Escuela de Psicologa

Facultad de Ciencias Sociales

Ponticia Universidad Catlica de Chile
Diego Cosmelli (dcosmelli@uc.cl, @diegocosmelli)
Para qu sirve tener un Cerebro?
Algunas reexiones desde la Biologa y las Ciencias Cognitivas
Usted est aqu!
Primeros eventos en la formacin del sistema
nervioso
Primeros eventos en la formacin del sistema
nervioso
El inicio del sistema nervioso
El inicio del sistema nervioso: dos ejes fundamentales
8 Section I Orientation, Development, Gross Anatomy, Blood Supply and Meninges
Fig. 2.1AD. Dorsal aspects of reconstructions of human embryos. A Presomite stage; the approximate ex-
tension of the neural plate is marked by a dashed line; B early somite and neural groove stage; C seven-so-
mite embryo; D ten-somite embryo. Adapted from Noback and Demarest [139]. EH Schematic transverse
sections through the anlagen of the CNS of the embryos depicted in AD. The horizontal line indicates the
level of these sections
1 Ectoderm
2 Neural plate
3 Cut edge of amnion
4 Brain plate
5 Neural fold
6 Neural groove
7 Neural tube
8 Brain
9 Rostral neuropore
10 Caudal neuropore
11 Neural crest
12 Roof plate
13 Lateral plate
14 Floor plate
15 Ventricular cavity
16 Spinal ganglion
Diferenciacin del eje antero-posterior
impregnation studies have shown that the cortical wall
is made up exclusively of bipolar ventricular cells and
their pial-directed processes. Within a week (6 weeks),
the intermediate zone appears between the ventricular
and marginal zones and the total cortical thickness
reaches 220 m. The radial glial scaffolding that will
guide subsequent migration of young neurons (Rakic,
1972; see Hatten 1999 for detailed review) begins to be
established between 5 and 7 w.g. (Choi, 1988). At this
time, detached cells (mainly simple or branched
bipolar neurons with occasional horizontal cells) begin
to appear in the ventricular zone and incipient inter-
mediate zone. Horizontal cells at the intermediate/
ventricular boundary may represent early CajalRetzius
cells. The precocious development of these cells has
been shown with a wide variety of cellular markers
(Meyer and Gonzalez-Hernandez, 1993; Zecevic et al.,
1999). Synapses in the future layer of the cortex begin
to appear at 67 w.g. (Zecevic, 1998).
The cortical plate begins to appear at about the
seventh week of development in the ventrolateral part
of the telencephalic wall. At about this time the
intermediate zone can be divided into a supercial
part, which will be known as the presubplate layer,
and a deeper part, which will become the future white
matter. Development of the cortical plate coincides
with rapid increase in the density of synapses in the
future layer I (Zecevic, 1998).
By about 8 w.g. a subventricular zone appears
between the ventricular and intermediate layers. Both
the ventricular and subventricular zones are sites of
intense proliferation during the rst half of the second
trimester (Simonati et al., 1999) producing large and
small neurons and some glial cells. Proliferating cells
are also found in the internal capsule and cerebral
cortex white matter from 15 w.g. (Kendler and Golden,
1996). The number of proliferative cells in the internal
capsule decreases by the end of the second trimester,
50 JRGEN K. MAI AND KEN W. S. ASHWELL
I. EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT
FIGURE 3.1 External morphology of brains showing the growth of the hemispheres and the development
of the sulcal pattern during the period covered in this text. Modied from Retzius (1896).
Crecimiento del cerebro
...pero, cmo llegan los nervios a sus destinos?
Roger Wolcott Sperry
(1913-1994)
...pero, cmo llegan los nervios a sus destinos?
No son solo las neuronas que encuentran sus
destinos
Copyright @ 2008 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
from histological studies in rodents or from sparse
postmortemand imaging data in human and nonhuman
primates. Practical and ethical concerns, as well as
methodological limitations, have constrained studies of
early development in both humans and primates.
1,2
Because imaging data in the developing fetus, infant,
and young child are so sparse, we review briefly what is
known about the cellular bases of brain development
during these ages because it helps to inform interpreta-
tion of what has been reported in imaging studies of
early brain development.
The central nervous system begins to develop in the
human fetus 2 to 3 weeks after conception through the
folding and fusion of ectoderm to create the neural
tube.
3
Around the fifth week of gestation, the neural
tube closes and ectodermal tissues begin to differentiate
into precursors of various brain structures according to
their longitudinal and circumferential locations.
2
The
subsequent major maturational events of early brain
development include the birth and death of neurons,
neuronal migration, the elaboration and pruning of
axons and dendritic arbors, the formation and elimina-
tion of synaptic contacts between neurons, metabolic
and molecular interactions of neurons with glia, and
myelination of axons. These are dynamic processes that
have their own unique maturational time tables within
and across brain regions (Fig. 1).
By the eighth week of gestation, stem cells in the
ventricular (also called proliferative) zone, located
adjacent to the precursor of the lateral ventricles,
differentiate into the site for the division and origin of
cortical and subcortical neurons.
5Y7
Between weeks 12
and 20 of gestation, neurons migrate from the ven-
tricular zone and a newly formed adjacent region called
the subventricular zone along a scaffolding of glial cells
toward their destinations in the cortex (Fig. 2).
8,9
Preliminary application of magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) to the study of human fetuses has shown visible
evidence for the migration of neurons during the first
half of gestation.
10,11
Between 8 and 16 weeks gestational age (GA), mi-
grating neurons from the proliferative zones transiently
connect to the subplate, a waiting station located
directly underneath (i.e., on the ventricular side) of the
cortical plate, the region that will become the cerebral
cortex. Neurons in the subplate receive connections
from afferent neurons originating in the thalamus, basal
forebrain, and brainstem, temporary connections that
are generated ahead of the correct cortical targets for
these neural projections.
2,12Y16
At 17 weeks GA, this
layer appears on human fetal MRI as a transient layer
visible beneath the cortex (Fig. 3A).
10
By 20 weeks GA,
axons within the subplate break their connections there
and form new, more permanent synapses within the
cortical plate, thereby triggering the death of subplate
neurons. This refinement of cortical connections reaches
its peak at 24 to 28 weeks GA
16
and coincides with
increased functional organization of cortical circuits, as
quantified by electrophysiological measurements in
human infants.
17
Simultaneously, the subplate ceases
to appear on fetal MRI scans.
10
Neurons in the cortical
plate organize into vertical layers that are distinguishable
by microscopic examination of postmortem tissue but
that, thus far, have not been visualized successfully by
Fig. 1 Major events during brain development. Brain development proceeds in a sequence that begins with neurulation, followed by neuronal proliferation, neural
migration, and apoptosis. The sequence ends with synaptogenesis and myelination, which continue into adulthood. Reprinted with permission from the American
Journal of Psychiatry (Copyright 1999), American Psychiatric Association.
4
MARSH ET AL.
1234 WWW.JAACAP.COM J. AM. ACAD. CHILD ADOLESC. PSYCHIATRY, 47: 11, NOVEMBER 2008
Elementos para un cronograma
El cerebro madura
Copyright @ 2008 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
by oligodendrocytes would likely increase overall brain
size.
48
Increasing myelination would also contribute to
regional cortical thinning if the axons within the cortical
gray matter that were unmyelinated earlier in childhood
become myelinated later with advancing age. Consistent
with this interpretation of increasing myelination rather
than synaptic pruning as the cause of regional thinning
of the cortical mantle, thinning of the left dorsal frontal
and parietal cortices correlated with improved perfor-
mance on various cognitive tasks,
39
suggesting that
progressive myelination and its associated cortical
thinning could be responsible for the improvements in
cognitive performance that suggested improved neural
processing within prefrontal and parietal cortices.
These finer-grained morphological techniques are
now used frequently to study the differences in the tra-
jectories of brain development of healthy children from
those afflicted with neuropsychiatric disorders, such as
childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS)
57,58
or attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
59,60
In a long-
itudinal study of 12 patients with COS and 12 healthy
comparison subjects who were scanned at 2-year in-
tervals during adolescence, accelerated gray matter loss
was detected, progressing in a back-to-front direction,
which was similar to the pattern observed during normal
brain maturation.
50
These findings suggested that gray
matter loss in COS may reflect an exaggeration of the
normal brain maturational process of synaptic pruning,
perhaps supporting a hypothesis of excessive prun-
ing,
61
whereby a fault in synaptic elimination during
adolescence is thought to produce schizophrenia, con-
sistent with recent evidence that cortical thickness in
COS predicts clinical outcome in adulthood.
58
In con-
trast, findings from a recent longitudinal study of a
large sample of children and adolescents with ADHD
revealed a delayed, rather than a premature, pattern of
Fig. 5 Right lateral and dorsal views of the dynamic sequence of gray matter maturation over the cortical surface of the brain. This sequence was constructed from
52 MRI scans from 13 subjects who were scanned every 2 years during a 10-year period from ages 4 to 21 years. Red indicates more gray matter; blue, less gray
matter. Gray matter wanes in a back-to-front wave as the brain matures and neural connections are pruned. Sensorimotor areas that subserve more basic functions
mature earlier, whereas superior temporal and dorsolateral prefrontal areas that subserve higher-order functions mature later. MRI = magnetic resonance imaging.
Reprinted with permission from the National Academy of Sciences.
50
NORMAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
WWW.JAACAP.COM 1239 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD ADOLESC. PSYCHIATRY, 47: 11, NOVEMBER 2008
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Glomus etunicatum
Glomus claroideum
Glomus versiforme
Scuttellospora pellucida
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Scutellospora heterogama
Scuttellospora dipapillosa
Gigaspora albida
Gigaspora margarita
Gigaspora decipiens
Gigaspora gigantea
Acaulospora gerdemannii
Geosiphon pyriforme
Aleurodiscus botryosus
Stereum hirsutum
Gloeocystidiellum leucoxantha
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Laxitextum bicolor
Hericium ramosum
Hericium erinaceum
Lentinellus ursinus
Lentinellus omphalodes
Clavicorona pyxidata
Auriscalpium vulgare
Bondarzewia berkeleyi
Scytinostroma alutum
Peniophora nuda
Echinodontium tinctorium
Russula compacta
Inonotus hispidus
Phellinus igniarius
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Trichaptum abietinum
Trichaptum fusco violaceum
Trichaptum laricinum
Basidioradulum radula
Coltricia perennis
Schizopora paradoxa
Hyphodontia alutaria
Sphaerobolus stellatus
Geastrum saccatum
Ramaria stricta
Clavariadelphus pistillaris
Gomphus floccosus
Pseudocolus fusiformis
Auricularia polytricha
Auricularia auricula
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum
Boletus satanas
Xerocomus chrysenteron
Calostoma ravenelii
Calostoma cinnabarinum
Scleroderma citrina
Paxillus panuoides
Leucoagaricus gongylophorus
Basid symb of Atta cephalotes
Basid symb of Sericomyrmex bond
Basid symb of Trachymyrmex bugn
Basid symb of Cyphomyrmex rimos
Basid symb of Apterostigma coll
Athelia bombacina
Panellus stipticus
Typhula phacorrhiza
Panellus serotinus
Tricholoma matsutake
Omphalina umbellifera
Pleurotus ostreatus
Coprinus cinereus
Cortinarius iodes
Lepiota procera
Crucibulum laeve
Stropharia rugosoannulata
Calvatia gigantea
Cyathus striatus
Lentinula lateritia
Amanita muscaria
Cantharellus tubaeformis
Dictyonema pavonia
Schizophyllum commune
Fistulina hepatica
Pleurotus tuberregium
Agaricus bisporus
Tulostoma macrocephala
Pluteus petasatus
Termitomyces cartilagineus
Termitomyces albuminosus
Ceriporia purpurea
Bjerkandera adusta
Phlebia radiata
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Rhizoctonia zeae
Tretopileus sphaerophorus
Dentocorticium sulphurellum
Fomes fomentarius
Lentinus tigrinus
Ganoderma australe
Trametes suaveolens
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Hydnum repandum
Multiclavula mucida
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Botryobasidium subcoronatum
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Thanatephorus praticola
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Calocera cornea
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Sterigmatosporidium polymorphum
Fibulobasidium inconspicuum
Sirobasidium magnum
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Trichosporon cutaneum
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Tremella foliacea
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Udeniomyces piricola
Bullera grandispora
Leucosporidium lari marini
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Phaffia rhodozyma
Tilletia caries
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Tilletiopsis fulvescens
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Tilletiopsis minor
Tilletiopsis albescens
Tilletiopsis washingtonensis
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Ustilago hordei
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Graphiola cylindrica
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Rhodosporidium toruloides
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Aspergillus wentii
Chaetosartorya cremea
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Aspergillus awamorii
Aspergillus cervinus
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Paecilomyces variotii
Thermoascus crustaceus
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Ctenomyces serratus
Trichophyton rubrum
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Chrysosporium parvum
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Histoplasma capsulatum
Histoplasma capsulatum ssp farci
Histoplasma capsulatum ssp duboi
Ascosphaera apis
Eremascus albus
Malbranchea gypsea
Phaeoannellomyces elegans
Nadsoniella nigra
Exophiala jeanselmei
Phaeococcomyces exophialae
Capronia pilosella
Exophiala mansonii
Pullularia prototropha
Exophiala dermatitidis
Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis
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Graphium calicioides
Ceramothyrium linnaeae
Coniosporium apollinis
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Chaenothecopsis savonica
Sphinctrina turbinata
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Lasallia rossica
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Stegobium paniceum yeast like sym
Lasioderma serricorne yeast like
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Orbilia auricolor
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Duddingtonia flagrans
Monacrosporium gephyropaga
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Arthrobotrys robusta
Dactylella oxyspora
Dactylella rhopalota
Arthrobotrys dactyloides
Orbilia delicatula
Choiromyces meandriformis
Choiromyces venosus
Tuber magnatum
Tuber panniferum
Tuber excavatum
Tuber rapaeodorum
Tuber gibbosum
Tuber borchii
Dingleya verrucosa
Labyrinthomyces varius
Reddellomyces donkii
Wynnella silvicolor
Barssia oregonensis
Balsamia vulgaris
Balsamia magnata
Helvella lacunosa
Helvella terrestris
Underwoodia columnaris
Caloscypha fulgens
Pulvinula archeri
Chalazion helveticum
Ascodesmis sphaerospora
Glaziella aurantiaca
Aleuria aurantia
Inermisia aggregata
Trichophaea hybrida
Wilcoxina mikolae
Scutellinia scutellata
Leucoscypha oroarctica
Pyronema domesticum
Otidea leporina
Neottiella rutilans
Paurocotylis pila
Geopyxis carbonaria
Tarzetta catinus
Cookeina sulcipes
Sarcoscypha austriaca
Microstoma protracta
Desmazierella acicola
Plectania rhytidia
Sarcosoma globosum
Urnula hiemalis
Morchella esculenta
Morchella elata
Verpa conica
Verpa bohemica
Leucangium carthusianum
Fischerula subcaulis
Disciotis venosa
Hydnotrya tulasnei
Gyromitra esculenta
Gyromitra melaleucoides
Pseudorhizina californica
Gyromitra montana
Discina macrospora
Hydnotrya cerebriformis
Rhizina undulata
Cazia flexiascus
Terfezia arenaria
Peziza succosa
Peziza quelepidotia
Terfezia terfezioides
Pachyphloeus melanoxanthus
Boudiera acanthospora
Peziza badia
Thecotheus holmskjoldii
Ascobolus lineolatus
Pichia mexicana
Candida conglobata
Candida aaseri
Candida butyri
Candida insectorum
Candida dendronema
Candida tenuis
Candida naeodendra
Candida diddensiae
Candida atlantica
Candida atmosphaerica
Candida buinensis
Candida friedrichii
Candida membranifaciens
Pichia triangularis
Candida multigemmis
Candida oleophila
Candida boleticola
Candida schatavii
Candida laureliae
Candida krissii
Candida santamariae var membra
Candida ralunensis
Candida santamariae var santam
Candida beechii
Candida zeylanoides
Candida sophiae reginae
Candida quercitrusa
Candida natalensis
Candida fragi
Candida psychrophila
Candida glucosophila
Candida xestobii
Candida fukuyamaensis
Candida fermenticarens
Pichia guilliermondii
Debaryomyces hansenii var hans
Debaryomyces hansenii var fabr
Taphrina farlowii
Yamadazyma guilliermondii
Pichia farinosa
Debaryomyces udenii
Debaryomyces castellii
Debaryomyces hansenii
Candida sojae
Candida tropicalis
Candida albicans
Candida dubliniensis
Candida maltosa
Candida viswanathii
Candida lodderae
Candida parapsilosis
Lodderomyces elongisporus
Candida shehatae var insectosa
Candida shehatae var lignosa
Candida shehatae var shehatae
Candida palmioleophila
Candida fluviatilis
Candida saitoana
Candida pseudoglaebosa
Candida glaebosa
Candida insectamans
Candida lyxosophila
Candida kruisii
Candida tanzawaensis Candida sake
Candida austromarina
Candida coipomoensis
Candida ergastensis
Pichia angusta
Williopsis salicorniae
Endomyces fibuliger
Saccharomycopsis fibuligera
Saccharomycopsis capsularis
Kluyveromyces nonfermentati
Kluyveromyces aestuarii
Kluyveromyces marxianus
Kluyveromyces lactis
Kluyveromyces dobzhanskii
Kluyveromyces wickerhamii
Holleya sinecauda
Zygosaccharomyces mellis
Zygosaccharomyces rouxii
Zygosaccharomyces bisporus
Zygosaccharomyces lentus
Zygosaccharomyces bailii
Arxiozyma telluris
Saccharomyces dairensis
Saccharomyces servazzii
Saccharomyces unisporus
Saccharomyces transvaalensis
Zygosaccharomyces mrakii
Torulaspora globosa
Torulaspora delbrueckii
Torulaspora pretoriensis
Zygosaccharomyces microellipsoide
Candida colliculosa
Kazachstania viticola
Kluyveromyces blattae
Kluyveromyces phaffii
Zygosaccharomyces florentinus
Candida glabrata
Kluyveromyces delphensis
Saccharomyces pastorianus
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2
Saccharomyces bayanus
Saccharomyces paradoxus
Kluyveromyces polysporus
Kluyveromyces yarrowii
Kluyveromyces lodderae
Saccharomyces rosinii
Kluyveromyces africanus
Saccharomyces spencerorum
Saccharomyces exiguus
Saccharomyces barnettii
Saccharomyces castellii
Zygosaccharomyces fermentati
Saccharomyces kluyveri
Kluyveromyces thermotolerans
