Electronic Motors

Part I - BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS

The Brushless DC (BLDC) motor is the ideal choice for applications that require high reliability, high efficiency, and
high power-to-volume ratio. Generally speaking, a BLDC motor is considered to be a high performance motor that
is capable of providing large amounts of torque over a vast speed range. BLDC motors are a derivative of the most
commonly used DC motor, the brushed DC motor, and they share the same torque and speed performance curve
characteristics. The major difference between the two is the use of brushes. BLDC motors do not have brushes
(hence the name brushless DC) and must be electronically commutated.
Commutation is the act of changing the motor phase currents at
the appropriate times to produce rotational torque. In a brush
DC motor, the motor assembly contains a physical commutator
which is moved by means of actual brushes in order to move the
rotor. With a BLDC motor, electrical current powers a
permanent magnet that causes the motor to move, so no
physical commutator is necessary.
A BLDC motor is highly reliable since it does not have any
brushes to wear out and replace. When operated in rated
conditions, the life expectancy is over 10,000 hours. For long
term applications, this can be a tremendous benefit. Whenever
a motor breaks down or needs to be replaced, your project, or part of it, must be shut down. This costs you time
and money, perhaps a great deal depending on how long it takes to replace the worn part or parts and get the
application started again. Although a BLDC motor may cost more than a brushless motor, it will often more than
pay for itself in the amount of work time saved.
BLDC Motor Construction and Operating Theory
To understand why a BLDC motor is so effective, its important to have a good understanding of how it works.
There are actually two different types, with different benefits and drawbacks. While either one will probably be
effective for most jobs, you may wish to familiarize yourself with both types, just in case one would be more
appropriate for your project or application than the other.
Any BLDC motor has two primary parts; the rotor, the rotating part, and the stator, the stationary part. Other
important parts of the motor are the stator windings and the rotor magnets.
There are two basic BLDC motor designs: inner rotor and outer rotor design.
In an outer rotor design, the windings are located in the core
of the motor. The rotor magnets surround the stator windings
as shown here. The rotor magnets act as an insulator, thereby
reducing the rate of heat dissipation from the motor. Due to
the location of the stator windings, outer rotor designs
typically operate at lower duty cycles or at a lower rated
current. The primary advantage of an outer rotor BLDC motor
is relatively low cogging torque.
In an inner rotor design, the stator windings surround the rotor and are affixed to the motors housing as shown
here. The primary advantage of an inner rotor construction is its ability to dissipate heat. A motors ability to
dissipate heat directly impacts its ability to produce torque. For this reason, the overwhelming majority of BLDC
motors use an inner rotor design. Another advantage of an inner rotor design is lower rotor inertia.
An electronic Brushless DC Controller (also known as a Driver, or Electronic Speed Controller), replaces the
mechanical commutation system utilized by a Brush DC Motor, and is required by most Brushless DC Motors to
operate. In a Brushless DC Motor controller, either a Hall Effect Sensor or Back EMF (Electromotive Force) is used
to identify the position of the rotor. Understanding the orientation of the rotor is crucial to operating the Brushless
DC Motor.
The Hall Effect uses three hall sensors within the
Brushless DC Motor to help detect the position of the
rotor. This method is primarily used in speed
detection, positioning, current sensing, and proximity
switching. The magnetic field changes in response to
the transducer that varies its output voltage. Feedback
is created by directly returning a voltage, because the
sensor operates as an analogue transducer. The
distance between the Hall plate and a known magnetic
field can be determined with a group of sensors, and
the relative position of the magnet can be deduced. A
Hall sensor can act as an on/off switch in a digital
mode when combined with circuitry.
Back EMF, also known as the Counter-Electromotive Force, is caused by a changing electromagnetic field. In a
Brushless DC Motor, back EMF is a voltage that occurs where there is motion between the external magnetic field
and the armature of the motor. In other words, the voltage is developed in an inductor by an alternating or
pulsating current. The polarity of the voltage is constantly the reverse of the input voltage. This method is
commonly used to measure the position and speed of the Brushless DC Motor indirectly, and due to the lack of
Hall Sensors within the controller, these are often referred to as sensorless controllers. Back EMF in BLDCs can be
