Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Preface 3
Introduction 3
1. The Effect of cars in our society 5
2. Infrastructure and policy making 10
3. Traffic Evaporation 14
4. City Spaces 18
5. The Transport Picture 24
6. Sustainable Mobility 29
7. The Sustainable City 32
Appendix A: List of practical suggestions 37
Appendix B: Best practices from around the world 40
Appendix C: Guide to organizations and resources 41
Sources 50
Glossary 50
Introduction
Introduction
A vision unfolds
3
Introduction
There are many ways that a community, its citizens ties, any well-intending mayor or municipal leader
and leaders can choose to become more sustainable will almost certainly choose the course of a more
and provide a more livable place for its inhabitants. sustainable future and higher standard of living for
Many of them are listed here to aid in the guidance its citizens. Be it a new vision, a change in course
for city leaders and urban specialists with ways to of policy, or the discovery of instruments and de-
make real and positive differences in their com- velopments happening all over the world, that will
munity. Furthermore, these are realistic devices, lead to such changes, such a path will be needed
whose implementation are first of all a matter of if we want to be honest with our citizens and give
choosing the right path for the community, second them the best chances for a happy, safe, and healthy
only an issue of financial costs. If a community future. It is unlikely that a full program for improv-
deliberately chooses to pursue a policy of making ing the quality of life of a city can take place with-
their city or town a “pleasanter, calmer, more eas- out at least some limitations imposed on the use
ily navigable and fun place to live”, then ultimately of the motorcar, however we would like to present
all of the suggestions will pay themselves off and the case that the end effect of such a program will
be more rewarding in the long run. The key and the certainly produce positive results for all to enjoy.
matter of fundamental importance is simply the de-
cision in the first place to take charge of a long term The content of this guide
policy of creating a healthier and more sustainable
community – together with the right tools. In the first section we can read about the impact that
the current increase in traffic is having in towns,
Many communities have had turning points and breaking down the impact and effects of a heavy
important dates in their history, some of which you reliance on the motorcar for transportation along
can read about in these pages. Maybe your com- environmental, social and economic lines. It should
munity will also experience a meaningful shift in be noted that while the overall tone of this book is
outlook about how to approach and plan for a more a positive one, with encouragement and hope pre-
human friendly environment in which to live? sented for a nicer environment to live in, this first
section will necessarily have to deal with some of
Coming to terms with the need for change the less pleasant aspects of modern life. Hopeful-
ly, the reader will not become too depressed with
While this guide takes every effort to paint a posi- the current situation, but rather inspired to work for
tive picture of what a sustainable community can ways to improve things, and read on!
look like, and the hope is inherent that imagining
this picture and catching such a vision can natu- In section two we analyze the maxim “what you
rally take place, it is also the case that we must first build, they will use”. Examples are given to sup-
highlight some of the negative trends of the increas- port the notion that infrastructure built often brings
ing motorization of cities. We hope that common the demand to follow it, and that wise choices made
sense will win out, once all of the ramifications of by policy makers can result in the highest levels of
car-centric societies are laid bare: from the grave user-end satisfaction. The key is to think long and
environmental and health concerns, to the need for hard about both current or future policy as well as
guaranteeing a positive habitat for children, to re- major projects to be considered for implementa-
storing peace and calmness to currently noisy and tion, as these will have lasting consequences.
traffic-clogged communities, to multiplying usable
space and offering an easier and more enjoyable Section three presents the results of a closely stud-
lifestyle for city residents. Given such a strong ied phenomenon called traffic evaporation. Major
case for action on creating more livable communi- European Union research indicates that contrary
4
1 A closer look at the automobile
to what might be expected, closing off parts of a happening around the world today. The third lists
city center to traffic will produce an overall lesser various organizations, current projects as well as
amount of trips made, thus increasing the levels of suggested readings in this area.
peace and quiet for the local residents and making
the city center more attractive for visitors. Certain terms are marked as special vocabulary
with an asterisk (*), which means that an entry is
Section four revolves around city spaces and the provided in the glossary.
possibilities for improving the city in many differ-
ent ways, making it easier to get around and more
stress-free. Many techniques and examples are
provided on how to make cities more attractive,
more safe, less noisy and more fun.
5
1 A closer look at the automobile: A quick drive through Carville
There is an inevitable inverse relationship of the lems affecting a given society are fully understood,
benefits compared with the harms when taking into can solutions be found that are guided by the real
consideration an increasing frequency of personal desire of improving the life of all of the citizens.
motorized transport*: the negative impacts increase Decision makers should come to realize that both
as the positive ones fade away. Urban development decisions made about the future of a city as well as
must adopt one of two approaches. Cities will have indecision in acting on issues have real effects on
to choose which direction to go, as a full, unmiti- their community.
gated level of support of all transport modes and
infrastructure will soon become impossible.
A quick drive through Carville
Simplified to provide clarity, the two choices of a
city are: Before we consider the various impacts that cars
1) Develop, invest and build more in an attempt have on our health, our societies and the environ-
to meet the demands of a rapidly growing per- ment, let us take a quick look at the reasons we do
sonal motorized transport. have for driving, considering also the backdrop of
2) Reorganize, redesign and plan for measures an auto-centric society.
to alter the trend of an ever-faster growth of au-
tomobile use and other personal motorized ve- Speed and Freedom
hicular traffic.
Arguably, the two leading reasons for owning a
If we could imagine for a minute the separation of car are its inherent speed and the opportunity to
a city into car-accessible and a car-free sections, go when and where the driver wishes. The latter,
where an individual choice could be made between given the name “freedom” has often been touted as
living and working in a car-oriented or in a car-free the American dream, and has given rise to stereo-
district, car ownership and use would thus become types of rugged individualism and a independent
a near private affair, as life-styles (with all of its lifestyle. While there is an obvious appeal to this
conditions and effects) could be chosen freely by romanticized ideal – given that it is being tried out
individuals. Car ownership – a person’s free choice all over the world – the truth is usually more mun-
– is usually thought of as a completely private af- dane: the daily drive to work, running errands and
fair, as if we actually did live in cities segregated picking up the kids from school.
according to use or non-use of the car. The truth,
however, is that car use and car-based infrastructure The loss of speed in relation to time
have wide-reaching effects on all of us, whether we
own a car or not. It is thus imperative that take a Regarding particularly the speed that cars possess,
closer look at the impacts of widespread car usage, while by itself it seems to provide the car with a
in order to make a more informed and wise deci- huge advantage to every other form of transport,
sion about our attitudes and the direction in which once the factor of time is included in the equation,
we wish to take our communities. a general fact about the automobile and travel with
it that we can consider is the amount of time spent
The wise leader and the concerned decision-mak- dedicated to it. The philosopher and social critic
ers, who really care about the health and well-be- Ivan Illich has made a calculation of the time put
ing of their communities must take an honest look into the different components that relate to driving
at the current trends of the auto-centric society and and that require time investments:
all of the effects that have been ushered in during
the car age. Only when the exact nature of the prob- The typical American male devotes more than 1,600 hours a
6
1 A closer look at the automobile: The Environmental, social and health-related impacts of cars
year to his car. He sits in it while it goes and while it stands a lot higher, it still comes short of the total cost
idling. He parks it and searches for it. He earns the money of driving, which can be added up by considering
to put down on it and to meet the monthly installments. He the large subsidies of many governments in build-
works to pay for petrol, tolls, insurance, taxes and traffic ing expensive roads and car parks and in generally
tickets. He spends four of his sixteen waking hours on the supporting the automobile industry.
road or gathering resources for it. And this figure does not
take account of the time consumed by other activities dic-
A car for short trips
tated by transport: time spent in hospitals, traffic courts and
garages; time spent watching automobile commercials or at- It should also be noted about the car, that the aver-
tending consumer education meetings to improve the quality age distance a car makes daily is below 20 km and
of the next buy. The model American puts in 1,600 hours one third of the trips that a car makes is less than
to get 7,500 miles: less than five miles an hour. (that equals 3 km. In traffic less than 2 hours a day, cars still
12,000 kilometers and 8 km per hour) have to be accommodated, which involves either a
real designated parking space or other space taken
It has been noted elsewhere that this does not in- away from sidewalks, for example.
clude the ever greater amounts of time spent in
traffic jams. Sitting in traffic jams has both a time
value and money value associated with it. In fact, The Environmental, social and
it has been estimated that time lost in gridlock can health-related impacts of cars
cost European nations billions of Euros.