Kluyveromyces waltii
Saccharomycodes ludwigii
Hanseniaspora uvarum
Williopsis pratensis
Williopsis californica
Starmera amethionina var pachy
Starmera amethionina var ameth Starmera caribaea Pichia anomala
Williopsis saturnus
Williopsis saturnus var mrakii
Williopsis mucosa
Pachysolen tannophilus Candida chilensis
Candida cylindracea Candida savonica
Candida mesenterica Candida suecica
Phaffomyces antillensis
Phaffomyces opuntiae
Phaffomyces thermotolerans Yarrowia lipolytica Candida rugosa Candida catenulata
Candida pseudointermedia
Candida intermedia
Candida akabanensis
Candida oregonensis
Candida haemulonii Candida tsuchiyae
Clavispora lusitaniae Candida melibiosica Candida torresii
Metschnikowia bicuspidata Candida agrestis
Metschnikowia reukaufii
Metschnikowia pulcherrima Candida mogii
Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Dekkera bruxellensis Dekkera anomala
Brettanomyces anomalus Dekkera custersiana
Dekkera naardenensis
Candida insectalens Candida silvatica
Issatchenkia orientalis
Pichia membranaefaciens Candida spandovensis Candida apicola Candida bombi Starmerella bombicola Candida geochares Candida vaccinii
Endomyces geotrichum
Galactomyces geotrichum Dipodascus albidus Candida chiropterorum Candida valdiviana Candida drimydis Waltomyces lipofer
Dipodascopsis uninucleata
Protomyces macrosporus
Protomyces pachydermus Protomyces inouyei Protomyces lactucae Taphrina virginica Taphrina carnea
Taphrina pruni subcordatae Taphrina mirabilis Taphrina nana Taphrina pruni Taphrina ulmi Taphrina communis Taphrina flavorubra Taphrina populina Taphrina deformans Taphrina wiesneri Taphrina robinsoniana Taphrina letifera Neolecta vitellina Neolecta irregularis Saitoella complicata
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces japonicus Pneumocystis carinii Calicium tricolor Taphrina maculans Taphrina californica Chytridium confervae Neocallimastix frontalis Neocallimastix joyonii Piromonas communis Spizellomyces acuminatus Allomyces macrogynus Blastocladiella emersonii Chrysops niger Drosophila melanogaster Ceratitis capitata Ornithoica vicina Nephrotoma altissima Lutzomyia shannoni Aedes albopictus Aedes aegypti Aedes punctor Toxorhynchites ambionensis Culex tritaeniorhynchus Anopheles psuedopunctipennis Anopheles albimanus Eucorethra underwoodi Dixella cornuta Culicoides variipennis Amblabesmia rhamphe Simulium vittatum Xenos vesparum Stylops melittae Mengenilla chobauti Galleria mellonella Archaeopsylla erinacei Panorpa germanica Anisochrysa carnea Oliarces clara Monolobus ovalipennis Antarctonomus complanatus Loricera foveata Loricera pilicornis pilicornis Amarotypus edwardsi Bembidion mexicanum Bembidion levettei carrianum Asaphidion curtum Diplous californicus Patrobus longicornis Pericompsus laetulus Diplochaetus planatus Zolus helmsi Merizodus angusticollis Sloaneana tasmaniae Batesiana hilaris Schizogenius falli Clivina ferrea Dyschirius sphaericollis Melisodera picipennis Mecyclothorax vulcans Amblytelus curtus Apotomus rufithorax Broscosoma relictum Creobius eydouxi Galerita lecontei lecontei Pseudaptinus rufulus Aptinus displosor Pterostichus melanarius Tetragonoderus latipennis Discoderus cordicollis Chlaenius ruficauda Calybe laetula Amara apricaria Agonum extensicolle Cymindis punctigera Loxandrus n sp nr amplithora Cnemalobus sulciferus Catapiesis brasiliensis Morion aridus Brachinus armiger Brachinus hirsutus Pheropsophus aequinoctialis Pasimachus atronitens Scarites subterraneus Carenum interruptum Siagona europaea Siagona jennisoni Clinidium calcaratum Omoglymmius hamatus Omus californicus Cicindela sedecimpunctata Metrius contractus Pachyteles striola Cymbionotum semelederi Cymbionotum pictulum Gehringia olympica Promecognathus crassus Laccocenus ambiguus Omophron obliteratum Psydrus piceus Ceroglossus chilensis Pamborus guerinii Calosoma scrutator Carabus nemoralis Scaphinotus petersi catalinae Cychrus italicus Opisthius richardsoni Leistus ferruginosus Nebria hudsonica Notiophilus semiopacus Trachypachus gibbsii Trachypachus holmbergi Systolosoma lateritium Elaphrus californicus Elaphrus clairvillei Blethisa multipunctata aurata Mecodema fulgidum Oregus aereus Suphis inflatus Copelatus chevrolati renovatus Hydroscapha natans Xanthopyga cacti Dynastes granti Tenebrio molitor Meloe proscarabaeus Clambus arnetti Phaeostigma notata Leptothorax acervorum Polistes dominulus Graphosoma lineatum Raphigaster nebulosa Lygus hesperus Hemiowoodwardia wilsoni Hackeriella veitchi Spissistilus festinus Prokelisia marginata Philaenus spumarius Okanagana utahensis Trioza eugeniae Pealius kelloggii Acyrthosiphon pisum Aonidiella aurantii Batrachideidae gen sp Carausius morosus Acheta domesticus Mesoperlina pecircai Aeschna cyanea Lepisma saccharina Lepidocyrtus paradoxus Crossodonthina koreana Hypogastrura dolsana Podura aquatica Theatops erythrocephala Scolopendra cingulata Cryptops trisulcatus Craterostigmus tasmanianus Lithobius variegatus Scutigera coleoptrata Pseudohimantarium mediterraneum Clinopodes poseidonis Cylindroiulus punctatus Polydesmus coriaceus Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Hyalomma lusitanicum Hyalomma rufipes Hyalomma dromedarii Rhipicephalus sanguineus Boophilus microplus Rhipicephalus zambeziensis Rhipicephalus bursa Boophilus annulatus Rhipicephalus pusillus Dermacentor andersoni Dermacentor marginatus Amblyomma triguttatum triguttat Amblyomma vikirri Aponomma fimbriatum Aponomma latum Amblyomma variegatum Amblyomma tuberculatum Amblyomma americanum Amblyomma maculatum Haemaphysalis inermis Haemaphysalis punctata
Haemaphysalis leporispalustris Haemaphysalis humerosa Haemaphysalis petrogalis Haemaphysalis leachi Aponomma undatum Aponomma concolor Ixodes auritulus Ixodes ricinus Ixodes affinis Ixodes pilosus Ixodes cookei
Ixodes simplex simplex Ixodes kopsteini Ixodes holocyclus
Carios puertoricensis
Ornithodoros moubata
Ornithodoros coriaceus Otobius megnini Argas lahorensis Argas persicus
Megisthanus floridanus
Cosmolaelaps trifidus
Hypochthonius rufulus Lohmannia banksi
Nothrus sylvestris
Xenillus tegeocranus Euzetes globulosus
Allonothrus russeolus
Archegozetes longisetosus
Trhypochthonius tectorum
Nehypochthonius porosus
Steganacarus magnus
Gehypochthonius urticinus
Chortoglyphus arcuatus Acarus siro
Eusimonia wunderlichi
Androctonus australis
Liphistius bicoloripes
Eurypelma californica
Odiellus troguloides
Pseudocellus pearsei
Limulus polyphemus
Callipallene gen sp
Berndtia purpurea
Trypetesa lampas
Octolasmis lowei
Paralepas palinuri Lepas anatifera
Balanus eburneus
Chelonibia patula
Tetraclita stalactifera
Chthamalus fragilis
Verruca spengleri Ibla cumingi
Calantica villosa
Loxothylacus texanus
Dendrogaster asterinae
Ulophysema oeresundense
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Helice tridens
Philyra pisum
Callinectes sapidus
Pugettia quadridens
Raninoides louisianensis
Procambarus leonensis
Astacus astacus
Nephrops norvegicus
Panulirus argus
Oedignathus inermis
Penaeus aztecus
Stenopus hispidus
Artemia salina
Branchinecta packardi
Daphnia pulex
Bosmina longirostris
Daphnia galeata
Stenocypris major
Argulus nobilis
Porocephalus crotali
Milnesium tardigradum
Macrobiotus hufelandi
Thulinia stephaniae
Echiniscus viridissimus
Euperipatoides leuckarti
Priapulus caudatus
Pycnophyes kielensis
Helix aspersa
Balea biplicata
Limicolaria kambeul
Laevicaulis alte
Onchidella celtica
Siphonaria algesirae
Anthosiphonaria sirius
Lymnaea glabra
Stagnicola palustris
Lymnaea stagnalis
Radix peregra
Lymnaea auricularia
Fossaria truncatula
Bakerilymnaea cubensis
Biomphalaria glabrata
Littorina obtusata
Littorina littorea
Fasciolaria lignaria
Nassarius singuinjorensis
Pisania striata
Reishia bronni
Thais clavigera
Rapana venosa
Bursa rana
Monodonta labio
Antalis vulgaris
Scutopus ventrolineatus
Arctica islandica
Mercenaria mercenaria
Spisula subtruncata
Mulinia lateralis
Spisula solida
Spisula solidissima
Tresus nuttali
Tresus capax
Mactromeris polynyma
Hippopus hippopus
Hippopus porcellanus
Tridacna squamosa
Tridacna crocea
Tridacna maxima
Tridacna derasa
Tridacna gigas
Vasticardium flavum
Fulvia mutica
Fragum unedo
Fragum fragum
Corculum cardissa
Galeomma takii
Ostrea edulis
Crassostrea virginica
Nerita albicilla
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus trossulus
Mytilus galloprovincialis
Mytilus californianus
Geukensia demissa
Mimachlamys varia
Chlamys hastata
Crassadoma gigantea
Pecten maximus
Argopecten gibbus
Argopecten irradians
Placopecten magellanicus
Chlamys islandica
Atrina pectinata
Arca noae
Barbatia virescens
Acanthopleura japonica
Lepidochitona corrugata
Lepidozona coreanica
Eohemithyris grayii
Platidia anomioides
Stenosarina crosnieri
Gryphus vitreus
Thecidellina blochmanii
Cancellothyris hedleyi
Terebratulina retusa
Liothyrella neozelanica
Liothyrella uva
Gwynia capsula
Calloria inconspicua
Gyrothyris mawsoni
Neothyris parva
Terebratalia transversa
Macandrevia cranium
Fallax neocaledonensis
Laqueus californianus
Megerlia truncata
Terebratella sanguinea
Notosaria nigricans
Hemithyris psittaceae
Neocrania anomala
Neocrania huttoni
Discina striata
Glottidia pyramidata
Lingula lingua
Lingula anatina
Phoronis architecta
Phoronis psammophila
Phoronis vancouverensis
Alboglossiphonia heteroclita
Hirudo medicinalis
Haemopis sanguisuga
Barbronia weberi
Eisenia fetida
Lumbricus rubellus
Dero digitata
Xironogiton victoriensis
Sathodrilus attenuatus
Nereis virens
Aphrodita aculeata
Nereis limbata
Capitella capitata
Harmothoe impar
Sabella pavonina
Magelona mirabilis
Scoloplos armiger
Polydora ciliata
Pygospio elegans
Lanice conchilega
Nephtys hombergii
Glycera americana
Dodecaceria concharum
Chaetopterus variopedatus
Siboglinum fiordicum
Ridgeia piscesae
Ochetostoma erythrogrammon
Pedicellina cernua
Barentsia hildegardae
Barentsia benedeni
Symbion pandora
Plumatella repens
Alcyonidium gelatinosum
Porania pulvillus
Asterias amurensis
Astropecten irregularis
Stomopneustes variolaris
Mespilia globulus
Temnopleurus hardwickii
Salmacis sphaeroides
Tripneustes gratilla
Ophiopholis aculeta
Strongylocentrotus intermedius
Colobocentrotus atratus
Echinus esculentus
Sphaerechinus granularis
Psammechinus miliaris
Diadema setosum
Centrostephanus coronatus
Eucidaris tribuloides
Fellaster zelandiae
Cassidulus mitis
Echinodiscus bisperforatus
Encope aberrans
Echinocardium cordatum
Brissopsis lyrifera
Meoma ventricosa
Arbacia lixula
Asthenosoma owstoni
Psychropotes longicauda
Cucumaria sykion
Lipotrapeza vestiens
Stichopus japonicus
Ophiocanops fugiens
Amphipholis squamata
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus
Ophiomyxa brevirima
Ophioplocus japonicus
Astrobrachion constrictum
Antedon serrata
Endoxocrinus parrae
Eptatretus stouti
Myxine glutinosa atlantic hagfis
Petromyzon marinus
Lampetra aepyptera
Plethodon yonhalossee
Amphiuma tridactylum
Siren intermedia
Ambystoma mexicanum
Eleutherodactylus cuneatus
Hyla cinerea
Bufo valliceps
Nesomantis thomasseti
Gastrophryne carolinensis
Xenopus laevis
Scaphiopus holbrooki
Discoglossus pictus
Grandisonia alternans
Hypogeophis rostratus
Ichthyophis bannanicus
Typhlonectes natans
Homo sapiens
Mus musculus
Rattus norvegicus
Oryctolagus cuniculus
Alligator mississippiensis
Turdus migratorius
Gallus gallus
Heterodon platyrhinos
Sceloporus undulatus
Sphenodon punctatus
Pseudemys scripta
Latimeria chalumnae
Elops hawaiiensis
Megalops atlanticus
Ophichthus rex
Echiophis punctifer
Hiodon alosoides
Albula vulpes
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Cyprinus carpio
Ictalurus punctatus
Clupea harengus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Amia calva
Lepisosteus osseus
Polyodon spathula
Sebastolobus altivelis
Rhinobatos lentiginosus
Echinorhinus cookei
Squalus acanthias
Notorynchus cepedianus
Branchiostoma floridae
Halocynthia roretzi
Styela plicata
Herdmania momus
Oikopleura dioica
Doliolum nationalis
Thalia democratica
Pyrosoma atlanticum
Ciona intestinalis
Saccoglossus kowalevskii
Balanoglossus carnosus
Dicyema acuticephalum
Dicyema orientale
Sagitta elegans
Sagitta crassa
Paraspadella gotoi
Phascolosoma granulatum
Prostoma eilhardi
Haplogonaria syltensis
Atriofonta polyvacuola
Actinoposthia beklemischevi
Aphanastoma virescens
Convoluta pulchra
Anaperus tvaerminnensis
Symsagittifera psammophila
Convoluta roscoffensis
Convoluta naikaiensis
Anaperus biaculeatus
Paedomecynostomum bruneum
Postmecynostomum pictum
Childia groenlandica
Philomecynostomum lapillum
Simplicomorpha gigantorhabditis
Paratomella rubra
Dugesia subtentaculata
Dugesia ryukyuensis
Girardia tigrina
Microplana scharfii
Caenoplana caerulea
Australoplana sanguinea
Arthiopostia triangulata
Dugesia japonica
Dugesia iberica
Dugesia mediterranea
Dugesia polychroa
Cura pinguis
Neppia montana
Microplana nana
Bipalium kewense
Platydemus manokwari
Artioposthia triangulata
Dendrocoelopsis lactea
Crenobia alpina
Polycelis nigra
Phagocata ullala
Ectoplana limuli
Bipalium trilineatum
Heronimus mollis
Prosorhynchoides gracilescens
Stephanostomum baccatum
Zalophotrema hepaticum
Nasitrema globicephalae
Tetracerasta blepta
Fasciola gigantica
Dicrocoelium dendriticum
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciolopsis buski
Echinostoma caproni
Opisthorchis viverrini
Calicophoron calicophorum
Schistosoma japonicum
Schistosoma mansoni
Schistosoma spindale
Schistosoma haematobium
Multicotyle purvisi
Lobatostoma manteri
Zeuxapta seriolae
Plectanocotyle gurnardi
Diclidophora denticulata
Kuhnia scombri
Bivagina pagrosomi
Neomicrocotyle pacifica
Pseudohexabothrium taeniurae
Neopolystoma spratti
Polystomoides malayi
Grillotia erinaceus
Abothrium gadi
Bothriocephalus scorpii
Proteocephalus exiguus
Gyrocotyle urna
Dictyocotyle coeliaca
Calicotyle affinis
Troglocephalus rhinobatidis
Leptocotyle minor
Pseudomurraytrema ardens
Gyrodactylus salaris
Udonella caligorum
Encotyllabe chironemi
Bothromesostoma personatum
Plagiostomum cinctum
Plagiostomum striatum
Plicastoma cuticulata
Vorticeros ijimai
Plagiostomum vittatum
Plagiostomum ochroleucum
Pseudostomum klostermanni
Pseudostomum quadrioculatum
Cylindrostoma fingalianum
Cylindrostoma gracilis
Pseudostomum gracilis
Ulianinia mollissima
Reisingeria hexaoculata
Urastoma cyprinae
Archiloa rivularis
Nemertinoides elongatus
Planocera multitentaculata
Notoplana koreana
Notoplana australis
Discocelis tigrina
Pseudoceros tritriatus
Thysanozoon brocchii
Geocentrophora sphyrocephala
Geocentrophora baltica
Microstomum lineare
Macrostomum tuba
Stenostomum leucops aquariorum
Stenostomum leucops
Eubostrichus parasitiferus
Eubostrichus topiarius
Eubostrichus dianae
Chromadoropsis vivipara
Desmodora ovigera
Laxus oneistus
Laxus cosmopolitus
Stilbonema majum
Robbea hypermnestra
Acanthopharynx micans
Plectus aquatilis
Plectus acuminatus
Cruznema tripartitum
Rhabditella axei
Pellioditis typica
Rhabditis blumi
Rhabditis myriophila
Haemonchus placei
Haemonchus similis
Haemonchus contortus
Nematodirus battus
Ostertagia ostertagi
Nippostrongylus brasiliensis
Syngamus trachea
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
Caenorhabditis briggsae
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis vulgaris
Pelodera strongyloides
Panagrellus redivivus
Teratorhabditis palmarum
Aduncospiculum halicti
Pristionchus lheritieri
Diplogaster lethieri
Strongyloides stercoralis
Strongyloides ratti
Steinernema carpocapsae
Zeldia punctata
Cephalobus oryzae
Meloidogyne arenaria
Globodera pallida
Aphelenchus avenae
Pseudoterranova decipiens
Terranova caballeroi
Toxocara canis
Contracaecum multipapillatum
Baylisascaris transfuga
Ascaris suum
Parascaris equorum
Ascaris lumbricoides
Baylisascaris procyonis
Toxascaris leonina
Porrocaecum depressum
Goezia pelagia
Iheringascaris inquies
Hysterothylacium pelagicum
Hysterothylacium fortalezae
Hysterothylacium reliquens
Heterocheilus tunicatus
Cruzia americana
Brumptaemilius justini
Brugia malayi
Dirofilaria immitis
Gnathostoma neoprocyonis
Gnathostoma binucleatum
Gnathostoma turgidum
Teratocephalus lirellus
Daptonema procerus
Diplolaimelloides meyli
Paracanthonchus caecus
Pontonema vulgare
Enoplus brevis
Enoplus meridionalis
Prismatolaimus intermedius
Paratrichodorus anemones
Paratrichodorus pachydermus
Trichodorus primitivus
Mermis nigrescens
Mylonchulus arenicolus
Xiphinema rivesi
Longidorus elongatus
Trichuris muris
Trichinella spiralis
Gordius aquaticus
Gordius albopunctatus
Chordodes morgani
Rhopalura ophiocomae
Echinorhynchus gadi
Polymorphus altmani
Corynosoma enhydri
Centrorhynchus conspectus
Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus
Pomphorhynchus bulbocoli
Leptorhynchoides thecatus
Neoechinorhynchus crassus
Neoechinorhynchus pseudemydis
Macracanthorhynchus ingens
Moliniformis moliniformis
Mediorhynchus grandis
Philodina acuticornis
Brachionus plicatilis
Lepidodermella squammata
Gnathostomula paradoxa
Trichoplax adhaerens
Haliplanella lucia
Flosmaris mutsuensis
Anthopleura kurogane
Anthopleura midori
Anemonia sulcata
Rhizopsammia minuta
Epiactis japonica
Tubastraea aurea
Antipathes galapagensis
Antipathes lata
Parazoanthus axinellae
Calicogorgia granulosa
Bellonella rigida
Euplexaura crassa
Alcyonium gracillimum
Leioptilus fimbriatus
Virgularia gustaviana
Coryne pusilla
Hydra littoralis
Gymnangium hians
Selaginopsis cornigera
Polypodium hydriforme
Tripedalia cystophora
Atolla vanhoeffeni
Craterolophus convolvulus
Mycale fibrexilis
Microciona prolifera
Suberites ficus
Axinella polypoides
Tetilla japonica
Eunapius fragilis
Spongilla lacustris
Ephydatia muelleri
Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni
Scypha ciliata
Sycon calcaravis
Clathrina cerebrum
Beroe cucumis
Mnemiopsis leidyi
Teleaulax amphioxeia
Hemiselmis brunnescens
Hemiselmis virescens
Hemiselmis rufescens
Plagiomonas amylosa
Proteomonas sulcata
Guillardia theta
Goniomonas truncata
Acanthamoeba lenticulata
Acanthamoeba pustulosa
Acanthamoeba palestinensis
Acanthamoeba griffini
Acanthamoeba pearcei
Acanthamoeba hatchetti
Acanthamoeba stevensoni
Acanthamoeba castellanii
Acanthamoeba lugdunensis
Acanthamoeba rhysodes
Acanthamoeba royreba
Acanthamoeba polyphaga
Acanthamoeba culbertsoni
Acanthamoeba healyi
Acanthamoeba comandoni
Acanthamoeba tubiashi
Acanthamoeba astronyxis
Cyanophora paradoxa
Cyanoptyche gloeocystis
Glaucocystis nostochinearum
Arthrocardia filicula
Serraticardia macmillanii
Bossiella orbigniana
Calliarthron cheilosporioides
Calliarthron tuberculosum
Bossiella californica
Corallina officinalis
Corallina elongata
Jania rubens
Cheilosporum sagittatum
Jania crassa
Haliptilon roseum
Metagoniolithon chara
Metagoniolithon stelliferum
Metagoniolithon radiatum
Spongites yendoi
Lithophyllum kotschyanum
Lithothrix aspergillum
Amphiroa fragilissima
Synarthrophyton patena
Mesophyllum engelhartii
Mesophyllum erubescens
Lithothamnion tophiforme
Lithothamnion glaciale
Phymatolithon laevigatum
Phymatolithon lenormandii
Leptophytum acervatum
Leptophytum ferox
Mastophoropsis caniculata
Clathromorphum compactum
Clathromorphum parcum
Heydrichia woelkerlingii
Sporolithon durum
Rhodogorgon carriebowensis
Audouinella pectinata
Audouinella proskaueri
Audouinella asparagopsis
Audouinella tetraspora
Audouinella dasyae
Audouinella endophytica
Audouinella caespitosa
Audouinella rhizoidea
Audouinella daviesii
Audouinella amphiroae
Audouinella arcuata
Audouinella secundata
Audouinella hermannii
Audouinella tenue
Rhodophysema elegans
Devaleraea ramentacea
Meiodiscus spetsbergensis
Palmaria palmata
Halosaccion glandiforme
Rhodothamniella floridula
Camontagnea oxyclada
Nemalion helminthoides
Galaxaura marginata
Rhodochorton purpureum
Rhododraparnaldia oregonica
Batrachospermum boryanum
Tuomeya americana
Sirodotia suecica
Sirodotia huillensis
Lemanea fluviatilis
Paralemanea catenata
Batrachospermum gelatinosum
Batrachospermum helminthosum
Batrachospermum turfosum
Psilosiphon scoparium
