Sie sind auf Seite 1von 28

Division 44

Environment and Infrastructure


Sector project: “Transport Policy Advice”

Introductory module
Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting
Issues of Urban Transport
Sustainable Transport:
A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Deutsche Gesellschaft für


Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Overview of the sourcebook Modules and contributors
Sourcebook Overview; and Cross-cutting Issues of
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook
Urban Transport (GTZ)
for Policy-Makers in Developing Cities
Institutional and policy orientation
What is the Sourcebook?
1a. The Role of Transport in Urban Development
This Sourcebook on Sustainable Urban Transport Policy (Enrique Peñalosa)
addresses the key areas of a sustainable transport 1b. Urban Transport Institutions (Richard Meakin)
policy framework for a developing city. The 1c. Private Sector Participation in Transport Infra-
Sourcebook consists of 20 modules. structure Provision (Christopher Zegras,MIT)
Who is it for? 1d.Economic Instruments (Manfred Breithaupt,
The Sourcebook is intended for policy-makers GTZ)
in developing cities, and their advisors. This 1e. Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable
target audience is reflected in the content, which Urban Transport (Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
provides policy tools appropriate for application Land use planning and demand management
in a range of developing cities. 2a. Land Use Planning and Urban Transport
How is it supposed to be used? (Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute)
The Sourcebook can be used in a number of 2b. Mobility Management (Todd Litman, VTPI)
ways. It should be kept in one location, and the Transit, walking and cycling
different modules provided to officials involved 3a. Mass Transit Options (Lloyd Wright, ITDP;
in urban transport. The Sourcebook can be easily Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
adapted to fit a formal short course training 3b. Bus Rapid Transit (Lloyd Wright, ITDP)
event, or can serve as a guide for developing a 3c. Bus Regulation & Planning (Richard Meakin)
curriculum or other training program in the area 3d.Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-
of urban transport; avenues GTZ is pursuing. motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP)
What are some of the key features?
Vehicles and fuels
The key features of the Sourcebook include: 4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies
A practical orientation, focusing on best (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,
practices in planning and regulation and, Umweltbundesamt – UBA)
where possible, successful experience in 4b. Inspection & Maintenance and Roadworthiness
developing cities. (Reinhard Kolke, UBA)
Contributors are leading experts in their fields. 4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah,
An attractive and easy-to-read, colour layout. World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)
Non-technical language (to the extent 4d.Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec)
possible), with technical terms explained.
Environmental and health impacts
Updates via the Internet.
5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,
How do I get a copy?
World Health Organisation)
Please visit www.sutp-asia.org or www.gtz.de/ 5b. Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix, DVR;
transport for details on how to order a copy. The
David Silcock, GRSP)
Sourcebook is not sold for profit. Any charges 5c. Noise and its Abatement (Civic Exchange
imposed are only to cover the cost of printing Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA)
and distribution.
Resources
Comments or feedback?
6. Resources for Policy-makers (GTZ)
We would welcome any of your comments or
Further modules and resources
suggestions, on any aspect of the Sourcebook, by
email to transport@gtz.de, or by surface mail to: Further modules are anticipated in the areas
Manfred Breithaupt of Driver Training; Financing Urban Transport;
GTZ, Division 44 Benchmarking; and Participatory Planning. Ad-
Postfach 5180 ditional resources are being developed, and an
65726 Eschborn Urban Transport Photo CD (GTZ 2002) is now
Germany available.
Introductory module
Sourcebook
Overview,
and Cross-cutting
Issues of Urban
Transport

Findings, interpretations and conclusions


expressed in this document are based on infor-
mation gathered by GTZ and its consultants,
partners, and contributors from reliable sources.
GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy
or completeness of information in this docu-
ment, and cannot be held responsible for any
errors, omissions or losses which emerge from
its use.
Author:
Karl Fjellstrom (GTZ)

Editor:
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
P.O. Box 51 80
65726 Eschborn, Germany
http://www.gtz.de

Division 44, Environment and Infrastructure


About GTZ Sector Project “Transport Policy Advice”
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Commissioned by
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH is a govern- Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche
Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ)
ment-owned corporation for international Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 40
cooperation with worldwide operations. 53113 Bonn, Germany
http://www.bmz.de
In more than 130 partner countries, GTZ is
Manager:
supporting and implementing around 2,700 Manfred Breithaupt
development projects and programs, chiefly
Editorial Board:
under commissions from the German Federal Manfred Breithaupt, Stefan Opitz,
Government, although also on a consultancy Jan Schwaab
basis. Cover photo:
Karl Fjellstrom
GTZ’s aim is to improve the living conditions Shanghai, Jan. 2002
and outlook for people in developing and transi-
Layout:
tion countries. GTZ
GTZ’s main experience lies in providing advi- Print:
sory services in complex urban environments TZ Verlagsgesellschaft mbH
Bruchwiesenweg 19, 64380 Roßdorf, Germany
and more specifically in issues of sustainable
urban transport. Eschborn, 2002

I
1. Overview of the Sourcebook 1 References and resources 19
1.1 Rationale 1 References cited in the text 19
1.2 Objective 1 Other resources 19
1.3 The target audience 1 Sustainable development 19
1.4 Putting the Sourcebook to use 2 Transport and poverty 20
Institutional and policy orientation 2 Transport and gender 20
Land use planning and demand Transport and global warming 20
management 3
Transit, walking and cycling 3
Vehicles and fuels 4
Environmental and health impacts 5
Resources 6
1.5 Future directions for
the Sourcebook 6
Dissemination 6
SUTP-Asia 6
Training materials 6
The Sourcebook companion website 6

2. Cross-cutting issues
of urban transport 7
2.1 Sustainable transport:
the ideas and principles 7
2.2 Poverty 9
A multidimensional problem 9
Focusing on the modes used by
the poor 10
Public finances, and equity
considerations 12
The road environment 13
Employment 13
Involving the poor 14
2.3 Gender 14
2.4 Global warming 15
The scientific basis 15
Effects of global warming 15
The transport sector and global
warming 16
Achieving greenhouse gas
emission reductions from
transport in developing cities 18

II
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

1. Overview of the Sourcebook 1.2 Objective


Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-
1.1 Rationale makers in Developing Cities aims to provide
Traffic jams; polluted air; dangerous roads; fund- a ‘toolkit’ for transport policy-makers and
ing crises; absence of parks, walkways and public regulators in developing cities. It addresses the
spaces; spiralling car and motorcycle use; ever- key policy areas which collectively can provide
greater burdens on the poor; and less liveable an integrated and modern transport policy
cities: these are all increasingly familiar to people framework for a developing city. Through the
living in developing cities. Moreover, transport Sourcebook, policy-makers and their advisors
problems are getting worse, rather than better, can gain access to information about modern
with economic development. approaches and best practices, and to planning
and regulatory resources that would otherwise
“Many developing cities are at a be unavailable to them, or which would require
cross-roads” expensive external consultant resources.
GTZ’s main experience lies in providing advi-
Policy-makers in developing cities often seem to sory services in complex urban environments
approach transport with car-oriented paradigms and more specifically in issues of sustainable
poorly matched to the needs of the large major- urban transport.
ity of urban dwellers. Transit is dominated by
discussion of rail-oriented mega-projects rather The Sourcebook contains 20 printed modules
than more reasonably priced bus rapid transit, in the form of booklets around 20 to 40 pages
walking and cycling is neglected, uptake of long. Each module draws upon the experience
cleaner fuels and technologies is slow, and scarce of GTZ and others in developing cities, and is a
road space is given free of charge to a car-own- collaborative exercise, with generous contribu-
ing minority even while cities face severe fund- tions from contributors who are leading experts
ing shortages. in their fields.

Many developing cities are at a cross-roads.


1.3 The target audience
Policy decisions taken now, while car use is still
relatively low and cities retain a relatively transit- The Sourcebook is for policy-makers and their
friendly, compact urban form, will affect how advisors, and those involved with transport plan-
people will live in their cities for many decades ning and regulation in developing cities. This
into the future. audience is reflected in the content. The lan-
guage is not overly technical and links to further
Parts of the answer to reversing the deteriorating
resources, mainly via the internet, are provided.
situation are provided by cities such as Bogotá,
Photos, tables and charts are used throughout,
which is forming a new paradigm of urban
and the entire set is printed and bound in an
transport; a city for people rather than for cars.
easy-to-read, full-colour format.
A multitude of successful policy tools are avail-
able, yet policy-makers and regulators often Mayors and leading policy-makers in developing
simply lack access to information about these cities will not have time to read through long
tools. While an increasing quantity of excellent and complicated technical manuals, and for
reference material for developing cities is becom- that reason every effort has been made to keep
ing available on vehicle fuel and technology the Sourcebook modules down to a manageable
issues (including through important initiatives length, while still providing the level of detail
of The World Bank and the Asian Development needed to support regulators and policy-mak-
Bank), other aspects of a sustainable urban ers. Some modules will be of more relevance
transport agenda have often been neglected. to policy-makers than others, depending on
their local situation. Most of the modules will,
Helping address this lack of access to informa-
however, be relevant to policy-makers in all
tion in developing cities is a major objective of
developing cities.
the Sourcebook.