Fossil fuel emissions
Paying a large bill
Probably the most widely understood adverse ef-
Considering the up-front cost of driving, it can fect of the automobile age is that of the car’s fossil
many times appear to be a cheaper alternative to fuel emissions. Global warming, which has now
other modes of transport, when only the fuel is rightfully become a buzzword, is caused by the
compared to the cost of a bus ticket. This compari- greenhouse effect*. In all, transport is estimated
son is often made, resulting in the fact that many to account for 20-25% of all greenhouse gas emis-
people choose the car over a sometimes expensive sions. Motor vehicles are the single biggest source
bus or train ride. However, just like there are many of atmospheric pollution, contributing an estimated
hidden aspects of time spent in car-related activi- 14% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions from
ties, so are there also many hidden costs to driving. fossil fuel burning, a proportion than is steadily
It should first of all be realized that the automobile rising. Add the emissions from exploration, trans-
industry, including the creation of highways, are portation, refining and distribution of fuel, and this
usually greatly subsidized by government, many figure if 15 to 20 percent of world emissions. The
times along with an inadequate level of funding for average European car produces over 4 tons of car-
public transportation. However, just concentrating bon dioxide every year.
on the costs handed down to the end-user, there are
still many extra monetary costs, that go beyond the While a thorough discussion of global warming
fuel costs: Purchase of vehicle, maintenance of ve- goes beyond the scope of this book, it should nev-
hicle, payment of fees, such as insurance, driver’s ertheless be appreciated that scientists are becoming
license, car registration. Add to that all of the small more and more certain of the great dangers of global
costs like oil-change, green card, toll roads, park- warming. Serious and respected scientists are claim-
ing. Then there might be large costs, such as hos- ing that a reduction of greenhouse gases is needed
pital or doctor’s fees. While the figure is already closer to 60%-80% rather than the 5.2% cut dictated
7
1 A closer look at the automobile: The Environmental, social and health-related impacts of cars
by the Kyoto protocol. The effects of global warm- emissions in the city of Budapest, caused foremost
ing can lead to an environmental catastrophe even in by the traffic situation, will account for a reduction
our own lifetimes: Weather will become more and in the average life expectancy by three years.
more unpredictable, with some areas of the globe
experiencing flooding and very cold weather while Accidents
other places will become extremely hot and dry. A
great displacement of people in search of livable cli- Apart from pollution, road accidents account for
mates will then follow. It should be noted, that since the other major health impact of travelling by car.
the deep waters of the planet take such a long time Over 40,000 deaths occur on the roads of Europe
to heat up, we are currently experiencing the main every year. Four out of five fatalities occur in ur-
effects of CO2 emissions from 40 years ago. As ev- ban areas. A million people die on the roads every
ery community in the world plays a role in this, it is year – 10 million are estimated to be injured. At a
indeed a global problem that needs to be addressed daily rate, the figures have been thus calculated:
also at the local level. 3,000 people die every day, around the world, in
traffic. On top of that, 30,000 people are injured
Motor vehicles generate more air pollution than any every day.
other single human activity. While global warming
can potentially lead us to an environmental catastro- Environmental destruction
phe, the pollution caused by burning fossil fuels has
already been having an effect on human health for a Not just human health is at peril due to pollution,
long while. Cancer and asthma are both diseases that but the natural and animal world is as well. On
find a direct link in pollution. While the negative ef- the one hand, the pollution itself or the accompany-
fects of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide have ing changes brought on the climate are devastating
been fairly well known for a while, the negative ef- enough to natural habitats, but when we add to this
fects of microparticles, found especially in diesel the fact that more and more roads are being built
emissions, are gradually becoming known, and are through natural areas, which brings with it many
shown to have devastating consequences for human other developments and further sources of human
health. Add to this dioxin, which is a by-product of engineered pollution. An indirect yet very potent
pollution, yet according to some, is thought to be impact of the automobile is its spread of human
the number one cancer-causing force in the world. activity into many reaches of the natural world,
Dioxin, through pollution, finds its way into the producing not just pollution, also a large amount
food that we eat, hitting meat and dairy products of waste, a loss in space and natural habitat, and
especially hard. New findings also suggest that the much more.
nutritional components of many food products are
being compromised, thus creating a greater need for Furthermore, the great amount of materials needed
nutritional supplements. just to manufacture a car are so high, that according
to some estimates, a car produces more pollution in
In the U.S., the American Lung Association esti- its period of manufacture than in its entire lifetime
mate that between 10,000 and 24,000 people die of driving. This includes raw materials such as steel,
each year as a result of traffic related air pollution. iron, rubber, plastics and aluminum as well as large
Epidemiologists and public health specialists in the amounts of substances that deplete the ozone layer
U.S. and U.K. indicate that up to 60,000 Ameri- as well as huge quantities of energy.
cans and 10,000 British are killed each year as a
result of particulate pollution. In Hungary, a recent In considering the „strictly” environmental effects
finding has come out, claiming that the pollution of pollution, it should not be forgotten that human
8
1 A closer look at the automobile: The Environmental, social and health-related impacts of cars
health and well-being is very closely tied to both a person has within his or her neighborhood cor-
the plant and animal world. In fact, we could not responds to the speed and volume of street traffic.
live without plants and animals. Thus, considering Sociologist Donald Appleyard discovered that on a
an environmental perspective involves a consider- street with light traffic — 2,000 vehicles a day —
ation of humans just as much as it does of plants residents had about 10 friends and acquaintances
and animals. in the neighborhood, as compared to a street with
heavy traffic — 16,000 vehicles a day — where
The waning of the oil age residents had only four acquaintances, including
on average 0.9 friends.
Most cars run on gasoline or diesel. These are
derived from petroleum, commonly referred to Severance* is the term given to the effect that a busy
as oil. Globally, motor vehicles use one third of road can have by cutting a line straight through a
the world’s oil resources. The extraction of oil community or an Eco-habitat. In the case of com-
involves habitat loss, oil spills, air and water pol- munities, it can imply that a person might have to
lution, large emissions of carbon dioxide, regular travel a long distance or encounter many difficul-
humanitarian abuses and international conflicts. ties to reach a location that is not necessarily that
The living conditions in many areas where oil is far away, as the bird flies. For ecosystems, it means
extracted is harsh. We can consider here the poor that species have a limited habitat to live in, and
living in the environmental wastelands of Nigeria’s that when some animals do try to cross over a busy
oil producing areas or the effects of oil extraction highway, they often do so at their own peril.
in Azerbaijan. The strong protest against drilling
for oil in Alaska has made it clear that there are Community is very important to the health and
very serious societal and environmental effects at- wellbeing of both a society seen as a whole as well
tached with oil extraction. as for each and every individual. Another loss for
the community, when cars become the dominant
However, when considering oil, we must also keep mode of transport, is the loss of human interaction.
in mind that it is a non-renewable resource and that In communities that involve lots of walking, com-
the dictates of peak oil* are that we are now near- munal transport and public space, the amount of
ing a period of decline in availability. The most interaction, especially chance meetings, mark an
optimistic studies estimate that oil reserves will be overall vibrancy of a community that can never be
sufficient for 30 years, while skeptical estimates al- achieved by a society where the automobile is the
low for only 10 years of further extraction without chief form of transport, as here there are very few
a new explosion of oil prices. One thing is for sure: chance encounters, planned meetings are the order
The record high prices of today, even if they do of the day.
level out or occasionally slightly drop, will only
continue in the direction of price increases. The The loss of Space
age of cheap oil is over, which is already having a
strong effect on North America, as it is there that If on the one hand, cars create pollution, envi-
the greatest governmental subsidies for oil exist. ronmental and health problems, then on the other
hand they are great consumers of space. It is an
The effect on communities undisputed fact that cars require a great amount of
space. This is because they are the largest things
Neighborhood streets and the traffic they bear do on the road. In fact, as they become more popular
have an impact on the social fabric of that neighbor- they need more and more road space and more and
hood. For instance, the average number of friends more roads. When they are not in use they need to
9
2 Infrastructure and policy making: Hard choices and far-reaching consequences
the fact that the more types of active travel are en-
joyed and promoted, the healthier citizens will be.
Bogotá © Gtz
cobblestone square.
10
2 Infrastructure and policy making: Hard choices and far-reaching consequences
11
2 Infrastructure and policy making: Hard choices and far-reaching consequences
12
2 Infrastructure and policy making: Hard choices and far-reaching consequences
13
3 Traffic Evaporation
Groningen, with a population of 180,000, has the forced to take detours, where the cycling network
highest level of bicycle usage in the West. 50% of contains the easiest access to the city center. This
the trips in the city are made by bicycle. is achieved in part by dividing the center into four
zones, with sector borders that can not be crossed by
Since 1977, when a six-lane motorway intersection cars, thus there is no through traffic in the center.
in the city’s center was replaced by greenery, pe-
destrianization, cycle ways and bus lanes, the city Groningen’s ten-year bicycle program has aver-
has experienced a remarkable recovery. Rents are aged roughly € 30 million, but every commuter car
high compared to the Dutch national average, the it keeps off the road saves at least € 250 million a
emigration to other parts of the country has been year in hidden costs such as noise, pollution, park-
reversed and businesses, once in revolt against car ing and health.
restraint, are eager for more of it. As Gerrit van
Werven, a senior city planner, put it, “This is not an Cycling in Groningen is viewed as part of an in-
environmental program, it is an economic program. tegral urban renewal, planning and transport strat-
We are boosting jobs and business. It has been egy. Separate cycle ways, advanced stop lines at
proved that planning for the bicycle is cheaper than traffic lights, and right turns at red lights are com-
planning for the car.” Proof of this lies in the fact mon. New city center buildings must provide cycle
that requests regularly arrive from shopkeepers, re- parking facilities. There are tens of thousands of
questing bans on car traffic on their roads. parking spaces for bikes, either in street racks or
guarded parking – the central railway station has
room for over 3000 bicycles.