Batrachospermum macrosporum
Batrachospermum virgato decaisn
Batrachospermum louisianae
Nothocladus nodosus
Thorea violacea
Gelidium pusillum
Gelidium latifolium
Gelidium floridanum
Gelidium sesquipedale
Gelidium serrulatum
Gelidium americanum
Gelidium vagum
Griffithsia globulifera
Onikusa pristoides
Capreolia implexaGelidium caulacantheum
Pterocladia lucida
Pterocladia capillacea
Pterocladiella capillacea
Pterocladiella melanoidea
Ptilophora pinnatifida
Ptilophora subcostata
Gelidiella acerosa
Grateloupia filicina
Cryptonemia undulata
Carpopeltis phyllophora
Halymenia plana
Sebdenia flabellata
Lomentaria australis
Lomentaria baileyana
Gloioderma fruticulosa
Champia affinis
Cephalocystis furcellata
Cephalocystis leucobotrys
Erythrocolon podagricum
Epymenia wilsonis
Rhodymenia linearis
Cordylecladia erecta
Plocamiocolax pulvinata
Plocamium cartilagineum
Plocamium angustum
Gracilaria verrucosa
Gracilaria pacifica
Gracilaria tikvahiae
Gracilaria cornea
Gracilaria chilensis
Melanthalia obtusata
Curdiea flabellata
Gracilaria lemaneiformis
Gracilariophila oryzoides
Schizymenia dubyi
Mastocarpus stellatus
Gigartina crassicaulis
Schottera nicaeensis
Gardneriella tuberifera
Sarcodiotheca gaudichaudii
Sarcodiotheca furcata
Eucheuma denticulata
Eucheuma isiforme
Kappaphycus alvarezii
Mychodea carnosa
Areschougia congesta
Endocladia muricata
Gleiopeltis furcata
Phacelocarpus peperocarpos
Nizymenia australis
Sphaerococcus coronopifolius
Farlowia mollis
Dilsea carnosa
Dasyphloea insignis
Callophyllis rangiferina
Bonnemaisonia hamifera
Ceramium macilentum
Ceramium rubrum
Dasya baillouviana
Phycodrys rubens
Rhodomela confervoides
Anotrichium furcellatum
Griffithsia monilis
Crouania attenuata
Hildenbrandia rubra
Apophlaea lyallii
Dixoniella grisea
Rhodella maculata
Boldia erythrosiphon
Erythrotrichia carnea
Porphyra pseudolinearis
Porphyra katadae
Porphyra yezoensis
Porphyra tenera
Porphyra leucosticta
Porphyra haitanensis
Porphyra dentata
Bangia atropurpurea
Porphyra acanthophora
Porphyra suborbiculata
Porphyra miniata
Porphyra umbilicalis
Porphyra purpurea
Stylonema alsidii
Cosmarium botrytis
Sphaerozosma granulatum
Cosmocladium saxonicum
Gonatozygon aculeatum
Genicularia spirotaenia
Mesotaenium caldariorum
Mougeotia scalaris
Spirogyra grevilleana
Zygnemopsis circumcarinata
Dioscorea bulbifera
Tacca plantaginea
Calectasia intermedia
Zea mays
Oryza sativa
Joinvillea ascendens
Sparganium eurycarpum
Cyperus albostriatus
Glomeropitcairnia penduliflora
Anigozanthos flavidus
Eichhornia crassipes
Elasis hirsuta
Tradescantia ohiensis
Costus barbatus
Maranta bicolor
Calathea loeseneri
Zingiber gramineum
Canna indica
Heliconia indica
Ravenala madagascariensis
Orchidantha fimbriata
Phenakospermum guyannense
Strelitzia nicolai
Musa acuminata
Calochortus albus
Colchicum autumnale
Veitchia sessilifolia
Drymophloeus subdisticha
Chamaedorea seifrizii
Trachycarpus wagnerianus
Cyanella capensis
Gladiolus buckerveldii
Isophysis tasmanica
Bowiea volubilis
Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata
Asparagus falcatus
Ledebouria socialis
Chlorophytum nepalense
Allium thunbergii
Eucharis grandiflora
Burmannia disticha
Apostasia stylidioides
Gymnosiphon suaveolens
Calla palustris
Vallisneria americana
Sagittaria trifolia
Ananas comosus
Scheuchzeria palustris
Gymnostachys anceps
Corallorhiza maculata
Aplectrum hyemale
Neottia nidus avis
Eburophyton austinae
Oncidium sphacelatum
Oncidium excavatum
Cypripedium calceolus
Acorus calamus
Lilium formosanum
Illicium parviflorum
Schisandra chinensis
Austrobaileya scandens
Nuphar japonica
Nuphar shimadai
Nymphaea tuberosa
Amborella trichopoda
Arabidopsis thaliana
Sinapis alba
Cleome hasleriana
Pentadiplandra brazzeana
Reseda alba
Gyrostemon tepperi
Tropaeolum majus
Moringa oleifera
Carica papaya papaya
Floerkea proserpinacoides
Batis maritima
Pilea cadierei
Euonymus alatus
Brexia madagascarensis
Parnassia fimbriata
Lepuropetalon spathulatum
Albizzia julibrissin
Trifolium repens
Pisum sativum
Glycine max
Abobra tenuifolia
Corallocarpus bainesii
Luffa quinquefida
Marah macrocarpa
Coriaria arborea
Datisca cannabina
Datisca glomerata
Begonia glabra
Hillebrandia sandwichensis
Begonia metallica x Begonia sangu
Begonia boisiana
Begonia oxyloba
Octomeles sumatrana
Tetrameles nudiflora
Crossosoma californicum
Morus alba
Celtis yunnanensis
Ceanothus sanguineus
Elaeagnus umbellata
Francoa sonchifolia
Greyia radlkoferi
Zelkova serrata
Fragaria ananassa
Spiraea x vanhouttei
Photinia fraseri
Prunus persica
Ricinus communis
Adriana glabrata
Chrysobalanus icaco
Licania tomentosa
Linum perenne
Gossypium hirsutum
Luehea seemannii
Bombax ceiba
Koeberlinia spinosa
Muntingia calabura
Turnera ulmifolia
Drypetes roxburghii
Malpighia coccigera
Mirabilis jalapa
Tetragonia expansa
Mollugo verticillata
Phytolacca americana
Spinacia oleracea
Plumbago auriculata
Polygonum chinense
Coccoloba uvifera
Drosera capensis
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Citrus aurantium
Koelreuteria paniculata
Acer rubrum
Dillenia alata
Gunnera manicata
Mkilua fragrans
Guaiacum sanctum
Cephalotus follicularis
Eucryphia lucida
Ceratopetalum gummiferum
Sloanea latifolia
Bauera rubioides
Casuarina equisetifolia
Betula papyrifera
Alnus glutinosa
Dendrophthora clavata
Phoradendron californicum
Phoradendron serotinum
Dendrophthora domingensis
Arceuthobium verticilliflorum
Arceuthobium pendens
Arceuthobium oxycedri
Viscum album
Viscum articulatum
Korthalsella complanata
Korthalsella lindsayi
Ginalloa arnottiana
Notothixos leiophyllus
Notothixos subaureus
Buckleya distichophylla
Pyrularia pubera
Thesium impeditum
Comandra umbellata
Geocaulon lividum
Eubrachion ambiguum
Exocarpos bidwillii
Nestronia umbellula
Dendrotrophe varians
Dufrenoya sphaerocarpa
Antidaphne viscoidea
Santalum album
Osyris lanceolata
Opilia amentacea
Cansjera leptostachya
Agonandra macrocarpa
Champereia manillana
Alepis flavida
Lysiana exocarpi
Dendropemon bicolor
Oryctanthus occidentalis
Tripodanthus acutifolius
Psittacanthus angustifolius
Struthanthus oerstedii
Gaiadendron punctatum
Tupeia antarctica
Amyema glabrum
Diplatia furcata
Globimetula dinklagei
Erianthemum dregei
Helixanthera kirkii
Moquiniella rubra
Tapinanthus quinquangulus
Englerina woodfordioides
Agelanthus sansibaricus
Decaisnina hollrungii
Loranthus europaeus
Ligaria cuneifolia
Phthirusa pyrifolia
Schoepfia arenaria
Schoepfia schreberi
Misodendrum brachystachyum
Scorodocarpus borneensis
Strombosia philippinensis
Heisteria concinna
Ximenia americana
Olax aphylla
Minquartia guianensis
Polygala pauciflora
Punica granatum
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
Tetracarpaea tasmanica
Haloragis erecta
Myriophyllum exalbescens
Penthorum sedoides
Dudleya viscida
Kalanchoe daigremontiana
Sedum rubrotintum
Crassula marnierana
Sullivantia oregana
Saxifraga mertensiana
Saxifraga integrifolia
Chrysosplenium iowense
Peltoboykinia tellimoides
Heuchera micrantha
Boykinia intermedia
Itea virginica
Pterostemon rotundifolius
Paeonia suffruticosa
Paeonia lactiflora
Liquidambar styraciflua
Ribes aureum
Pedicularis lanceolata
Pedicularis racemosa
Orthocarpus erianthus
Orthocarpus luteus
Castilleja miniata
Orobanche multiflora
Orobanche ludoviciana
Orobanche fasciculata
Lathraea clandestina
Harveya speciosa
Hyobanche atropurpurea
Conopholis alpina
Conopholis americana
Epifagus virginiana
Boschniakia rossica
Bourreria succulenta
Ehretia cymosa
Pholisma arenarium
Cuscuta gronovii
Byblis liniflora
Byblis gigantea
Aeschynanthus radicans
Chionophila jamesii
Linaria vulgaris
Ipomoea hederacea
Solanum tuberosum
Lycopersicon esculentum
Montinia caryophyllacea
Mitchella repens
Vahlia capensis
Helwingia japonica
Phyllonoma laticuspis
Panax japonicus
Panax quinquefolius
Panax ginseng
Hedera helix
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides
Pittosporum japonicum
Ligusticum chuanxiong
Cnidium officinale
Lomatium triternatium
Angelica acutiloba
Lonicera maackii
Symphoricarpos albus
Corokia cotoneaster
Escallonia coquimbensis
Eremosyne pectinata
Campanula ramulosa
Lobelia erinus
Tragopogon dubius
Roussea simplex
Berzelia lanuginosa
Eucommia ulmoides
Aucuba japonica
Garrya elliptica
Manilkara zapota
Impatiens palida
Clethra alnifolia
Pyrola picta
Styrax americana
Pterospora andromedea
Sarcodes sanguinea
Monotropa uniflora
Sarracenia purpurea
Cyrilla racemiflora
Symplocos paniculata
Diospyros virginiana
Camellia japonica
Fouquieria columnaris
Nyssa sylvatica
Philadelphus lewisii
Hydrangea macrophylla
Nyssa ogeche
Camptotheca acuminata
Cornus florida
Cornus racemosa
Cornus officinalis
Tetracentron sinense
Trochodendron aralioides
Buxus sempervirens
Sabia swinhoei
Nelumbo lutea
Platanus occidentalis
Dicentra eximia
Hypecoum imberba
Argemone mexicana
Stauntonia hexaphylla
Holboellia latifolia
Akebia quinata
Lardizabala biternata
Boquila trifoliata
Decaisnea fargesii
Sinofranchetia chinensis
Sargentodoxa cuneata
Euptelea polyandra
Tinospora caffra
Menispermum canadensis
Ranunculus taisanensis
Ranunculus sardous
Xanthorhiza simplicissima
Coptis trifolia
Glaucidium palmatum
Hydrastis canadensis
Caulophyllum thalictroides
Podophyllum peltatum
Nandina domestica
Knightia excelsa
Placospermum coriaceum
Ceratophyllum demersum
Sassafras albidum
Calycanthus floridus
Hedyosmum arborescens
Drimys winteri
Drimys aromatica
Magnolia acuminata
Saruma henryi
Asarum hayatanum
Asarum canadense
Aristolochia tomentosa
Lactoris fernandeziana
Saururus cernuus
Saururus chinensis
Chloranthus spicatus
Houttuynia cordata
Peperomia serpens
Piper kadsura
Prosopanche americana
Hydnora africana
Cytinus ruber
Ombrophytum subterraneum
Scybalium jamaicense
Helosis cayennensis
Corynaea crassa
Rafflesia keithii
Rhizanthes zipellii
Balanophora fungosa
Langsdorffia hypogaea
Cynomorium coccineum
Pinus wallichiana
Pinus luchuensis
Pinus elliottii
Picea mariana
Abies lasiocarpa
Larix leptolepis
Lagarostrobos franklinii
Parasitaxis ustus
Prumnopitys taxifolia
Phyllocladus hypophyllus
Phyllocladus trichomonoides
Podocarpus costalis
Podocarpus elatus
Nageia nagi
Nageia falcatus
Saxegothaea conspicua
Microcachrys tetragona
Microstrobos fitzgeraldii
Podocarpus totara
Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
Dacrycarpus imbricatus
Dacrydium cupressinum
Agathis robusta
Araucaria columnaris
Araucaria heterophylla
Araucaria cunninghamii
Araucaria excelsa
Agathis borneensis
Taiwania cryptomerioides
Juniperus chinensis
Cupressus macrocarpa
Calocedrus formosana
Calocedrus decurrens
Metasequoia glyptostroboides
Cryptomeria japonica
Cephalotaxus wilsoniana
Torreya nucifera
Amentotaxus formosana
Taxus mairei
Sciadopitys verticillata
Ephedra sinica
Ephedra californica
Ephedra saxatilis
Ephedra antisyphilitica
Gnetum urens
Gnetum leyboldii
Gnetum nodiflorum
Gnetum africanum
Welwitschia mirabilis
Zamia pumila
Cycas taitungensis
Ginkgo biloba
Botrychium lunaria
Blechnum occidentale
Hypolepis muelleri
Paesia scaberula
Histiopteris incisa
Pteridium aquilinum
Dicksonia antarctica
Lonchitis hirsuta
Odontosoria chinensis
Dicranopteris linearis
Vandenboschia davallioides
Adiantum raddianum
Lygodium japonicum
Asplenium nidus
Osmunda cinnamomea
Angiopteris lygodiifolia
Ophioglossum petiolatum
Psilotum nudum
Tmesipteris tannensis
Equisetum robustum
Equisetum hyemale
Salvinia natans
Lycopodiella inundata
Lycopodium tristachyum
Huperzia lucidula
Huperzia taxifolia
Lycopodium phlegmaria
Selaginella vogelii
Selaginella umbrosa
Isoetes engelmannii
Isoetes durieui
Sphagnum cuspidatum
Sphagnum palustre
Ricciocarpos natans
Riccia fluitans
Plagiochasma rupestre
Conocephalum conicum
Reboulia hemisphaerica
Preissia quadrata
Bucegia romanica
Marchantia polymorpha
Riella helicophylla
Sphaerocarpos donnelli
Sphaerocarpus texanus
Aulacomnium androgynum
Aulacomnium turgidum
Eurhynchium hians
Blindia acuta
Wardia hygrometrica
Ulota phyllantha
Orthotrichum stramineum
Tortula ruralis
Pottia truncata
Fissidens taxifolius
Dicranum scoparium
Ptychomitrium gardneri
Plagiomnium affine
Cyrtomnium hymenophyllum
Mnium hornum
Cinclidium stygium
Pohlia cruda
Mielichhoferia bryoides
Mielichhoferia elongata
Pohlia bolanderi
Leptostomum macrocarpum
Meesia uliginosa
Leptobryum pyriforme
Tetraplodon mnioides
Splachnum luteum
Tayloria lingulata
Brachymenium pulchrum
Rhodobryum giganteum
Bryum donianum
Bryum alpinum
Bryum caespiticium
Anomobryum julaceum
Bryum argenteum
Encalypta rhapdocarpa
Bryobrittonia longipes
Scouleria aquatica
Fontinalis antipyretica
Orthodontium lineare
Bartramia stricta
Hedwigia ciliata
Rhacocarpus purpurascens
Philonotis fontana
Bartramia pomiformis
Pyrrhobryum vallis gratiae
Plagiothecium undulatum
Brachythecium rutabulum
Calliergonella cuspidata
Hypnum cupressiforme
Hylocomium splendens
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus
Physcomitrium pyriforme
Funaria hygrometrica
Physcomitrella patens
Timmia sibirica
Jamesoniella autumnalis
Jungermannia leiantha
Calypogeia arguta
Polytrichum commune
Atrichum angustatum
Polytrichum formosum
Atrichum undulatum
Tetraphis pellucida
Andreaea rupestris
Takakia lepidozioides
Andreaea rothii
Anthoceros agrestis
Anthoceros laevis
Pellia epiphylla
Scapania nemorea
Symphyogyna brongartii
Plagiochila adiantoides
Trichocolea tomentella
Lophocolea heterophylla
Fossombronia pusilla
Fossombronia brasiliensis
Metzgeria furcata
Haplomitrium hookeri
Riccardia pinguis
Chara hornemannii
Chara curtissii
Chara hispida Chara foetida Chara vulgaris
Chara connivens
Chara muelleri
Chara australis Lamprothamnium macropogon
Lamprothamnium papulosum
Lychnothamnus barbatus
Nitellopsis obtusa
Chara preissii Nitella axillaris
Tolypella porteri Nitella flexilis Coleochaete scutata
Coleochaete orbicularis
Klebsormidium flaccidum
Chlorokybus atmophyticus
Raphidonema longiseta
Bracteacoccus aerius
Bracteacoccus grandis
Bracteacoccus medionucleatus
Bracteacoccus minor
Bracteacoccus giganteus
Chlorella zofingiensis
Ankistrodesmus stipitatus
Scenedesmus ovalternus
Scenedesmus producto capitatus
Scenedesmus obliquus
Scenedesmus rubescens
Scenedesmus vacuolatus
Scotiellopsis oocystiformis
Scotiellopsis terrestris
Coelastrella multistriata
Scenedesmus pupukensis
Scenedesmus costato granulatus
Scenedesmus abundans
Scenedesmus communis
Neochloris aquatica Neochloris vigenis Characium hindakii Hydrodictyon reticulatum
Pediastrum duplex Tetracystis aeria Chlorococcum echinozygotum
Chlorococcum hypnosporum
Chlamydomonas moewusii
Chlamydomonas pitschmannii
Chlamydomonas noctigama Carteria radiosa Carteria crucifera Polytoma oviforme Chlamydomonas monadina Chlamydomonas fimbriata Chlamydomonas rapa Chlamydomonas asymmetrica Hormotila blennista Gloeococcus maximus Chlamydomonas baca Chlamydomonas zebra Chloromonas oogama Chlamydomonas debaryana Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Volvox carteri Paulschulzia pseudovolvox Polytomella parva Hafniomonas reticulata Chloromonas serbinowi Chlamydomonas nivalis Chloromonas rosae Chloromonas clathrata Chlamydomonas macrostellata Chlamydomonas mutabilis Chlamydomonas bipapillata Chlamydomonas radiata Chlorococcopsis minuta Botryococcus braunii Ascochloris multinucleata Protosiphon botryoides Spongiochloris spongiosa Gongrosira papuasica Characium saccatum Characium vacuolatum Chloromonas perforata Chlorococcum oleofaciens Pleurastrum insigne Haematococcus zimbabwiensis Polytoma ellipticum Polytoma anomale Polytoma mirum Polytoma obtusum Polytoma uvella Polytoma difficile Chlamydomonas pulsatilla Chlamydomonas humicola Chlamydomonas dysosmos Dunaliella parva Dunaliella salina Asteromonas gracilis Spermatozopsis similis Muriella aurantica Chaetophora incrassata Stigeocloniumhelveticum Fritschiella tuberosa Hormotilopsis tetravacuolaris Planophila terrestris Hormotilopsis gelatinosa Chaetopeltis orbicularis Oedogonium cardiacum Oedocladium carolinianum Oedogonium angustistomum Bulbochaete hiloensis Pleurastrum paucicellulare Parietochloris pseudoalveolaris Characium perforatum Pleurastrum erumpens Pleurastrum terrestre Chlorella sorokiniana Chlorella lobophora Chlorella vulgaris Muriella terrestris Chlorella kessleri Chlorella minutissima Nanochlorum eucaryotum Prototheca wickerhamii Chlorella protothecoides Prototheca zopfii Chlorella ellipsoidea Chlorella mirabilis Stichococcus bacillaris Choricystis minor Chlorella saccharophila Chlorella luteoviridis Dictyochloropsis reticulata Trebouxia jamesii Trebouxia arboricola Trebouxia asymmetrica Trebouxia usneae Trebouxia impressa Myrmecia biatorellae Friedmannia israeliensis Myrmecia astigmatica Trebouxia magna Chlorella homosphaera Microthamnion kuetzingianum Leptosira obovata Siphonocladus tropicus Ernodesmis verticillata Cladophora prolifera Cladophora coelothrix Microdictyon boergesenii Cladophora liebetruthii Cladophora catenata Cladophora socialis Valonia utricularis Chamaedoris peniculum Cladophoropsis membranacea Cladophora pellucida Cladophoropsis zollingerii Cladophora pellucidoidea Cladophora vagabunda Cladophora sericea Cladophora albida Cladophora rupestris Acetabularia dentata Acetabularia major Acetabularia acetabulum Acicularia schenkii Polyphysa peniculus Polyphysa parvula Neomeris dumentosa Cymopolia van bosseae Chlorocladus australasicus Batophora occidentalis Batophora oerstedii Bornetella nitida Pseudoneochloris marina Gloeotilopsis planctonica Protoderma sarcinoidea Pseudendoclonium basiliense Ulothrix zonata Myrmecia bisecta Tetraselmis convolutae Tetraselmis striata Scherffelia dubia Oltmannsiellopsis viridis Pseudoscourfieldia marina Nephroselmis olivacea Stein Mantoniella squamata Coccoid green alga Achlya bisexualis Lagenidium giganteum Phytophthora megasperma Developayella elegans Hyphochytrium catenoides Cymatosira belgica Papiliocellulus elegans Thalassiosira eccentrica Thalassiosira rotula Skeletonema costatum Skeletonema pseudocostatum Lauderia borealis Porosira glacialis Chaetoceros didymus Chaetoceros rostratus Eucampia antarctica Odontella sinensis Ditylum brightwelli Streptotheca thamesis Lithodesmium undulatum Pseudo nitzschia pungens Pseudo nitzschia multiseries Bacillaria paxillifer Nitzschia apiculata Cylindrotheca closterium Asterionellopsis glacilia Rhaphoneis belgicae Thalassionema nitzschioides Fragilaria striatula Actinocyclus curvatulus Coscinodiscus radiatus Corethron criophilum Rhizosolenia setigera Melosira varians Aulacoseira ambigua Aulacoseira distans Stephanopyxis broschii Giraudyopsis stellifera Saccorhiza polyschides Desmarestia ligulata Chorda tomentosa Sporochnus comosus Costaria costata Hizikia fusiformis Myagropsis myagroides Sargassum macrocarpum Sargassum confusum Sargassum horneri Coccophora langsdorfii Cystoseira hakodatensis
Fucus distichus Fucus gardneri Pelvetia babingtonii Ectocarpus siliculosus Scytosiphon lomentaria Botrydium stoloniferum Tribonema aequale Heterothrix debilis Botrydiopsis intercedens Vaucheria bursata Vacuolaria virescens Heterosigma akashiwo Chattonella subsalsa Sarcinochrysis marina Aureomonas lagunensis
Coccoid pelagophyte Pelagomonas calceolata
Pelagococcus subviridis
Aureococcus anophagefferens
Coccoid stramenopile Tessellaria volvocina Mallomonas rasilis Mallomonas papillosa Synura petersenii Synura glabra Synura sphagnicola Synura spinosa Synura mammillosa Mallomonas caudata Mallomonas matvienkoae
Mallomonas akrokomos
Synura uvella Mallomonas annulata
Mallomonas striata Mallomonas adamas
Mallomonas splendens
Chrysonephele palustris
Ochromonas danica Paraphysomonas vestita
Oikomonas mutabilis
Hibberdia magna Chromulina chromophila
Paraphysomonas foraminifera
Nannochloropsis granulata
Nannochloropsis oculata
Nannochloropsis salina
Apedinella radians Pteridomonas danica
Pseudopedinella elastica
Rhizochromulina cf marina
Ciliophrys infusionum
Dictyocha speculum
Thraustochytrium kinnei
Labyrinthuloides haliotidis
Ulkenia profunda Labyrinthuloides minuta
Syluania monomastiga
Cafeteria roenbergensis