calculated using this formula:
Back EMF NlrB
Where:
N is the number of winding turns per phase,
l is the length of the rotor
r is the internal radius of the rotor
B is the rotor magnetic field density
is the motors angular velocity
Optical Encoders can also be added to the Brushless DC Motor, allowing both direction and speed to be
determined. More precise applications may use Optical Encoders with a third index signal, to determine pulse per
revolution.
Selecting A Suitable Motor Rating For The Application
Selecting the right type of motor for the given application is very important. Based on the load characteristics, the
motor must be selected with the proper rating. Three parameters govern the motor selection for the given
application. They are:
Peak torque required for the application
RMS torque required
The operating speed range
Peak Torque (TP) Requirement
The peak, or maximum torque required for the application, can be calculated by summing the load torque (TL),
torque due to inertia (TJ) and the torque required to overcome the friction (TF). There are other factors which will
contribute to the overall peak torque requirements. For example, the windage loss which is contributed by the
resistance offered by the air in the air gap. These factors are complicated to account for. Therefore, a 20% safety
margin is given as a rule of thumb when calculating the torque.
TP = (TL + TJ + TF) * 1.2
The torque due to inertia (TJ) is the torque required to accelerate the load from standstill or from a lower speed to
a higher speed. This can be calculated by taking the product of load inertia, including the rotor inertia and load
acceleration.
TJ = JL + M *
where:
JL + M is the sum of the load and rotor inertia
is the required acceleration
The mechanical system coupled to the motor shaft determines the load torque and the frictional torque.
RMS Torque Requirement (TRMS)
The Root Mean Square (RMS) torque can be roughly translated to the average continuous torque required for the
application. This depends upon many factors. The peak torque (TP), load torque (TL), torque due to inertia (TJ),
frictional torque (TF) and acceleration, deceleration and run times.
The following equation gives the RMS torque required for a typical application where TA is the acceleration time,
TR is the run time and TD is the deceleration time.
TRMS = [{TP
2
TA + (TL + TF)
2
TR + (TJ TL TF)
2
TD}/(TA + TR + TD)]
Speed Range
This is the motor speed required to drive the application and is determined by the type of application. For
example, an application like a blower where the speed variation is not very frequent and the maximum speed of
the blower can be the average motor speed required. Whereas in the case of a point-to-point positioning system,
like in a high-precision conveyer belt movement or robotic arm movements, this would require a motor with a
rated operating speed higher than the average movement speed.
It is always suggested to allow a safety margin of 10%, as a rule of thumb, to account for miscellaneous factors
which are beyond our calculations.
Advantages of BLDC
The absence of brushes in a BLDC is perhaps its greatest advantage. The carbon brushes within a Brush DC Motor
wear out rapidly and need replacing, which can be costly in the long run. The BLDC generates less noise, and is less
prone to sparking due to the lack of a commutator. The BLDC is typically smaller and lighter than the Brush DC
Motor, making it ideal for applications where weight and space are important factors. The Brushless DC motor is
cleaner, more powerful, and requires lower maintenance than does the Brush DC Motor. It has higher speed
ranges, higher dynamic responses, and ultimately outlasts the Brush DC Motor in total operating hours.
Disadvantages of BLDC
There are numerous applications using a Brush DC Motor that could instead utilize the Brushless DC Motor.
However a few factors might prevent the changeover. The first factor is start-up cost. Although the Brushless DC
Motor is lower-maintenance than the Brush DC Motor, initial cost is more expensive, due to its advantageous
construction. Second is complexity. A controller is required in order to operate a Brushless DC Motor, and is usually
more convoluted than most controllers. A BLDC also requires additional system wiring, in order to power the
electronic commutation circuitry.
Lifetime of a BLDC
The BLDC is often considered superior over the Brush DC Motor for its substantially longer lifespan. If run within
the given specifications, the Brushless DC Motor can last over 20,000 operating hours based on bearing life.
Running a Brushless DC Motor outside of its specifications shortens this lifespan.
Due to the lack of brushes or a commutator, there is nothing to replace within a Brushless DC Motor, making it
extremely low maintenance. The only requirement is that the motor be run within proper specifications, and in a
clean environment to ensure it does not overheat or result in system failure.