3 Traffic Evaporation
14
3 Traffic Evaporation: Case study 1: Nürnberg, Germany
build a new road or widen the existing one. While was noticed that life seemed to carry on just fine
this sometimes brought initial relief, it also brought without that particular artery, and so city hall made
puzzlement and frustration, since after not too long, the decision to keep it permanently closed. Or in
traffic levels would come increasingly close to for- the case that it was later reopened, a perceptible
mer times, and the local government would start to degree of modal shift had already occurred, and the
talk again about more road building. former levels of traffic were not again reached.
But this has now been turned on its head. It has First hand evidence
been getting more and more evident in recent years
that if you build a new road to meet expected traf- An excellent body of research has been compiled,
fic flows, the very existence of the new road is a documenting this phenomenon in several Euro-
stimulus for traffic growth. This became clear, for pean cities, and presented in an EU publication
example, when following the construction of the titled „Reclaiming city streets for people – Chaos
M25, the orbital motorway around London. People or quality of life”. The very convincing research is
then also began to realize that while building new leaned on heavily here, and several examples are
roads generates traffic, restricting access to roads quoted from this book.
actually decreases traffic. In a given situation,
when roads have been closed, and access (espe- Here, two examples are given, of Nürnberg, Ger-
cially to city centers) has been restricted, after the many and Strasbourg, France. It should be noted,
immediate changes that required some adjustment, however, that there are several other interesting ex-
the measurement of overall traffic volume for the amples in this study, ranging from the small Finn-
given area reveals that there has been a system ish town of Kaajani to a bustling neighborhood in
wide decline of traffic levels. This includes even London, England.
those roads nearby to the closed off area, which
were expected to become extremely burdened by Case study 1: Nürnberg, Germany
traffic. This phenomenon has received the name
traffic evaporation*. Background
It has been observed that when drivers are sudden- In the early 1970s, the city center of Nuremberg
ly presented with a new scenario, and have to make in Northern Bavaria, with its narrow streets, his-
a choice of which method to choose in a changed toric monuments and shopping areas, was facing
situation, then a shift to another mode of transport growing problems of traffic-related air pollution,
or even a reduction in the overall travel amount oc- causing decay of historic buildings, health con-
curs. If public transport or cycling become easier in cerns, and excessive traffic congestion in the city
comparison to driving around a closed-off city cen- center.
ter, for instance, the same person who before natu-
rally reached for the car keys, will now think twice. The strategy: ’Civilizing Urban traffic’
In many cases, when the former convenience of a
type of trip suddenly becomes less convenient, a Since the 1970s, the city authorities have adopted
frequent response has been to reconsider making a progressive strategy to give priority to more sus-
the trip at all. tainable, less polluting modes of transport, to pro-
vide better access to shopping and offices within the
One particular situation has occurred numerous area, and to improve parking space management.
times: A road or even bridge was closed for the The removal of car traffic from the city center was
sake of reconstruction, during the reconstruction it carried out in phases, culminating in the closure
15
3 Traffic Evaporation: Case study 1: Nürnberg, Germany
of the last major traffic corridor through the city mately 10 000 vehicles between 1989 and 2000,
center between 1988 and 1989. Access for public despite an overall increase in car ownership during
transport was still permitted. In 1989, following this period.
wide ranging consultation and a close vote by the
city, the pedestrianization was made permanent. The role of a brave leader
Over the next 10 years, the area has been trans- What is the role like of the town authorities, who
formed in six phases into an attractive pedestrian are considering such aspiring goals? It is not al-
precinct, buildings have been renovated, street furni- ways easy to push through with an initiative that
ture upgraded and artworks introduced. The area has does not at first appear very popular, but in the end,
become a pleasant place in which to stroll and enjoy it can be quite rewarding. Here is an observation on
street cafés free from pollution and congestion. the challenges that a city authority might face:
Popular support for the pedestrianization scheme Taking capacity away from the dominant road user (i.e. the
has been proved to be strong. Proposals to reopen private car) is a brave decision for an authority to take. Logic
the Rathausplatz/Theresienstrasse through road to suggests that if a network is already congested, the removal
car traffic following a change in political leader- of capacity can only exacerbate the situation. Public concerns
ship of the city in 1996 were not realized due to usually focus on predictions of traffic chaos and adverse eco-
public objection. nomic impacts. In the face of such reaction, planning authori-
ties and politicians may lose courage and abandon proposals
to reallocate road space. In such circumstances new ideas,
Results
such as the concept of ‘traffic evaporation’ (which challenges
First two months after Rathausplatz/Theresien- the assumption that traffic congestion will necessarily worsen
strasse Square closure to traffic: if road capacity is reduced), can lend valuable support as to the
• increase in traffic congestion; technical feasibility of creative traffic management solutions.
• the municipality faced considerable critical op-
position from the public and the media.
After 6–8 weeks Case study 2: Strasbourg, France
• traffic adjusted to the new situation and the
congestion problems were resolved; Background
• support for the scheme grew as the advantages
of the project became clear, especially in spring The city of Strasbourg situated on the banks of
time when people could enjoy urban street life. the River Rhine is characterized by canal and
Extensive traffic monitoring was carried out to as- river crossings and historic buildings and monu-
sess the impact of the road closure on traffic in the ments. The city center, located on an island,
historic center. The actual traffic reduction (21 176) has been designated a world heritage site by
in the historic city center was twice as large as that UNESCO. During the 1980s, the city was fac-
predicted. By 1993 a total of 36 044 vehicles had ing growing traffic-related problems: frequent
disappeared and figures (although incomplete for congestion, air and noise pollution, and high ac-
1997) suggest a further reduction in traffic levels. cident levels. The city center was becoming less
In order to see if the ‘missing traffic’ was being dis- attractive to visitors. In addition, the scope for
placed to roads inside the outer ring road, screen line providing more space to accommodate growing
counts at the city’s 12 bridges were carried out. The numbers of private cars was limited due to the
statistics show that rather than an increase in traf- historic street pattern with its monuments and
fic flows, there was an overall reduction of approxi- historic buildings.
16
3 Traffic Evaporation: Case study 2: Strasbourg, France
The strategy: The Urban mobility plan city center shops, which did in fact occur. It was
also feared that pedestrianization of the city center
The main aim of the plan was to reduce the would prevent customers from visiting their shops
dominance of the private car and to increase the as cars were prohibited from this part of the city. A
use of more sustainable forms of transport, pub- strong anti-scheme campaign was mounted.
lic transport, cycling and walking, in the city
center.
17
4 City Spaces
18
4 City Spaces
done, the results are tangible! This section will pro- perhaps a gurgling fountain, nearly every resident
vide many different methods of traffic calming as in the city will come to enjoy the benefits of a pe-
well as suggestions for positive „filling-in” of traf- destrian center and will begin to spend more and
fic-calmed areas. more time there.
Limiting car access to center In the case of large cities or cities with an inordi-
nate amount of traffic, the quickest possible solu-
Each and every town, no matter what size, can ben- tion for a city-wide reduction in traffic is to initiate
efit greatly from turning their center into a carfree either temporary or partial bans or set up a system
zone, with pedestrian streets, cafés, shopping dis- of congestion charges. Banning cars from central
tricts and historical areas. This trend has become areas can happen in different ways: One of them
quite popular all over Europe as well as elsewhere is to regulate which license plates may enter the
in the world, that it almost needs no additional ef- city on what days. Several Italian cities permit
forts to explain. Every year, numerous cities are odd-numbered plates to enter on certain days of the
added to the list of towns with largely carfree week and even-numbered plates to enter on other
centers or extensive walking districts. Where this days. If owning more than one car is a common oc-
hasn’t happened yet, it is being planned. For the currence (or could turn into one), a way to prevent
city that has not made such a move, this would be tactics for getting around the ban is by assigning
the very first place to start. For once the city cen- the same category of license plates to the multiple
ter has been turned into a place where both local vehicles of a single owner. This will also discour-
residents and visitors can stroll around, sit in ca- age drivers from purchasing a second vehicle for
fés or shop, all to mere sounds of other strollers or strictly that purpose.
Bogotá © Gtz
19
4 City Spaces
Temporary bans on driving through the center speed of vehicles passing through and decrease the
might involve closing off streets for certain hours, appeal of driving in a given area. A speed bump
for instance on evenings or weekends. The city of (sometimes referred to as a sleeping policeman) is
Bogotá, Columbia enacts a car ban on all the major just the tip of the iceberg!
streets in the center of the city, every Sunday, for
seven hours during the day. A city might consider Apart from putting speed bumps in the road to slow
closing off certain streets every day after 7 PM, or down the approaching car, some of the other types
perhaps for the whole day on either Saturday or of physical changes to the environment could in-
Sunday, or both. Another possibility is to remove clude: Street narrowing or offsetting the center line,
through traffic* entirely, allowing only local resi- with obstacles on different sides. This might include
dents to access their homes. A variation on this is a tree or protected group of potted flowers that jut
to allow 24 hour access of a street for residents, but somewhat into the road, so that the car must slow
limit the times that other vehicles may enter. down to drive around it. The space given to the car is
constant, simply the car must perform in an obstacle
course, while moving down the street. A bottleneck*
is another type of narrowing device, where the en-
trance and exit to a street section has been narrowed,
thus reducing the speed of traffic moving in and out.