Blastocystis hominis
Proteromonas lacertae
Loxodes magnus Loxodes striatus Blepharisma americanum
Eufolliculina uhligi
Climacostomum virens
Spirostomum ambiguum
Tetrahymena nanneyi
Tetrahymena hyperangularis
Tetrahymena pigmentosa
Tetrahymena patula
Tetrahymena capricornis
Tetrahymena hegewischi
Tetrahymena australis
Tetrahymena thermophila
Tetrahymena malaccensis
Tetrahymena borealis
Tetrahymena canadensis
Tetrahymena pyriformis
Tetrahymena tropicalis
Tetrahymena corlissi
Tetrahymena empidokyrea
Glaucoma chattoni
Colpidium campylum
Ophryoglena catenula
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
Opisthonecta henneguyi
Vorticella microstoma
Vorticella convallaria
Paramecium tetraurelia
Uronema marinum
Cohnilembus verminus
Pseudocohnilembus marinus
Anophyroides haemophila
Cyclidium plouneouri
Cyclidium glaucoma
Cyclidium porcatum
Plagiopyla nasuta
Plagiopyla frontata
Trimyema compressum
Prorodon teres Oxytricha granulifera
Onychodromus quadricornutus
Oxytricha nova Stylonychia pustulata
Metopus palaeformis
Nyctotherus cordiformis
Nyctotherus ovalis
Nyctotherus velox
Metopus contortus
Euplotes aediculatus
Diplodinium dentatum
Polyplastron multivesiculatum
Eudiplodinium maggii
Epidinium caudatum
Ophryoscolex purkynjei
Entodinium caudatum
Dasytricha ruminantium
Isotricha intestinalis
Didinium nasutum
Homalozoon vermiculare
Loxophyllum utriculariae
Bursaria truncatella
Colpoda inflata
Obertrumia georgiana
Furgasonia blochmanni
Pseudomicrothorax dubius
Trithigmostoma steini
Discophrya collini
Uronema acuminata
Minchinia teredinis
Haplosporidium costale
Haplosporidium nelsoni
Haplosporidium louisiana
Urosporidium crescens
Babesia bovis Babesia bigemina
Babesia caballi
Babesia divergens
Babesia odocoilei
Babesia canis
Theileria parva
Theileria annulata
Theileria taurotragi
Theileria velifera
Theileria buffeli
Theileria sergenti
Theileria cervi
Theileria mutans
Cytauxzoon felis
Babesia equi Babesia rodhaini
Babesia microti
Sarcocystis tenella
Sarcocystis arieticanis
Sarcocystis cruzi
Sarcocystis gigantea
Sarcocystis hirsuta
Sarcocystis buffalonis
Sarcocystis fusiformis
Sarcocystis hominis
Sarcocystis aucheniae
Toxoplasma gondii
Neospora caninum
Isospora ohioensis
Isospora suis
Isospora belli
Sarcocystis muris
Frenkelia glareoli
Frenkelia microti
Sarcocystis neurona
Eimeria tenella
Eimeria necatrix
Eimeria acervulina
Eimeria praecox
Eimeria mitis
Eimeria brunetti
Eimeria nieschulzi
Eimeria bovis
Plasmodium berghei
Plasmodium vivax
Plasmodium fragile
Plasmodium inui
Plasmodium knowlesi
Plasmodium cynomolgi
Plasmodium simium
Plasmodium malariae
Plasmodium falciparum
Plasmodium reichenowi
Plasmodium floridense
Plasmodium mexicanum
Plasmodium gallinaceum
Plasmodium lophurae
Plasmodium ovale
Cryptosporidium parvum
Cryptosporidium wrairi
Cryptosporidium baileyi
Cryptosporidium muris
Cryptosporidium serpentis
Prorocentrum emarginatum
Prorocentrum arenarium
Prorocentrum lima
Prorocentrum maculosum
Prorocentrum concavum
Alexandrium tamarense
Alexandrium fundyense
Alexandrium minutum
Alexandrium ostenfeldii
Alexandrium margalefeii
Pyrocystis noctiluca
Fragilidium subglobosum
Ceratocorys horrida
Ceratium tenue
Ceratium fusus
Amphidinium belauense
Gonyaulax spinifera
Crypthecodinium cohnii
Gymnodinium beii
Gymnodinium simplex
Symbiodinium corculorum
Symbiodinium meandrinae
Symbiodinium pilosum
Symbiodinium microadriaticum
Gloeodinium viscum
Prorocentrum panamensis
Gymnodinium fuscum
Lepidodinium viride
Gymnodinium catenatum
Gyrodinium impudicum
Cachonina hallii
Heterocapsa triquetra
Gymnodinium sanguineum
Scrippsiella nutricula
Prorocentrum micans
Prorocentrum mexicanum
Prorocentrum minimum
Pentapharsodinium tyrrhenicum
Gymnodinium mikimotoi
Cryptoperidonopis brodyi
Pfiesteria piscicida
Amyloodinium ocellatum
Noctiluca scintillans
Perkinsus marinus
Gymnochlora stellata
Lotharella vacuolata
Chlorarachnion CCMP242
Rhinomonas pauca
Storeatula major
Rhodomonas abbreviata
Rhodomonas salina
Rhodomonas mariana
Cryptomonas CCMP325
Geminigera cryophila
Komma caudata
Chilomonas paramecium
Ammonia beccarii
Sorites orbiculus
Entamoeba dispar
Entamoeba histolytica
Entamoeba gingivalis
Lotharella globosa
Chlorarachnion reptans
Pedinomonas minutissima
Unnamed chlorarachniophyte CCMP
Unnamed chlorarachniophyte
Dictyostelium discoideum
Physarum polycephalum
Trypanosoma boissoni
Trypanosoma triglae
Trypanosoma rotatorium
Trypanosoma therezieni
Trypanosoma mega
Trypanosoma scelopori
Trypanosoma varani
Trypanosoma avium
Trypanosoma bennetti
Trypanosoma theileri
Trypanosoma grayi
Trypanosoma musculi
Trypanosoma lewisi
Trypanosoma microti
Trypanosoma cruzi
Trypanosoma rangeli
Trypanosoma vespertilionis
Trypanosoma pestanai
Trypanosoma congolense
Trypanosoma simiae
Trypanosoma evansi
Trypanosoma equiperdum
Trypanosoma brucei
Blastocrithidia culicis
Crithidia oncopelti
Herpetomonas roitmani
Phytomonas serpens
Herpetomonas mariadeanei
Leishmania guyanensis
Leishmania tarentolae
Endotrypanum monterogeii
Leishmania major
Leishmania amazonensis
Leishmania donovani
Crithidia fasciculata
Herpetomonas muscarum
Herpetomonas megaseliae
Herpetomonas samuelpessoai
Bodo caudatus
Trypanoplasma borreli
Rhynchobodo U67183
Dimastigella trypaniformis
Petalomonas cantuscygni
Peranema trichophorum
Khawkinea quartana
Lepocinclis ovum
Lepocinclis ovata
Euglena gracilis
Hexamita inflata
Trepomonas agilis
Spironucleus muris
Giardia ardeae
Giardia microti
Giardia intestinalis
Giardia duodenalis
Giardia lamblia
Giardia muris
Nosema necatrix
Vairimorpha necatrix
Nosema oulemae
Nosema vespula
Nosema ceranae
Nosema apis
Nosema trichoplusiae
Nosema bombycis
Nosema furnacalis
Encephalitozoon hellem
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Septata intestinalis
Enterocytozoon bieneusi
Enterocytozoon salmonis
Vittaforma corneae
Endoreticulatus schubergi
Ameson michaelis
Glugea anomala
Glugea stephani
Glugea atherinae
Pleistophora anguillarum
Vavraia oncoperae
Spraguea lophii
Glugea americanus
Visvesvaria acridophagus
Visvesvaria algerae
Culicosporella lunata
Amblyospora stimuli
Edhazardia aedis
Amblyospora californica
Parathelohania anophelis
Antonospora scoticae
Protists
Archaea
Bacteria
You are here
Animals
Fungi
Plants
B
acillus coagulans
S
taphylococcus aureus
E
nterococcus sulfureus
S
treptococcus bovis
Lactobacillus acidophilus
S
piroplasm
a tiaw
anense
C
lostridium
butyricum
H
eliobacterium
gestii
T
herm
oanaerobacter lacticus
D
einococcus radiodurans
Flavobacterium
odoratum
C
hlam
ydia pneum
oniae
Fusobacterium
perfoetens
E
scherichia coli
S
alm
onella agona
V
ibrio aestuarianus
P
seudom
onas m
endocina
Legionella pneum
ophila
N
eisseria gonorrhoeae
B
urkholderia solanacearum
A
grobacterium
vitis
R
hizobium
legum
inosarum
R
ickettsia m
ontana
C
am
pylobacter hyointestinalis
H
elicobacter cholecystus
D
esulfoacinum
infernum
M
yxococcus coralloides
S
pirochaeta alkalica
S
pirulina subsalsa
C
hlorobium
phaeovibrioides
Trichotom
ospora caesia
S
treptom
yces lavendulae
M
icrobacterium
lacticum
N
ocardia calcarea
C
orynebacterium
acetoacidophilum
K
ineococcus aurantiacus
G
eoderm
atophilus obscurus
B
ifidobacterium
catenulatum
C
hloroflexus aurantiacus
A
quifex pyrophilus
T
herm
otoga m
aritim
a
P
yrodictium
occultum
T
herm
oproteus tenax
T
herm
ococcus stetteri
T
herm
ococcus fum
icolans
M
ethanococcus jannaschii A
M
ethanococcus m
aripaludis
M
ethanobacterium
bryantii
M
ethanobacterium
subterraneum
M
ethanosarcina siciliae
T
herm
oplasm
a acidophilum
H
alobacterium
m
arism
ortui
H
aloferax denitrificans
C
oem
ansia reversa
S
pirodactylon aureum
C
oem
ansia braziliensis
D
ipsacom
yces acum
inosporus
Linderina pennispora
K
ickxe
lla
a
la
b
a
strin
a
M
artensiom
yces pterosporus
S
m
ittium
culisetae
C
apniom
yces stellatus
F
urculom
yces boom
erangus
G
enistelloides hibernus
S
p
iro
m
yce
s a
sp
ira
lis
S
pirom
yces m
inutus
C
onidiobolus throm
boides
M
acrobiotophthora verm
icola
S
trongw
ellsea castrans
P
andora neoaphidis
Z
oophthora culisetae
Z
oophthora radicans
E
ryniopsis ptycopterae
E
ntom
ophaga aulicae
E
ntom
ophthora m
uscae
E
ntom
ophthora schizophora
C
onidiobolus coronatus
M
ucor ram
annianus
M
ucor m
ucedo
M
ucor racem
osus
S
yncephalastrum
racem
osum
B
asidiobolus ranarum
E
n
d
o
g
o
n
e
p
isifo
rm
is
M
ortierella polycephala
A
caulospora rugosa
A
ca
u
lo
sp
o
ra
sp
in
o
sa
E
ntrophospora colum
biana
G
lom
us m
osseae
G
lom
us cf geosporum
G
lom
us m
ossae
G
lo
m
u
s m
a
n
ih
o
tis
G
lom
us intraradices
G
lom
us etunicatum
G
lom
us claroideum
G
lom
us versiform
e
S
cu
tte
llo
sp
o
ra
p
e
llu
cid
a
S
cu
te
llo
sp
o
ra
ca
sta
n
e
a
S
cutellospora heterogam
a
S
cu
tte
llo
sp
o
ra
d
ip
a
p
illo
sa
G
ig
a
sp
o
ra
a
lb
id
a
G
igaspora m
argarita
G
ig
a
sp
o
ra
d
e
cip
ie
n
s
G
igaspora gigantea
A
caulospora gerdem
annii
G
eosiphon pyriform
e
A
le
u
ro
d
iscu
s b
o
tryo
su
s
S
tereum
hirsutum
G
lo
e
o
cystid
ie
llu
m
le
u
coxa
n
th
a
S
tereum
annosum
H
eterobasidion annosum
L
a
xitextu
m
b
ico
lo
r
H
ericium
ram
osum
H
e
riciu
m
e
rin
a
ce
u
m
L
e
n
tin
e
llu
s u
rsin
u
s
L
e
n
tin
e
llu
s o
m
p
h
a
lo
d
e
s
C
lavico
ro
n
a
pyxid
a
ta
A
u
risca
lp
iu
m
vu
lg
a
re
B
o
n
d
a
rzew
ia
b
e
rke
leyi
S
cytin
o
stro
m
a
a
lu
tu
m
P
eniophora nuda
E
ch
in
o
d
o
n
tiu
m
tin
cto
riu
m
R
u
ssu
la
co
m
p
a
cta
In
o
n
o
tu
s h
isp
id
u
s
P
h
e
llin
u
s ig
n
ia
riu
s
Trichaptum
biform
e
Trich
a
p
tu
m
a
b
ie
tinu
m
Trich
a
p
tu
m
fu
sco
vio
la
ce
u
m
Trich
a
p
tu
m
la
ricinu
m
B
a
sid
io
ra
d
u
lu
m
ra
d
u
la
C
o
ltricia
p
e
re
n
n
is
S
ch
izo
p
o
ra
p
a
ra
d
oxa
H
yp
h
o
d
o
n
tia
a
lu
ta
ria
S
p
h
a
e
ro
b
o
lu
s ste
lla
tu
s
G
e
a
stru
m
sa
cca
tu
m
R
a
m
a
ria
stricta
C
la
va
ria
d
e
lp
h
u
s p
istilla
ris
G
o
m
p
h
u
s flo
cco
su
s
P
se
u
d
o
co
lu
s fu
sifo
rm
is
A
u
ricu
la
ria
p
o
lytrich
a
A
u
ricu
la
ria
a
u
ricu
la
P
se
u
d
o
hyd
n
u
m
g
e
la
tin
o
su
m
B
o
le
tu
s sa
ta
n
a
s
X
e
ro
co
m
u
s ch
ryse
n
te
ro
n
C
a
lo
sto
m
a
ra
ve
n
e
lii
C
a
lo
sto
m
a
cin
n
a
b
a
rin
u
m
S
cle
ro
d
e
rm
a
citrin
a
P
a
xillu
s p
a
n
u
o
id
e
s
L
e
u
co
a
g
a
ricu
s g
o
n
g
ylo
p
h
o
ru
s
B
a
sid
sym
b
o
f A
tta
ce
p
h
a
lo
te
s
B
a
sid
sym
b
o
f S
e
rico
m
yrm
ex b
o
n
d
B
a
sid
sym
b
o
f Tra
chym
yrm
ex bu
g
n
B
a
sid
sym
b
o
f C
yp
h
o
m
yrm
ex rim
o
s
B
a
sid
sym
b
o
f A
p
te
ro
stig
m
a
co
ll
A
th
e
lia
b
o
m
b
a
cin
a
P
a
n
e
llu
s stip
ticu
s
Typ
h
u
la
p
h
a
co
rrh
iza
P
a
n
e
llu
s se
ro
tin
u
s
Trich
o
lo
m
a
m
a
tsu
ta
ke
O
m
p
h
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lin
a
u
m
b
e
llife
ra
P
le
u
ro
tu
s o
stre
a
tu
s
C
o
p
rin
u
s cin
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re
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s
C
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a
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s io
d
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s
L
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p
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ta
p
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ce
ra
C
ru
cib
u
lu
m
la
eve
S
tro
p
h
a
ria
ru
g
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so
a
n
n
u
la
ta
C
a
lva
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g
ig
a
n
te
a
C
ya
th
u
s stria
tu
s
L
e
n
tin
u
la
la
te
ritia
A
m
a
n
ita
m
u
sca
ria
C
a
n
th
a
re
llu
s tu
b
a
e
fo
rm
is
D
ictyo
n
e
m
a
p
a
vo
n
ia
S
ch
izo
p
hyllu
m
co
m
m
u
n
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F
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ila
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R
o
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ca
trix
O
b
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la
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p
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ila
K
io
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a
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sis
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io
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io
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M
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lio
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P
o
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o
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a
n
se
rin
a
N
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u
ro
sp
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ra
cra
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S
o
rd
a
ria
fim
ico
la
C
h
a
e
to
m
iu
m
e
la
tu
m
C
am
arops m
icrospora
A
sco
va
g
in
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sp
o
ra
ste
llip
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la
C
ryp
h
o
n
e
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p
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ra
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n
e
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h
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n
e
ctria
h
ava
n
e
n
sis
C
ryp
h
o
n
e
ctria
cu
b
e
n
sis
E
n
d
o
th
ia
g
yro
sa
L
e
u
co
sto
m
a
p
e
rso
o
n
ii
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
e
u
ro
p
h
io
id
e
s
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
cu
cu
lla
tu
m
O
phiostom
a ainoae
O
phiostom
a stenoceras
S
p
o
ro
th
rix sch
e
n
ckii
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
u
lm
i
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
p
e
n
icilla
tu
m
P
esotum
fragrans
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
b
ico
lo
r
O
p
h
io
sto
m
a
p
ice
a
e
P
se
u
d
o
h
a
lo
n
e
ctria
fa
lca
ta
O
phioceras leptosporum
M
agnaporthe grisea
L
u
lw
o
rth
ia
fu
cico
la
S
p
a
th
u
la
ria
flavid
a
C
u
d
o
n
ia
co
n
fu
sa
R
hytism
a
sa
licin
u
m
M
o
n
ilin
ia
la
xa
M
o
n
ilin
ia
fru
ctico
la
S
cle
ro
tin
ia
scle
ro
tio
ru
m
A
m
ylo
ca
rp
u
s e
n
ce
p
h
a
lo
id
e
s
N
eobulgaria prem
nophila
B
lu
m
e
ria
gra
m
in
is
P
hylla
ctin
ia
g
u
tta
ta
C
ytta
ria
d
a
rw
in
ii
T
helebolus stercoreus
A
sco
zo
nu
s w
o
o
lh
o
p
e
n
sis
Leotia lubrica
M
icroglossum
viride
G
eom
yces pannorum
G
eom
yces pannorum
var asperula
B
u
lg
a
ria
in
q
u
in
a
n
s
Leptosphaeria bicolor
C
u
cu
rb
id
o
th
is p
ityo
p
h
ila
K
irsch
ste
in
io
th
e
lia
e
la
te
ra
scu
s
H
e
lica
scu
s ka
n
a
lo
a
nu
s
P
yrenophora trichostom
a
P
yrenophora tritici repentis
C
o
ch
lio
b
o
lu
s sa
tivu
s
A
lternaria brassicae
C
lathrospora diplospora
A
lternaria alternata
A
lte
rn
a
ria
b
ra
ssicico
la
A
lternaria raphani
P
leospora herbarum
S
etosphaeria rostrata
P
leospora betae
Leptosphaeria doliolum
Leptosphaeria m
aculans
C
ucurbitaria elongata
Leptosphaeria m
icroscopica
O
phiobolus herpotrichus
P
haeosphaeria nodorum
C
ucurbitaria berberidis
P
leospora rudis
W
esterdykella dispersa
Lophiostom
a crenatum
S
porom
ia lignicola
M
onodictys castaneae
K
irschsteiniothelia m
aritim
a
H
erpotrichia juniperi
M
ycosphaerella m
ycopappi
H
erpotrichia diffusa
D
endryphiopsis atra
B
otryosphaeria rhodina
B
otryosphaeria ribis
P
haeosclera dem
atioides
D
othidea insculpta
D
othidea hippophaeos
A
ureobasidium
pullulans
C
occodinium
bartschii
S
arcinom
yces crustaceus
S
iphula ceratites
P
ertusaria trachythallina
D
iploschistes ocellatus var al
A
nam
ylopsora pulcherrim
a
Trapelia placodioides
Trapelia involuta
P
lacopsis gelida
C
onotrem
a populorum
C
yanoderm
ella viridula
G
yalecta ulm
i
N
ephrom
a arcticum
P
eltigera neopolydactyla
S
olorina crocea
P
seudevernia cladoniae
P
ilophorus acicularis
C
ladia aggregata
C
ladonia bellidiflora
S
tereocaulon ram
ulosum
Lecanora dispersa
S
quam
arina lentigera
R
hizocarpon geographicum
S
phaerophorus globosus
Leifidium
tenerum
B
unodophoron scrobiculatum
X
anthoria elegans
M
egalospora sulphurata
Lecidea fuscoatra
P
orpidia crustulata
C
alicium
adspersum
Texosporium
sancti jacobi
Thelom
m
a m
am
m
osum
C
yphelium
inquinans
C
hrom
ocleista m
alachitea
P
enicillium
notatum
E
upenicillium
crustaceum
P
enicillium
freii
P
enicillium
nam
yslow
skii
G
eosm
ithia nam
yslow
skii
E
upenicillium
javanicum
M
erim
bla ingelheim
ense
H
am
igera avellanea
H
em
icarpenteles ornatus
A
spergillus flavus
A
spergillus oryzae
A
spergillus nom
ius
A
spergillus parasiticus
A
spergillus tam
arii
A
spergillus sojae
A
spergillus avenaceus
M
onascus purpureus
E
urotium
herbariorum
E
urotium
rubrum
A
spergillus restrictus
A
spergillus ustus
A
spergillus versicolor
E
m
ericella nidulans
A
spergillus nidulans
Fennellia flavipes
A
spergillus terreus
A
spergillus w
entii
C
haetosartorya crem
ea
N
eosartorya fischeri
A
spergillus fum
igatus
A
spergillus clavatus
A
spergillus ochraceus
A
spergillus niger
A
spergillus aw
am
orii
A
spergillus cervinus
A
spergillus candidus
A
spergillus zonatus
A
spergillus sparsus
B
yssochlam
ys nivea
P
aecilom
yces variotii
Therm
oascus crustaceus
G
eosm
ithia cylindrospora
Talarom
yces eburneus
Talarom
yces em
ersonii
Talarom
yces flavus
Talarom
yces bacillisporus
E
laphom
yces leveillei
E
laphom
yces m
aculatus
Auxarthron zuffianum
M
albranchea filam
entosa
M
albranchea dendritica
M
albranchea albolutea
U
ncinocarpus reesii
C
occidioides im
m
itis
O
nygena equina
R
enispora flavissim
a
C
tenom
yces serratus
Trichophyton rubrum
G
ym
noascoideus petalosporus
C
hrysosporium
parvum
B
lastom
yces derm
atitidis
H
istoplasm
a capsulatum
H
istoplasm
a capsulatum
ssp farci
H
istoplasm
a capsulatum
ssp duboi
A
scosphaera apis
E
rem
ascus albus
M
albranchea gypsea
P
haeoannellom
yces elegans
N
adsoniella nigra
E
xophiala jeanselm
ei
P
haeococcom
yces exophialae
C
apronia pilosella
E
xophiala m
ansonii
P
ullularia prototropha
E
xophiala derm
atitidis
S
arcinom
yces phaeom
uriform
is
C
apronia m
ansonii
G
raphium
calicioides
C
eram
othyrium
linnaeae
C
oniosporium
apollinis
C
oniosporium
perforans
C
haenothecopsis savonica
Sphinctrina turbinata
S
tenocybe pullatula
M
ycocalicium
albonigrum
Lasallia rossica
U
m
bilicaria subglabra
Stegobium
paniceum
yeast like sym
Lasioderm
a serricorne yeast like
M
onacrosporium
ellipsospora
O
rbilia auricolor
Arthrobotrys conoides
D
uddingtonia flagrans
M
onacrosporium
gephyropaga
M
onacrosporium
haptotylum
Arthrobotrys robusta
D
actylella oxyspora
D
actylella rhopalota
Arthrobotrys dactyloides
O
rbilia delicatula
C
hoirom
yces m
eandriform
is
C
hoirom
yces venosus
Tuber m
agnatum
Tuber panniferum
Tuber excavatum
Tuber rapaeodorum
Tuber gibbosum
Tuber borchii
D
ingleya verrucosa
Labyrinthom
yces varius
R
eddellom
yces donkii
W
ynnella silvicolor
Barssia oregonensis
Balsam
ia vulgaris
Balsam
ia m
agnata
H
elvella lacunosa
H
elvella terrestris
U
nderw
oodia colum
naris
C
aloscypha fulgens
Pulvinula archeri
C
halazion helveticum
Ascodesm
is sphaerospora
G
laziella aurantiaca
Aleuria aurantia
Inerm
isia aggregata
Trichophaea hybrida
W
ilcoxina m
ikolae
Scutellinia scutellata
Leucoscypha oroarctica
Pyronem
a dom
esticum
O
tidea leporina
N
eottiella rutilans
Paurocotylis pila
G
eopyxis carbonaria
Tarzetta catinus
C
ookeina sulcipes
Sarcoscypha austriaca
M
icrostom
a protracta
Desm
azierella acicola
Plectania rhytidia
Sarcosom
a globosum
Urnula hiem
alis
M
orchella esculenta
M
orchella elata
Verpa conica
Verpa bohem
ica
Leucangium
carthusianum
Fischerula subcaulis
Disciotis venosa
Hydnotrya tulasnei
G
yrom
itra esculenta
G
yrom
itra m
elaleucoides
Pseudorhizina californica
Gyrom
itra m
ontana
Discina m
acrospora
Hydnotrya cerebriform
is
Rhizina undulata
Cazia flexiascus
Terfezia arenaria
Peziza succosa
Peziza quelepidotia
Terfezia terfezioides
Pachyphloeus m
elanoxanthus
Boudiera acanthospora
Peziza badia
Thecotheus holm
skjoldii
Ascobolus lineolatus
Pichia m
exicana
Candida conglobata
Candida aaseri
Candida butyri
Candida insectorum
Candida dendronem
a
Candida tenuis
Candida naeodendra
Candida diddensiae
Candida atlantica
Candida atm
osphaerica
Candida buinensis
Candida friedrichii
Candida m
em
branifaciens
Pichia triangularis
Candida m
ultigem
m
is
Candida oleophila