1
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

As well as capacity development for policy-mak- 1b. Urban Transport Institutions


ers and regulators, the Sourcebook can form the (Richard Meakin)
basis of a sustainable transport training curricu- This module develops �����������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

lum in a developing city, and will be a valuable an analysis of urban


resource to educators, civil society groups and transport institutional
other stakeholders. successes and failures
in developing cities.
1.4 Putting the Sourcebook It considers several
to use in-depth case studies ���������

in a range of coun-
����������������������������
����������������������

The Sourcebook can be used in many ways, rang-


���������������������������������������������������

tries, explaining how


ing from detailed technical manual to a conven- institutional short-
ient general overview. The modules will be made comings have arisen
available to policy-makers and regulators, and to and are manifested.
�������������������������
������������������������������������

other urban stakeholders. The module draws


01b - institutions-ohne Fl.indd 1 15.05.2003, 8:22 PM

GTZ is committed to actively disseminating conclusions from the case studies in the form of
the Sourcebook through various approaches and recommended policy approaches required for
over an extended period of time. Presentations, effective urban transport institutions.
workshops, brochures, websites, meetings, word 1c. Private Sector Participation in Urban
of mouth, provision of materials, audio-visual Transport Infrastructure Provision (Chris
materials, newsletters, media interviews: all Zegras, MIT)
are viable methods of helping ensure that the This module de- �����������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

Sourcebook objective of assisting developing city scribes benefits and


governments is attained. pitfalls of private
Inevitably, different cities will focus initially on sector participation
different modules of the Sourcebook. To assist (PSP). It provides
in deciding which policy-makers, regulators detailed case studies
and advisors should focus on which modules, of PSP in a range of ���������
��������������������������������������

each module is briefly outlined in the following developing countries ����������������������������������


����������������������

and concludes with


���������������������������������������������������

section.
carefully considered
Institutional and policy orientation policy recommenda- �������������������������

tions for developing


������������������������������������

1a. The Role of Transport in Urban


Development Policy (Enrique Peñalosa) cities. The module
01c - PSP-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 10:07 AM

This module sets �����������


������������������������������
emphasises that PSP in urban transport in-
out a ‘new vision’ of frastructure provision should take part in the
�����������������������������������������

urban transport for context of achieving wider mobility and access


developing cities. objectives, not as an end in itself.
Written by former 1d. Economic
mayor Enrique Pe- Instruments
�����������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

nalosa, it draws from ���������


(Manfred Breithaupt,
the recent experience �������������������������������
������������������
GTZ)
of Bogotá, Colombia One of the best ways
�����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

and shows how basic to influence travel


problems of urban behaviour is through
transport are political economic instru-
�������������������������
������������������������������������

���������
��������������������

rather than technical. ments. This module


01a - policy-ohne Fläche.indd 1 15.05.2003, 9:21 AM

����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

Dr. Axel Friedrich (Umwelbudesamt) contrib- surveys successful


utes to the module, explaining practical working experiences with fuel
mechanisms to help a city work from conceptual and vehicle taxes, �������������������������
������������������������������������

stages through to implementation. road pricing and 01d - EI-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:22 AM

2
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

other instruments, showing that a range of often automobile dependency? This module addresses
under-utilised policy options exists for develop- all of these questions and provides policy rec-
ing cities. The module shows how economic ommendations, with several case studies from
instruments can work toward multiple goals, developing cities.
generating revenues and reducing congestion
2b. Mobility Management
while improving air quality. (Todd Litman, VTPI)
1e. Raising Public Awareness about Mobility manage- �����������
������������������������������

Sustainable Urban Transport (Karl Fjellstrom,


�����������������������������������������

ment, otherwise
GTZ)
known as transport
Public awareness, �����������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������
demand management,
support and informa- aims to make the best
tion campaigns are use of existing infra-
crucial to the formu- structure by manag- ���������

lation and implemen- ing the demand for


�������������������
����������������������

tation of any sustain-


���������������������������������������������������

transport. The start-


able transport policy ��������� ing point for mobility
�������������������������������
in developing cities. ���������������������������
����������������������
management is that a
Key components of
��������������������������������������������������� �������������������������

city’s transport system


������������������������������������

carrying out a cost- should focus on


02b - tdm-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:41 AM

effective initiative to �������������������������


moving people and goods, rather than vehicles.
raise public awareness
������������������������������������

This differs from the approach currently being


about sustainable
01e - PAC-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:35 AM

taken in many developing cities, which is sup-


transport include determining a target audience, ply-oriented and involves ever-more road build-
developing a strategic approach, and establishing ing. This module provides a wide range of policy
an effective “Working Group” (with a case study tools in mobility management for developing
on Bicycle User Groups). This module provides cities, ranging from Smart Growth to parking
practical advice on all of these matters as well as to sustainable tourism and commuter reduction
a section on Car Free Days contributed by Eric programs.
Britton of Ecoplan.
Transit, walking and cycling
Land use planning and demand management
3a. Mass Transit Options (Lloyd Wright, ITDP;
2a. Land Use Planning and Urban Transport Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
(Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute)
Choices about a
Around the world, �����������

mass rapid transit


������������������������������
����������� �����������������������������������������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

which cities have suc-


system are choices
ceeded in establishing
about a city's future.
land use patterns
This module surveys
which support the
mass transit systems
more environmen-
around the world,
tally-friendly and ���������
���������
������������������������������������� and compares the ��������������������

efficient modes of ����������������������

different systems
���������������������������������������������������
����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

transit, walking and


according to key
cycling? What are the
parameters such as
benefits of better land �������������������������
cost, construction �������������������������
������������������������������������

use planning for de-


������������������������������������

time, environmental 03a - MRT-ohne Fläche.indd 1 15.05.2003, 10:29 AM

veloping cities? What


02a - land use-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 10:14 AM

impacts, poverty impacts, speed, passenger


are the key components of a successful land use
capacity and so on. It concludes that although
and transport planning program in a developing
there is no single mass transit solution, for most
city? How should urban transport and land use
developing cities bus rapid transit may be the
be organised? What can developing cities do to
best option.
address increasing problems of urban sprawl and

3
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

3b. Bus Rapid Transit (Lloyd Wright, ITDP) example pilot study conducted in Surabaya.
Bus rapid transit is �����������
������������������������������
Successful measures in cities such as Bogotá, and
in European cities, is described with a view to
�����������������������������������������

a remarkable new
phenomenon in the application in developing cities.
world of transit. This
Vehicles and fuels
module provides
4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies
practical guidance on (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,
how a developing city ��������� Umweltbundesamt)
can plan, finance, de-
�����������������
����������������������
���������������������������������������������������
Cleaner fuels and �����������

sign and implement a


������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

vehicle technologies
world class bus rapid are one of the key
transit system. As a ������������������������� components of any
planning template
������������������������������������

sustainable urban
for developing cities,
03b - BRT-ohne Fläche.indd 1 15.05.2003, 2:12 PM

transport system.
this module can drastically reduce planning and This module, from
consultancy costs which a developing city would two leading experts
���������
��������������������������������������

otherwise incur in developing a BRT system.


����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

on the subject, pro-


3c. Bus Regulation & Planning vides a detailed evalu-
(Richard Meakin) ation of cleaner fuels
and technologies
�������������������������

This module provides


������������������������������������

�����������
������������������������������

which can be applied


�����������������������������������������

direction to develop-
04a - fuels-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 11:32 AM

ing cities on how to in developing cities. Fuel options are evaluated


break out of a low based on cost and practicality. The role of fuel
quality, high-risk, low quality standards is also described.
profit, low invest- 4b. Inspection & Maintenance and
ment spiral in which ���������
Roadworthiness (Reinhard Kolke, UBA)
so many urban bus ���������������������������
����������������������
���������������������������������������������������
Another key compo- �����������

systems in the devel-


������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

nent of a sustainable
oping world are now transport system is an
caught. It introduces in-use vehicle testing
and outlines the
�������������������������
������������������������������������

system. This is es-


concept of an annual
03c - bus reg-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:48 AM

sential to ensure that


planning cycle, and shows how developing cities vehicles are properly ���������
can improve bus systems from the viewpoints of maintained, from
�����������������������������
��������������

operators, drivers, regulators, and passengers. both an environmen-


����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non- tal (emissions) and
motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP) safety (roadworthi- �������������������������

ness) perspective.
������������������������������������

This module starts by 04b - IM-ohne Fläche.indd 1 15.05.2003, 3:25 PM

outlining the benefits �����������


������������������������������
�����������������������������������������
This module provides
of non-motorised advice on the form of inspection and main-
transport (NMT). tenance system appropriate for a developing
It considers the country, and how developing cities can develop
different forms of and implement an effective system.
regulation to which 4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah,
NMT is subjected, ���������
������������������������������������
World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)
and describes the �����������������������
����������������������
���������������������������������������������������
Motorcycles are the dominant form of transport
non-motorised plan- in many cities, especially throughout Asia.
ning process and This module firstly describes how the traffic
the steps involved, �������������������������
������������������������������������
system implications of such a reliance may be
drawing from an 03d - NMT-ohne Fläche.indd 1 23.05.2003, 9:55 AM

4
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

unsustainable. The �����������


������������������������������
�����������������������������������������
implementation plans. The module explains
bulk of the module basic concepts of air pollution, sources and types
then considers the of pollution, major pollutants, WHO and other
problem of emissions standards, air quality monitoring, air quality
from two-stroke two- management plans, and emissions inventories. It
and three-wheelers also briefly introduces topics such as air quality
in developing cities, ���������
modelling and economic valuation of the health
�����������������������
emphasising the ����������������������
���������������������������������������������������
impacts of air pollution.
experience in Asia.
5b. Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix,
It provides policy DVR; David Silcock, GRSP)
advice on how to �������������������������
Road traffic crashes
address this problem,
������������������������������������
�����������
������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

result in around
considering several
04c - 2-3wheelers-ohne Fl.indd 1 03.06.2003, 11:42 AM

800,000 deaths annu-


case studies.
ally. A disproportion-
4d. Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec) ate amount are in
Written primarily �����������
������������������������������
developing countries,
with the victims
�����������������������������������������

from a European ���������

often pedestrians and


�����������������

perspective, this deci- ����������������������


���������������������������������������������������

sion-maker's guide to cyclists. This module


natural gas vehicles is describes how road
nevertheless relevant safety is organised at �������������������������

a city government
������������������������������������

to developing cities ���������

level, how it is as-


05b - safety-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 12:08 PM

which are consider-


��������������������
����������������������

sessed (including the use of tools such as road


���������������������������������������������������

ing use of CNG.


It provides a solid crash diagrams), how safer road environments
grounding in all the can be created, and the importance of public
awareness, enforcement, safer vehicles, and sound
�������������������������

basic concepts of
������������������������������������

natural gas vehicles,


04d - CNG-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 11:58 AM

financing.
including their operation, economic aspects, 5c. Noise and its Abatement (Civic Exchange
environmental aspects, refuelling infrastructure, Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA)
and so on. Case studies from developing cities, Noise is emerging as �����������

including a detailed consideration of experience


������������������������������
�����������������������������������������

an insidious problem
in Delhi (provided by CSE India), are provided. in developing cities,
Environmental and health impacts
even though it is not
currently perceived as
5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,
World Health Organisation) a major problem. A
major source of noise
This module serves to ���������

in cities is urban
�����������
������������������������������ �����������������������
�����������������������������������������

assist policy-makers ����������������������


���������������������������������������������������

raod transport. This


and their advisers in
module introduces
developing countries
Ethiopia fires March 2000
1
WHO/PHE/OEH

basic concepts of
to determine the best �������������������������

measuring noise,
������������������������������������

measures to abate
describes the health
05c - noise-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 12:13 PM

air pollution with ���������


effects of noise, provides recommended noise
limited information. ����������������������

level standards, and outlines six key policy areas


����������������������
���������������������������������������������������

It provides advice on
where governments can take action to reduce
developing legally
noise from transport.
enforceable air qual- �������������������������

ity standards and


������������������������������������

simplified clean air


05a - AQM-ohne Fläche.indd 1 28.05.2003, 6:44 PM

5
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Resources �����������
������������������������������
Training materials
�����������������������������������������

6. Resources for Subject to available resources, GTZ in coop-


Policy-makers
(Compiled by GTZ)
eration with key partners such as UNESCAP,
intends to further develop the Sourcebook into
This module pro- a set of training materials on sustainable urban
vides up-to-date, transport. These training materials will consist
annotated links to �������� of various components according to an inter-
internet resources ���������������������������
����������������������
��������������������������������������������������� nationally standardised methodology of high
in all the module quality training material provision. Components
topic areas, as well will include, for example:
as several additional instructors’ notes
sub-topics.
�������������������������
������������������������������������

06 - resources-ohne Fläche.indd 1 03.06.2003, 12:17 PM


participants’ notes
overheads / slides / projector material
facts sheets & briefings
1.5 Future directions for the training exercises and review questions
Sourcebook support audio-visual and multimedia
materials
Dissemination advice on how to plan for and implement
GTZ recognises the importance of devoting an effective training program based on the
resources to the active dissemination of the Sourcebook.
Sourcebook, to try to ensure that the modules are
actually used and applied in developing cities. “www.sutp.org is the companion
This active dissemination consists of several website to the Sourcebook, as
activities, one of which is the Sustainable Urban
Transport Project in Asia.
well as an information source
on sustainable urban transport”
Future directions for the Sourcebook and
SUTP-Asia include updates to the modules
(incorporating feedback from users), additional
modules – for example on driver training, urban
SUTP-Asia transport financing, and participatory planning
The Sustainable Urban Transport Project in – and the development of training materials
Asia, called SUTP-Asia, is one of the partner- based on the modules.
ships and initiatives which can be used as a
platform for the active dissemination and ongo- The Sourcebook companion website
ing development of the Sourcebook. This project The SUTP-Asia website, www.sutp.org, is the
commenced in early 2003 with initial German companion website to the Sourcebook as well
Technical Cooperation funding. as an information source on sustainable urban
transport. It will contain news of training events,
SUTP-Asia (sutp-asia.org) is based in Southeast
workshops and other events, news items, related
Asia and cooperates with a number of existing
GTZ initiatives, and other information. Addi-
and potential partners, including the United Na-
tional resource materials such as transport photo
tions Economic and Social Commission for Asia
CDs will also be available, with details provided
and the Pacific (ESCAP), CITYNET, the Clean
on the website.
Air Initiative for Asian Cities, the Asian Devel-
opment Bank and the Partnership for Clean Air
in Manila, and the Institute for Transportation
& Development Policy.

6
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

2. Cross-cutting issues
Sustainable development –
of urban transport
its origins and meaning
2.1 Sustainable transport: The ideas In 1972 the United Nations convened a con-
and principles* ference in Stockholm, Sweden to give developed
* This section is drawn from an unpublished mission report by
Dr. Axel Friedrich, Umweltbundesamt, for GTZ SUTP, January 2000 and developing countries a better understanding
of how to care for our planet. The United Nations
Mobility of people and of goods is an essential Environment Programme (UNEP) arose out of the
part of all social and economic activities. In Stockholm Conference.
most countries of the world, even develop- In 1983 the United Nations General Assembly
ing countries, passenger cars and trucks have created the World Commission on Environment
become the most important transport modes. and Development (WCED) and appointed Dr. Gro
In many developing cities high growth of the Harlem Brundtland its Chairwoman. The WCED
vehicle fleet has taken place in recent years. was given the task of developing a “global agenda
Non-motorised transport, which in earlier times for change.” Five years later, in 1987, the WCED
published Our Common Future, which agreed a
was the common way of linking together places
definition of sustainable development which is now
of activities, has to a large extent been substituted
generally recognised around the world. According
by the car in daily mobility, and by trucks, for to this definition, sustainable development meets
freight movement. The result of this process has the needs of the present without compromising
also been a significant change in land use patterns. the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
This process began during the 1920s and 1930s
The concepts developed in Our Common Fu-
in the United States and spread in the wealthier
ture and further elaborated in Rio in 1992 and in
countries initially, but subsequently all over Johannesburg a decade later serve as the basis for
the world, including to developing cities. The much of today’s understanding of the link between
shift towards motorised private road transport environment and development. The ‘genius’ of
reduced the share of other modes. The growth sustainable development is that it attempts to re-
of road traffic overwhelmed the development of concile economy and environment, and the access
the city structures and the supply of sufficient to resources of both present and future generations.
infrastructure. Therefore in developing cities (Future generations should have the same right to
more than in developed countries the transport a healthy environment as we enjoy.) In particular,
it is now widely agreed that sustainable develop-
system is inefficient, unsafe, causes environmen-
ment means more than merely conservation, and
tal problems, and disadvantages healthy city
that environmental and economic goals, especially
development. poverty alleviation, are not contradictory but are
The common problems of the transport sector fundamentally intertwined.
in big conurbations are congestion, fatalities and A healthy economy, and especially improving
injuries due to traffic accidents. Furthermore, an the standard of living of people in the world’s deve-
loping countries, is just as essential in satisfying our
increasing demand for mineral oil fuels, severe
material and non-material needs as preserving the
air pollution, increasing noise levels, and a loss
natural foundations of life. And only a society that is
of urban livability and green spaces due to trans- able to develop forms of governance that promote
port activities adversely affects city development. and help attain goals about how people want to live,
In particular the high growth of the transport and is able to distribute its goods and opportunities
related CO2 emissions – compared to other fairly, will be able to preserve that society’s values
economic sectors (see Section 2.4 below) – are and effectively organise the use of resources in a
causing concerns and demand further action. socially sustainable way. Sustainable development
These developments discourage the attractive- therefore relates equally to the three domains of
ness of cities and their economic well-being. economy, environment and society.