In general, the use of both obstacles such as vegeta-
tion, painted lines or art installations can all function
as traffic calming tools, and much room exists for
creativity to be applied.
20
4 City Spaces
streets, that through traffic is next to impossible, and neighborhood and to encourage pedestrian traffic
the residents are thankful for that. to local destinations. While cars don’t necessar-
ily need to travel side by side, people often like to
It should be noted that the design of neighborhoods walk side by side or in groups, and this can become
based on the grid scale*, as is the case of many quite frustrating if the sidewalk is too narrow to do
sprawling North American cities, virtually turns all this, or if cars are parked in such a way as to make
of the streets in the grid scale into through streets, this impossible. It is thus recommended for streets
meaning that few neighborhoods are spared of where the curb is low enough and the street archi-
noise and pollution. The gradual organic develop- tecture could potentially tempt a driver to park on
ment of city neighborhoods into non-linear ways, the sidewalk, to erect bollards* – perhaps just the
over time, appears to be the healthiest kind of de- size of a small tree stump – to keep drivers to the
velopment. If whole areas of town must be devel- edge of the sidewalk and allow pedestrians maxi-
oped over a short period of time, it would be wise mum use of sidewalk. There are various types of
to pay attention to the outlay of streets, with the
Wien, photo by Justin Hyatt
aim to create as many traffic-calmed areas as pos-
sible, as well as a sizable amount of high-quality
pedestrian space, including also pedestrian streets
and carfree housing. The less through traffic affect-
ing the neighborhood, the better. This will need to
be well integrated with public transport stops as
well as bicycle and walking options, which is dis-
cussed in the next section.
21
4 City Spaces
extra room to go at higher speeds. The space re- recent example of this is the Magenta avenue in
gained will gladly be welcomed by both pedestri- Paris, where a formerly busy thoroughfare was
ans and cyclists. In the case that about a meter to a converted into a traffic calmed street, with cycle
meter and a half is freed up from what was already lanes installed and ample extra space given to pe-
a one-way street, this can efficiently be converted destrians. Another example is Seoul, South Korea,
to allow for counterflow* bicycle traffic. As we will where a busy highway going through the center of
later read about counterflow bus lanes, so bicycles the city was removed, and in its place footways and
can also safely travel in the opposite direction of bikeways were installed, and an underground river
car traffic. On busier streets, all that is needed is was allowed to flow on the surface again.
to paint a white line on the side of the road. Even
this is simply for the comfort of the cyclist, as the A unique approach: Shared space
mere presence of cyclists riding counterflow will
cause drivers to be more cautious. However, in In the northern towns of Holland a special approach
the case of traffic-calmed neighborhoods, where has been successfully tried in attempts to tame traf-
the speed of vehicles do not exceed 30 kph, it is fic. This approach is called shared space, and it op-
not even necessary to create special bicycle lanes. erates on the principle that all of the modes of traf-
These can however be added in the case of long fic must equitably share the given road space and
distance bicycle routes, mixed neighborhoods with become more aware of the traffic all around. This
sometimes large flows of traffic, or simply just at is done in the unique manner of removing all traf-
intersections. Studies have indicated that counter- fic signs, stop lights and other devices. While there
flow bicycle traffic, if anything, will produce more is a certain element of traffic chaos that results
safe streets than were there before. In any case, it with this, it inevitably becomes a slowed-down
is a highly recommended to add signs at the begin- chaos, and results have shown a drastic reduction
ning of one-way roads, indicating that bicycles are in traffic accidents. In places where vehicles av-
allowed to travel both directions. This is especially eraged speeds of 60 kph, the new scheme has cut
to alert car drivers to the presence of other modes of this down to just 30 kph, yet at the same time al-
transport that they will be sharing the road with. lowing for a more efficient navigation of the town,
and there is no overall added travel time. This ap-
Although it has been noted that car owners are fa- proach, developed by Hans Monderman, is now
mous for grumbling about losing parking space, in beginning to tried out in other countries as well,
narrow historical neighborhoods (as for example such as Germany and Austria.
the inner sixth district in Budapest), there is often
so little space to begin with, that parked cars often Allowing creativity into neighborhoods
take over the majority of the given space. For those
people who do not drive, the space that both parked In neighborhoods where a concerted effort is being
and moving cars take up is one of the worst punish- made to provide more quality space to pedestrians
ments for simply living in the city. Where it could and cyclists, the possibilities could be explored to
be possible, removing parking space on at least allow creativity full flow. This could involve, for
one side of a street could greatly increase the vi- instance, interesting foot and bike paths with lots
brancy of a neighborhood - either a bike lane could of variety. This doesn’t mean that a bike path needs
be added or the sidewalk widened, or both. In traf- to make wide swerves and detours, to the annoy-
fic-calmed neighborhoods, additional pedestrian ance of a cyclist who just wants to get from A to B,
space will bring the greatest benefit. Many streets but it can involve creative ways and combinations
are nowadays being refitted to accommodate more of paths and path design, in some cases even with
pedestrian and cyclist traffic. On a grand scale, a some variance from a straight line, as long as the
22
4 City Spaces
23
5 The transport picture
Carfree settlements within a larger city usually in- More information on the different trends and possi-
volves a new development, where compact houses bilities for urban development can be easily found
are created without parking spaces or wide roads. with the help of the reference section in Appen-
Proximity to public transport is a must, as the dix 4. In most cases, representatives of the differ-
neighborhood or housing area should have easy ent trends and organizations listed are happy to be
access to the town center and other transport hubs. contacted and will be able to provide even more
Cycling and walking is naturally the most common details than can fit here.
way to move around in such communities.
There is also plenty of preparation work that has 5 The transport picture
been created for entire carfree cities, of which a lot
of credit goes to Joel Crawford, author of “Carfree “When I am travelling in a carriage, or walking
Cities”. In such cities many compact neighbor- after a good meal, or during the night when I can-
hoods are connected by rail or subway hubs, and not sleep; it is on such occasions that ideas flow
moving between different neighborhoods has been best and most abundantly.”
made easy, without even the need for changing -Woodrow Wilson
between different lines. While neighborhoods are
compact enough to offer quality public transport, An integrated transport picture
there is still a lot of green and open space, however
divided equally throughout the neighborhoods. One of the most fundamental prerequisites for sus-
Freight can be taken care of on a smaller scale tainable urban development and encouraging trends
by carrier tricycles, or on a larger scale by freight of sustainable mobility is by ensuring a high qual-
trains. Since cars are generally not in use (except ity level of public transport. And when considering
for emergency vehicles), there is a high quality of public transport, the first thing that should be estab-
life and few problems with mobility issues. Neigh- lished is that an integrated plan for public transport
borhoods have mixed uses, and most needs can be should be combined with an overall vision of getting
met without long trips required. around easily and safely in the community.
24
5 The transport picture
In order to achieve an integrated plan for public fact, some countries are even considering to al-
transport the term intermodality* offers a clue: By low bicycles on Intercity trains. Next, bicycles
combining public transport means with walking can usually fit onto metro trains fairly easily. Al-
and cycling possibilities, the overall functional- though, sometimes rush-hour restrictions need to
ity and attractiveness of the transport picture and be applied. But many metro systems, for example
available options are greatly increased. It is also that of New York City, have allowed bicycles on
important that various forms of public transport the subway. Bicycles on bus racks is also gain-
do not compete with each other, but complement ing popularity. There are special bike racks that
each other. For example, if you have a train line fit onto the front of buses and can hold up to two
that runs parallel to a bus line, you will be offering bicycles at one time. This setup is especially useful
riders the best service if you present them with the for bus routes that end somewhere outside of town,
train, for example, as the quickest means to move where there no further transfer options. This way, a
between intermediate and distant locations, and twenty minute walk to the final destination can be
buses to transport the rider between short distances converted to five minute bicycle ride.
or to locations that are not served by trains. This
is the standard practice in countries like Germany Trip Combinations
and Austria. Furthermore, local bus routes can act
as feeder routes* to long-distance train service. We have already considered a full trip combining
This means that a rider might start a journey at a bus and train intermodality*. It might look like this:
bus stop just around the corner, be transported to a
train stop 1-3 kilometers away, and then ride a train 1.local bus–train–local bus.
for half an hour to an hour. Perhaps, to get to the fi-
nal destination, the rider needs to use the bus again. If we add bicycle use, then we get this:
If this type of a combination trip involving both
bus and train is viable for a specific community, 2. bicycle–train–bicycle
then the next step is arrange for a pricing and pass 3. bicycle–train–bicycle on bus
system that allows the rider to buy just one ticket
or pass that is valid for the whole trip. This will Another way to encourage intermodal types of
both make the life of the rider easier and encour- transport is by installing bicycle storage facilities
age greater use of public transport. Many cities are near to stations and major bus hubs. This should
already using a city-wide fare card, that works on also happen together with providing easy access by
all types of public transportation. bicycle and by foot to stops and stations. That way,
cycling to a station, storing the bicycle and then
Combining bicycle options with public transport is boarding a train can become a common and easy
not something to underrate. A study in Chicago in practice for many people. Also, if the community
1980 found that increasing bicycle access to pub- supports a bicycle lending system, then even fur-
lic transport was the most cost-effective way to ther combinations are possible.
