increases in
in The temperature,
temperature, have
have ��������
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isinresponsible for around
already
already affected hydrological systems and
affected hydrological systems and terrestrial and marineterrestrial and marine ecosystems
ecosystems in
and observations 25% of global CO emissions from fossil fuel
many
many parts
parts ofof the
Water
the world
worldshortages
(see(see inTable
Table SPM-1).
existing
SPM-1). water-scarce
The
The areas,changes
observed
observed changes in in these
these systems
systems 1 2 are
1
are
of temperature rise use; a share which is growing. CO2 emissions in
thecoherent
since coherent across
year across
1960. diverse
threats
diverse localities
to vulnerable
localities and/or
and/or regions
regions andand
ecosystems are
and
are consistent
low-lying
consistent in in direction
direction with
developed
with
thethe expected
expected
countries have been stabilised in most
effects
effects of
ofIPCC regional
regional changes
island
2001 changes
in temperature.
nations, The
and reductions
in temperature. The probability
in crop
probability that
that thethe
outputs observed
observed changes
changes in the
in the expected
expected
direction (with sectors, with the exception of emissions from
direction (with nono
arereference
further
reference to magnitude)
to projected
magnitude) could
effects
could of occur
byby
global
occur chance
warming,
chance alone
alone is negligible.
is negligible.
with most of the adverse impact projected to transportation. Figure 6 shows that CO2 emis-
1 fall studies
There are 44 regional upon of poorer nations,
over 400 andanimals,
plants and uponwhichthe poorer sions from the transport sector in Germany, for
varied in length from about 20 to 50 years,
1
There are 44 regional studies of over 400 plants and animals, which varied in length from about 20
example, to continue
will 50 years, to increase this decade.
mainly from Northpeople
America, inEurope, and the southern polar region. There are 16 regional
all nations. studies covering about
mainly from North America, Europe, and the southern polar region. There are 16 regional studies covering about
100 physical processes over most regions of the world, which varied in length from about 20 to 150 years.
100 physical processes over most regions of the world, which varied in length from about 20 to 150 years.
16 7
7
CO2-Emissions of Transport
Transport in
in
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Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
300
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Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
18
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
19
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
20
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport
21
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