Candida boleticola
Candida schatavii
Candida laureliae
Candida krissii
Candida santamariae var membra
Candida ralunensis
Candida santamariae var santam
Candida beechii
Candida zeylanoides
Candida sophiae reginae
Candida quercitrusa
Candida natalensis
Candida fragi
Candida psychrophila
Candida glucosophila
Candida xestobii
Candida fukuyamaensis
Candida fermenticarens
Pichia guilliermondii
Debaryomyces hansenii var hans
Debaryomyces hansenii var fabr
Taphrina farlowii
Yamadazyma guilliermondii
Pichia farinosa
Debaryomyces udenii
Debaryomyces castellii
Debaryomyces hansenii
Candida sojae
Candida tropicalis
Candida albicans
Candida dubliniensis
Candida maltosa
Candida viswanathii
Candida lodderae
Candida parapsilosis
Lodderomyces elongisporus
Candida shehatae var insectosa
Candida shehatae var lignosa
Candida shehatae var shehatae
Candida palmioleophila
Candida fluviatilis
Candida saitoana
Candida pseudoglaebosa
Candida glaebosa
Candida insectamans
Candida lyxosophila
Candida kruisii
Candida tanzawaensis
Candida sake
Candida austromarina
Candida coipomoensis
Candida ergastensis
Pichia angusta
W
illiopsis salicorniae
Endomyces fibuliger
Saccharomycopsis fibuligera
Saccharomycopsis capsularis
Kluyveromyces nonfermentati
Kluyveromyces aestuarii
Kluyveromyces marxianus
Kluyveromyces lactis
Kluyveromyces dobzhanskii
Kluyveromyces wickerhamii
Holleya sinecauda
Zygosaccharomyces mellis
Zygosaccharomyces rouxii
Zygosaccharomyces bisporus
Zygosaccharomyces lentus
Zygosaccharomyces bailii
Arxiozyma telluris
Saccharomyces dairensis
Saccharomyces servazzii
Saccharomyces unisporus
Saccharomyces transvaalensis
Zygosaccharomyces mrakii
Torulaspora globosa
Torulaspora delbrueckii
Torulaspora pretoriensis
Zygosaccharomyces microellipsoide
Candida colliculosa
Kazachstania viticola
Kluyveromyces blattae
Kluyveromyces phaffii
Zygosaccharomyces florentinus
Candida glabrata
Kluyveromyces delphensis
Saccharomyces pastorianus
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2
Saccharomyces bayanus
Saccharomyces paradoxus
Kluyveromyces polysporus
Kluyveromyces yarrowii
Kluyveromyces lodderae
Saccharomyces rosinii
Kluyveromyces africanus
Saccharomyces spencerorum
Saccharomyces exiguus
Saccharomyces barnettii
Saccharomyces castellii
Zygosaccharomyces fermentati
Saccharomyces kluyveri
Kluyveromyces thermotolerans
Kluyveromyces waltii
Saccharomycodes ludwigii
Hanseniaspora uvarum
Williopsis pratensis
Williopsis californica
Starmera amethionina var pachy
Starmera amethionina var ameth
Starmera caribaea
Pichia anomala
Williopsis saturnus
Williopsis saturnus var mrakii
Williopsis mucosa
Pachysolen tannophilus
Candida chilensis
Candida cylindracea
Candida savonica
Candida mesenterica
Candida suecica
Phaffomyces antillensis
Phaffomyces opuntiae
Phaffomyces thermotolerans
Yarrowia lipolytica
Candida rugosa
Candida catenulata
Candida pseudointermedia
Candida intermedia
Candida akabanensis
Candida oregonensis
Candida haemulonii
Candida tsuchiyae
Clavispora lusitaniae
Candida melibiosica
Candida torresii
Metschnikowia bicuspidata
Candida agrestis
Metschnikowia reukaufii
Metschnikowia pulcherrima
Candida mogii
Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Dekkera bruxellensis
Dekkera anomala
Brettanomyces anomalus
Dekkera custersiana
Dekkera naardenensis
Candida insectalens
Candida silvatica
Issatchenkia orientalis
Pichia membranaefaciens
Candida spandovensis
Candida apicola
Candida bombi
Starmerella bombicola
Candida geochares
Candida vaccinii
Endomyces geotrichum
Galactomyces geotrichum
Dipodascus albidus
Candida chiropterorum
Candida valdiviana
Candida drimydis
Waltomyces lipofer
Dipodascopsis uninucleata
Protomyces macrosporus
Protomyces pachydermus
Protomyces inouyei
Protomyces lactucae
Taphrina virginica
Taphrina carnea
Taphrina pruni subcordatae
Taphrina mirabilis
Taphrina nana
Taphrina pruni
Taphrina ulmi
Taphrina communis
Taphrina flavorubra
Taphrina populina
Taphrina deformans
Taphrina wiesneri
Taphrina robinsoniana
Taphrina letifera
Neolecta vitellina
Neolecta irregularis
Saitoella complicata
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces japonicus
Pneumocystis carinii
Calicium tricolor
Taphrina maculans
Taphrina californica
Chytridium confervae
Neocallimastix frontalis
Neocallimastix joyonii
Piromonas communis
Spizellomyces acuminatus
Allomyces macrogynus
Blastocladiella emersonii
Chrysops niger
Drosophila melanogaster
Ceratitis capitata
Ornithoica vicina
Nephrotoma altissima
Lutzomyia shannoni
Aedes albopictus Aedes aegypti Aedes punctor
Toxorhynchites ambionensis
Culex tritaeniorhynchus
Anopheles psuedopunctipennis
Anopheles albimanus
Eucorethra underwoodi
Dixella cornuta
Culicoides variipennis
Amblabesmia rhamphe
Simulium vittatum Xenos vesparum Stylops melittae
Mengenilla chobauti
Galleria mellonella
Archaeopsylla erinacei
Panorpa germanica
Anisochrysa carnea Oliarces clara
Monolobus ovalipennis
Antarctonomus complanatus Loricera foveata
Loricera pilicornis pilicornis
Amarotypus edwardsi
Bembidion mexicanum
Bembidion levettei carrianum Asaphidion curtum Diplous californicus Patrobus longicornis
Pericompsus laetulus Diplochaetus planatus Zolus helmsi
Merizodus angusticollis
Sloaneana tasmaniae Batesiana hilaris Schizogenius falli Clivina ferrea
Dyschirius sphaericollis Melisodera picipennis Mecyclothorax vulcans Amblytelus curtus Apotomus rufithorax Broscosoma relictum Creobius eydouxi Galerita lecontei lecontei Pseudaptinus rufulus Aptinus displosor Pterostichus melanarius Tetragonoderus latipennis Discoderus cordicollis Chlaenius ruficauda Calybe laetula Amara apricaria Agonum extensicolle Cymindis punctigera Loxandrus n sp nr amplithora Cnemalobus sulciferus Catapiesis brasiliensis Morion aridus Brachinus armiger Brachinus hirsutus Pheropsophus aequinoctialis Pasimachus atronitens Scarites subterraneus Carenum interruptum Siagona europaea Siagona jennisoni Clinidium calcaratum Omoglymmius hamatus Omus californicus Cicindela sedecimpunctata
Metrius contractus Pachyteles striola Cymbionotum semelederi Cymbionotum pictulum
Gehringia olympica Promecognathus crassus Laccocenus ambiguus Omophron obliteratum
Psydrus piceus Ceroglossus chilensis Pamborus guerinii
Calosoma scrutator Carabus nemoralis Scaphinotus petersi catalinae
Cychrus italicus Opisthius richardsoni
Leistus ferruginosus
Nebria hudsonica Notiophilus semiopacus
Trachypachus gibbsii
Trachypachus holmbergi
Systolosoma lateritium
Elaphrus californicus
Elaphrus clairvillei Blethisa multipunctata aurata
Mecodema fulgidum
Oregus aereus
Suphis inflatus
Copelatus chevrolati renovatus
Hydroscapha natans
Xanthopyga cacti
Dynastes granti
Tenebrio molitor
Meloe proscarabaeus
Clambus arnetti
Phaeostigma notata
Leptothorax acervorum
Polistes dominulus
Graphosoma lineatum
Raphigaster nebulosa
Lygus hesperus
Hemiowoodwardia wilsoni
Hackeriella veitchi
Spissistilus festinus
Prokelisia marginata
Philaenus spumarius
Okanagana utahensis
Trioza eugeniae
Pealius kelloggii
Acyrthosiphon pisum
Aonidiella aurantii
Batrachideidae gen sp
Carausius morosus
Acheta domesticus
Mesoperlina pecircai
Aeschna cyanea
Lepisma saccharina
Lepidocyrtus paradoxus
Crossodonthina koreana
Hypogastrura dolsana
Podura aquatica
Theatops erythrocephala
Scolopendra cingulata
Cryptops trisulcatus
Craterostigmus tasmanianus
Lithobius variegatus
Scutigera coleoptrata
Pseudohimantarium mediterraneum
Clinopodes poseidonis
Cylindroiulus punctatus
Polydesmus coriaceus
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus
Hyalomma lusitanicum
Hyalomma rufipes
Hyalomma dromedarii
Rhipicephalus sanguineus
Boophilus microplus
Rhipicephalus zambeziensis
Rhipicephalus bursa
Boophilus annulatus
Rhipicephalus pusillus
Dermacentor andersoni
Dermacentor marginatus
Amblyomma triguttatum triguttat
Amblyomma vikirri
Aponomma fimbriatum
Aponomma latum
Amblyomma variegatum
Amblyomma tuberculatum
Amblyomma americanum
Amblyomma maculatum
Haemaphysalis inermis
Haemaphysalis punctata
Haemaphysalis leporispalustris
Haemaphysalis humerosa
Haemaphysalis petrogalis
Haemaphysalis leachi
Aponomma undatum
Aponomma concolor
Ixodes auritulus
Ixodes ricinus
Ixodes affinis
Ixodes pilosus
Ixodes cookei
Ixodes simplex simplex
Ixodes kopsteini
Ixodes holocyclus
Carios puertoricensis
Ornithodoros moubata
Ornithodoros coriaceus
Otobius megnini
Argas lahorensis
Argas persicus
Megisthanus floridanus
Cosmolaelaps trifidus
Hypochthonius rufulus
Lohmannia banksi
Nothrus sylvestris
Xenillus tegeocranus
Euzetes globulosus
Allonothrus russeolus
Archegozetes longisetosus
Trhypochthonius tectorum
Nehypochthonius porosus
Steganacarus magnus
Gehypochthonius urticinus
Chortoglyphus arcuatus
Acarus siro
Eusimonia wunderlichi
Androctonus australis
Liphistius bicoloripes
Eurypelma californica
Odiellus troguloides
Pseudocellus pearsei
Limulus polyphemus
Callipallene gen sp
Berndtia purpurea
Trypetesa lampas
Octolasmis lowei
Paralepas palinuri
Lepas anatifera
Balanus eburneus
Chelonibia patula
Tetraclita stalactifera
Chthamalus fragilis
Verruca spengleri
Ibla cumingi
Calantica villosa
Loxothylacus texanus
Dendrogaster asterinae
Ulophysema oeresundense
Palaemonetes kadiakensis
Helice tridens
Philyra pisum
Callinectes sapidus
Pugettia quadridens
Raninoides louisianensis
Procambarus leonensis
Astacus astacus
Nephrops norvegicus
Panulirus argus
Oedignathus inermis
Penaeus aztecus
Stenopus hispidus
Artemia salina
Branchinecta packardi
Daphnia pulex
Bosmina longirostris
Daphnia galeata
Stenocypris major
Argulus nobilis
Porocephalus crotali
Milnesium tardigradum
Macrobiotus hufelandi
Thulinia stephaniae
Echiniscus viridissimus
Euperipatoides leuckarti
Priapulus caudatus
Pycnophyes kielensis
Helix aspersa
Balea biplicata
Limicolaria kambeul
Laevicaulis alte
Onchidella celtica
Siphonaria algesirae
Anthosiphonaria sirius
Lymnaea glabra
Stagnicola palustris
Lymnaea stagnalis
Radix peregra
Lymnaea auricularia
Fossaria truncatula
Bakerilymnaea cubensis
Biomphalaria glabrata
Littorina obtusata
Littorina littorea
Fasciolaria lignaria
Nassarius singuinjorensis
Pisania striata
Reishia bronni
Thais clavigera
Rapana venosa
Bursa rana
Monodonta labio
Antalis vulgaris
Scutopus ventrolineatus
Arctica islandica
Mercenaria mercenaria
Spisula subtruncata
Mulinia lateralis
Spisula solida
Spisula solidissima
Tresus nuttali
Tresus capax
Mactromeris polynyma
Hippopus hippopus
Hippopus porcellanus
Tridacna squamosa
Tridacna crocea
Tridacna maxima
Tridacna derasa
Tridacna gigas
Vasticardium flavum
Fulvia mutica
Fragum unedo
Fragum fragum
Corculum cardissa
Galeomma takii
Ostrea edulis
Crassostrea virginica
Nerita albicilla
Mytilus edulis
Mytilus trossulus
Mytilus galloprovincialis
Mytilus californianus
Geukensia demissa
Mimachlamys varia
Chlamys hastata
Crassadoma gigantea
Pecten maximus
Argopecten gibbus
Argopecten irradians
Placopecten magellanicus
Chlamys islandica
Atrina pectinata
Arca noae
Barbatia virescens
Acanthopleura japonica
Lepidochitona corrugata
Lepidozona coreanica
Eohemithyris grayii
Platidia anomioides
Stenosarina crosnieri
Gryphus vitreus
Thecidellina blochmanii
Cancellothyris hedleyi
Terebratulina retusa
Liothyrella neozelanica
Liothyrella uva
Gwynia capsula
Calloria inconspicua
Gyrothyris mawsoni
Neothyris parva
Terebratalia transversa
Macandrevia cranium
Fallax neocaledonensis
Laqueus californianus
Megerlia truncata
Terebratella sanguinea
Notosaria nigricans
Hemithyris psittaceae
Neocrania anomala
Neocrania huttoni
Discina striata
Glottidia pyramidata
Lingula lingua
Lingula anatina
Phoronis architecta
Phoronis psammophila
Phoronis vancouverensis
Alboglossiphonia heteroclita
Hirudo medicinalis
Haemopis sanguisuga
Barbronia weberi
Eisenia fetida
Lumbricus rubellus
Dero digitata
Xironogiton victoriensis
Sathodrilus attenuatus
Nereis virens
Aphrodita aculeata
Nereis limbata
Capitella capitata
Harmothoe impar
Sabella pavonina
Magelona mirabilis
Scoloplos armiger
Polydora ciliata
Pygospio elegans
Lanice conchilega
Nephtys hombergii
Glycera americana
Dodecaceria concharum
Chaetopterus variopedatus
Siboglinum fiordicum
Ridgeia piscesae
Ochetostoma erythrogrammon
Pedicellina cernua
Barentsia hildegardae
Barentsia benedeni
Symbion pandora
Plumatella repens
Alcyonidium gelatinosum
Porania pulvillus
Asterias amurensis
Astropecten irregularis
Stomopneustes variolaris
Mespilia globulus
Temnopleurus hardwickii
Salmacis sphaeroides
Tripneustes gratilla
Ophiopholis aculeta
Strongylocentrotus intermedius
Colobocentrotus atratus
Echinus esculentus
Sphaerechinus granularis
Psammechinus miliaris
Diadema setosum
Centrostephanus coronatus
Eucidaris tribuloides
Fellaster zelandiae
Cassidulus mitis
Echinodiscus bisperforatus
Encope aberrans
Echinocardium cordatum
Brissopsis lyrifera
Meoma ventricosa
Arbacia lixula
Asthenosoma owstoni
Psychropotes longicauda
Cucumaria sykion
Lipotrapeza vestiens
Stichopus japonicus
Ophiocanops fugiens
Amphipholis squamata
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus
Ophiomyxa brevirima
Ophioplocus japonicus
Astrobrachion constrictum
Antedon serrata
Endoxocrinus parrae
Eptatretus stouti
M
yxine glutinosa atlantic hagfis
Petromyzon marinus
Lampetra aepyptera
Plethodon yonhalossee
Amphiuma tridactylum
Siren intermedia
Ambystoma mexicanum
Eleutherodactylus cuneatus
Hyla cinerea
Bufo valliceps
Nesom
antis thom
asseti
Gastrophryne carolinensis
Xenopus laevis
Scaphiopus holbrooki
Discoglossus pictus
Grandisonia alternans
Hypogeophis rostratus
Ichthyophis bannanicus
Typhlonectes natans
Hom
o sapiens
M
us m
usculus
Rattus norvegicus
Oryctolagus cuniculus
Alligator m
ississippiensis
Turdus m
igratorius
G
allus gallus
Heterodon platyrhinos
Sceloporus undulatus
Sphenodon punctatus
Pseudem
ys scripta
Latim
eria chalum
nae
Elops hawaiiensis
M
egalops atlanticus
O
phichthus rex
Echiophis punctifer
Hiodon alosoides
Albula vulpes
Salm
o trutta
O
ncorhynchus kisutch
Cyprinus carpio
Ictalurus punctatus
Clupea harengus
Fundulus heteroclitus
Am
ia calva
Lepisosteus osseus
Polyodon spathula
Sebastolobus altivelis
Rhinobatos lentiginosus
Echinorhinus cookei
Squalus acanthias
Notorynchus cepedianus
Branchiostom
a floridae
Halocynthia roretzi
Styela plicata
Herdm
ania m
om
us
O
ikopleura dioica
Doliolum
nationalis
Thalia dem
ocratica
Pyrosom
a atlanticum
C
iona intestinalis
Saccoglossus kowalevskii
Balanoglossus carnosus
Dicyem
a acuticephalum
Dicyem
a orientale
Sagitta elegans
Sagitta crassa
Paraspadella gotoi
Phascolosom
a granulatum
Prostom
a eilhardi
H
aplogonaria syltensis
Atriofonta polyvacuola
Actinoposthia beklem
ischevi
Aphanastom
a virescens
C
onvoluta pulchra
Anaperus tvaerm
innensis
Sym
sagittifera psam
m
ophila
C
onvoluta roscoffensis
C
onvoluta naikaiensis
Anaperus biaculeatus
Paedom
ecynostom
um
bruneum
Postm
ecynostom
um
pictum
C
hildia groenlandica
Philom
ecynostom
um
lapillum
Sim
plicom
orpha gigantorhabditis
Paratom
ella rubra
D
ugesia subtentaculata
D
ugesia ryukyuensis
G
irardia tigrina
M
icroplana scharfii
C
aenoplana caerulea
Australoplana sanguinea
Arthiopostia triangulata
D
ugesia japonica
D
ugesia iberica
D
ugesia m
editerranea
D
ugesia polychroa
C
ura pinguis
N
eppia m
ontana
M
icroplana nana
B
ipalium
kew
ense
Platydem
us m
anokw
ari
Artioposthia triangulata
D
endrocoelopsis lactea
C
renobia alpina
Polycelis nigra
Phagocata ullala
E
ctoplana lim
uli
B
ipalium
trilineatum
H
eronim
us m
ollis
P
rosorhynchoides gracilescens
Stephanostom
um
baccatum
Zalophotrem
a hepaticum
N
asitrem
a globicephalae
Tetracerasta blepta
Fasciola gigantica
D
icrocoelium
dendriticum
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciolopsis buski
E
chinostom
a caproni
O
pisthorchis viverrini
C
alicophoron calicophorum
S
chistosom
a japonicum
S
chistosom
a m
ansoni
S
chistosom
a spindale
S
chistosom
a haem
atobium
M
ulticotyle purvisi
Lobatostom
a m
anteri
Zeuxapta seriolae
P
lectanocotyle gurnardi
D
iclidophora denticulata
Kuhnia scom
bri
B
ivagina pagrosom
i
N
eom
icrocotyle pacifica
P
seudohexabothrium
taeniurae
N
eopolystom
a spratti
Polystom
oides m
alayi
G
rillotia erinaceus
A
bothrium
gadi
B
othriocephalus scorpii
P
roteocephalus exiguus
G
yrocotyle urna
D
ictyocotyle coeliaca
C
alicotyle affinis
Troglocephalus rhinobatidis
Leptocotyle m
inor
P
seudom
urraytrem
a ardens
G
yrodactylus salaris
U
donella caligorum
E
ncotyllabe chironem
i
B
othrom
esostom
a personatum
P
lagiostom
um
cinctum
P
lagiostom
um
striatum
P
licastom
a cuticulata
Vorticeros ijim
ai
P
lagiostom
um
vittatum
P
lagiostom
um
ochroleucum
P
seudostom
um
klosterm
anni
P
seudostom
um
quadrioculatum
C
ylindrostom
a fingalianum
C
ylindrostom
a gracilis
P
seudostom
um
gracilis
U
lianinia m
ollissim
a
R
eisingeria hexaoculata
U
rastom
a cyprinae
A
rchiloa rivularis
N
em
ertinoides elongatus
P
lanocera m
ultitentaculata
N
otoplana koreana
N
otoplana australis
D
iscocelis tigrina
P
seudoceros tritriatus
Thysanozoon brocchii
G
eocentrophora sphyrocephala
G
eocentrophora baltica
M
icrostom
um
lineare
M
acrostom
um
tuba
S
tenostom
um
leucops aquariorum
S
tenostom
um
leucops
E
ubostrichus parasitiferus
E
ubostrichus topiarius
E
ubostrichus dianae
C
hrom
adoropsis vivipara
D
esm
odora ovigera
Laxus oneistus
Laxus cosm
opolitus
S
tilbonem
a m
ajum
R
obbea hyperm
nestra
A
canthopharynx m
icans
P
lectus aquatilis
P
lectus acum
inatus
C
ruznem
a tripartitum
R
habditella axei
P
ellioditis typica
R
habditis blum
i
R
habditis m
yriophila
H
aem
onchus placei
H
aem
onchus sim
ilis
H
aem
onchus contortus
N
em
atodirus battus
O
stertagia ostertagi
N
ippostrongylus brasiliensis
S
yngam
us trachea
H
eterorhabditis bacteriophora
C
aenorhabditis briggsae
C
aenorhabditis elegans
C
aenorhabditis vulgaris
P
elodera strongyloides
P
anagrellus redivivus
Teratorhabditis palm
arum
A
duncospiculum
halicti
P
ristionchus lheritieri
D
iplogaster lethieri
S
trongyloides stercoralis
S
trongyloides ratti
S
teinernem
a carpocapsae
Z
eldia punctata
C
ephalobus oryzae
M
eloidogyne arenaria
G
lobodera pallida
A
phelenchus avenae
P
seudoterranova decipiens
Terranova caballeroi
Toxocara canis
C
ontracaecum
m
ultipapillatum
B
aylisascaris transfuga
A
scaris suum
P
arascaris equorum
A
scaris lum
bricoides
B
aylisascaris procyonis
Toxascaris leonina
P
orrocaecum
depressum
G
oezia pelagia
Iheringascaris inquies
H
ysterothylacium
pelagicum
H
ysterothylacium
fortalezae
H
ysterothylacium
reliquens
H
eterocheilus tunicatus
C
ruzia am
ericana
B
rum
ptaem
ilius justini
B
rugia m
alayi
D
iro
fila
ria
im
m
itis
G
nathostom
a neoprocyonis
G
nathostom
a binucleatum
G
nathostom
a turgidum
Teratocephalus lirellus
D
aptonem
a procerus
D
ip
lo
la
im
e
llo
id
e
s m
eyli
P
aracanthonchus caecus
P
ontonem
a vulgare
E
n
o
p
lu
s b
revis
E
noplus m
eridionalis
P
rism
atolaim
us interm
edius
P
aratrichodorus anem
ones
P
aratrichodorus pachyderm
us
Trichodorus prim
itivus
M
erm
is nigrescens
M
ylonchulus arenicolus
X
ip
h
in
e
m
a
rive
si
Longidorus elongatus
Trichuris m
uris
Trich
in
e
lla
sp
ira
lis
G
ordius aquaticus
G
ordius albopunctatus
C
hordodes m
organi
R
hopalura ophiocom
ae
E
ch
in
o
rhyn
ch
u
s g
a
d
i
P
olym
orphus altm
ani
C
orynosom
a enhydri
C
entrorhynchus conspectus
P
la
g
io
rhyn
ch
u
s cylin
d
ra
ce
u
s
P
om
phorhynchus bulbocoli
Leptorhynchoides thecatus
N
e
o
e
ch
in
o
rhyn
ch
u
s cra
ssu
s
N
eoechinorhynchus pseudem
ydis
M
acracanthorhynchus ingens
M
o
lin
ifo
rm
is m
o
lin
ifo
rm
is
M
ediorhynchus grandis
P
h
ilo
d
in
a
a
cu
tico
rn
is
B
ra
ch
io
n
u
s p
lica
tilis
Lepidoderm
ella squam
m
ata
G
nathostom
ula paradoxa
Trichoplax adhaerens
H
a
lip
la
n
e
lla
lu
cia
F
lo
sm
a
ris m
u
tsu
e
n
sis
A
nthopleura kurogane
A
nthopleura m
idori
A
n
e
m
o
n
ia
su
lca
ta
R
h
izo
p
sa
m
m
ia
m
inu
ta
E
p
ia
ctis ja
p
o
n
ica
Tubastraea aurea
A
n
tip
a
th
e
s g
a
la
p
a
g
e
n
sis
A
n
tip
a
th
e
s la
ta
P
a
ra
zo
a
n
th
u
s a
xin
e
lla
e
C
a
lico
g
o
rg
ia
gra
nu
lo
sa
B
e
llo
n
e
lla
rig
id
a
E
u
p
lexa
u
ra
cra
ssa
A
lcyo
n
iu
m
g
ra
cillim
u
m
L
e
io
p
tilu
s fim
b
ria
tu
s