reduce auto emissions, in other words to increase
modal share* of public transportation use. In other 4. walk–bus–train
words, if you make it easy for cyclists to use public 5. walk–train–bike
transport, the popularity of public transport will in- 6. bike–train–walk
crease. What are the ways of doing this? One way 7. bus–train–bike (lending/rental system)
is to allow bicycles on as many different forms of
public transport as possible. Bikes on trains are It should become clear here that many different
already very common practice in many places. In combinations are possible, and that the more that
25
5 The transport picture
intermodality* is stressed as a viable option in a BRT is an excellent example of technology that was
community, the better the arguments are for people developed in the South, and has now grown to such
to choose an option that suits them, and then leave an extent, that many countries in the north are both
studying and implementing BRT systems. Its origins can
their car at home.
be traced to Curitiba, Brazil, and together with Bogotá,
Columbia make up the two most famous cities operat-
Fair pricing for maximum use ing BRT, which have inspired dozens of other cities, in
both the South and the North. The special attraction of
At the same time, to make these options really pop- BRT is that it delivers subway quality mass transit ser-
vice at a fraction of the cost of a traditional subway sys-
ular, it is best if prices are kept low. For instance,
tem: CompareUS$1 to US$5.3 million per kilometer (as
allowing bicycles on buses and trains will pay for is seen in Latin America), as opposed to roughly US$60
itself, it is not needed to charge heavy ticket prices to US$200 for subway system infrastructure costs per
for such options. In fact, the possibilities will be 1 kilometer. BRT systems are able to achieve the effi-
most fully taken advantage of if the price for trans- ciency of a subway system by operating on completely
porting a bicycle is kept to a minimal, or in some segregated busways, receive prioritization at intersec-
tions and employ rapid boarding, by use of elevated
cases even allowed for free. platforms. In fact, many stations are covered and even
resemble a subway or light-rail stop, thus it is some-
Surface transport systems times called a “surface metro” system. In Sao Paulo and
Bogotá, BRT is able to transport over 35,000 passengers
Surface public transport modes traditionally in- per hour. When Bogotá’s system is completed in 2015,
it will serve 5 million passengers daily in a BRT network
clude buses, trolley-buses, trams, light-rail. This
of 22 lines and 388 kilometers. Wherever BRT systems
section highlights Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), bus have been implemented, they have been so popular
lanes and light rail. that additional lines are planned or already under con-
struction within only the first few years of operation.
As can be seen with the story of Curitiba and Bo-
gotá, BRT (see box) is one of the newer and excit- In considering bus lanes, whether belonging to a
ing developments in the realm of public transport. BRT system or a conventional bus route, coun-
In effect, a city can run an express bus system on terflow* bus lanes can be considered as a way to
26
5 The transport picture
Bogotá © Gtz
prevent misuse by car drivers. Physically, what community and of general excitement enveloped in
this means is that the bus lane carries buses going this particular urban scenery.
in the opposite direction that the general traffic is
going. While this has been proven to be safe and Priority at traffic signals
work successfully, it carries the additional benefit
of keeping cars out of the lane. The important thing It is important to note the option of traffic light pri-
to watch out for here is to ensure bus stops with ority systems that can complement trams, BRT as
easy access at street level. well as conventional bus routes – in short, any sur-
face transportation system. Traffic light priority for
Tram and light rail systems make up another al- public transportation means that traffic lights are
ternative to building an expensive metro system. engineered to turn green for an approaching bus or
These can also be built at a fraction of the cost of a tram, therefore minimizing dwell times* of public
metro, and can carry more people than a bus. Light transport. This enhances the attractiveness of pub-
rail systems can be especially useful for connecting lic transport to its users, and similar to a bus lane,
urban with suburban areas as well as quickly cross- creates the affiliation of a public transport offering
ing unpopulated intermediate zones, such as is the an advantageous way to get around. This is already
case in Poznan, Poland, where trams rush through working in a number of cities.
a greenway*, without stopping. It has also been
noted that trams provide an atmosphere of vibrant Predictability and frequency of service
street life. On streets where there is a certain level
of commercial activity, if we add a tram, which In order to facilitate a reliable public transportation
produces a familiar jingle, and we add people wait- network outside of large cities, it is advisable to en-
ing at a stop or platform, we get both a feeling of sure good connections between both cities and the
27
5 The transport picture
countryside. In the case of a smaller community that Bus stops themselves need to be highly visible, in-
is not situated near to a train line, bus lines offer the cluding information about the particular lines that
best solution. Where possible, bus service should be serve the stop. Any potentially confusing aspect of
reliable, frequent, and occur at regular intervals. For a bus route or stop should be well noted, as well
both urban and non-urban communities, predictabil- as the given transfer possibilities. Transfer options
ity and frequency of service and the organization of can also be presented inside a vehicle that runs a
arrival times are of paramount importance for both particular line. For example, a suburban train can
users as well as potential users. In an ideal situation, highlight bus, tram or train routes connecting to
a bus or train user will not even need to check a time different stops. Some trains and buses contain loud-
schedule, because service is offered at regular inter- speaker systems which announce transfer options.
vals: if a traveler knows that the bus will arrive at
exactly :12 and :42 every hour, then the schedule Visitors to a town will be especially happy to find
can be learned quickly by heart and the user will descriptions of popular destinations, and the for-
mentally rely on the bus service for his or her trans- mula for getting there by public transport. For ex-
port needs. In the case of high population areas, a ample, tourist sites, shopping areas, parks, zoos,
train going to a certain destination might come often train stations and major transit stops can all feature
enough that it is unnecessary to even think about the information boards describing both the possible
schedule, all that is needed is to go to the station and routes as well as the time required, to move be-
wait a few moments for the next departure. tween these different points. To make it even more
interesting and attractive, local artists can be con-
In a smaller town, if it is possible to offer bus ser- signed to come up with a design for such boards,
vice on a particular route at just four times per hour, instead of just ordering from a traffic sign manu-
this can already give rise to a modal shift* in public facturing company.
transport use, as opposed to a frequency of service
just once or twice an hour. That is because a user Economic benefits of planning for cycling
will most likely be willing to wait at a bus stop for
I-ce (a Dutch bicycle consulting organization) calculated
an average of just five to ten minutes. However the
the economic value of planning bicycle facilities in four cit-
same person might prefer the car, if the waiting ies, one of which was Bogotá. The costs of building bicycle
time stretches to twenty or thirty minutes. The same tracks, their maintenance as well as promotion and educa-
holds true if the arrival time of a bus can be predict- tion campaigns were calculated to be US$186 million over
ed, as opposed to having to consult a time schedule. a period of 10 years. The construction costs of one kilome-
The more frequent a public transport service can be ter of high quality bicycle track were about US$200,000.
Cost savings from reduced infrastructure needs, reduced
offered, the higher the share of passengers can be. congestion and reduced pollution due to the replacement
of car kilometers over 10 years amount in total to US$493
Visible connections million, of which more than 50% results from saved park-
ing spaces. Road safety is expected to be improved by
In order for users as well as potential users of pub- 50%, based on experiences abroad. This results in sav-
ings with an economic value of US$643 million. Savings
lic transport to be aware of the possibilities, it is a
in running costs for road users by not using a car or a bus
great help if referential signs are placed in many amount to US$167 million. The overall result is that the
locations. There are many different functions and benefits have an economic value of US$1302 million over
many types of signs that can be made use of. Di- 10 years, compared to US$178 million costs. The benefits
rections to train stations and train stops need to are 7.3 times higher than the costs. (For further informa-
tion visit: www.cycling.nl; The Economic Significance of
be clearly marked throughout the city. If there
Cycling; VNG/I-ce; The Hague/Utrecht; 2000. Taken from
are special pedestrian or bicycle routes to access GTZ Sourcebook on Sustainable Transport, Module 3d).
the station, this should also be separately marked.
28
6 Sustainable mobility and the pace of life
The concept of sustainable mobility goes beyond Todd Litman of the Victoria Transport Policy Insti-
mere dealings with traffic flow and transportation tute (VTPI) is a chief architect as well as advocate of
options. While it does include these, it bears a wid- mobility management. His institute has developed
er definition, including the whole relationship we an online Transportation Demand Management
have to our cities and our social structures – not in (TDM) encyclopedia, which presents many of the
the least our pace of life, which is affected by both different strategies for making more efficient use
our travel decisions, the economic backdrop of our of transportation resources. The use of these strate-
society and the total amount of our energy and time gies can have multiple benefits, such as congestion
spent on moving ourselves. An overarching goal reduction, road and parking facility cost savings,
of sustainable mobility is to achieve a sustainable road safety, environmental and air quality, con-
society. sumer savings, more efficient community and land
use, and several others. Mobility management can
To envision and then work out a concept of sus- thus provide both significant savings to consumers
tainable mobility for a particular region means to as well as to the municipality’s budget. The under-
take a holistic approach to all of the issues present lying principle is that the results will benefit society
in a society related to movement and the quality as a whole and also increase the quality of life.
of life. If municipal leaders, transport managers
and others involved in the life and development of As the total benefits of mobility management sur-
a city are able to see how all the individual parts pass individual solutions that only address one or a
fit into an overall whole, and are therefore able to
take a unified approach to dealing with the vari-
ous issues, then this can be considered integrated
mobility management. And if conducted in a way
to provide the highest good for the most of its citi-
zens, with an eye to maintain a town as a pleasant,
calm, easily navigable and fun place to live, then
the concept of sustainable mobility is being used,
and the town has every reason to really bloom.