Part II - STEPPER MOTOR
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command
pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these
applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts
rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the
length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

Open Loop Operation
One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop
system. Open loop control means no feedback information about position is needed. This type of control
eliminates the need for expensive sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Your position is known
simply by keeping track of the input step pulses.
Stepper Motor Types
Variable-reluctance (VR)
This type of stepper motor has been around for a long time. It is probably the
easiest to understand from a structural point of view. The figure on the right
shows a cross section of a typical V.R. stepper motor. This type of motor
consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound stator. When the stator
windings are energized with DC current the poles become magnetized. Rotation
occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles.
Permanent Magnet (PM)
Often referred to as a tin can or canstock motor the permanent magnet step motor is a low cost and low
resolution type motor with typical step angles of 7.5 to 15. (48 24 steps/revolution) PM motors as the name
implies have permanent magnets added to the motor structure. The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR
motor. Instead the rotor is magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a straight line parallel to
the rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of this the
PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with the VR type.
Hybrid (HB)
The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper motor but provides better performance with
respect to step resolution, torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB stepper motor range from 3.6 to 0.9
(100 400 steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper motor combines the best features of both the PM and VR type
stepper motors. The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially magnetized concentric
magnet around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor provide an even better path which helps guide the magnetic flux to
preferred locations in the airgap. This further increases the detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics of
the motor when compared with both the VR and PM types.
The two most commonly used types of stepper motors are the permanent magnet and the hybrid types. If a
designer is not sure which type will best fit his applications requirements he should first evaluate the PM type as it
is normally several times less expensive. If not then the hybrid motor may be the right choice.
There also exist some special stepper motor designs. One is the disc magnet motor. Here the rotor is designed as a
disc with rare earth magnets. This motor type has some advantages such as very low inertia and a optimized
magnetic flow path with no coupling between the two stator windings. These qualities are essential in some
applications.
Size and Power
In addition to being classified by their step angle stepper motors are also classified according to frame sizes which
correspond to the diameter of the body of the motor. For instance a size 11 stepper motor has a body diameter of
approximately 1.1 inches. Likewise a size 23 stepper motor has a body diameter of 2.3 inches (58 mm), etc. The
body length may however, vary from motor to motor within the same frame size classification. As a general rule
the available torque output from a motor of a particular frame size will increase with increased body length.
Power levels for IC-driven stepper motors typically range from below a watt for very small motors up to 10 20
watts for larger motors. The maximum power dissipation level or thermal limits of the motor are seldom clearly
stated in the motor manufacturers data. To determine this we must apply the relationship P=VI. For example, a
size 23 step motor may be rated at 6V and 1A per phase. Therefore, with two phases energized the motor has a
rated power dissipation of 12 watts. It is normal practice to rate a stepper motor at the power dissipation level
where the motor case rises 65C above the ambient in still air. Therefore, if the motor can be mounted to a heat-
sink it is often possible to increase the allowable power dissipation level. This is important as the motor is designed
to be and should be used at its maximum power dissipation, to be efficient from a size/output power/cost point of
view.