From the social point of view the trend towards


individual motorisation causes unequal mobility drive or cannot afford ownership of a private car.
chances and disparities in burdens and advan- The transport system demands large investments
tages, for example burdens for those who cannot and thus imposes economic burdens on public

7
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Sustainable transport budgets, which are difficult to afford for devel- as far as possible; air quality and noise should
at the international oping countries. This leads to the conclusion: not exceed the health standards suggested
level high per-capita transport activities in terms of by the WHO (World Health Organization);
Particularly important passenger kilometres and ton kilometres, done accident risks should be minimised
initiatives in the transport mainly by passenger cars and trucks, not only Economic: mobility of persons and of goods
sector include: indicate economic progress and welfare but also necessary to achieve prosperous economic
• Initially sustainable trans-
cause severe problems. development has to be provided, avoiding
portation was discussed at
congesting, and without over-burdening the
the 1994 OECD conference The 1992 Earth Conference in Rio adopted
financial limitations of the public and private
“Towards clean Transport: Agenda 21, underlining the principle of sustaina-
Fuel efficient and Clean budgets.
ble development. The June 1997 Special Session
Motor vehicles” in Mexico of the General Assembly of the United Nations As a practical consequence of these (and similar
• The Sustainable Trans-
recalled the need for sustainable development, other) criteria for sustainable transportation, the
portation Principles, as transport sector needs structural changes that
further reinforced in the Johannesburg Summit
discussed and developed can be described as follows:
by the March 1996 OECD
of 2002, and promoted the need for changing
the current patterns of transportation in order to Decrease the demand or at least mitigate
Conference “Towards
avoid unfavourable environmental and health ef- the increase of demand for motorised
Sustainable Transporta-
tion” held in Vancouver, fects. The threats and damages to human health transport of people and goods, for example
Canada; published in the and to the natural environment make current by establishing transport avoiding spatial
Sustainable Development transport structures unacceptable in the light of structures, by applying fiscal incentives and
in Canada Monograph the ideas of sustainability. In this context differ- other policy instruments to promote short
Series: “Sustainable Trans- ent international approaches following the Rio distance access.
portation”, Monograph No.
Earth Conference started to transfer the princi- Shift transport demand from unfavourable
2, Ottawa 1997 transport modes (in terms of environmental,
ple of sustainable development to the transport
• The Vienna Declaration of social and economic impact) to those with
the 1997 UNECE Regional
sector (see margin note). In very simple terms
we can differentiate between the environmental, less negative impact on people and nature.
Conference on Transport
social and economic goals that have to be satis- Ensure the use of best available technology
and the Environment
• Recent work of the OECD fied by a sustainable transport system: (BAT) both for the transport vehicles and for
developing the concept of Environmental: rate of use of non-renewable the management and communication tools in
environmentally sustain- resources should not exceed the rate at which transport.
able transport. renewable substitutes are developed; the rate Promote responsible behaviour of individuals
of pollution emission should not exceed the and responsible decisions by enterprises.
assimilative capacity of the environment; Integrate environmental and social
biodiversity should be protected. considerations into transport policy.
Social: access to all activities necessary to
participate in social life has to be guaranteed

Fig. 1
Global concepts
of sustainability
underlie the concept of
sustainable transport.
Raising the standard
of living in developing
countries is a major
goal of sustainability.
Earth by night. Image by Craig
Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA
GSFC. Based on data from the
Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program, 9 Nov. 2000.

8
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

2.2 Poverty When developing transport policy measures to


alleviate poverty it is important to consider the
A multidimensional problem
multidimensional nature of poverty, and not
Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter.
simply to focus on economic indictors such as
Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a
the proportion of income spent on transport
doctor. Poverty is not being able to go to school and
or the time spent travelling. In Bogotá, for
not knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a
example, one of the most effective measures
job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time.
for helping the urban poor was the dramatic
Poverty is losing a child to illness brought about
improvements to public spaces in the city. Since
by unclean water. Poverty is powerlessness, lack
1998, public space improvements in Bogotá
of representation and freedom. (www.worldbank.org/
have included:
poverty/mission/up1.htm)
285,500 square metres in walkways, green
Poverty has many faces and aspects, involves
������������������������������������� space, road dividers, sidewalks
in general terms lack of access to the resources 3,149 neigbourhood parks
����������������������������������
needed to participate in the everyday ������������������
life of 323 pocket parks
society. The multidimensional nature
������������������������������ of poverty
�����������������������������������������
11 metropolitan parks.
can be conceptualised in various aspects relating ����� As former mayor Enrique Peñalosa argues (see
to urban transport, access, and exclusion:
Module 1a: The Role of Transport in Urban
������������ The “ income poor” make less trips, and more
� �������� Development Policy) pedestrian streets and ample
of their trips are undertaken on foot. For most �
sidewalks make a more humane city. They also
������������
purposes they are restricted to whatever services
make a city more democratic, as public spaces
(usually poor) can be accessed within walking �
� �������� such as sidewalks and parks help integrate rich
distance, making them “accessibility poor”. The
and poor neighbourhoods, and provide one of
journey
��������to work may be relatively long. Even if
few avenues of recreation for the urban poor.
it is not, it will use slow modes and may be� very � �������� ��������
time consuming, so they are also “time-poor.” For Although poverty is multidimensional, we can
poor people, and particularly for women, children still consider in broad terms absolute indicators
�� and
�� the elderly, �� trip making is often discouraged
such as the number of people living on less than
�������� ��������� ���������
by their vulnerability as pedestrians both to traffic $1 per day,��as set out �in UNDP’s�Human Devel-
���������� ����������� ����������� ��������� ��������� ���������
accidents ���������������
��������� ������������ and to personal violence, making them opment Report
�����������2002, to give an�����������
����������� appreciation of
��������� �������������� ����������������
“safety poor.” Finally there is evidence that long the extent of poverty in developing countries.
���������� ������������ ���������������
�������� �������� ���������� �������������� ����������������
walking distances and times also creates a tiredness Table 1 shows �������� that ��������
more than one-fifth of the
��� ��� boredom���
and ... adding an “energy-poverty” di- world’s people live on less than $1 per day.
mension to their deprivation (World Bank 2002). In order to alleviate poverty, it is essential to
������������������������������������������������

develop an understanding of the dimensions of

Table 1: Number of people living on less than $1 per day, 1990 – 1999
UNDP 2002
���������
����� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������� �����������������
����
������ ���� ���� ���� ����

������������������ ���� ���� ��� ���


�������� ������������������������� ���� ���� ��� ���
����� ��������������� ���� ��� �� ��
���������� ���� ���� ��� ���
������������������������������� ���� ���� �� ��
������������������������������� ��� ��� � ��
���������������������������� ��� ��� � �
����� ����� ���� ���� ����� �����
��������������� ���� ���� ��� ���
����� ���������������������������������������������������������������
������� ������������������

����������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������
��� �������������������������������������������� �������� ���� ������� �������� ���������� ������9
���
��� ���������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������
���� �������� ������� ������� ��� �������� ������� ��������������������������������������������
������������������������������������� ����� ���� ������� ������������� ������� �������
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

povery and impoverishment, and through this poor are faced with a complex trade-off between
understanding to develop strategic ways of ap- residential security, travel time, and travel mode.
proaching and addressing poverty alleviation. It A survey of pavement dwellers in Madras, for
is now accepted that it is not sufficient to merely example, showed that 59% walked to work at
focus on indirect – so-called ‘trickle down’ zero cost. At the other extreme, those opting for
– benefits for the poor. This consensus is re- a degree of residential security on the outskirts
flected in approaches of multilateral institutions of cities pay a high price in terms of access costs.
such as the World Bank. Strategy documents The urban poor in Lima and Rio de Janeiro for
such as the Urban Transport Strategy Review now example are driven out to cheap dwelling space
acknowledge that urban transport improvements in remote locations, 30 or 40 kilometres out
directed at ‘improving the efficiency of the of the employment centre; average commuting
transport system as a whole’, are not sufficient. time per day for the poorest group in Rio de Ja-
In addition to sytem-wide increases in efficiency, neiro exceeding three hours (World Bank 2002).
targeted interventions to achieve poverty al-
leviation are required. Multilateral and bilateral “Eradicating poverty is the greatest
aid and development agencies are developing
global challenge facing the world
increasingly sophisticated tools to understand
– and alleviate – poverty. These include, for ex- today and an indispensable
ample, toolkits, websites, guidelines and manu- requirement for sustainable
als in the “References” section of this module. development, particularly for
Focusing on the modes used by the poor developing countries”
The transport needs of the poor differ from the United Nations, Report of the World Summit on
non-poor. The poor typically make 20 – 30% Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002
less trips, and rely much more on non-motorised
and public transport (Figure 2). The poor have a Much attention in the form of international
Fig. 2 more limited range of destinations, being much events, seminars, conferences, training materi-
more focused on core destinations such as work als and so on, is devoted to issues of vehicle
In Agra as in other
developing cities, urban places, schools, markets, places of worship and and fuel technologies. While this high level of
poor are more reliant health clinics. attention to technology is understandable and
on non-motorised helpful in addressing tailpipe emissions, it often
modes of transport. In developing cities land values often reflect does not address the most direct transport needs
Lloyd Wright, GTZ Urban Transport accessibility of an area to key destinations. The of the urban poor in developing countries. We
Photo CD 2002
often hear of seminars and workshops elaborat-
ing the results of the latest comparison of CNG
versus clean diesel, or even trials of fuel cells or
electric vehicles. But seldom do we hear of a
high profile international seminar focusing on
walkway design, or non-motorised transport
in developing countries. This is despite the fact
that in many developing cities, car-owners are
still a small minority of the population. Public
transport users, pedestrians and cyclists represent
a large majority in many developing cities, rang-
ing from Belgrade to Metro Manila to Bogotá
to Shanghai. Private motor vehicle ownership
is beyond the reach of the urban poor, with the
possible exception of motorcycles in cities such
as Denpasar and Ho Chi Minh in which public
transport provides less than 5% of trips.

10
DEDICATD TO MAKING A DIFFERENCE

But lower income groups rely


heavily on public transport
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

The poor in developing cities cannot afford cars. Percentage of all trips
They rely primarily on walking, cycling and 80

public transport for gaining access to jobs, serv- Walking Auto Public transport
ices and social events. Figure 3 presents data for
Santiago, Chile. Figures for other cities will vary, 60

though the trend it illustrates is typical of almost


all developing cities. It shows that the poor rely
on walking, cycling and public transport much 40

moreso than the non-poor.

“Low income people [in the 20

Surabaya study area] are forced


to use motorised travel even for 0

extremely short trips” <$117 $208–$316 $494–$750 $1,160–$2,865


$117–$208 $316–$494 $750–$1,160 >$2,865
GTZ SUTP/ITDP, 2000
Monthly income (1991 US$)
Although the transport patterns and needs of Note: Santiago does not add to 100%; not all modal shares included.
the poor will vary in different developing cities, Fig. 3
it is one of the foundations of this Sourcebook how effective public transport regulation means The relationship
and of GTZ’s approach to urban transport that that low-cost mass transit and non-motorised between transport
improved public transport and better conditions transport solutions need not correspond to a mode choice and
for walking and cycling will provide improved low level of service. Cities such as Bogotá have income in Santiago.
access to the urban poor, and will in this way provided a world class mass transit sytsem acces- WBCSD 2002

contribute to poverty alleviation. Many other sible to the urban poor, as described in Module
interventions can contribute to povery allevia- 3a: Mass Transit Options, and Module 3b: Bus
tion. Module 2a: Land Use Planning and Urban Rapid Transit.
Transport, sets out a diverse agenda of policy re- It is also important to avoid the misconception
forms which can promote transit, pedestrian and and stigma that non-motorised transport (such
non-motorised transport friendly development. as walking and cycling) and public transport
More effective transport and land use planning is for the poor. Module 3d: Preserving and
is an urgent requirement in many developing Expanding the Role of Non-motorised Transport,
cities experiencing rapidly growing urban sprawl shows that poverty alleviation is only one of
and car-dependency. Similarly, the mobility the many benefits of improving conditions for
management measures described in Module 2b: non-motorised transport. Benefits of improving
Mobility Management, lead to less automobile- non-motorised transport for the urban poor
oriented urban development patterns. are, nevertheless, potentially large. GTZ and
Improving public transport is a key component ITDP showed in a pilot project in Surabaya that
of any pro-poor urban transport agenda in a even in poor neighbourhoods, some 60% of
developing city. In many cities, policy-makers trips between 1 and 3 km were undertaken by
have strictly regulated fares under a misguided motorised means, due mainly to the very poor
conception that this alone would guarantee pub- conditions for walking, cycling and pedicabs in
lic transport access for the urban poor. Rather, Surabaya. Perhaps even more surprisingly, 20%
the outcome of poor regulation and misguided of trips less than 1 km in length were made by
fare controls have almost everywhere been a motorised means, despite the fact that both areas
declining level of service of public transport, of the pilot projects were low income neighbour-
and a ‘vicious cycle’ of declining investment hoods. One conclusion of the study was that:
and market share, as described in Module 3c: Even low income people are forced to use motorised
Bus Regulation and Planning. The Sourcebook travel even for extremely short trips, leading to
modules on Transit, Walking and Cycling show conditions where the working poor spend an

11
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

estimated 20% of their household income on to benefit the urban poor, to improve social
transport. Improved conditions for non-motorised integration, to enhance air quality, to improve
travel in the study area would yield $250,000 the productivity of the city, and to enhance the
in benefits to these low income families each year. quality of life of all citizens. The example of
(GTZ SUTP/ITDP 2000) Bogotá – and the policy underpinning it – is
elaborated by the man who inspired it, former
Public finances, and equity considerations
Opportunity costs of transport investments mayor Enrique Peñalosa, in Module 1a: The Role
of Transport in Urban Development Policy.
Urban transport policy has major implications
for city government finances. City government Bogotá is also an example of a city which has
spending in turn carries major opportunity leveraged the potential of economic instruments
costs. Scarce development funds spent on expen- as a way of achieving multiple transport objec-
sive rail-based mass transit systems, for example, tives including provision of funds, reduced con-
could be spent on more cost effective approaches gestion, progressive taxation, and environmental
such as bus rapid transit, with the resulting improvements. Advice on the use of economic
savings invested in health, public space and instruments including road pricing, fuel taxa-
educational facilities to benefit the urban poor. tion, parking, vehicle taxation, environmental
Possibly even worse than ill-advised mass transit trust funds and other measures is provided in
system investments, spending on new road Module 1d: Economic Instruments.
infrastructure, as well as being regressive in that Equity and transport in developing cities
it benefits primarily the richest (car-owning)
portion of the population, may actually worsen Equity considerations dictate that transport
urban transport conditions through induced planners in developing cities should favour
traffic and sprawl. modes of walking, cycling, and public transport.
In wealthier cities the urban poor are often a
Private sector participation in urban transport minority. Although equity considerations are
infrastructure provision can be an effective important in all cities (see text box “Evaluating
method for developing city governments to transportation equity”), in wealthy cities equity
3 – Patterns
provide&infrastructure
Challenges and services. Advice is
DEDICATD TO MAKING A DIFFERENCE considerations are often focused on politically
…And not just in the developed
provided on this topic in Module 1c: Private justifying urban transport subsidies of public
Sector Participation in Urban Transport Infrastuc- transport systems used by only a minority of

world
ture Provision. the population. In many developing cities, on
The city of Bogotá, Colombia provides a recent the other hand, the urban poor represent the
“Developing world” vehicle ownership rates – 1960-1995
example of the effective use of public finances majority of the population. This is reflected
350

300
1960
1980
250
1995

200
Motor vehicles per 1000 people

150

100

50

Fig. 4 0
Czechoslovakia

Malaysia
Poland

FSU
Hungary

Brazil

Mexico
Argentina

China
South Africa

India

South Korea

Taiwan

Thailand

Vehicle ownership
rates in selected
countries of the
developing world.
Thorvik, WBSCD 2002