29
6 Sustainable mobility and the pace of life
few problems, it is worthwhile to illustrate this in munity as well as a living traffic organism, and
an example: Improving transit service (by expand- must thus learn to coexist not only efficiently but
ing a rail system or modernizing a bus fleet for ex- also peacefully.
ample) might alone reduce urban automobile travel
by 5%. If one were to only implement a smart park- Space used by different modes of transport
ing management system, this itself might reduce
automobile travel by 5%. Yet if one implements a To transport the same number of people (in this ex-
program where both of these strategies are used, it ample 72) by bus requires 30 square meters, by bicycle
90 square meters, and by car 1,000 square meters. This
can very well result with a reduction in automobile
was shown by the Münster, Germany city council, in
travel by 15%, as both a combination of positive public campaign to illustrate the efficiencies (or lack of)
and negative incentives were used. of different modes of transport:
Without careful management, automobile traffic • Bicycle: 72 people are transported on 72 bikes, which
regulates itself in rather inefficient ways. What re- requires 90 square meters.
• Car: Based on an average occupancy of 1.2 people per
sults are congestion, parking problems, accidents, car, 60 cars are needed to transport 72 people, which
lost time and lots of lost money. With a careful and takes 1,000 square meters.
integrated approach, following a least-cost planning • Bus: 72 people can be transported on 1 bus, which
stratagem and efficient mobility principles, much only requires 30 square meters of space and no perma-
can be gained. If on the one hand, we take into ac- nent parking space, since it can be parked elsewhere.
count the amount of comparative space required for
different modes of travel (see space used compari- Slow cities, Decroissance and the pace of life
son box) as well as safety considerations for shared
use of space by different modes of travel, then we If we want happiness, beautiful local surroundings,
can come up with a priority list that can be effective a comfortable pace of life, and quality urban areas
in mobility management (developed by Litman): to be our principle goals when making decisions
about transport, mobility, urban fabric and the
1. Emergency vehicles/trips economy, then we would do well to also re-exam-
2. Walking ine the current trends in development and ask our-
3. Cycling selves what kind of growth is the best for us, what
4. Public transit processes to modify or cease and what processes to
5. Service/freight vehicles give an even stronger support to.
6. Taxi
7. Single occupant cars In various parts of Europe new movements have
8. Automobile parking sprouted up, which call into question the need for
an extremely fast-paced life and hypermobility,
When there is a conflict between different modes, and invite people to consider a more people orient-
then prioritization rules should apply. Using this ed, calmer pace of life. In Italy, this started as the
as a rule of thumb can also serve to encourage the Slow Food movement, which was a direct response
social set of values of a community, reflecting en- to fast food, but developed further to embrace more
vironmental and health awareness as well as con- parts of life, and eventually gave birth to the Slow
sideration for others in the community (acknowl- Cities movement, which now include 100 towns
edging the fact that some modes of travel can be in ten countries, that have signed the Slow Cities
potentially injurious to others, which is to some charter and attempt to promote those activities and
extent true as we follow the list from the bottom functions of a city which aid to the enjoyment and
up). All of the members of society make up a com- celebration of culture and of life.
30
6 Sustainable mobility and the pace of life
31
7 Towards a whole picture: The Sustainable City
32
7 Towards a whole picture: The Sustainable City
sity of exchange opportunities. A part of this is the bank. Utility is the ability for some commodity or social
naturally also a healthy local economy. arrangement to enhance our quality of life. A consumer good
has no utility unless it enhances our life in some way. The
Considering for a second the concept of exchange, exercise machine gathering dust in the attic may have added
we find that all sorts of interaction on the street and to the GDP, but it is not adding one ounce of value of the
in public places fit into the category of exchange, quality of our life.
as do shops and vendors. When people meet in The other day I walked past a bakery with a friend who is
a public place, engage in conversation and share an astute business woman. Behind the counter was a young
information, this can be considered an exchange. girl with a smile that oozed warmth and welcome. My friend
But also buying and selling things are forms of commented that the smile was worth a million dollars. Now
exchange. A thriving and creative city provides the bread from this bakery may cost the same as bread from
many opportunities for exchange, in all of the other bakeries. But you get more than bread at this shop.
public spaces, buildings and markets of the city, You get a smile that lifts your sprits. The good feeling you
and the better the conditions for meeting others, get from this young girl’s smile is „utility”. It is intimately
be it planned or accidental meetings, the greater bound to an economic exchange, but there is a value in that
the social network, and thus the creative capacity smile that cannot be measured in the GDP.
of a city becomes. David Engwicht argues that it ...Economic strategies for cities must carry the same goal
is precisely the unplanned encounters that make as transport and urban design strategies: increasing the effi-
a city both enjoyable to live in and increases its ciency with which diverse exchanges can be transacted while
potential for creative expression and for a healthy at the same time increasing the utility inherent in those ex-
participation of citizens in public life. These kinds changes. The economy is not therefore some external reality.
of unplanned meetings are most common in areas It is intimately bound into the totality of our life. It certainly
with lots of quality pedestrian space, wide side- is not just the exchanging of money for goods and services.
walks, or generally places that people are attracted The „economy of exchange”, facilitated by the city, is an old
to congregate in. On the other hand, these types person on a seat supervising neighborhood children playing
of situations are most notably absent in very busy in the street. It is the listening ear offered by the butcher. It is
thoroughfares or sparsely settled suburbs, which the street busker. It is the eccentric on the milk crate playing
most people only enter and exit while on the way a tin whistle. It is the increased variety of restaurants in our
to and from home. district.... It is the stranger who tells us tales of exotic places.
It is the street wisdom we gather from our elders. The health
Keeping this in mind, we should next look at how of an economy must be measured by how well it is facilitat-
an economy plays a role in the life of a city. If we ing these diverse, life-enhancing exchanges.
consider a whole city an „economy of exchange”,
and we would like to find out how an economy and It is therefore of utmost importance to always
a city can both be run in a sustainable way and ful- maintain a vision for an economy to serve the
fill their roles in adding to the citizen’s well-be- population and the quality of life in the first
ing, then we need a specific answer to the question: place, to be able to provide end results that have
„What is the economy’s role?” David Engwicht real meaning and go beyond simply growth for
provides us with this answer: growth’s sake or the maintenance of certain
practices that might somewhat influence eco-
What is the ultimate goal of an economy? It is certainly not nomic growth indicators or perhaps provide a
to simply produce ever increasing GDP (Gross Domestic relatively small portion of the population with
Product) figures. It surely must be to increase the utility that greater affluence, but does not really contribute
citizens derive from being part of a collective enterprise. to the overall well-being or happiness of society
Utility is not the same thing as consumer goods or money in at large.
33
7 Towards a whole picture: The Sustainable City
Local economy, local business likely to re-circulate their profits in the local area
and will possibly also support local artistic and cul-
It has been noted in many places that a healthy lo- tural items. Large inter-regional or multi-national
cal economy is the most important backbone for a businesses, while providing some jobs for the local
city to thrive and to be able to support its activities. region, will probably only feed a limited amount of
A local economy is composed of both local busi- their profits into the local economy.
nesses and job opportunities that are available for
the residents of the area. Creative wealth and altruism
Local businesses will be the most familiar with a A further indicator of what makes a city more liv-
local area and its particular needs, and will thus be able and also more interesting is the level to which
in the best position to contribute useful things to a the citizens and residents of a city themselves add to
community: commercially, socially and culturally. the makeup of the city and to its creative workings.
Local residents who make use of local businesses This includes drawing from the creative talents to
will then also profit doubly by their consumer’s produce a rich and interesting cultural and social
choice: The money that they spend in the local life, as well as capitalizing on the help and altru-
economy will, for the most part, stay in the local istic nature of the citizens to create both a strong
economy and benefit them in the long run better. social net as well as building a friendly and helpful
society, in which is it a pleasure to dwell in.
This can be understood when we consider that a
local shop with locally hired employees are most Chris Cunningham has argued that it is the „altru-
Groningen, photo by Justin Hyatt
34
7 Towards a whole picture: The Sustainable City
istic surplus” of cities that make one city more liv- the important items are in the construction process,
able than another. By altruistic surplus it is meant and even make maquettes (scaled models) of the
that people perform tasks that benefit others with- area under consideration. Similarly, if the issue at
out receiving a benefit to themselves. It is when a hand is an existing neighborhood, and a group of
society takes its own social and urban issues and local residents would like to both see traffic-calm-
problems very seriously, and attempts to not just ing and a beautifying of their neighborhood, this
influence local development for the better, but also also provides an excellent opportunity for civic
get physically involved, that society as a whole participation in the improvement of a community
can benefit from such a level of participation and and simultaneously the community’s social bonds.
goodwill.