When to Use a Stepper Motor
A stepper motor can be a good choice whenever controlled movement is required. They can be used to advantage
in applications where you need to control rotation angle, speed, position and synchronism. Because of the
inherent advantages listed previously, stepper motors have found their place in many different applications. Some
of these include printers, plotters, highend office equipment, hard disk drives, medical equipment, fax machines,
automotive and many more.
The Rotating Magnetic Field
When a phase winding of a stepper motor is energized with current a
magnetic flux is developed in the stator. The direction of this flux is
determined by the Right Hand Rule which states: If the coil is grasped
in the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current
in the winding (the thumb is extended at a 90 angle to the fingers), then
the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field. The figure on
the right shows the magnetic flux path developed when phase B is
energized with winding current in the direction shown. The rotor then
aligns itself so that the flux opposition is minimized. In this case the
motor would rotate clockwise so that its south pole aligns with the north
pole of the stator B at position 2 and its north pole aligns with the south
pole of stator B at position 6. To get the motor to rotate we can now see
that we must provide a sequence of energizing the stator windings in
such a fashion that provides a rotating magnetic flux field which the rotor follows due to magnetic attraction.
Torque Generation
The torque produced by a stepper motor depends on several factors: the step rate, drive current in the windings,
and drive design or type. In a stepper motor a torque is developed when the magnetic fluxes of the rotor and
stator are displaced from each other. The stator is made up of a high permeability magnetic material. The presence
of this high permeability material causes the magnetic flux to be confined for the most part to the paths defined by
the stator structure in the same fashion that currents are confined to the conductors of an electronic circuit. This
serves to concentrate the flux at the stator poles. The torque output produced by the motor is proportional to the
intensity of the magnetic flux generated when the winding is energized.
The basic relationship which defines the intensity of the magnetic flux is defined by:
H = Ni/l
where:
N = The number of winding turns
i = current
H = Magnetic field intensity
l = Magnetic flux path length
This relationship shows that the magnetic flux intensity and consequently the torque is proportional to the number
of winding turns and the current and inversely proportional to the length of the magnetic flux path. From this basic
relationship one can see that the same frame size stepper motor could have very different torque output
capabilities simply by changing the winding parameters.
Phases, Poles and Stepping Angles
Usually stepper motors have two phases, but three- and five-phase motors also exist. A bipolar motor with two
phases has one winding/phase and a unipolar motor has one winding, with a center-tap per phase. Sometimes the
unipolar stepper motor is referred to as a fourphase motor, even though it only has two phases. Motors that
have two separate windings per phase also existthese can be driven in either bipolar or unipolar mode.
A pole can be defined as one of the regions in a magnetized body where the magnetic flux density is concentrated.
Both the rotor and the stator of a step motor have poles. In reality several more poles are added to both the rotor
and stator structure in order to increase the number of steps per revolution of the motor, or in other words to
provide a smaller basic (full step) stepping angle. The permanent magnet stepper motor contains an equal number
of rotor and stator pole pairs. Typically the PM motor has 12 pole pairs. The stator has 12 pole pairs per phase. The
hybrid type stepper motor has a rotor with teeth. The rotor is split into two parts, separated by a permanant
magnetmaking half of the teeth south poles and half north poles. The number of pole pairs is equal to the
number of teeth on one of the rotor halves. The stator of a hybrid motor also has teeth to build up a higher
number of equivalent poles (smaller pole pitch, number of equivalent poles = 360/teeth pitch) compared to the
main poles, on which the winding coils are wound. Usually 4 main poles are used for 3.6 hybrids and 8 for 1.8- and
0.9-degree types.
It is the relationship between the number of rotor poles and the equivalent stator poles, and the number the
number of phases that determines the full-step angle of a stepper motor.
Step angle = 360 / (NPh x Ph) = 360 / N
where:
NPh = Number of equivalent poles per phase = number of rotor poles
Ph = Number of phases
N = Total number of poles for all phases together
If the rotor and stator tooth pitch is unequal, a more-complicated relationship exists.
Stepping Modes
The following are the most common drive modes.
Wave Drive (1 phase on)
Full Step Drive (2 phases on)
Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)
Microstepping (Continuously varying motor currents)
For the following discussions please refer to the figure on the right. In Wave
Drive only one winding is energized at any given time. The stator is energized
according to the sequence A B A

and the rotor steps from position

8 2 4 6. For unipolar and bipolar wound motors with the same
winding parameters this excitation mode would result in the same
mechanical position. The disadvantage of this drive mode is that in the
unipolar wound motor you are only using 25% and in the bipolar motor only
50% of the total motor winding at any given time. This means that you are
not getting the maximum torque output from the motor.
In Full Step Drive you are energizing two phases at any given time. The stator
is energized according to the sequence AB A

B AB

AB

and the rotor

steps from position 1 3 5 7. Full step mode results in the same
angular movement as 1 phase on drive but the mechanical position is offset
by one half of a full step. The torque output of the unipolar wound motor is
lower than the bipolar motor (for motors with the same winding parameters) since the unipolar motor uses only
50% of the available winding while the bipolar motor uses the entire winding.
Half Step Drive combines both wave and full step (1&2 phases on) drive modes. Every second step only one phase
is energized and during the other steps one phase on each stator. The stator is energized according to the
sequence AB B A