V
irg
u
la
ria
g
u
stavia
n
a
C
o
ryn
e
p
u
silla
H
yd
ra
litto
ra
lis
G
ym
n
a
n
g
iu
m
h
ia
n
s
S
e
la
g
in
o
p
sis co
rn
ig
e
ra
P
o
lyp
o
d
iu
m
hyd
rifo
rm
e
Trip
e
d
a
lia
cysto
p
h
o
ra
A
to
lla
va
n
h
o
e
ffe
n
i
C
ra
te
ro
lo
p
h
u
s co
nvo
lvu
lu
s
M
yca
le
fib
rexilis
M
icro
cio
n
a
p
ro
life
ra
S
u
b
e
rite
s ficu
s
A
xin
e
lla
p
o
lyp
o
id
e
s
Te
tilla
ja
p
o
n
ica
E
u
n
a
p
iu
s fra
g
ilis
S
p
o
n
g
illa
la
cu
stris
E
p
hyd
a
tia
m
u
e
lle
ri
R
h
a
b
d
o
ca
lyp
tu
s d
aw
so
n
i
S
cyp
h
a
cilia
ta
S
yco
n
ca
lca
ra
vis
C
la
th
rin
a
ce
re
b
ru
m
B
e
ro
e
cu
cu
m
is
M
n
e
m
io
p
sis le
id
yi
Te
le
a
u
la
x a
m
p
h
ioxe
ia
H
e
m
ise
lm
is b
ru
n
n
e
sce
n
s
H
e
m
ise
lm
is vire
sce
n
s
H
e
m
ise
lm
is ru
fe
sce
n
s
P
la
g
io
m
o
n
a
s a
m
ylo
sa
P
ro
te
o
m
o
n
a
s su
lca
ta
G
u
illa
rd
ia
th
e
ta
G
o
n
io
m
o
n
a
s tru
n
ca
ta
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
le
n
ticu
la
ta
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
p
u
stu
lo
sa
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
p
a
le
stin
e
n
sis
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
g
riffin
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
p
e
a
rce
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
h
a
tch
e
tti
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
steve
n
so
n
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
ca
ste
lla
n
ii
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
lu
g
d
u
n
e
n
sis
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
rhyso
d
e
s
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
royre
b
a
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
p
o
lyp
h
a
g
a
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
cu
lb
e
rtso
n
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
h
e
a
lyi
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
co
m
a
n
d
o
n
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
tu
b
ia
sh
i
A
ca
n
th
a
m
o
e
b
a
a
stro
n
yxis
C
ya
n
o
p
h
o
ra
p
a
ra
d
oxa
C
ya
n
o
p
tych
e
g
lo
e
o
cystis
G
la
u
co
cystis n
o
sto
ch
in
e
a
ru
m
A
rth
ro
ca
rd
ia
filicu
la
S
e
rra
tica
rd
ia
m
a
cm
illa
n
ii
B
o
ssie
lla
o
rb
ig
n
ia
n
a
C
a
llia
rth
ro
n
ch
e
ilo
sp
o
rio
id
e
s
C
a
llia
rth
ro
n
tu
b
e
rcu
lo
su
m
B
o
ssie
lla
ca
lifo
rn
ica
C
o
ra
llin
a
o
fficin
a
lis
C
o
ra
llin
a
e
lo
n
g
a
ta
Ja
n
ia
ru
b
e
n
s
C
h
e
ilo
sp
o
ru
m
sa
g
itta
tu
m
Ja
n
ia
cra
ssa
H
a
lip
tilo
n
ro
se
u
m
M
e
ta
g
o
n
io
lith
o
n
ch
a
ra
M
e
ta
g
o
n
io
lith
o
n
ste
llife
ru
m
M
e
ta
g
o
n
io
lith
o
n
ra
d
ia
tu
m
S
p
o
n
g
ite
s ye
n
d
o
i
L
ith
o
p
hyllu
m
ko
tschya
n
u
m
L
ith
o
th
rix a
sp
e
rg
illu
m
A
m
p
h
iro
a
fra
g
ilissim
a
S
yn
a
rth
ro
p
hyto
n
p
a
te
n
a
M
e
so
p
hyllu
m
e
n
g
e
lh
a
rtii
M
e
so
p
hyllu
m
e
ru
b
e
sce
n
s
L
ith
o
th
a
m
n
io
n
to
p
h
ifo
rm
e
L
ith
o
th
a
m
n
io
n
g
la
cia
le
P
hym
a
to
lith
o
n
la
evig
a
tu
m
P
hym
a
to
lith
o
n
le
n
o
rm
a
n
d
ii
L
e
p
to
p
hytu
m
a
ce
rva
tu
m
L
e
p
to
p
hytu
m
fe
rox
M
a
sto
p
h
o
ro
p
sis ca
n
icu
la
ta
C
la
th
ro
m
o
rp
h
u
m
co
m
p
a
ctu
m
C
la
th
ro
m
o
rp
h
u
m
p
a
rcu
m
H
e
yd
rich
ia
w
o
e
lke
rlin
g
ii
S
p
o
ro
lith
o
n
d
u
ru
m
R
h
o
d
o
g
o
rg
o
n
ca
rrie
b
o
w
e
n
sis
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
p
e
ctin
a
ta
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
p
ro
ska
u
e
ri
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
a
sp
a
ra
g
o
p
sis
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
te
tra
sp
o
ra
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
d
a
sya
e
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
e
n
d
o
p
h
ytica
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
ca
e
sp
ito
sa
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
rh
izo
id
e
a
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
d
a
vie
sii
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
a
m
p
h
iro
a
e
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
a
rcu
a
ta
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
se
cu
n
d
a
ta
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
h
e
rm
a
n
n
ii
A
u
d
o
u
in
e
lla
te
n
u
e
R
h
o
d
o
p
hyse
m
a
e
le
g
a
n
s
D
eva
le
ra
e
a
ra
m
e
n
ta
ce
a
M
e
io
d
iscu
s sp
e
tsb
e
rg
e
n
sis
P
a
lm
a
ria
p
a
lm
a
ta
H
a
lo
sa
ccio
n
g
la
n
d
ifo
rm
e
R
h
o
d
o
th
a
m
n
ie
lla
flo
rid
u
la
C
a
m
o
n
ta
g
n
e
a
oxycla
d
a
N
e
m
a
lio
n
h
e
lm
in
th
o
id
e
s
G
a
la
xa
u
ra
m
a
rg
in
a
ta
R
h
o
d
o
ch
o
rto
n
p
u
rp
u
re
u
m
R
h
o
d
o
d
ra
p
a
rn
a
ld
ia
o
re
g
o
n
ica
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
b
o
rya
n
u
m
Tu
o
m
eya
a
m
e
rica
n
a
S
iro
d
o
tia
su
e
cica
S
iro
d
o
tia
h
u
ille
n
sis
L
e
m
a
n
e
a
flu
via
tilis
P
a
ra
le
m
a
n
e
a
ca
te
n
a
ta
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
g
e
la
tin
o
su
m
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
h
e
lm
in
th
o
su
m
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
tu
rfo
su
m
P
silo
sip
h
o
n
sco
p
a
riu
m
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
m
a
cro
sp
o
ru
m
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
virg
a
to
d
e
ca
isn
B
a
tra
ch
o
sp
e
rm
u
m
lo
u
isia
n
a
e
N
o
th
o
cla
d
u
s n
o
d
o
su
s
T
h
o
re
a
vio
la
ce
a
G
e
lid
iu
m
p
u
sillu
m
G
e
lid
iu
m
la
tifo
liu
m
G
e
lid
iu
m
flo
rid
a
n
u
m
G
e
lid
iu
m
se
sq
u
ip
e
d
a
le
G
e
lid
iu
m
se
rru
la
tu
m
G
e
lid
iu
m
a
m
e
rica
n
u
m
G
e
lid
iu
m
va
g
u
m
G
riffith
sia
g
lo
b
u
life
ra
O
n
iku
sa
p
risto
id
e
s
C
a
p
re
o
lia
im
p
le
xa
G
e
lid
iu
m
ca
u
la
ca
n
th
e
u
m
P
te
ro
cla
d
ia
lu
cid
a
P
te
ro
cla
d
ia
ca
p
illa
ce
a
P
te
ro
cla
d
ie
lla
ca
p
illa
ce
a
P
te
ro
cla
d
ie
lla
m
e
la
n
o
id
e
a
P
tilo
p
h
o
ra
p
in
n
a
tifid
a
P
tilo
p
h
o
ra
su
b
co
sta
ta
G
e
lid
ie
lla
a
ce
ro
sa
G
ra
te
lo
u
p
ia
filicin
a
C
ryp
to
n
e
m
ia
u
n
d
u
la
ta
C
a
rp
o
p
e
ltis p
hyllo
p
h
o
ra
H
a
lym
e
n
ia
p
la
n
a
S
e
b
d
e
n
ia
fla
b
e
lla
ta
L
o
m
e
n
ta
ria
a
u
stra
lis
L
o
m
e
n
ta
ria
b
a
ileya
n
a
G
lo
io
d
e
rm
a
fru
ticu
lo
sa
C
h
a
m
p
ia
a
ffin
is
C
e
p
h
a
lo
cystis fu
rce
lla
ta
C
e
p
h
a
lo
cystis le
u
co
b
o
trys
E
ryth
ro
co
lo
n
p
o
d
a
g
ricu
m
E
p
ym
e
n
ia
w
ilso
n
is
R
h
o
d
ym
e
n
ia
lin
e
a
ris
C
o
rd
yle
cla
d
ia
e
re
cta
P
lo
ca
m
io
co
la
x p
u
lvin
a
ta
P
lo
ca
m
iu
m
ca
rtila
g
in
e
u
m
P
lo
ca
m
iu
m
a
n
g
u
stu
m
G
ra
cila
ria
ve
rru
co
sa
G
ra
cila
ria
p
a
cifica
G
ra
cila
ria
tikva
h
ia
e
G
ra
cila
ria
co
rn
e
a
G
ra
cila
ria
ch
ile
n
sis
M
e
la
n
th
a
lia
o
b
tu
sa
ta
C
u
rd
ie
a
fla
b
e
lla
ta
G
ra
cila
ria
le
m
a
n
e
ifo
rm
is
G
ra
cila
rio
p
h
ila
o
ryzo
id
e
s
S
ch
izym
e
n
ia
d
u
b
yi
M
a
sto
ca
rp
u
s ste
lla
tu
s
G
ig
a
rtin
a
cra
ssica
u
lis
S
ch
o
tte
ra
n
ica
e
e
n
sis
G
a
rd
n
e
rie
lla
tu
b
e
rife
ra
S
a
rco
d
io
th
e
ca
g
a
u
d
ich
a
u
d
ii
S
a
rco
d
io
th
e
ca
fu
rca
ta
E
u
ch
e
u
m
a
d
e
n
ticu
la
ta
E
u
ch
e
u
m
a
isifo
rm
e
K
a
p
p
a
p
h
ycu
s a
lva
re
zii
M
ych
o
d
e
a
ca
rn
o
sa
A
re
sch
o
u
g
ia
co
n
g
e
sta
E
n
d
o
cla
d
ia
m
u
rica
ta
G
le
io
p
e
ltis fu
rca
ta
P
h
a
ce
lo
ca
rp
u
s p
e
p
e
ro
ca
rp
o
s
N
izym
e
n
ia
a
u
stra
lis
S
p
h
a
e
ro
co
ccu
s co
ro
n
o
p
ifo
liu
s
F
a
rlo
w
ia
m
o
llis
D
ilse
a
ca
rn
o
sa
D
a
syp
h
lo
e
a
in
sig
n
is
C
a
llo
p
h
yllis ra
n
g
ife
rin
a
B
o
n
n
e
m
a
iso
n
ia
h
a
m
ife
ra
C
e
ra
m
iu
m
m
a
cile
n
tu
m
C
e
ra
m
iu
m
ru
b
ru
m
D
a
sya
b
a
illo
u
via
n
a
P
hyco
d
rys ru
b
e
n
s
R
h
o
d
o
m
e
la
co
n
fe
rvo
id
e
s
A
n
o
trich
iu
m
fu
rce
lla
tu
m
G
riffith
sia
m
o
n
ilis
C
ro
u
a
n
ia
a
tte
n
u
a
ta
H
ild
e
n
b
ra
n
d
ia
ru
b
ra
A
p
o
p
h
la
e
a
lya
llii
D
ixo
n
ie
lla
g
rise
a
R
h
o
d
e
lla
m
a
cu
la
ta
B
o
ld
ia
e
ryth
ro
sip
h
o
n
E
ryth
ro
trich
ia
ca
rn
e
a
P
o
rp
hyra
p
se
u
d
o
lin
e
a
ris
P
o
rp
hyra
ka
ta
d
a
e
P
o
rp
hyra
ye
zo
e
n
sis
P
o
rp
hyra
te
n
e
ra
P
o
rp
hyra
le
u
co
sticta
P
o
rp
hyra
h
a
ita
n
e
n
sis
P
o
rp
hyra
d
e
n
ta
ta
B
a
n
g
ia
a
tro
p
u
rp
u
re
a
P
o
rp
hyra
a
ca
n
th
o
p
h
o
ra
P
o
rp
hyra
su
b
o
rb
icu
la
ta
P
o
rp
hyra
m
in
ia
ta
P
o
rp
h
yra
u
m
b
ilica
lis
P
o
rp
hyra
p
u
rp
u
re
a
S
tylo
n
e
m
a
a
lsid
ii
C
o
sm
a
riu
m
b
o
trytis
S
p
h
a
e
ro
zo
sm
a
gra
nu
la
tu
m
C
o
sm
o
cla
d
iu
m
sa
xo
n
icu
m
G
o
n
a
to
zyg
o
n
a
cu
le
a
tu
m
G
e
n
icu
la
ria
sp
iro
ta
e
n
ia
M
e
so
ta
e
n
iu
m
ca
ld
a
rio
ru
m
M
o
u
g
e
o
tia
sca
la
ris
S
p
iro
g
yra
g
reville
a
n
a
Z
yg
n
e
m
o
p
sis circu
m
ca
rin
a
ta
D
io
sco
re
a
b
u
lb
ife
ra
Ta
cca
p
la
n
ta
g
in
e
a
C
a
le
cta
sia
in
te
rm
e
d
ia
Z
ea m
ays
O
ryza
sa
tiva
Jo
in
ville
a
a
sce
n
d
e
n
s
S
p
a
rg
a
n
iu
m
e
u
ryca
rp
u
m
C
yp
e
ru
s a
lb
o
stria
tu
s
G
lo
m
e
ro
p
itca
irn
ia
p
e
n
d
u
liflo
ra
A
n
ig
o
za
n
th
o
s fla
vid
u
s
E
ich
h
o
rn
ia
cra
ssip
e
s
E
la
sis h
irsu
ta
Tra
d
e
sca
n
tia
o
h
ie
n
sis
C
o
stu
s b
a
rb
a
tu
s
M
a
ra
n
ta
b
ico
lo
r
C
a
la
th
e
a
lo
e
se
n
e
ri
Z
ingiber gram
ineum
C
a
n
n
a
in
d
ica
H
e
lico
n
ia
in
d
ica
R
ave
n
a
la
m
a
d
a
g
a
sca
rie
n
sis
O
rch
id
a
n
th
a
fim
b
ria
ta
P
h
e
n
a
ko
sp
e
rm
u
m
g
u
ya
n
n
e
n
se
S
tre
litzia
n
ico
la
i
M
u
sa
a
cu
m
in
a
ta
C
a
lo
ch
o
rtu
s a
lbu
s
C
o
lch
icu
m
a
u
tu
m
n
a
le
V
e
itch
ia
se
ssilifo
lia
D
rym
o
p
h
lo
e
u
s su
b
d
istich
a
C
h
a
m
a
e
d
o
re
a
se
ifrizii
Tra
chyca
rp
u
s w
a
g
n
e
ria
nu
s
C
ya
n
e
lla
ca
p
e
n
sis
G
la
d
io
lu
s b
u
cke
rve
ld
ii
Iso
p
hysis ta
sm
a
n
ica
B
o
w
ie
a
vo
lu
b
ilis
X
anthorrhoea quadrangulata
A
sp
a
ra
g
u
s fa
lca
tu
s
L
e
d
e
b
o
u
ria
so
cia
lis
C
h
lo
ro
p
hytu
m
n
e
p
a
le
n
se
A
lliu
m
th
u
n
b
e
rg
ii
E
u
ch
a
ris gra
n
d
iflo
ra
B
u
rm
a
n
n
ia
d
istich
a
A
p
o
sta
sia
stylid
io
id
e
s
G
ym
n
o
sip
h
o
n
su
ave
o
le
n
s
C
a
lla
p
a
lu
stris
V
a
llisn
e
ria
a
m
e
rica
n
a
S
a
g
itta
ria
trifo
lia
A
n
a
n
a
s co
m
o
su
s
S
ch
e
u
ch
ze
ria
p
a
lu
stris
G
ym
n
o
sta
chys a
n
ce
p
s
C
o
ra
llo
rh
iza
m
a
cu
la
ta
A
p
le
ctru
m
hye
m
a
le
N
e
o
ttia
n
id
u
s avis
E
burophyton austinae
O
n
cid
iu
m
sp
h
a
ce
la
tu
m
O
n
cid
iu
m
excava
tu
m
C
yp
rip
e
d
iu
m
ca
lce
o
lu
s
A
co
ru
s ca
la
m
u
s
Lilium
form
osanum
Illiciu
m
p
a
rviflo
ru
m
S
ch
isa
n
d
ra
ch
in
e
n
sis
A
u
stro
b
a
ileya
sca
n
d
e
n
s
N
uphar japonica
N
uphar shim
adai
N
ym
phaea tuberosa
A
m
borella trichopoda
A
ra
b
id
o
p
sis th
a
lia
n
a
S
in
a
p
is a
lb
a
C
leom
e hasleriana
P
entadiplandra brazzeana
R
eseda alba
G
yrostem
on tepperi
Tropaeolum
m
ajus
M
oringa oleifera
C
arica papaya papaya
F
loerkea proserpinacoides
B
a
tis m
a
ritim
a
P
ile
a
ca
d
ie
re
i
E
uonym
us alatus
B
rexia m
adagascarensis
P
arnassia fim
briata
Lepuropetalon spathulatum
A
lb
izzia
ju
lib
rissin
Trifolium
repens
P
isu
m
sa
tivu
m
G
lycine m
ax
A
bobra tenuifolia
C
orallocarpus bainesii
Luffa quinquefida
M
arah m
acrocarpa
C
oriaria arborea
D
atisca cannabina
D
atisca glom
erata
B
egonia glabra
H
illebrandia sandw
ichensis
B
egonia m
etallica x B
egonia sangu
B
egonia boisiana
B
egonia oxyloba
O
ctom
eles sum
atrana
Tetram
eles nudiflora
C
rossosom
a californicum
M
orus alba
C
eltis yunnanensis
C
eanothus sanguineus
E
laeagnus um
bellata
Francoa sonchifolia
G
reyia radlkoferi
Z
elkova serrata
Fragaria ananassa
S
piraea x vanhouttei
P
hotinia fraseri
P
runus persica
R
icinus com
m
unis
A
driana glabrata
C
hrysobalanus icaco
Licania tom
entosa
Linum
perenne
G
ossypium
hirsutum
Luehea seem
annii
B
om
bax ceiba
K
oeberlinia spinosa
M
untingia calabura
Turnera ulm
ifolia
D
rypetes roxburghii
M
alpighia coccigera
M
irabilis jalapa
Tetragonia expansa
M
ollugo verticillata
P
hytolacca am
ericana
S
pinacia oleracea
P
lum
bago auriculata
P
olygonum
chinense
C
occoloba uvifera
D
rosera capensis
E
uphorbia pulcherrim
a
C
itrus aurantium
K
oelreuteria paniculata
A
cer rubrum
D
illenia alata
G
unnera m
anicata
M
kilua fragrans
G
uaiacum
sanctum
C
ephalotus follicularis
E
ucryphia lucida
C
eratopetalum
gum
m
iferum
S
loanea latifolia
B
auera rubioides
C
asuarina equisetifolia
B
etula papyrifera
A
lnus glutinosa
D
endrophthora clavata
P
horadendron californicum
P
horadendron serotinum
D
endrophthora dom
ingensis
A
rceuthobium
verticilliflorum
A
rceuthobium
pendens
A
rceuthobium
oxycedri
V
iscum
album
V
iscum
articulatum
K
orthalsella com
planata
K
orthalsella lindsayi
G
inalloa arnottiana
N
otothixos leiophyllus
N
otothixos subaureus
B
uckleya distichophylla
P
yrularia pubera
Thesium
im
peditum
C
om
andra um
bellata
G
eocaulon lividum
E
ubrachion am
biguum
E
xocarpos bidw
illii
N
estronia um
bellula
D
endrotrophe varians
D
ufrenoya sphaerocarpa
A
ntidaphne viscoidea
S
antalum
album
O
syris lanceolata
O
pilia am
entacea
C
ansjera leptostachya
A
gonandra m
acrocarpa
C
ham
pereia m
anillana
A
lepis flavida
Lysiana exocarpi
D
endropem
on bicolor
O
ryctanthus occidentalis
Tripodanthus acutifolius
P
sittacanthus angustifolius
S
truthanthus oerstedii
G
aiadendron punctatum
Tupeia antarctica
A
m
yem
a glabrum
D
iplatia furcata
G
lobim
etula dinklagei
E
rianthem
um
dregei
H
elixanthera kirkii
M
oquiniella rubra
Tapinanthus quinquangulus
E
nglerina w
oodfordioides
A
gelanthus sansibaricus
D
ecaisnina hollrungii
Loranthus europaeus
Ligaria cuneifolia
P
hthirusa pyrifolia
S
choepfia arenaria
S
choepfia schreberi
M
isodendrum
brachystachyum
S
corodocarpus borneensis
S
trom
bosia philippinensis
H
eisteria concinna
X
im
enia am
ericana
O
lax aphylla
M
inquartia guianensis
Polygala pauciflora
P
unica granatum
C
ercidiphyllum
japonicum
Tetracarpaea tasm
anica
H
aloragis erecta
M
yriophyllum
exalbescens
Penthorum
sedoides
D
udleya viscida
K
alanchoe daigrem
ontiana
Sedum
rubrotintum
C
rassula m
arnierana
S
ullivantia oregana
S
axifraga m
ertensiana
S
axifraga integrifolia
C
hrysosplenium
iow
ense
Peltoboykinia tellim
oides
H
euchera m
icrantha
B
oykinia interm
edia
Itea virginica
Pterostem
on rotundifolius
Paeonia suffruticosa
Paeonia lactiflora
Liquidam
bar styraciflua
R
ibes aureum
Pedicularis lanceolata
Pedicularis racem
osa
O
rthocarpus erianthus
O
rthocarpus luteus
C
astilleja m
iniata
O
robanche m
ultiflora
O
robanche ludoviciana
O
robanche fasciculata
Lathraea clandestina
H
arveya speciosa
H
yobanche atropurpurea
C
onopholis alpina
C
onopholis am
ericana
Epifagus virginiana
Boschniakia rossica
Bourreria succulenta
Ehretia cym
osa
Pholism
a arenarium
C
uscuta gronovii
Byblis liniflora
Byblis gigantea
Aeschynanthus radicans
C
hionophila jam
esii
Linaria vulgaris
Ipom
oea hederacea
Solanum
tuberosum
Lycopersicon esculentum
M
ontinia caryophyllacea
M
itchella repens
Vahlia capensis
H
elw
ingia japonica
Phyllonom
a laticuspis
Panax japonicus
Panax quinquefolius
Panax ginseng
H
edera helix
H
ydrocotyle sibthorpioides
Pittosporum
japonicum
Ligusticum
chuanxiong
C
nidium
officinale
Lom
atium
triternatium
Angelica acutiloba
Lonicera m
aackii
Sym
phoricarpos albus
Corokia cotoneaster
Escallonia coquim
bensis
Erem
osyne pectinata
Cam
panula ram
ulosa
Lobelia erinus
Tragopogon dubius
Roussea sim
plex
Berzelia lanuginosa
Eucom
m
ia ulm
oides
Aucuba japonica
G
arrya elliptica
M
anilkara zapota
Im
patiens palida
Clethra alnifolia
Pyrola picta
Styrax am
ericana
Pterospora androm
edea
Sarcodes sanguinea
M
onotropa uniflora
Sarracenia purpurea
Cyrilla racem
iflora
Sym
plocos paniculata
Diospyros virginiana
Cam
ellia japonica
Fouquieria colum
naris
Nyssa sylvatica
Philadelphus lewisii
Hydrangea m
acrophylla
Nyssa ogeche
Cam
ptotheca acum
inata
Cornus florida
Cornus racem
osa
Cornus officinalis
Tetracentron sinense
Trochodendron aralioides
Buxus sem
pervirens
Sabia swinhoei
Nelum
bo lutea
Platanus occidentalis
Dicentra exim
ia
Hypecoum
im
berba
Argem
one m
exicana
Stauntonia hexaphylla
Holboellia latifolia
Akebia quinata
Lardizabala biternata
Boquila trifoliata
Decaisnea fargesii
Sinofranchetia chinensis
Sargentodoxa cuneata
Euptelea polyandra
Tinospora caffra
Menispermum canadensis
Ranunculus taisanensis
Ranunculus sardous
Xanthorhiza sim
plicissim
a
Coptis trifolia
Glaucidium palmatum
Hydrastis canadensis
Caulophyllum
thalictroides
Podophyllum peltatum
Nandina domestica
Knightia excelsa
Placospermum coriaceum
Ceratophyllum demersum
Sassafras albidum
Calycanthus floridus
Hedyosmum arborescens
Drimys winteri
Drimys aromatica
Magnolia acuminata
Saruma henryi
Asarum hayatanum
Asarum canadense
Aristolochia tomentosa
Lactoris fernandeziana
Saururus cernuus
Saururus chinensis
Chloranthus spicatus
Houttuynia cordata
Peperomia serpens
Piper kadsura
Prosopanche americana
Hydnora africana
Cytinus ruber
Ombrophytum subterraneum
Scybalium jamaicense
Helosis cayennensis
Corynaea crassa
Rafflesia keithii
Rhizanthes zipellii
Balanophora fungosa
Langsdorffia hypogaea
Cynomorium coccineum
Pinus wallichiana
Pinus luchuensis
Pinus elliottii
Picea mariana
Abies lasiocarpa
Larix leptolepis
Lagarostrobos franklinii
Parasitaxis ustus
Prumnopitys taxifolia
Phyllocladus hypophyllus
Phyllocladus trichomonoides
Podocarpus costalis
Podocarpus elatus
Nageia nagi
Nageia falcatus
Saxegothaea conspicua
Microcachrys tetragona
Microstrobos fitzgeraldii
Podocarpus totara
Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
Dacrycarpus imbricatus
Dacrydium cupressinum
Agathis robusta
Araucaria columnaris
Araucaria heterophylla
Araucaria cunninghamii
Araucaria excelsa
Agathis borneensis
Taiwania cryptomerioides
Juniperus chinensis
Cupressus macrocarpa
Calocedrus formosana
Calocedrus decurrens
Metasequoia glyptostroboides
Cryptomeria japonica
Cephalotaxus wilsoniana
Torreya nucifera
Amentotaxus formosana
Taxus mairei
Sciadopitys verticillata
Ephedra sinica
Ephedra californica
Ephedra saxatilis
Ephedra antisyphilitica
Gnetum urens
Gnetum leyboldii
Gnetum nodiflorum
Gnetum africanum
Welwitschia mirabilis
Zamia pumila
Cycas taitungensis
Ginkgo biloba
Botrychium lunaria
Blechnum occidentale
Hypolepis muelleri
Paesia scaberula
Histiopteris incisa
Pteridium aquilinum
Dicksonia antarctica
Lonchitis hirsuta
Odontosoria chinensis
Dicranopteris linearis
Vandenboschia davallioides
Adiantum raddianum
Lygodium japonicum
Asplenium nidus
Osmunda cinnamomea
Angiopteris lygodiifolia
Ophioglossum petiolatum
Psilotum nudum
Tmesipteris tannensis
Equisetum robustum
Equisetum hyemale
Salvinia natans
Lycopodiella inundata
Lycopodium tristachyum
Huperzia lucidula
Huperzia taxifolia
Lycopodium phlegmaria
Selaginella vogelii
Selaginella umbrosa
Isoetes engelmannii
Isoetes durieui
Sphagnum cuspidatum
Sphagnum palustre
Ricciocarpos natans
Riccia fluitans
Plagiochasma rupestre
Conocephalum conicum
Reboulia hemisphaerica
Preissia quadrata
Bucegia romanica
Marchantia polymorpha
Riella helicophylla
Sphaerocarpos donnelli
Sphaerocarpus texanus
Aulacomnium androgynum
Aulacomnium turgidum
Eurhynchium hians
Blindia acuta
Wardia hygrometrica
Ulota phyllantha
Orthotrichum stramineum
Tortula ruralis
Pottia truncata
Fissidens taxifolius
Dicranum scoparium
Ptychomitrium gardneri
Plagiomnium affine
Cyrtomnium hymenophyllum
Mnium hornum
Cinclidium stygium
Pohlia cruda
Mielichhoferia bryoides
Mielichhoferia elongata
Pohlia bolanderi
Leptostomum macrocarpum
Meesia uliginosa
Leptobryum pyriforme
Tetraplodon mnioides
Splachnum luteum
Tayloria lingulata
Brachymenium pulchrum
Rhodobryum giganteum
Bryum donianum
Bryum alpinum
Bryum caespiticium
Anomobryum julaceum
Bryum argenteum
Encalypta rhapdocarpa
Bryobrittonia longipes
Scouleria aquatica
Fontinalis antipyretica
Orthodontium lineare
Bartramia stricta
Hedwigia ciliata
Rhacocarpus purpurascens
Philonotis fontana
Bartramia pomiformis
Pyrrhobryum vallis gratiae
Plagiothecium undulatum
Brachythecium rutabulum
Calliergonella cuspidata
Hypnum cupressiforme
Hylocomium splendens
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus
Physcomitrium pyriforme
Funaria hygrometrica
Physcomitrella patens
Timmia sibirica
Jamesoniella autumnalis
Jungermannia leiantha
Calypogeia arguta
Polytrichum commune
Atrichum angustatum
Polytrichum formosum
Atrichum undulatum
Tetraphis pellucida
Andreaea rupestris
Takakia lepidozioides
Andreaea rothii
Anthoceros agrestis
Anthoceros laevis
Pellia epiphylla
Scapania nemorea
Symphyogyna brongartii
Plagiochila adiantoides