A wise city official will see the benefits of allow-
David Engwicht has analyzed this, and remarked ing the citizens to add to the overall betterment of a
that while there is often an assumption (perhaps on community, and in some cases even help to facili-
the side of a town’s authorities) that citizens are tate citizen involvement. This has the double effect
basically selfish and are not very inclined to add of making a city friendlier and more livable as well
something to the communal good, it can be this as putting more people to work and achieving more
very assumption that stands in the way of a greater results.
exploitation of what Engwicht and others refer to
as “social capital”. He goes on to assert that while The magic and charm of places
humans can be both selfish and generous, that if
we build upon and environment of goodwill, it Putting aside for a moment all of the particular de-
will very naturally stimulate further goodwill and tails that add up to make a city work well or more
create an environment in which people tend to be sustainable, we shouldn’t forget that one of our
more giving: “Cognitive psychologists tell us some goals is simply to be able to experience places that
interesting things about altruism – it feeds on itself. makes us feel good, places that are beautiful, and
If you create an environment in which it is the norm that can provide us with special moments. While
to give to others without expecting a payback, then ultimately every town and city will come to its own
the levels of altruism rise. Unlike money, the more conclusions in how to handle the issues and spur
you spend the altruistic surplus, the more you have positive developments, it is however often a more
to spend. The great thing about tapping altruism as abstract assessment or subjective experience that
a way of solving problems like traffic is that it not defines whether or not we are attracted to a place
only helps get the problem solved, it also increases and if we feel good being there. Thus, it often goes
the size of the altruistic surplus which can then be beyond the financial side of things or the always
tapped to help solve other problems.” shifting political and economic factors, that pro-
vides a place with vitality and with charm. While
It is becoming more and more common these days the magic or good feeling of a place can not be
to draw directly upon both the talents and the de- simply be created according to a blue-print, where
sires of a population when the task is to shape the beckoned and appreciated, it does a community a
environment that they work in. If for instance a world of good. To enjoy and esteem the enduring
new area is being developed with residential build- qualities – be they surrounding elements of nature,
ings, and the future inhabitants are able to have a cultural and artistic heritage or the traditional aes-
say in what the outcome should look like, then this thetic and architectural elements – together with
is called user design*. Ideally, the group of future a dynamic creative wealth and a feeling of local
neighbors will get together, take a close look at pride and satisfaction, allow a place to emanate
what the conditions are of the site, discuss what magic and bring joy to the streets.
35
7 Towards a whole picture: The Sustainable City
36
Appendix A: Practical Suggestions – A thematic list of ideas for implementation
37
Appendix A: Practical Suggestions – A thematic list of ideas for implementation
preventing infractions is much more cost-effec- amount of attention and be very accessible. Wa-
tive than punishing infractions, although such a terfront areas, if close to urban centers, provide
system should be in place as well. ideal pedestrian environments and usually great
views. In some cases, small canals running on
Improving community design the side of urban streets produce a comforting
sound and provide for a pleasant atmosphere.
7. Visual improvement of neighborhood Such a canal, if placed between road and side-
Traffic calming measures and other traffic reduc- walk, can even be as small as a meter across.
tion policies can also be accompanied by making
neighborhoods more attractive and homely. This 11. Places to congregate
could involve producing well-designed arches Benches and other physical objects that can be
and entrances to certain streets and neighbor- sat down on should exist throughout any city.
hoods. Special paving and colorful sidewalk Benches and chairs allow for people to sit down,
designs can add a lot to appearances, as well as chat with neighbors and have picnics, just to name
to the traffic-calming effects. Trees, plants and a few. Where there are several benches in one
public exhibitions or artwork will make a neigh- location, they should be able to face each other.
borhood more interesting and inviting. Loose chairs can be very convenient for people
to rearrange them according to need. Physical
8. Attractive streets objects, such as terraced stone or concrete for-
Where the intent is to make a neighborhood live- mations, steps and other architectural objects and
ly and interesting, mixed neighborhoods, with a sculptures can all provide for places to sit down
variety of shops, restaurants and theaters mixed and enjoy the surrounding environment.
into residential areas, will provide for liveliness.
To encourage pedestrian activity, there should 12. Encourage compact development
be interesting things to look at, convenient short- Compact development means that a city main-
cuts, and a wide range of destinations to choose tains higher density areas with commercial and
from. At intersections with traffic lights, pedes- transit areas all being closely linked with popula-
trians need to be given plenty time to walk across tion centers and easily accessible. Mixed neigh-
the street, considering also people who walk borhoods allow for most of the needs of a resi-
slower. Neighborhoods with lots of pedestrian dent to be found nearby, including work places
activity will also feel safer to be in. as well as shopping and recreational areas. At
the same time, it is wise to prevent an unlimited
9. Greenways growth and sprawl of a city. Allowing numerous
Strips of forest, park or land surrounding water shopping centers to be built on the outskirts of a
can be turned into very attractive places to move city will pull people away from the center, and
through by bicycle or foot. Greenways connect generally increase travel times, as well as weak-
different parts of a town or offer a green corridor ening the attractiveness of the central locations.
leading out of town. Waterways, lakes and ponds
can all be enjoyable places to spend time nearby, Transport infrastructure
and usually have adjacent areas that are excellent
for bicycle paths and walkways. 13. Intermodal public transport systems
The best public transport system integrates the
10. Rivers, ponds, canals different types of transport, such as metro, light-
The presence of water adds beauty and richness rail, trams, long-distance buses, city bus routes,
to a city. Ponds and rivers should receive a great and also cycling and walking. Transferring be-
38
Appendix A: Practical Suggestions – A thematic list of ideas for implementation
tween different modes of transport should be keep of areas or services used by the public. For
easy, with stops nearby. System-wide fare cards instance, bus stops and cycle paths need regular
(one pass for all types of transport) encourage maintenance and quality checks.
intermodal use. Bicycle parking facilities should
also be located at train stations and major transit Planning and soft policy strategies
stops. Bicycle racks can also be placed on the
front of buses, especially those that cover long 18. Planning for children, elderly people,
distances or end in remote areas. the disabled
While these are quite separate groups with their
14. High quality of service individual needs, nonetheless transport plan-
High quality and service along with an updated ning should take into account people with spe-
infrastructure will invoke trust on the part of the cial needs. Disabled people require handicapped
populace and increase modal share* of public access to transport facilities, which includes the
transport use. With a sufficient frequency of ser- possibility of boarding buses via a slide ramp,
vice, people will be more likely to rely on public or descending to metro level via a special eleva-
transport for their transportation needs. Tickets tor. Children and elderly people will need more
should not be too expensive and transfer options time to cross crosswalks. Children need to be
should not be priced high, if at all. Public transport guaranteed safe sidewalks to walk on, without
should never be more expensive than the use of major sight obstructions, especially where there
the private car and price reductions and frequent are places to cross streets or where traffic might
special offers will provide incentives for use. come from. Elderly people, as all others, will
benefit from frequent locations of benches.
15. Separate busways
Busways separated from the rest of traffic will in- 19. Planning for tourism
crease the speed and efficiency of buses to move If a town frequently receives tourists or has tour-
passengers. This is especially useful in areas ism potential, it is important to provide the nec-
where traffic jams are common. Bus rapid transit essary amenities for out of town visitors. As tour-
is an extension of this idea, where a whole net- ists frequently do not come with a private car, it is
work of bus lines running on separate busways necessary that there are public transport options
can run at a level of efficiency near that of a met- available between main transport hubs (such as
ro, for a fraction of the cost. Separate busways train station and airport) and principles sites and
can also run counterflow to the rest of traffic. This the downtown. Information related to transport
will also insure that there are no infractions. and finding one’s way around town should also
be listed in one or several international languages.
16. Prioritization of traffic lights It is very useful to post town maps in public areas
At intersections where buses, trams and light rail and at bus stops and train stations. Long distance
cross, prioritization should be given to these modes bike routes also have great tourist appeal.
of transport. By means of electronic sensors, lights
can be made to turn green for the oncoming tram. 20. Tax and subsidy reform
Thus, surface public transport will only rarely Tax systems should benefit municipal services and
need to stop, apart from loading passengers. This especially public transportation. Road taxes, auto-
increases efficiency of the whole system. mobile taxes and environmental taxes should all be
made partially available to increasing the efficien-
17. Regular Maintenance cy of the public transport system. Municipalities
It is important to maintain the quality and up- should also insist that state or regional subsidies do
39
Appendix B: Best practice highlights from around the world
not provide an unbalanced support of automobile dren live and can join the other children for a
infrastructure, as this will have less beneficial ef- safe, communal walk to school. In some cases
fects on a community than if adequate public and a parent or another adult will be able to accom-
non-motorized infrastructure is equally supported. pany the walking school bus.