B A

AB

AB

A and the rotor steps from position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. This results in angular movements that are half of those in 1- or 2-phases-on drive modes. Half stepping can
reduce a phenomena referred to as resonance which can be experienced in 1- or 2-phases-on drive modes.
In Microstepping Drive the currents in the windings are continuously varying to be able to break up one full step
into many smaller discrete steps.
Torque vs. Angle Characteristics
The torque vs. angle characteristics of a stepper motor are the relationship
between the displacement of the rotor and the torque which applied to the rotor
shaft when the stepper motor is energized at its rated voltage. An ideal stepper
motor has a sinusoidal torque vs. displacement characteristic as shown in the
figure. Positions A and C represent stable equilibrium points when no external
force or load is applied to the rotor shaft. When you apply an external force Ta to the motor shaft you in essence
create an angular displacement, Qa. This angular displacement, Qa, is referred to as a lead or lag angle depending
on whether the motor is actively accelerating or decelerating. When the rotor stops with an applied load it will
come to rest at the position defined by this displacement angle. The motor develops a torque, Ta, in opposition to
the applied external force in order to balance the load. As the load is increased the displacement angle also
increases until it reaches the maximum holding torque, Th, of the motor. Once Th is exceeded the motor enters an
unstable region. In this region a torque is the opposite direction is created and the rotor jumps over the unstable
point to the next stable point.
The displacement angle is determined by the following relationship:
X = (Zsin(Ta / Th))/2p

where:
Z = rotor tooth pitch
Ta = load torque
Th = motors rated holding torque
X = displacement angle
Therefore if you have a problem with the step angle error of the loaded motor at rest you can improve this by
changing the stiffness of the motor. This is done by increasing the holding torque of the motor. Increasing the
holding torque for a constant load causes a shift in the lag angle from Q2 to Q1.
Step Angle Accuracy
One reason why the stepper motor has achieved such popularity as a
positioning device is its accuracy and repeatability. Typically stepper motors
will have a step angle accuracy of 3 5% of one step. This error is also
noncumulative from step to step. The accuracy of the stepper motor is mainly
a function of the mechanical precision of its parts and assembly. The graph in
the right shows a typical plot of the positional accuracy of a stepper motor.
Step Position Error
The maximum positive or negative position error caused when the motor has rotated one step from the previous
holding position.
Step position error = measured step angle - theoretical angle
Positional Error
The motor is stepped N times from an initial position (N = 360/step angle) and the angle from the initial position is
measured at each step position. If the angle from the initial position to the N-step position is N and the error is
N where:
N = N - (step angle) x N
The positional error is the difference of the maximum and minimum but is usually expressed with a sign. That
is:
positional error = 12(Max - Min)
Hysteresis Positional Error
The values obtained from the measurement of positional errors in both directions.
Mechanical Parameters, Load, Friction, Inertia
The performance of a stepper motor system (driver and motor) is also highly dependent on the mechanical
parameters of the load. The load is defined as what the motor drives. It is typically frictional, inertial or a
combination of the two. Friction is the resistance to motion due to the unevenness of surfaces which rub together.
Friction is constant with velocity. A minimum torque level is required throughout the step in over to overcome this
friction (at least equal to the friction). Increasing a frictional load lowers the top speed, lowers the acceleration and
increases the positional error. The converse is true if the frictional load is lowered.
Inertia is the resistance to changes in speed. A high inertial load requires a high inertial starting torque and the
same would apply for braking. Increasing an inertial load will increase speed stability, increase the amount of time
it takes to reach a desired speed and decrease the maximum self-start pulse rate. The converse is again true if the
inertia is decreased. The rotor oscillations of a stepper motor will vary with the amount of friction and inertia load.
Because of this relationship unwanted rotor oscillations can be reduced by mechanical damping means however it
is more often simpler to reduce these unwanted oscillations by electrical damping methods such as switch from
full step drive to half step drive.
Torque vs. Speed Characteristics
The torque vs. speed characteristics are the key to selecting the right
motor and drive method for a specific application. These characteristics
are dependent upon (change with) the motor, excitation mode and type
of driver or drive method. A typical speed torque curve is shown in
the figure. To get a better understanding of this curve it is useful to
define the different aspect of this curve.
Holding torque
The maximum torque produced by the motor at standstill.
Pull-In Curve
The pull-in curve defines an area referred to as the start stop region. This is the maximum frequency at which the
motor can start/stop instantaneously, with a load applied, without loss of synchronism.
Maximum Start Rate
The maximum starting step frequency with no load applied.
Pull-Out Curve
The pull-out curve defines an area referred to as the slew region. It defines the maximum frequency at which the
motor can operate without losing synchronism. Since this region is outside the pull-in area the motor must ramped
(accelerated or decelerated) into this region.
Maximum Slew Rate
The maximum operating frequency of the motor with no load applied. The pull-in characteristics vary also
depending on the load. The larger the load inertia the smaller the pull-in area. We can see from the shape of the
curve that the step rate affects the torque output capability of stepper motor.
The decreasing torque output as the speed increases is caused by the fact that at high speeds the inductance of
the motor is the dominant circuit element.
The shape of the speed torque curve can change quite dramatically depending on the type of driver used. The
bipolar chopper type drivers which Ericsson Components produces will maximum the speed torque performance
from a given motor. Most motor manufacturers provide these speed - torque curves for their motors. It is
important to understand what driver type or drive method the motor manufacturer used in developing their
curves as the torque vs. speed characteristics of an given motor can vary significantly depending on the drive
method used.


Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 5% of a
step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply
dependant on the life of the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less
costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input
pulses.
Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

Part III SERVOMOTORS
A servomotor is nothing but a simple electrical motor, controlled with the help of servomechanism. If the motor as
controlled device, associated with servomechanism is DC motor, then it is commonly known DC Servo Motor. If the
controlled motor is operated by AC, it is called AC Servo Motor.
Servo Motor Theory
There are some special types of application of electrical motor where rotation of the motor is required for just a
certain angle not continuously for long period of time. For these applications some special types of motor are
required with some special arrangement which makes the motor to rotate a certain angle for a given electrical
input (signal). For this purpose servo motor comes into picture. This is normally a simple DC motor which is
controlled for specific angular rotation with help of additional servomechanism (a typical closed loop feedback
control system). Now days servo system has huge industrial applications. Servo motor applications are also
commonly seen in remote controlled toy cars for controlling direction of motion and it is also very commonly used
as the motor which moves the tray of a CD or DVD player. Beside these there are other hundreds of servo motor
applications we see in our daily life. The main reason behind using a servo is that it provides angular precision, i.e.
it will only rotate as much we want and then stop and wait for next signal to take further action. This is unlike a
normal electrical motor which starts rotating as and when power is applied to it and the rotation continues until
we switch off the power. We cannot control the rotational progress of electrical motor; but we can only control
the speed of rotation and can turn it ON and OFF.
Servo motor is a special type of motor which is automatically operated up to certain limit for a given command
with help of error-sensing feedback to correct the performance.
Servo Motor Operation
Before understanding the working principle of servo motor we should understand first the basic of
servomechanism.
Servomechanism
A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled device, a output sensor, a feedback
system.
This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here instead of controlling a device by applying variable input
signal, the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input
signal.
When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared with output reference
signal of the system produced by output sensor, and a third signal produced by feedback system. This third signal
acts as input signal of controlled device. This input signal to the device presents as long as there is a logical
difference between reference input signal and output signal of the system. After the device achieves its desired
output, there will be no longer logical difference between reference input signal and reference output signal of the
system. Then, third signal produced by comparing theses above said signals will not remain enough to operate the
device further and to produce further output of the system until the next reference input signal or command signal
is applied to the system. Hence the primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the
desired value in the presence of disturbances.
Working Principle of Servo Motor
A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor) along with some other special purpose
components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear
arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the potentiometer makes the servo to
rotate according to our wishes.
As we know, a small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its rotation will not be
enough to move even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a servomechanism comes into picture. The
gear mechanism will take high input speed of the motor (fast) and at the output, we will get a output speed which
is slower than original input speed but more practical and widely applicable.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical
signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. This output port of the potentiometer is connected with
one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier. Now an electrical signal is given to another input
terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now difference between these two signals, one comes from
potentiometer and another comes from external source, will be amplified in the error detector amplifier and feeds
the DC motor. This amplified error signal acts as the input power of the dc motor and the motor starts rotating in
desired direction. As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates as it is coupled with motor
shaft with help of gear arrangement. As the position of the potentiometer knob changes there will be an electrical
signal produced at the potentiometer port. As the angular position of the potentiometer knob progresses the
output or feedback signal increases. After desired angular position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob is
reaches at such position the electrical signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of external
electrical signal given to amplifier. At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the motor
input as there is no difference between external applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer . As the
input signal to the motor is nil at that position, the motor stops rotating. This is how a simple conceptual servo
motor works.
For understanding servo motor control let us consider an example of servomotor that we have given a signal to
rotate by an angle of 45 and then stop and wait for further instruction.
The shaft of the DC motor is coupled with another shaft called output shaft, with help of gear assembly. This gear
assembly is used to step down the high rpm of the motor's shaft to low rpm at output shaft of the servo system.