Trichocolea tomentella
Lophocolea heterophylla
Fossombronia pusilla
Fossombronia brasiliensis
Metzgeria furcata
Haplomitrium hookeri
Riccardia pinguis
Chara hornemannii
Chara curtissii
Chara hispida
Chara foetida
Chara vulgaris
Chara connivens
Chara muelleri
Chara australis
Lamprothamnium macropogon
Lamprothamnium papulosum
Lychnothamnus barbatus
Nitellopsis obtusa
Chara preissii
Nitella axillaris
Tolypella porteri
Nitella flexilis
Coleochaete scutata
Coleochaete orbicularis
Klebsormidium flaccidum
Chlorokybus atmophyticus
Raphidonema longiseta
Bracteacoccus aerius
Bracteacoccus grandis
Bracteacoccus medionucleatus
Bracteacoccus minor
Bracteacoccus giganteus
Chlorella zofingiensis
Ankistrodesmus stipitatus
Scenedesmus ovalternus
Scenedesmus producto capitatus
Scenedesmus obliquus
Scenedesmus rubescens
Scenedesmus vacuolatus
Scotiellopsis oocystiformis
Scotiellopsis terrestris
Coelastrella multistriata
Scenedesmus pupukensis
Scenedesmus costato granulatus
Scenedesmus abundans
Scenedesmus communis
Neochloris aquatica
Neochloris vigenis
Characium hindakii
Hydrodictyon reticulatum
Pediastrum duplex
Tetracystis aeria
Chlorococcum echinozygotum
Chlorococcum hypnosporum
Chlamydomonas moewusii
Chlamydomonas pitschmannii
Chlamydomonas noctigama
Carteria radiosa
Carteria crucifera
Polytoma oviforme
Chlamydomonas monadina
Chlamydomonas fimbriata
Chlamydomonas rapa
Chlamydomonas asymmetrica
Hormotila blennista
Gloeococcus maximus
Chlamydomonas baca
Chlamydomonas zebra
Chloromonas oogama
Chlamydomonas debaryana
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Volvox carteri
Paulschulzia pseudovolvox
Polytomella parva
Hafniomonas reticulata
Chloromonas serbinowi
Chlamydomonas nivalis
Chloromonas rosae
Chloromonas clathrata
Chlamydomonas macrostellata
Chlamydomonas mutabilis
Chlamydomonas bipapillata
Chlamydomonas radiata
Chlorococcopsis minuta
Botryococcus braunii
Ascochloris multinucleata
Protosiphon botryoides
Spongiochloris spongiosa
Gongrosira papuasica
Characium saccatum
Characium vacuolatum
Chloromonas perforata
Chlorococcum oleofaciens
Pleurastrum insigne
Haematococcus zimbabwiensis
Polytoma ellipticum
Polytoma anomale
Polytoma mirum
Polytoma obtusum
Polytoma uvella
Polytoma difficile
Chlamydomonas pulsatilla
Chlamydomonas humicola
Chlamydomonas dysosmos
Dunaliella parva
Dunaliella salina
Asteromonas gracilis
Spermatozopsis similis
Muriella aurantica
Chaetophora incrassata
Stigeocloniumhelveticum
Fritschiella tuberosa
Hormotilopsis tetravacuolaris
Planophila terrestris
Hormotilopsis gelatinosa
Chaetopeltis orbicularis
Oedogonium cardiacum
Oedocladium carolinianum
Oedogonium angustistomum
Bulbochaete hiloensis
Pleurastrum paucicellulare
Parietochloris pseudoalveolaris Characium perforatum
Pleurastrum erumpens
Pleurastrum terrestre
Chlorella sorokiniana Chlorella lobophora
Chlorella vulgaris
Muriella terrestris
Chlorella kessleri
Chlorella minutissima Nanochlorum eucaryotum
Prototheca wickerhamii
Chlorella protothecoides
Prototheca zopfii
Chlorella ellipsoidea Chlorella mirabilis
Stichococcus bacillaris Choricystis minor
Chlorella saccharophila Chlorella luteoviridis Dictyochloropsis reticulata Trebouxia jamesii
Trebouxia arboricola Trebouxia asymmetrica Trebouxia usneae Trebouxia impressa Myrmecia biatorellae Friedmannia israeliensis Myrmecia astigmatica Trebouxia magna Chlorella homosphaera Microthamnion kuetzingianum Leptosira obovata Siphonocladus tropicus Ernodesmis verticillata Cladophora prolifera Cladophora coelothrix Microdictyon boergesenii Cladophora liebetruthii Cladophora catenata Cladophora socialis Valonia utricularis Chamaedoris peniculum Cladophoropsis membranacea Cladophora pellucida Cladophoropsis zollingerii
Cladophora pellucidoidea Cladophora vagabunda Cladophora sericea Cladophora albida Cladophora rupestris Acetabularia dentata Acetabularia major Acetabularia acetabulum
Acicularia schenkii Polyphysa peniculus Polyphysa parvula Neomeris dumentosa
Cymopolia van bosseae Chlorocladus australasicus
Batophora occidentalis Batophora oerstedii Bornetella nitida Pseudoneochloris marina
Gloeotilopsis planctonica
Protoderma sarcinoidea
Pseudendoclonium basiliense
Ulothrix zonata Myrmecia bisecta Tetraselmis convolutae
Tetraselmis striata Scherffelia dubia Oltmannsiellopsis viridis
Pseudoscourfieldia marina
Nephroselmis olivacea Stein
Mantoniella squamata
Coccoid green alga
Achlya bisexualis Lagenidium giganteum
Phytophthora megasperma
Developayella elegans
Hyphochytrium catenoides
Cymatosira belgica
Papiliocellulus elegans
Thalassiosira eccentrica
Thalassiosira rotula
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema pseudocostatum
Lauderia borealis Porosira glacialis Chaetoceros didymus
Chaetoceros rostratus
Eucampia antarctica
Odontella sinensis
Ditylum brightwelli
Streptotheca thamesis
Lithodesmium undulatum
Pseudo nitzschia pungens
Pseudo nitzschia multiseries
Bacillaria paxillifer
Nitzschia apiculata
Cylindrotheca closterium
Asterionellopsis glacilia
Rhaphoneis belgicae
Thalassionema nitzschioides
Fragilaria striatula
Actinocyclus curvatulus
Coscinodiscus radiatus
Corethron criophilum
Rhizosolenia setigera
Melosira varians
Aulacoseira ambigua
Aulacoseira distans
Stephanopyxis broschii
Giraudyopsis stellifera
Saccorhiza polyschides
Desmarestia ligulata
Chorda tomentosa
Sporochnus comosus
Costaria costata
Hizikia fusiformis
Myagropsis myagroides
Sargassum macrocarpum
Sargassum confusum
Sargassum horneri
Coccophora langsdorfii
Cystoseira hakodatensis
Fucus distichus
Fucus gardneri
Pelvetia babingtonii
Ectocarpus siliculosus
Scytosiphon lomentaria
Botrydium stoloniferum
Tribonema aequale
Heterothrix debilis
Botrydiopsis intercedens
Vaucheria bursata
Vacuolaria virescens
Heterosigma akashiwo
Chattonella subsalsa
Sarcinochrysis marina
Aureomonas lagunensis
Coccoid pelagophyte
Pelagomonas calceolata
Pelagococcus subviridis
Aureococcus anophagefferens
Coccoid stramenopile
Tessellaria volvocina
Mallomonas rasilis
Mallomonas papillosa
Synura petersenii
Synura glabra
Synura sphagnicola
Synura spinosa
Synura mammillosa
Mallomonas caudata
Mallomonas matvienkoae
Mallomonas akrokomos
Synura uvella
Mallomonas annulata
Mallomonas striata
Mallomonas adamas
Mallomonas splendens
Chrysonephele palustris
Ochromonas danica
Paraphysomonas vestita
Oikomonas mutabilis
Hibberdia magna
Chromulina chromophila
Paraphysomonas foraminifera
Nannochloropsis granulata
Nannochloropsis oculata
Nannochloropsis salina
Apedinella radians
Pteridomonas danica
Pseudopedinella elastica
Rhizochromulina cf marina
Ciliophrys infusionum
Dictyocha speculum
Thraustochytrium kinnei
Labyrinthuloides haliotidis
Ulkenia profunda
Labyrinthuloides minuta
Syluania monomastiga
Cafeteria roenbergensis
Blastocystis hominis
Proteromonas lacertae
Loxodes magnus
Loxodes striatus
Blepharisma americanum
Eufolliculina uhligi
Climacostomum virens
Spirostomum ambiguum
Tetrahymena nanneyi
Tetrahymena hyperangularis
Tetrahymena pigmentosa
Tetrahymena patula
Tetrahymena capricornis
Tetrahymena hegewischi
Tetrahymena australis
Tetrahymena thermophila
Tetrahymena malaccensis
Tetrahymena borealis
Tetrahymena canadensis
Tetrahymena pyriformis
Tetrahymena tropicalis
Tetrahymena corlissi
Tetrahymena empidokyrea
Glaucoma chattoni
Colpidium campylum
Ophryoglena catenula
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
Opisthonecta henneguyi
Vorticella microstoma
Vorticella convallaria
Paramecium tetraurelia
Uronema marinum
Cohnilembus verminus
Pseudocohnilembus marinus
Anophyroides haemophila
Cyclidium plouneouri
Cyclidium glaucoma
Cyclidium porcatum
Plagiopyla nasuta
Plagiopyla frontata
Trimyema compressum
Prorodon teres
Oxytricha granulifera
Onychodromus quadricornutus
Oxytricha nova
Stylonychia pustulata
Metopus palaeformis
Nyctotherus cordiformis
Nyctotherus ovalis
Nyctotherus velox
Metopus contortus
Euplotes aediculatus
Diplodinium dentatum
Polyplastron multivesiculatum
Eudiplodinium maggii
Epidinium caudatum
Ophryoscolex purkynjei
Entodinium caudatum
Dasytricha ruminantium
Isotricha intestinalis
Didinium nasutum
Homalozoon vermiculare
Loxophyllum utriculariae
Bursaria truncatella
Colpoda inflata
Obertrumia georgiana
Furgasonia blochmanni
Pseudomicrothorax dubius
Trithigmostoma steini
Discophrya collini
Uronema acuminata
Minchinia teredinis
Haplosporidium costale
Haplosporidium nelsoni
Haplosporidium louisiana
Urosporidium crescens
Babesia bovis
Babesia bigemina
Babesia caballi
Babesia divergens
Babesia odocoilei
Babesia canis
Theileria parva
Theileria annulata
Theileria taurotragi
Theileria velifera
Theileria buffeli
Theileria sergenti
Theileria cervi
Theileria mutans
Cytauxzoon felis
Babesia equi
Babesia rodhaini
Babesia microti
Sarcocystis tenella
Sarcocystis arieticanis
Sarcocystis cruzi
Sarcocystis gigantea
Sarcocystis hirsuta
Sarcocystis buffalonis
Sarcocystis fusiformis
Sarcocystis hominis
Sarcocystis aucheniae
Toxoplasma gondii
Neospora caninum
Isospora ohioensis
Isospora suis
Isospora belli
Sarcocystis muris
Frenkelia glareoli
Frenkelia microti
Sarcocystis neurona
Eim
eria tenella
Eim
eria necatrix
Eim
eria acervulina
Eimeria praecox
Eim
eria m
itis
Eimeria brunetti
Eim
eria nieschulzi
Eim
eria bovis
Plasm
odium
berghei
Plasm
odium
vivax
Plasm
odium
fragile
Plasm
odium
inui
Plasm
odium
knowlesi
Plasm
odium
cynom
olgi
Plasm
odium
sim
ium
Plasm
odium
m
alariae
Plasm
odium
falciparum
Plasm
odium
reichenowi
Plasm
odium
floridense
Plasm
odium
m
exicanum
Plasm
odium
gallinaceum
Plasm
odium
lophurae
Plasm
odium
ovale
Cryptosporidium
parvum
Cryptosporidium
wrairi
Cryptosporidium
baileyi
Cryptosporidium
m
uris
Cryptosporidium
serpentis
Prorocentrum
em
arginatum
Prorocentrum
arenarium
Prorocentrum
lim
a
Prorocentrum
m
aculosum
Prorocentrum
concavum
Alexandrium
tam
arense
Alexandrium
fundyense
Alexandrium
m
inutum
Alexandrium
ostenfeldii
Alexandrium
m
argalefeii
Pyrocystis noctiluca
Fragilidium
subglobosum
Ceratocorys horrida
Ceratium
tenue
Ceratium
fusus
Am
phidinium
belauense
G
onyaulax spinifera
Crypthecodinium
cohnii
G
ym
nodinium
beii
G
ym
nodinium
sim
plex
Sym
biodinium
corculorum
Sym
biodinium
m
eandrinae
Sym
biodinium
pilosum
Sym
biodinium
m
icroadriaticum
G
loeodinium
viscum
Prorocentrum
panam
ensis
G
ym
nodinium
fuscum
Lepidodinium
viride
G
ym
nodinium
catenatum
G
yrodinium
im
pudicum
C
achonina hallii
Heterocapsa triquetra
G
ym
nodinium
sanguineum
Scrippsiella nutricula
Prorocentrum
m
icans
Prorocentrum
m
exicanum
Prorocentrum
m
inim
um
Pentapharsodinium
tyrrhenicum
G
ym
nodinium
m
ikim
otoi
Cryptoperidonopis brodyi
Pfiesteria piscicida
Am
yloodinium
ocellatum
N
octiluca scintillans
Perkinsus m
arinus
G
ym
nochlora stellata
Lotharella vacuolata
C
hlorarachnion C
C
M
P242
R
hinom
onas pauca
Storeatula m
ajor
R
hodom
onas abbreviata
R
hodom
onas salina
Rhodom
onas m
ariana
C
ryptom
onas C
C
M
P325
G
em
inigera cryophila
Kom
m
a caudata
C
hilom
onas param
ecium
Am
m
onia beccarii
Sorites orbiculus
Entam
oeba dispar
Entam
oeba histolytica
Entam
oeba gingivalis
Lotharella globosa
C
hlorarachnion reptans
Pedinom
onas m
inutissim
a
U
nnam
ed chlorarachniophyte C
C
M
P
U
nnam
ed chlorarachniophyte
D
ictyostelium
discoideum
Physarum
polycephalum
Trypanosom
a boissoni
Trypanosom
a triglae
Trypanosom
a rotatorium
Trypanosom
a therezieni
Trypanosom
a m
ega
Trypanosom
a scelopori
Trypanosom
a varani
Trypanosom
a avium
Trypanosom
a bennetti
Trypanosom
a theileri
Trypanosom
a grayi
Trypanosom
a m
usculi
Trypanosom
a lew
isi
Trypanosom
a m
icroti
Trypanosom
a cruzi
Trypanosom
a rangeli
Trypanosom
a vespertilionis
Trypanosom
a pestanai
Trypanosom
a congolense
Trypanosom
a sim
iae
Trypanosom
a evansi
Trypanosom
a equiperdum
Trypanosom
a brucei
B
lastocrithidia culicis
C
rithidia oncopelti
H
erpetom
onas roitm
ani
P
hytom
onas serpens
H
erpetom
onas m
ariadeanei
Leishm
ania guyanensis
Leishm
ania tarentolae
E
ndotrypanum
m
onterogeii
Leishm
ania m
ajor
Leishm
ania am
azonensis
Leishm
ania donovani
C
rithidia fasciculata
H
erpetom
onas m
uscarum
H
erpetom
onas m
egaseliae
H
erpetom
onas sam
uelpessoai
B
odo caudatus
Trypanoplasm
a borreli
R
hynchobodo U
67183
D
im
astigella trypaniform
is
Petalom
onas cantuscygni
Peranem
a trichophorum
K
haw
kinea quartana
Lepocinclis ovum
Lepocinclis ovata
E
uglena gracilis
H
exam
ita inflata
Trepom
onas agilis
S
pironucleus m
uris
G
iardia ardeae
G
iardia m
icroti
G
iardia intestinalis
G
iardia duodenalis
G
iardia lam
blia
G
iardia m
uris
N
osem
a necatrix
Vairim
orpha necatrix
N
osem
a oulem
ae
N
osem
a vespula
N
osem
a ceranae
N
osem
a apis
N
osem
a trichoplusiae
N
osem
a bom
bycis
N
osem
a furnacalis
E
ncephalitozoon hellem
E
ncephalitozoon cuniculi
S
eptata intestinalis
E
nterocytozoon bieneusi
E
nterocytozoon salm
onis
V
ittaform
a corneae
E
ndoreticulatus schubergi
A
m
eson m
ichaelis
G
lugea anom
ala
G
lugea stephani
G
lugea atherinae
P
leistophora anguillarum
Vavraia oncoperae
S
praguea lophii
G
lugea am
ericanus
V
isvesvaria acridophagus
V
isvesvaria algerae
C
ulicosporella lunata
A
m
blyospora stim
uli
E
dhazardia aedis
A
m
blyospora californica
P
arathelohania anophelis
A
ntonospora scoticae
Protists
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You are here
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Nosotros estamos
aqu
Evolucin, complejidad y adaptacin
El Arbol Filogentico
Sistemas nerviosos en Medusas y en
Hydras: ~680.000.000 aos?
Redes neurales basi-epidrmicas:
!
simetra radial
!
red distribuda o difusa
!
comportamiento multicelular coordinado
!
locomocin e ingesta
!
primeras diferenciaciones...
Sistema nervioso en artrpodos: ~550.000.000
aos?
Recurring Ethanol Exposure Induces Disinhibited
Courtship in Drosophila
Hyun-Gwan Lee
1
, Young-Cho Kim
2
, Jennifer S. Dunning
3
, Kyung-An Han
1,2
*
1 Department of Biology, Huck Institute Genetics Graduate Program, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of
America, 2 Department of Biology, Huck Institute Neuroscience Graduate Program, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania,
United States of America, 3 Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
Alcohol has a strong causal relationship with sexual arousal and disinhibited sexual behavior in humans; however, the
physiological support for this notion is largely lacking and thus a suitable animal model to address this issue is instrumental.
We investigated the effect of ethanol on sexual behavior in Drosophila. Wild-type males typically court females but not males;
however, upon daily administration of ethanol, they exhibited active intermale courtship, which represents a novel type of
behavioral disinhibition. The ethanol-treated males also developed behavioral sensitization, a form of plasticity associated
with addiction, since their intermale courtship activity was progressively increased with additional ethanol experience. We
identified three components crucial for the ethanol-induced courtship disinhibition: the transcription factor regulating male
sex behavior Fruitless, the ABC guanine/tryptophan transporter White and the neuromodulator dopamine. fruitless mutant
males normally display conspicuous intermale courtship; however, their courtship activity was not enhanced under ethanol.
Likewise, white males showed negligible ethanol-induced intermale courtship, which was not only reinstated but also
augmented by transgenic White expression. Moreover, inhibition of dopamine neurotransmission during ethanol exposure
dramatically decreased ethanol-induced intermale courtship. Chronic ethanol exposure also affected a males sexual behavior
toward females: it enhanced sexual arousal but reduced sexual performance. These findings provide novel insights into the
physiological effects of ethanol on sexual behavior and behavioral plasticity.
Citation: Lee H-G, Kim Y-C, Dunning JS, Han K-A (2008) Recurring Ethanol Exposure Induces Disinhibited Courtship in Drosophila. PLoS ONE 3(1):
e1391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001391
INTRODUCTION
Ethanol acts on multiple neural systems to produce diverse
behavioral responses [13]. At low doses, ethanol induces euphoria
and disinhibition whereas excessive consumption causes loss of
motor control, sedation and sometimes fatality. A prominent
euphoric response associated with ethanol in humans is sexual
arousal. The enhanced arousal, in combination with the negative
effect of ethanol on cognition, is believed to cause disinhibited sexual
behavior, which possibly underlies risky sexual behavior such as
unprotected sex and assaults associated with drinking [46]. The
ethanol-associated sexual behavior appears to be due to expectancy
(outcome based on learned anticipation) as well as pharmacological
effects [5]; however, physiological evidence is lacking. Animal studies
investigating ethanols effects on sexual behavior have mainly
focused on sexual performance, in which ethanol negatively affects
copulatory behavior [7,8]. Nonetheless, two studies specifically
explored ethanols effect on sexual motivation or arousal in male rats,
but their findings are inconsistent [7,9]. Therefore, the physiological
underpinning of ethanols effect on sexual arousal and disinhibition
needs to be resolved.
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which offers vast genetic
resources, tools and databases, is an excellent model to investigate
the physiological mechanisms underlying behavior and has been
adopted for studying addictive substances such as alcohol, cocaine,
and methamphetamine [1012]. Ethanol is naturally present in
fermented fruits and cereals where fruit flies are usually found. Upon
exposure to ethanol vapor, flies show increased locomotor activities
and sedation [11]. Moreover, flies develop tolerance to the sedative
effect of ethanol after a single exposure to high concentrations of
ethanol or after a prolonged exposure to lowconcentrations, which is
mediated by adaptive changes in brain activities [13,14]. These
biphasic and adaptive responses of flies to ethanol are strikingly
similar to those of rodents and humans. This implies that ethanol
affects the fly and mammalian nervous systems in a similar manner.
In this study, we have explored whether recurring ethanol
experience elicits behavioral changes in Drosophila. We report here
that Drosophila males, upon repeated exposure to ethanol, not only
developed tolerance to the sedative effect, but they also displayed
active intermale courtship and behavioral sensitization to this effect.
Moreover, the neural factor regulating male sexual behavior
Fruitless
M
(Fru
M
), the ABC guanine/tryptophan transporter White
and the neuromodulator dopamine were crucial in the ethanol-
induced courtship disinhibition.
RESULTS
Tolerance development to the sedative effect of
ethanol
To investigate adaptive behavior associated with recurring
exposure to ethanol, we developed a novel apparatus Flypub.
Flypub is made of a plastic chamber with a clear ceiling for
videotaping behavior and an open bottom for administering
ethanol. We exposed fully mature (4 to 5 day-old) wild-type
Academic Editor: Wim Crusio, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
France
Received October 2, 2007; Accepted December 7, 2007; Published January 2,
2008
Copyright: 2008 Lee et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author
and source are credited.
Funding: This work was supported by NIH HD048766 and NSF IOB-0620056
grants to K-AH and NIH GM07838, in which K-AH is Co-PI.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests
exist.
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: kxh29@psu.edu
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 January 2008 | Issue 1 | e1391
Pero... qu hay de humano en el cerebro
humano?
Pero... qu hay de humano en el cerebro
humano?
La evolucin del cerebro en primates
One cannot understand human brain
specializations simply by studying humans
Preuss, 2000