40
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
2. Curitiba, Brazil: The birthplace of the Bus Rapid 10. Fresno, California, USA: To combat an already
Transit system, this city is seen as a very sustainable exacerbated sprawl problem, this city has instituted
city in many respects. It’s visionary mayor, Jaime legislation to prevent further sprawl by charging
Lerner, is greatly responsible for this. With a popu- high fees for new developments beyond current
lation of over million people, there is an extensive built-up areas.
pedestrian area, including 49 downtown blocks.
11. Paris, France: The city recently converted a
3. Venice, Italy: The showcase carfree city. This major boulevard (Magenta) into a traffic-calmed
beautiful and historic carfree city illustrates the street with greatly improved pedestrian and cy-
great tourist potential of carfree cities. cling opportunities. The city further has ambitious
plans to greatly traffic-calm the inner four districts
4. Fes, Morocco: In the medina of Fes, which is a of the city, eventually allowing only entrance by
UNESCO world heritage site containing high walls residents. This should be in place by 2015.
and small streets, over 150,000 people make their
home, thus it is the largest carfree area in the world 12. London, England: A congestion charge was in-
today. stituted for the central areas of London, charging
cars entering certain points. This has turned out to
5. Bogotá, Columbia: For a large capitol in the be extremely successful, with traffic volume down
developing world, Bogotá can be proud of amaz- by 18% and congestion reduced by 30%. At the
ing achievements: A first class, world famous Bus same time, 59 new bus lanes and 201 bus priority
Rapid Transit system, a large network of cycle signals introduced. Public transport is being made
paths and weekly celebrated carfree Sundays. free of use for children, with the eventual goal of
free public transport through the age of 18.
6. Freiburg, Germany: The Vauban district in
Freiburg is the largest new carfree development 13. Belgium: A government program offers free
project, illustrating both a great demand as well as monthly public transport passes to car owners
potential for carfree residential areas. who turn in their car ownership. In the event that a
whole family has given access to private car own-
7. Seoul, South Korea: A six lane highway was ership, transit passes are offered free to all family
converted to public space, river, foot paths in the members.
downtown of the Korean capitol.
41
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
Mobility Week, Hungary Ministry for Economy and The official representative
Transport of European Mobility Week
13-15, Honvéd str
1055 Budapest
Mr Imre Mészáros
Tel: +36 1 4728748
Fax: +36 1 4728721
Serbia and Yugo Cycling Campaign Decanska 5 Cycling club, member of
Montenegro 11000 Belgrade European Cyclist Federa-
Serbia & Montenegro tion. National distributor of
Tel: +381-11 3225 949 Sustainable Mobility Guide
Fax: +381-11 3220 871
boricmilan@hotmail.com
42
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
43
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
Georgia Academy for Peace and 10a, M. Asatiani str., National distributor of the
Development Tbilisi 0177, Georgia Sustainable Mobility Guide
http://www.apd.ge Tel./fax: +995 32 39 07 72
giorgi.kakulia@gmail.com
Worldwide Deutsche Gesellschaft Deutsche Gesellschaft für GTZ provides viable, for-
organizations für Technische Technische Zusammenar- ward-looking solutions for
specializing Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) beit (GTZ) GmbH (German political, economic, ecologi-
in sustainable GmbH Technical Cooperation) cal and social development
mobility www.gtz.de Division 44 - Environment in a globalized world. GTZ
issues and Infrastructure has produced a large body
Transport and Mobility of technical advice, both
P.O. Box 5180 accessible via their website
65726 Eschborn, Germany and in print form. They
transport@gtz.de operate worldwide.
44
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
The Centre for Sustainable Centre for Sustainable The Centre was formed to
Transportation Transportation 103 - 520 help overcome the barri-
http://cst.uwinnipeg.ca/ Portage Avenue ers to the attainment of
Winnipeg, MB R3C 0G2 sustainable transportation,
Tel: 1-204-982-1140 in Canada and elsewhere,
Fax: 1-204-943-4625 through the provision of
cstinfo@uwinnipeg.ca well-reasoned and balanced
information and analysis.
45
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
Shared Space project Lead partner: Rob Duvergé Shared Space is a concept
www.shared-space.org PO Box 20120, 8900 HM of traffic based on the
Leeuwarden, Holland removal of traffic signs, and
Tel. +31 58 292 53 52 tried and feasible way for
Fax. +31 58 292 58 19 different traffic modes to
r.f.duverge@fryslan.nl share road space.
Traffic Calming Guide Informational website only Traffic calming and neigh-
www.trafficcalming.org borhood traffic manage-
ment
Resources and Carfree Cities mailbox@carfree.com A lot of design work has been
Information www.carfree.com developed to assist planners
on Urban and and builders of carfree areas
Design Issues and carfree cities. There is
both a useful book and also an
extensive website to support
the ideas. The author is coming
forth with his next book, en-
titled Carfree Design Manual.
Congress for the The Marquette Building An NGO and focal contact
New Urbanism 140 S. Dearborn St. point for disseminating the
www.cnu.org Suite 310 Principles of New Urban-
Chicago, IL 60603, USA ism. Works with architects,
Tel: 312-551-7300 developers, planners and
Fax: 312-346-3323 others.
cnuinfo@cnu.org
46
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
World Carfree Network World Carfree Network This is a worldwide network of Networks
www.worldcarfree.net International Coordination organizations that are working and Projects
Centre, Krátká 26 towards carfree solutions to
existing city problems. The
100 00 Prague 10
network organizes a yearly
Czech Republic conference entitled “Toward
tel/fax: Carfree Cities” and publishes
+(420) 274-810-849 an informative magazine
info@worldcarfree.net called Carbusters.
47
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
Slow Cities Network Contact possible through The Slow Cities movement is
www.cittaslow.net/world website an offshoot of the Slow Food
movement, which has con-
centrated on food and wine.
Slow Cities takes this further
to include environmental
conservation, the promotion
of sustainable development,
and the improvement of the
urban life.
48
Appendix C: Guide to Organizations and Resources
Road Peace PO Box 2579, London NW10 Draws attention to victims Other useful
www.roadpeace.org 3PW, United Kingdom of road traffic. Publishes sources of
Tel: +44 (0)20 8838 5102 information about traffic information
Fax: +44 (0)20 8838 5103 accidents.
info@roadpeace.org
Cultura for a New Mobility Informational website only Contains an extensive list on
www.mobility-cultura.net best practices in mobility man-
agement and urban planning
49
Appendix C: Relevant print sources
4. Joel Crawford, Carfree Cities, International 10. Stephen M Wheeler, Timothy Beatley, ed.
Books, 2000, www.carfreecities.com The Sustainable Urban Development Reader,
Routledge, 2004
5. Reclaiming city streets for people: Chaos or
quality of life?, European Commission, Direc- 11. Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language:
torate-General of the Environment. The whole Towns, Buildings, Construction, Oxford Uni-
publication is available via the internet, at versity Press, 1977
Bibliography
50
Glossary
Glossary
Bollard – a strong post on the side of a street, intended Mixed use – a designation for neighborhoods, where
to protect users of the sidewalk or a bike lane from en- different types of functions are present, such as residen-
croachment by other forms of transportation. tial buildings, public buildings, workplaces and recre-
Bottleneck – a narrowing of the street width, usually at ational areas.
the entrance to a neighborhood. A mechanism to slow Modal shift – over a period of time, the change in
traffic. transport behavior of a certain population.
Congestion Charge – a fee that is applied to motorized Modal split – the division in the use of different modes of
traffic entering the city center. Intended to reduce city- transport of a given population.
center traffic. Peak Oil – the concept of the point in time when the oil
Counterflow – the movement of certain modes of traffic, resources of a particular region (or the globe as a whole)
such as bus or bicycle, in the opposite direction of the have reached the half-way mark of extraction.
main traffic flow, usually in specially marked lanes. Personal motorized transport – any mode of transporta-
Dwell time – the time that buses or trams are required to tion that is propelled by a motor and serves only a small
wait in traffic, at points other than at passenger stops. number of passengers. Typically an automobile or mo-
Feeder route – a bus (usually) route that serves the torcycle.
specific goal of bringing passengers to main or express Severance – the dividing effect on a community by a
routes. busy thoroughfare, which makes it difficult or impos-
Greenhouse effect – when the sun shines, the radioactive sible to travel to adjacent areas.
gases (principally water vapor and carbon dioxide) that Tempo 30 Zone – a traffic-calmed neighborhood where
trap the sun’s heat and prevent it from returning back to regulations forbid vehicles to travel at speeds above 30
space. Excessive amounts of pollution cause this natu- kph.
ral process to have undesirable and dangerous effects, Travel evaporation – the studied effect of the overall
such as global warming. volume of traffic that disappears over a given time
Greenways – a corridor of land, usually between urban when certain streets or districts have been shut off to
areas, containing natural elements (such as forests or automobile traffic.
water), that serve as recreational use or for non-motor- Travel induction – the studied effect of the overall
ized transport. volume of traffic increasing upon the building of new
Grid Scale – urban layout patterns, where housing blocks roads or the widening of existing ones.
are marked by right angle street patterns, adding up to a User design – the practice of incorporating future
system of horizontal and vertical lines. tenants of a new building development into the design
Intermodality – the combination of different types of process and taking part in making key decisions about
transport used in one particular trip. the planned development.
51