12 Source: Ward’s/Pemberton, World Vehicle Forecasts and Strategies: The Next 20 Years, 1996.
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

for example in vehicle ownership data. Figure 4


Evaluating transportation equity shows that in low income developing countries
car ownership rates are typically less than 100
Equity refers to the distribution of resources and
cars per 1000 people, and even in higher income
opportunities. Transportation decisions can have
significant equity impacts. Transport represents a
developing cities car ownership is generally less
major portion of consumer, business and government than 200 per 1000 people. This compares to car
expenditures. It consumes a significant portion of ownership rates of around 400 per 1000 people
taxes and public land. Transport activities have in Europe, and more than 500 per 1000 people
external impacts (noise and air pollution, crash in many cities in North America and Australia.
risk and barrier effects) that affect the quality of
community and natural environments, and personal
“We will spare no effort to free our
safety. Transport determines where people can live,
shop, work, go to school and recreate, and their fellow men, women and children
opportunities in life. The quality of transport affects from the abject and dehumanizing
people’s ability to obtain education, employment,
medical service and other critical goods.
conditions of extreme poverty, to
Equity impacts can be difficult to evaluate, in part which more than a billion of them
because the word “equity” has several meaning, each
with different implications. There are three major
are currently subjected”
types of equity related to transportation: United Nations Millenium Declaration, Sept. 2000
1. Horizontal equity (also called “fairness”).
This concept is concerned with whether each The road environment
individual or group receives a fair share of
One area requiring further research concerns the
common resources. It suggests that people
exposure of urban poor to transport-related air
with equal incomes and needs should receive a
comparable share of government benefits and
pollution, road accidents, and noise. The follow-
bear comparable tax burdens. ing general observations, however, can be made:
2. Vertical equity with regard to income. This The urban poor make up a significant
considers the allocation of costs between proportion of the road-side workers in
different income classes, assuming that developing countries, resulting in a likely
public policies should favour people who are higher exposure to roadside air pollution (see
economically disadvantaged. Policies that further Module 5a: Air Quality Management).
provide a proportionally greater benefit to The urban poor have less means to protect
lower-income groups are called “progressive,”
themselves against pollution, and less means
while those that make lower-income people
to mitigate the results of pollution. The urban
relatively worse off are called “regressive.”
3. Vertical equity with regard to mobility need
poor are also often forced to accept trade-
and ability. This considers whether a transport offs between residential cost and ambient
system provides adequate service to people noise levels. The effects of noise on health,
who have special transport needs (i.e., they are and policies for mitigation, are described in
“transportation disadvantaged”). It suggests Module 5c: Noise and its Abatement.
that public subsidies can be justified if needed The urban poor are much greater users
to provide basic mobility to people who are of non-motorised transport modes than
transportation disadvantaged. the non-poor, and users of non-motorised
Due to these different definitions it is important
modes (including pedestrians) represent a
to specify which perspective is being used when
high proportion of road crash victims in de-
evaluating transport equity. For example, it may be
unclear to simply say that a particular transport policy
veloping cities. The problems of road safety,
or project increases or decreases equity, without and policy recommendations in this area, are
indicating which type of equity. For more information elaborated in Module 5b: Urban Road Safety.
please see www.vtpi.org.
Employment
Todd Litman, 2003
The urban transport sector is a significant em-
ployer in developing cities. Initiatives taken
to greatly improve the livelihood of urban bus

13
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

drivers in Bogotá are described in Module 3b: sion of gender in the Urban Transport Strategy
Bus Rapid Transit, and initiatives to improve the Review is worth quoting at length:
livelihood of pedicab drivers in Indian cities are Many activities typically undertaken by women
described in Module 3d: Preserving and Expand- (child-care, household management, informal
ing the Role of Non-motorised Transport. sector employment, etc) require them to make more
and shorter trips than men, more trips at off-peak
Involving the poor
hours and off the main routes, and engage in more
Sustainable urban transport measures will not complicated multi-leg trips, all of which tend
succeed without the support of the local people. to make their movements relatively expensive to
Many of the modules in the Sourcebook describe provide for by public transport, and hence highly
various forms of participatory planning processes. priced or poorly supplied. Women are very vulner-
Information campaigns, as described in Module able to these cost characteristics as they frequently
1e: Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable have less capacity to pay than male household
Urban Transport, are essential. It is necessary to members, who also control any bicycles or other
create awareness about the transportation system vehicles available to the household. Cultural
the people of a city deserve for existing and factors may constrain women’s ability to use public
future generations. This is a way for projects to transport or bicycles. In many countries there is
become “owned” by the community. In this way also a problem of the “social safety or security”
participation of the local people can be increased, of public transport for women, especially in the
resulting in greater benefits and making projects evening hours. This may force them to depend on
politically, socially and financially feasible.
Gender aspects of rural road
2.3 Gender maintenance in Costa Rica
Gender awareness is seeping into the transport In Costa Rica, GTZ has been co-operating with
sector. Although there were few studies on the local governments since 1990 in establishing a
practical road maintenance system. Its principles
subject as recently as 1998, a growing number of
are straightforward:
projects are beginning to address gender imbal-
Everyone has to join in – No road repairs
ances in the burden of transport, and endeavour are possible without the participation of the
to expand the range of transport choices, and local residents and the people’s assuming
reduce the costs of transport, for women. responsibility.
Everyone has to pay – Ministries and local
Gender analysis is justified in terms of greater
governments with money, and local residents
efficiency of transport interventions and
with their labour.
therefore greater impact on poverty reduction The right technology counts – Simple but
that it enables. Transport facilities can be bet- essective solutions are required, above all for
ter matched to the needs of users through an road drainage.
understanding of gender aspects of transport. In Not without the women – Women have proven
Surabaya, Indonesia, for example, a GTZ/ITDP to be especially important in organising local
(2000) study showed that a large majority of road maintenance committees and in winning
cyclists are men and a large majority of cycle over people’s support.
rickshaw passengers are women. Policy interven-
tions aiming to reduce the transport burden on “We’ll get our husbands to work!”
the urban poor in Surabaya need to take account A Costa Rican road committee member
of these gender-based variations for maximum
effectiveness. An increasing number of gender- The results of this approach have been remark-
able, including greatly increased access to health
related tools are becoming available to policy-
and education services, regular bus sevices, a road
makers, although so far the major resources have
maintenance fund, growth in the area under culti-
tended to focus on rural areas. vation by 7.5% per year, greatly reduced travel times
Along with poverty, gender related disadvantage and vehicle maintenance costs, and integration into
is also endemic in developing cities. The discus- the long term planning of the local governments.

14
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

more expensive alternatives. Peripheral location socio-economic systems, but the larger the
may be particularly damaging to women’s employ- changes and rate of change in climate, the more
ment potential. But there remains a heavy agenda the adverse effects predominate. When consid-
of necessary gender related research. This includes ered by region, adverse effects are projected to
a need for more ac tivity, as opposed to trip-based, predominate for much of the world, particularly
research; better estimates of the economic value of in the tropics and sub-tropics.
women’s time; and direct evaluation of the impacts
Climate change is projected to increase threats
of some gender related projects.
to human health, particularly in lower income
populations, predominantly within subtropic
2.4 GlobaL warming and tropical countries. Climate change can affect
The scientific basis human health directly (e.g. loss of life in floods
The “Greenhouse Effect”, which rose to promi- and storms) and indirectly through changes in
nence on political and research agendas in the the range of disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes),
1990s, refers to the warming which occurs when water-borne pathogens, water quality, air quality,
certain gases allow sunlight to penetrate to the
earth but partially trap the planet’s radiated
infrared heat in the atmosphere. Some such Minimising greenhouse gas
warming is natural and necessary, but increasing emissions from mobile sources
concentrations of these ‘greenhouse gases’ are
��������� ������� �����������������������������
causing serious climate changes. 44 19The main
19 greenhouse
18 gases (see chart) are
carbon dioxide (CO2) [44%], methane (CH4) [19%],
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is by far the most nitrous oxides (NOx) [19%], and the chloro-fluoro
important greenhouse gas. Scientists can study hydrocarbons (CFCs) [18%].
the composition of air in the past by examining
Chlorofluoro-
air trapped in Antarctic ice. Analysis of these carbons
bubbles shows that CO2 concentrations are now Carbon
higher than at any time in the past 420,000 Dioxide

years. In fact, it is likely that the concentration Nitrous Oxides

today is higher than it has been for 20 million


Methane
years. The current rate of increase of carbon
dioxide is greater than at any time in the past Carbon dioxide is produced naturally by living
20,000 years. Atmospheric CO2 concentrations organisms and by the burning of fossil fuels including
have been stable at around 280 parts per million mobile sources. Most of the methane is from coal
(ppm) for the last 1000 years, but rose sharply formations, landfills, livestock and wetland rice
in the late 20th Century to 380ppm. According cultivation. Methane has around 21 times greater
impact on global warming than carbon dioxide.
to various scenarios outlined in the Intergov-
Nitrous oxide is a by-product of fuel burning and
ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
fertiliser manufacture. It has 310 times the global
reports of 2001, the atmospheric concentration warming potential (GWP) of carbon dioxide.
of CO2 is projected to rise further to between The global community has conducted several
550ppm and 960ppm by 2100. international negotiations with the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the
The rise in greenhouse gas emissions, and espe-
associated Kyoto Protocol (unfortunately rejected
cially in CO2 emissions, has a direct impact on
by the United States in 2001, but ratified by many
global temperatures. Figure 5 illustrates both the
other countries) now setting the pace. Negotiations
rise in global temperature since 1860, and the are aimed at developing protocols for binding green-
contribution of anthropogenic emissions (prima- house gas reduction levels.
rily CO2 emissions) to this rise in temperatures. Major greenhouse gas emission reductions –
combined with local, city-level benefits in developing
Effects of global warming* countries – can be achieved through modal shifts
* This section is adapted from IPCC 2001
from private vehicles, to public transport and non-
Projected climate change will have beneficial motorised modes.
and adverse effects on both environmental and