The voltage adjusting knob of a potentiometer is so arranged with the output shaft by means of another gear
assembly, that during rotation of the shaft, the knob also rotates and creates an varying electrical potential
according to the principle of potentiometer . This signal i.e. electrical potential is increased with angular movement
of potentiometer knob along with the system shaft from 0 to 45. This electrical potential or voltage is taken to
the error detector feedback amplifier along with the input reference commends i.e. input signal voltage.

As the angle of rotation of the shaft increases from 0 to 45 the voltage from potentiometer increases. At 45 this
voltage reaches to a value which is equal to the given input command voltage to the system. As at this position of
the shaft, there is no difference between the signal voltage coming from the potentiometer and reference input
voltage (command signal) to the system, the output voltage of the amplifier becomes zero.

As per the picture given above the output electrical voltage signal of the amplifier, acts as input voltage of the DC
motor. Hence the motor will stop rotating after the shaft rotates by 45. The motor will be at this rest position until
another command is given to the system for further movement of the shaft in desired direction. From this example
we can understand the most basic servo motor theory and how servo motor control is achieved.
NB: Although in practical servo motor control system, instead of using simple potentiometer we use digital or
analog position sensor encoder.
From this basic working principle of servo motor it can be concluded. The shaft of the servo is connected to a
potentiometer. The circuitry inside the servo, to which the potentiometer is connected, knows the position of the
servo. The electric current position will be compared with the desired position continuously with the help of an
Error Detection Amplifier. If a mismatch is found, then an error signal is provided at the output of the error
amplifier and the shaft will rotate to go the exact location required. Once the desired location is reached, it stops
and waits.
Continuous Rotation Servo Motors
Continuous rotation servo motors are actually a modified version of what the servos are actually meant to do, that
is, control the shaft position. The 360 rotation servos are actually made by changing certain mechanical
connections inside the servo. However, certain manufacturer like parallax sells these servos as well. With the
continuous rotation servo you can only control the direction and speed of the servo, but not the position.
Controlling Servo Motor
The servo motor has three terminals: position signal (PWM Pulses), Vcc (From Power Supply) and ground

The servo motor angular position is controlled by applying PWM pulses of specific width. The duration of pulse
varies from about 0.5 ms for 0 degree rotation to 2.2 ms for 180 degree rotation. The pulses need to be given at
frequencies of about 50Hz to 60Hz.
In order to generate the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) waveform, as shown in figure below, one can use either
the internal PWM module of the micro-controller or the timers can be used. Using the PWM block is more flexible
as most micro-controller families design the blocks to suit the needs of application like Servo motor. For different
widths of PWM pulses, we need to program the internal registers accordingly.

Now, we also need to tell the microcontroller how much it has to rotate. For this purpose, we can use a simple
potentiometer and use an ADC to get the rotation angle or for more complex applications an accelerometer can be
used.