Evolution of the human mind, C. C. Sherwood et al.
2008 The Authors
Journal compilation 2008 Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland

440

allometric scaling for body mass (Fig. 2a) (Holloway & Post,
1982; Martin, 1990). Fossil evidence indicates that in the
hominin lineage since the LCA there have been periods of
gradual increases in cranial capacity that were occasionally
accompanied by increases in body mass. However, starting
at about 1.8 Ma, beginning with

Homo erectus

, brain
expansion in hominins occurred at a much more rapid pace
(Holloway et al. 2004).
Recent progress has been made in identifying possible
genetic mechanisms underlying the expansion of the neo-
cortex in human evolution (Bradley, 2008). Several genes
that are known to participate in regulating the dynamics
of proliferation and programmed death of cerebral pre-
cursor cells show evidence of positive selection in the
hominin clade since the LCA (Evans et al. 2004; Gilbert
et al. 2005; Vallender & Lahn, 2006). These putative
changes in the division, differentiation, and migration of
cerebral progenitor cells might explain why the modern
human brain growth trajectory deviates from the pattern
typical of most primates. While the neonatal brain in

Homo sapiens

makes up only about 27% of its adult size,
other primates have relatively more mature brains at birth
newborn macaque brains are approximately 70% of
adult size and newborn chimpanzee brains are 36% of
adult size (Martin, 1983; Robson & Wood, 2008). At the
time of birth, human brains are already about two times
larger than great ape brains (Martin, 1983; Robson &
Wood, 2008). Subsequently, postnatal brain growth in
humans continues at its fetal rate through the first year,
whereas in other primates, brain growth rates decrease
shortly after birth (Fig. 2b) (Leigh, 2004). This unique
human brain growth schedule is critical to achieving a high
level of encephalization in the face of the obstetric con-
straints associated with pelvic adaptations for bipedality
and provides a richer set of social and environmental stimuli
to the developing infant while the brains connections
are still highly malleable. In this context, it is notable that
the onset of joint attention in human infants occurs within
this critical first year of life, providing the opportunity for
intensive social facilitation of learning to influence syn-
apse establishment during this period.
Across mammals, as overall brain size enlarges, various
parts do not increase at the same rate. Because of the
particularly steep allometric scaling slope of the neocortex
relative to other brain parts, larger brains become com-
prised of progressively more neocortex (Finlay & Darlington,
1995). Going even beyond this general trend, the human
neocortex (including both gray and white matter) exceeds
predictions for a hominoid of the same total brain size
(Rilling, 2006). Thus, brain size enlargement in human
evolution might have led to a greater degree of functional
neocorticalization, with this structure taking on more
direct influence of other brain regions, allowing for greater
voluntary control over actions (Deacon, 1997; Striedter,
2005). There is some evidence to support this hypothesis.
Firstly, as overall brain size increases in primates, a larger
proportion of the brainstem becomes occupied by structures
related to or receiving descending neocortical projections,
such as the pyramidal tract, red nucleus, and pontine
nuclei (Tilney, 1928). Second, tracing studies have shown
that neocortical axons form synapses directly onto moto-
neurons of the vocal folds in the nucleus ambiguus only in
humans (Kuypers, 1958a; Iwatsubo et al. 1990), but not
other primates (Kuypers, 1958b; Simonyan & Jrgens,
2003). Accordingly, functional MRI studies in humans have
demonstrated the existence of an expanded representa-
tion of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx located in the
dorsal precental gyrus adjacent to the representation of
Fig. 2 Allometric scaling plot of brain mass versus body mass in 86 species of primates based on Holloway (1996), with bonobo data from Rilling &
Insel (1999), showing the least squares regression line fit to the non-human data (a). Modern humans have brains that are approximately three times
larger than would be predicted for a primate of the same body mass. Brain growth trajectories in modern humans and chimpanzees in the first 20 years
of life, modified from data in Leigh (2004) (b). The dashed line indicates the end of the first postnatal year.
Somos bien cabezonas y cabezones

Evolution of the human mind, C. C. Sherwood et al.
2008 The Authors
Journal compilation 2008 Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland

440

allometric scaling for body mass (Fig. 2a) (Holloway & Post,
1982; Martin, 1990). Fossil evidence indicates that in the
hominin lineage since the LCA there have been periods of
gradual increases in cranial capacity that were occasionally
accompanied by increases in body mass. However, starting
at about 1.8 Ma, beginning with

Homo erectus

, brain
expansion in hominins occurred at a much more rapid pace
(Holloway et al. 2004).
Recent progress has been made in identifying possible
genetic mechanisms underlying the expansion of the neo-
cortex in human evolution (Bradley, 2008). Several genes
that are known to participate in regulating the dynamics
of proliferation and programmed death of cerebral pre-
cursor cells show evidence of positive selection in the
hominin clade since the LCA (Evans et al. 2004; Gilbert
et al. 2005; Vallender & Lahn, 2006). These putative
changes in the division, differentiation, and migration of
cerebral progenitor cells might explain why the modern
human brain growth trajectory deviates from the pattern
typical of most primates. While the neonatal brain in

Homo sapiens

makes up only about 27% of its adult size,
other primates have relatively more mature brains at birth
newborn macaque brains are approximately 70% of
adult size and newborn chimpanzee brains are 36% of
adult size (Martin, 1983; Robson & Wood, 2008). At the
time of birth, human brains are already about two times
larger than great ape brains (Martin, 1983; Robson &
Wood, 2008). Subsequently, postnatal brain growth in
humans continues at its fetal rate through the first year,
whereas in other primates, brain growth rates decrease
shortly after birth (Fig. 2b) (Leigh, 2004). This unique
human brain growth schedule is critical to achieving a high
level of encephalization in the face of the obstetric con-
straints associated with pelvic adaptations for bipedality
and provides a richer set of social and environmental stimuli
to the developing infant while the brains connections
are still highly malleable. In this context, it is notable that
the onset of joint attention in human infants occurs within
this critical first year of life, providing the opportunity for
intensive social facilitation of learning to influence syn-
apse establishment during this period.
Across mammals, as overall brain size enlarges, various
parts do not increase at the same rate. Because of the
particularly steep allometric scaling slope of the neocortex
relative to other brain parts, larger brains become com-
prised of progressively more neocortex (Finlay & Darlington,
1995). Going even beyond this general trend, the human
neocortex (including both gray and white matter) exceeds
predictions for a hominoid of the same total brain size
(Rilling, 2006). Thus, brain size enlargement in human
evolution might have led to a greater degree of functional
neocorticalization, with this structure taking on more
direct influence of other brain regions, allowing for greater
voluntary control over actions (Deacon, 1997; Striedter,
2005). There is some evidence to support this hypothesis.
Firstly, as overall brain size increases in primates, a larger
proportion of the brainstem becomes occupied by structures
related to or receiving descending neocortical projections,
such as the pyramidal tract, red nucleus, and pontine
nuclei (Tilney, 1928). Second, tracing studies have shown
that neocortical axons form synapses directly onto moto-
neurons of the vocal folds in the nucleus ambiguus only in
humans (Kuypers, 1958a; Iwatsubo et al. 1990), but not
other primates (Kuypers, 1958b; Simonyan & Jrgens,
2003). Accordingly, functional MRI studies in humans have
demonstrated the existence of an expanded representa-
tion of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx located in the
dorsal precental gyrus adjacent to the representation of
Fig. 2 Allometric scaling plot of brain mass versus body mass in 86 species of primates based on Holloway (1996), with bonobo data from Rilling &
Insel (1999), showing the least squares regression line fit to the non-human data (a). Modern humans have brains that are approximately three times
larger than would be predicted for a primate of the same body mass. Brain growth trajectories in modern humans and chimpanzees in the first 20 years
of life, modified from data in Leigh (2004) (b). The dashed line indicates the end of the first postnatal year.

Como cuidamos nuestro cerebro entonces?