15
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
������������������������ ��
������������������������ ��

�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������� ���������������������������
��������������������������� ���������������������������
��� ��� ��� ���
��� ��� ��� ���
������������������������
������������������������ ������������������������������
������������������������������
��� ��� ��� ���
��� ��� ��� ���

��� ��� ��� ���


��� ��� ��� ���

���� ���� ���� ����


���� ���� ���� ����
������������� �������������
������������� �������������
������������ ������������
������������ ������������
���� ���� ���� ����
���� ���� ���� ����
���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����
���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����

���������������������������
���������������������������
��� ���
��� ���
�����������������������������������
�����������������������������������
��� ���
��� ���

��� ���
��� ���

���� ����
���� ����
�������������
�������������
������������
������������
���� ����
���� ����
���� ���� ���� ����
���� ���� ���� ����

Figure SPM-2: Simulating the Earth’s temperature variations (°C) and comparing the results to the �������������
Figure SPM-2: Simulating the Earth’s temperature variations (°C) and comparing the results to the �������������
measured changes can provide insight to the underlying causes of the major changes.����������������
measured changes can provide insight to the underlying causes of the major changes.����������������
����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���� �������������� ��������� ���������� ����� ����� ��� ���� ��� ����� ����� ���� ���������� ��� �������������� ��������
���� �������������� ��������� ���������� ����� ����� ��� ���� ��� ����� ����� ���� ���������� ��� �������������� ��������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������
Fig. 5
Comparison and food availability and quality. Impacts will be The transport sector and global warming
Recent
Recent regional
regional changes
changes in in climate,
climate, particularly
particularly increases
increases in
in The temperature,
temperature, have
have ��������
between modeled strongly influenced by local conditions. transport sector ��������
isinresponsible for around
already
already affected hydrological systems and
affected hydrological systems and terrestrial and marineterrestrial and marine ecosystems
ecosystems in
and observations 25% of global CO emissions from fossil fuel
many
many parts
parts ofof the
Water
the world
worldshortages
(see(see inTable
Table SPM-1).
existing
SPM-1). water-scarce
The
The areas,changes
observed
observed changes in in these
these systems
systems 1 2 are
1
are
of temperature rise use; a share which is growing. CO2 emissions in
thecoherent
since coherent across
year across
1960. diverse
threats
diverse localities
to vulnerable
localities and/or
and/or regions
regions andand
ecosystems are
and
are consistent
low-lying
consistent in in direction
direction with
developed
with
thethe expected
expected
countries have been stabilised in most
effects
effects of
ofIPCC regional
regional changes
island
2001 changes
in temperature.
nations, The
and reductions
in temperature. The probability
in crop
probability that
that thethe
outputs observed
observed changes
changes in the
in the expected
expected
direction (with sectors, with the exception of emissions from
direction (with nono
arereference
further
reference to magnitude)
to projected
magnitude) could
effects
could of occur
byby
global
occur chance
warming,
chance alone
alone is negligible.
is negligible.
with most of the adverse impact projected to transportation. Figure 6 shows that CO2 emis-
1 fall studies
There are 44 regional upon of poorer nations,
over 400 andanimals,
plants and uponwhichthe poorer sions from the transport sector in Germany, for
varied in length from about 20 to 50 years,
1
There are 44 regional studies of over 400 plants and animals, which varied in length from about 20
example, to continue
will 50 years, to increase this decade.
mainly from Northpeople
America, inEurope, and the southern polar region. There are 16 regional
all nations. studies covering about
mainly from North America, Europe, and the southern polar region. There are 16 regional studies covering about
100 physical processes over most regions of the world, which varied in length from about 20 to 150 years.
100 physical processes over most regions of the world, which varied in length from about 20 to 150 years.

16 7
7
CO2-Emissions of Transport
Transport in
in
Germany
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

300
300
66
10 tons/year Scenario
Scenario

250
250

200
200

150
150 Aircraft
Aircraft
Ship
Ship
Rail
Rail
100
100
Road
Road ������� ����� ���� ������ �
����������������������������
���� ������������ ��� ������
50
50
���������
Fig. 6
������� ���� �����
���������������������������
CO2 emissions from
0
0 ������������������������������
the transport
GTZ SustainablesectorUrban Transpor
Kantor Bappeda Surabaya, Ruang Pra
1980
1980 1985
1985 1990
1990 1995
1995 2000
2000 2005
2005 2010
2010 2015
2015 2020
2020 in Germany (actual
����������� ���������������������������������
Jl. Pacar No.8
and projected).
Surabaya 60272, I
Tel 62-31-5353770; alt.
������������������������
Transport �������������������������
Remarks: Total
Total emissions
emissions including
including prechain
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Fax 62-31 5353770; alt.
Remarks: prechain (energy
(energy transport,
transport, production
production and
andconversion ininpower
powerplants,
plants,refineries);
refineries);Aircraft:
�������������������������������
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
conversion
German technical cooperation
Aircraft:Transport TREMOD calculation in Nov.
sutp@sutp.org; http://www
starting from German airports; 1999, courtesy of Axel Friedrich,
starting from German airports; ��������������������� ����������������������������
Umweltbundesamt
TREMOD-calculation in November 1999
Developed countries currently represent the ma- Memorandum
TREMOD-calculation in November 1999
������ ��������������������������
���� ����������
jor source of CO2 emissions (Figure 7), although To ��������� ����� ����������������������������
emissions from developing countries are rising CC ��������� ���� ���� ����������
rapidly and showing no signs of stabilisation From Karl Fjellstrom
�����������������������������
(Figure 8). Date 23-Aug-01
Re. �����������������
co2 emissions from transport sector ���������������������������
Reducing emissions from the transport sector
has proved very difficult. The OECD (1998) ���
������������������������������
bemoans that: ����� ���� ����� ��� �������
Of all energy-using activities, transport is the area Global transport ��� sector CO2 emissions as % of total:
����������������� ���������������������������
where governments find it hardest to find politi- �� ������������
����������������������������
cally feasible policies that can mitigate greenhouse Total increase Fig. 7
1990 1998
in million tonnes ����������������������������
CO emissions
gas emissions. ����������� 2
22,1% 24% ��� �����������
originate
770
There is, however, an emerging consensus on
��� disproportionately
������� ���� ����� ���� ���
how to effectively tackle CO2 emissions from from high income
the transport sector in developing countries, as Projected annual percentage growth rate of CO2 ���������� ��� �������� �
������������
��� countries.
emissions from transport sector to 2020:
����
outlined in the following section. ��������
UNDP 2002

4
�������������������������������������
“Climate policies can be more
����������������������������
��������������������������������������� 3.3
effective when consistently ���������������������������
�����������������������������
embedded within broader strategies 2.5
��������������������������
designed to make national and ������������������ �� ������
Fig. 8
regional development paths more ����������������������������
Projected annual
sustainable” percentage growth
���������������������������
rate of CO2 emissions ��
IPCC, Climate Change Synthesis Report, 2001 ��from
�������� ������� �� ����
the transport
Worldwide Developing Economies in
����� ��
sector��������������������
to 2020.
Countries transition
GTZ, based on data from IEA 2000
�������������������
Source: International Energy Agency (IEA), 2000a, ����� ������� �� �������� ����
CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: 1997 –1998, Paris.
17 ����������������������������
��������� ��� ���� ������ ���
����������������������������
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Achieving greenhouse gas emission Which policy approaches are recommended?


reductions from transport in developing cities The report notes that many of the strategies
Carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation has a nega- required have substantial local as well as global
tive connotation in many developing countries, benefits, and states that:
where city governments are faced with many Key strategies include increasing the relative cost
urgent demands. Averting increasing contribu- of using ... private cars and enhancing the quality
tions of transport to GHG emissions requires an and choices of alternative transportation modes.
integrated package of reforms. In all developing The challenge for all concerned with climate
cities, the question is how to get such policies change mitigation and reducing emissions from
implemented. The approach favoured by GTZ the transport sector, of course, is to help see such
and applied in Surabaya (www.sutp.org), and policy approaches through to implementation.
recommended by a range of recent studies, is to
focus on short to mid-term measures which are This is the challenge taken up by GTZ’s Sustain-
low cost and "win-win," with the highest impact able Transport Sourcebook for Policy-makers in
on CO2 mitigation at the same time leading Developing Cities.
to local economic, social, and environmental
improvements in the form of reduced conges-
tion & local air pollution, and a more liveable,
efficient, democratic and prosperous city. As the
WB UTSR (2001, draft) argues:
The suggested key … is both to link GHG mitiga-
tion to policy initiatives to goals that are perceived
to be of immediate relevance and to try to uncou-
ple, or at least “flex” the link between economic
growth and GHG emissions from the transport
sector.
There is now an established consensus, exempli-
fied by the shift of the Global Environment
Facility funding from technology upgrades to
projects promoting modal shifts, that the best
way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
urban transport is to strategically focus on urban
transport issues which are regarded as being
of immediate importance to policy-makers in
developing cities (especially congestion, local
air pollution, and uncontrolled motorisation)
which will give rise to a range of policy initia-
tives which simultaneously have the effect of
drastically reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Local and global (chiefly in the form of reduced
greenhouse gas emissions) benefits are achieved
through such policies. In this sense this ap-
proach amounts to a sustainable urban transport
policy approach focusing on city-level problems
and aiming to meet local and global needs.
A recent report from the Washington-based Pew
Center on Global Climate Change (Sperling et
al. 2002) recommends policies which should
be pursued in developing countries in order to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport.

18
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

References and resources Other resources


Sustainable development
References cited in the text Global Environment Facility,
GTZ SUTP/ITDP. 2000. Improving www.gefweb.org. GEF funds defray the
Conditions for Non-motorised Transport in added costs of making planned projects
Surabaya, Indonesia: a Pilot Project in Two environmentally friendly (with a focus on
Neighbourhoods, GTZ, www.sutp.org global issues such as climate change, in the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change transport sector).
(IPCC). 2001. Climate Change 2001 Organization for Economic Cooperation
Synthesis Report: Summary for Policymakers, and Development, Sustainable Development
www.ipcc.ch section, www.oecd.org/EN/home/0,,EN-home-
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2000. 21-nodirectorate-no-no--21,00.html, and
CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 1997– the Environmentally Sustainable Transport
1998, Paris, France. www.iea.org/stats/files/ section, www.oecd.org/EN/home/0,,EN-
co2.htm (available for purchase only) home-518-nodirectorate-no-no-no-25,00.html
OECD. 1998. Working Paper No. 13, provide numerous resouces on sustainable
“Innovation in Transport Behaviour and development
Technology”, www.olis.oecd.org/olis/ United Nations Commission on Sustainable
1997doc.nsf/LinkTo/ocde-gd(97)79 Development, www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
Pew Center on Globlal Climate Change. csd.htm. The UNCSD was established in
2002. www.pewclimate.org/projects/ 1992 following the UN Conference on
transportation_overview.cfm. Transportation Environment and Development
in Developing Countries: An Overview of United Nations Development Programme,
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies www.undp.org. UNDP’s mission is to
Thorvik, Arve. 2002. Sustainable Mobility: help countries achieve sustainable human
a Global Effort by Global Business, WBCSD development by assisting them to build their
Sustainable Mobility Project, Mobility capacity to design and carry out development
Workshop, IEA, Paris, 26 Sept., www.sustain programs, giving first priority to poverty
ablemobility.org/slides eradication
United Nations. 2002. Report of the World United Nations Environment Programme,
Summit on Sustainable Development, www.unep.ch. UNEP is charged with the
Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August implementation of global and regional
– 4 September 2002. Annex: Plan of environment conventions, providing
Implementation of the World Summit on policy responses to existing and emerging
Sustainable Development, United Nations, environmental concerns and raising awareness
New York, www.johannesburgsummit.org about how peoples actions negatively affect
United Nations Development Programme the environment. www.unep.ch/conventions/
(UNDP). 2002. Human Development geclist.htm provides links to various
Report 2002, United Nations, New York, multilateral agreements and conventions
www.undp.org/hdr2002/ World Bank, www.worldbank.org. The world’s
World Bank. 2002. Cities on the Move: largest source of development assistance
an Urban Transport Strategy Review, World Business Council for Sustainable
www.worldbank.org/transport Development, www.wbcsd.ch. WBCSD
World Business Council on Sustainable aims to develop closer co-operation
Development (WBCSD). 2001. Mobility between business, government and all
2001, www.sustainablemobility.org/ other organizations concerned with the
publications/publications.asp environment and sustainable development,
and to encourage high standards of environ-
mental management by business.

19
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Transport and poverty www.geocities.com/transport_and_society/


DFID Transport Resource Centre, ruralinclusion.html#topics. This website,
www.transport-links.org/rcs. The TRCS is prepared by Margaret Grieco, Professor of
a world-wide consortium of groups and Transport and Society, Napier University,
individuals with specialist knowledge in the Edinburgh, includes an annotated list of links
field of transport research. Site includes the to a large number of resources on gender
Rural Transport Knowledge Base and development, including best practice
GTZ. 2002. Urban Transport and Poverty in guidelines in various sectors. Includes a
Developing Countries, Ralf Kaltheier paper on Gender, social inclusion and rural
International Conference on Financing for infrastructure services
Development, Mexico, 18-20 March 2002, www.ifrtd.gn.apc.org/issues/cc-gen.htm,
www.un.org/esa/ffd. Documents available includes a section on Gender in Rural
for download include the “Monterrey transport issues, and links to various resources
Consensus”
Transport and global warming
International Forum for Rural Transport and
ARIC, www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/
Development, www.ifrtd.gn.apc.org
arichome.html. ARIC provides research &
International Labour Organization (Geoff
education in atmospheric & sustainability
Edmonds). 1998. Wasted Time: the Price
issues
of Poor Access, www.ilo.org/public/english/
Center for Neighborhood Technology,
employment/recon/eiip/publ/1998/ratp3
www.cnt.org. Contains a number of sub-web
Litman, Todd. 1999. “Evaluating
sites on various transport topics
Transportation Equity,” Victoria Transport
Environmental Defense, www.environment
Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/equity.pdf
aldefense.org. US non-profit organization
Overseas Development Institute. 2000.
representing more than 300,000 members
Povery and Transport: Toolkit, www.odi.org.uk/
Exhaustion: A Guide to Transportation
pppg/publications/papers_reports/dfid/issues/
Emissions, www.ec.gc.ca/emission/toce.html.
trans01.html
Easy-to-read fact sheets mainly on fuel-related
United Nations Centre on Human
topics, with a Canadian focus
Settlements/HABITAT, www.unchs.org.
Global Environment Facility,
Habitat’s activities focus on promoting
www.gefweb.org. GEF helps developing
housing for all, improving urban governance,
countries fund projects that protect the global
reducing urban poverty, improving the
environment. Site provides a list of projects
living environment and managing disaster
worldwide, information and application
mitigation and post-conflict rehabilitation
forms.
United Nations Millenium Development
GTZ Climate Protection Program,
Goals, www.developmentgoals.org, UN
www.gtz.de/climate/english.
Millenium Declaration, September 2000
Helio International, www.helio-
World Bank PovertyNet, www.worldbank.org/
international.org. HELIO’s goals are to assess,
poverty/mission/up1.htm provides many
monitor and publicise the contribution of
resources on poverty, including a “Literature
energy systems to sustainable development.
of Poverty” section.
Links to individual country reports.
Transport and gender International Council for Local
Transport and Society Research, Environmental Initiatives, www.iclei.org.
www.geocities.com/transport_research. Deals ICLEI is an international association of
with the two main topics of social exclusion local governments implementing sustainable
& transport, and gender & transport development
World Bank Gender and Transport, International Energy Agency, www.iea.org.
www.worldbank.org/gender/transport, Multinational agency dealing with energy
Includes various studies, tools and resources issues.

20
Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change


(IPCC), www.ipcc.ch. An intergovernmental
body that provides scientific, technical
and socio-economic advice to the world
community
Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development, www.oecd.org/env.
Environment Directorate resources include
the Environmentally Sustainable Transport
(EST) program.
Sierra Club, www.sierraclub.org. Campaigns
include sprawl and global warming
United States Environmental Protection
Agency, www.epa.gov. Many resources,
particularly strong on AQM. Also advocacy,
fuels, TDM, and global warming resources
Wuppertal Institute, www.wuppertal-
institut.de. The work of the Wuppertal
Institute is interdisciplinary and oriented
to solving problems in the area of applied
sustainability research.

21
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

Dag-Hammarskjold-Weg 1-5
Postfach 51 80
65726 Eschborn
Telefon (0 61 96) 79-1357
Telefax (0 61 96) 79-7194
Internet: www.gtz.de

commissioned by

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen