Electrical Engineering Electrodynamics Lecture

Prof. Dr.-Ing. A.
Siggelkow
Electrical Engineering -
Electrodynamics
Hochschule Ravensburg-Weingarten
2
Contents
1 Repetition and Mathematical Basics 9
1.1 Structure of Matter, Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.1 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.3 Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.7 Effects of Electrical Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Strength of Current, Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Preliminary Remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Strength of Electrical Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Current Density J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Voltage and Electrical Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Electric Field Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.2 Electric Work through Movement in a Electric Field . . . 14
1.4 Fields in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 The Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 The Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.3 The Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Sources and Sinks - Cause of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.1 Source Fields - Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.2 Source Fields - Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.3 Expressing Source Fields by Gradients . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Eddy Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.2 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.3 Curl or Eddy-Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6.4 Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.5 Step-Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3
4 CONTENTS
1.6.6 Absence of Sources in Eddy-Fields - Absence of Eddies
in Source-Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.7 Path Independence of Eddy-Free Fields . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Electrostatic Field 35
2.1 Charge & Force: Basics, Experiments, Coulombs Law . . . . . . 36
2.1.1 Thoughts and Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.2 Coulombs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.3 Force between two Point Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.4 Force between two Plate Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Field Strength: Electrostatics without Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.1 Electrostatic Field of a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Field of an Arbitrary Charge Distribution - Charge Density 43
2.3 Field Strength: Induction, Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Field Strength: Field of Electrically Conducting Bodies . . . . . . 47
2.5 Voltage & Potential: Denition Voltage and Potential . . . . . . . 50
2.6 Electric Displacement Field/Electric Flux Density . . . . . . . . . 56
2.7 Sources in Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.8 Electrostatic Electric Field - Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9 Electric Flux and Electric Hull Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.10 Electrostatic Fields are Eddy-Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.11 Laplace and Poisson Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.12 Solution of Poissons Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.13 Capacity of a Plate Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.14 Point Charge, Spherical Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.14.1 Field Distribution Around a Point Charge (or Sphere) . . . 73
2.14.2 Potential Around a Point Charge (or Sphere) . . . . . . . 74
2.14.3 Capacity of a Sphere Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.15 Line Charge, Cylindrical Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.15.1 Capacity of a Parallel Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.16 Parallel- and Serial Connection of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.16.1 Parallel Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.16.2 Serial Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.17 Interrelation between Current, Voltage and Capacity . . . . . . . . 83
2.18 Energy of a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3 Magnetic Field 87
3.1 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1.1 Units and Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1.2 Magnetostatic - Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2 Magnetism - Action of Force in a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . 88
CONTENTS 5
3.2.1 Magnetic Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.2 Magnetic Effect on Metalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.3 Theory des Molecular Magnetism (Simplied) . . . . . . 89
3.2.4 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3 Magnetism in Electric Conductor - Amperes Circuital Law . . . . 91
3.3.1 Amperes Circuital Law (Der Durchutungssatz) . . . . . 93
3.3.2 Example: Field Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4 Magnetic Flux Density and Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5 Matter inside the Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6 Magnetic Field at Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.7 Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.7.1 Unbranched Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.7.2 Branched Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.8 Force in Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8.1 Field between Magnetic Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8.2 Force on a Conductor with Current Flow . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8.3 Force between two Conductors with Current Flow . . . . 127
4 Stationary Electrical Flow Field 133
4.1 Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.1.1 New Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.1.2 Current at Angular Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2 Ohms Law in Electrical Flow Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5 Induction 141
5.1 Induction Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1.1 Induction by Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1.2 Induction by Time-Variant Fields (Magnetic Flux) . . . . 145
5.1.3 Generation of Sinusoidal Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2 Eddy-Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2.1 Movement of a Metall Plate in a Magnetic Field . . . . . . 155
5.2.2 Eddy-Currents Caused by Flux Variations . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3 Self-Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.3.1 Inductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.2 Series/Parallel-Connection of Inductors . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.4 Mutual-Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.4.1 Current in Inductor 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.4.2 Current in Inductor 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.4.3 Current in Both Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.5 Magnetic Coupling und Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.5.1 Magnetic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6 CONTENTS
5.5.2 Magnetic Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.6 Leakage Free, Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.6.1 Leakage-Free, Loss-Free Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.7 Overview: Stationary Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.8 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.8.1 Maxwells Equations - Other Formulation . . . . . . . . . 178
6 Transformer 181
6.1 General Transformer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.1.1 Loss-Less Transformer with Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.1.2 Loss-Less Transformer without Leakage . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.1.3 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.2 Quadrupole - Equivalent Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.1 T-Equivalent Circuit with Galvanic Coupling . . . . . . . 192
6.2.2 Leakage-Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7 Exercises 203
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.1.1 Current, Current-Density, Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.1.2 Energy, Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2 Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.1 Voltage, Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.2 Electric Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.3 Capacity - Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.4 Capacity - Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.5 Capacity - Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2.6 Connection of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2.7 Force - Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3 Stationary Electrical Flow Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.4 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.1 Magnetic Field at Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.2 Magnetic circuit - unbranched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.3 Magnetic circuit - branched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.4.4 Force in Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8 Anhang 211
8.1 Mathematical Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2Do:
x
CONTENTS 7
df, dA, da vereinheitlichen
x
Solution of Poissons Differential Equations (Kap 2.12) ist leer
x
Aufgaben fuer den verzweigten magnetische Kreis erstellen
x
8 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Repetition and Mathematical Basics
1.1 Structure of Matter, Charges
The origin of some important terms:
Origin of the word Electricity: Bernstein - 585 B.C. - Thales of Milet: Elec-
tried amber (Bernstein) can activate/attract light matter. This was reported
by Thales of Milet (650 - 560 B.C.). His greek word elektron is the source
of todays term Electricity.
Origin of the word Atom: indivisible - 400 B.C. - Demokrit: Demokrit, an
ancient-greek scholar, assumed , that the world consists of indivisible parts
- (greek a-tomos = indivisible) atoms. All attributes of matter can be ex-
plained with the help of attraction and repulsion of this little parts.
1.1.1 Model
Picture of Bors atom model:
Protons and electrons have identical charge (absolute value) with different signs.
This is responsible vor all electrical activity.
9
10 CHAPTER 1. REPETITION AND MATHEMATICAL BASICS
1.1.2 Characteristics
Important characteristics of atoms:
d
Kern
= 10
14
m
d
Atom
= 10
10
10
9
m
m
p
= 1, 6723 10
24
g
m
n
= 1, 6747 10
24
g m
p
m
e
= 9, 108 10
28
g m
p
/1800
Q
e
= e = 1, 602 10
19
C
Q
p
= e = Q
e
Q
n
= 0
Experience says:
Two Equal positive (negative) Charges Repulsion
Two Equal Unlike Charges Attraction
1.1.3 Effect
Effect of charges on the environment:
Static Charge Electrostatic Field
Moved Charge Electro-Magnetic Field
1.1.4 Carrier
Charge Carrier:
free electron: energy supply (heat, light) will release it from the outer elec-
tron shell
positives Ion: Atom (molecule), without a complete electron shell
negatives Ion: Atom (molecule), with an extra electron
1.1.5 Conduction
Conduction:
Metal: free electrons
Gas: electrons and ions
Fluid: ions
Vacuum: electrons
1.2. STRENGTH OF CURRENT, CURRENT DENSITY 11
1.1.6 Conductivity
Conductivity is a function of the number of free electrons and its relocatability.
Conductor: excellent (ca. 10
23
El./cm
3
)
Semiconductor: medium (ca. 10
10
10
14
El./cm
3
)
Insolator: low
Theorem. -:
Generation of Electricity: Separation of charge of different signs.
1.1.7 Effects of Electrical Current
Electrical current or moving charges are not observable by human senses. Only
its effects:
Magnetic Effect: Force on iron or on a current conducting wire - Application:
motors, loudspeaker, deection in a television tube
Heat Effect: caused by electron movement; similar to mechanical friction - Ap-
plication: heaters, light bulbs
Chemical Effect: Ion transport in uids - Application: battry, accumulator
1.2 Strength of Current, Current Density
1.2.1 Preliminary Remark
In 1cm
3
copper are approx. 10
23
atoms, this means:
10
23
not mobile positive ions
10
23
free electrons.
Thought Experiment - electrons in a conductor:
Theorem. -:
Electrical Current: Movement of charges under the inuence of an elec-
tric eld.
1.2.2 Strength of Electrical Current
For direct current (DC):
I =
Q
t
(1.1)
Theorem. -:
The current I is the quantity of charges which ows through an arbitrary
cross-section per time unit.
The units are:
Current[I] = A
Time[t] = s
Charge[Q] = As = C(Coulomb)
The unit C is derived from the (SI) base units. Common denition for moved
charges with arbitrary course/gradient:
i =
dQ
dt
Differential Quotient (1.2)
For piece-wise continuous functions:
i =
Q
t
Difference Quotient
1.2.3 Current Density J
To determine the current density, assumptions of a homogeneous current/stream
and a orthogonal cross-section A will be made.
J =
I
A
(1.3)
Current Density:
1.3. VOLTAGE AND ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL 13
The units:
Current[I] = A
Cross-section area[F] = m
2
Current Density[J] =
A
m
2
Known values in electrical machines are J = 2, 5 6
A
mm
2
.
1.3 Voltage and Electrical Potential
1.3.1 Electric Field Strength
Theorem. -:
Denition of the electric eld strength: The electric eld strength will
be dened due to the force on a electric charge.
E =
F
Q
(1.4)
There are:
E,

F Vectors with magnitude and direction
Q Scalar (just a number; without direction)
for Q > 0 Directions

E and

F equal
for Q < 0 Directions

E and

F opposite.
1.3.2 Electric Work through Movement in a Electric Field
The necessary energy, to bring the charge +Q from P1 to P2 is:
W = W
12
= W
2
W
1
= Q E (s
2
s
1
) = Q E s
12
Voltage:
W
Q
= E s = U
12
(1.5)
Equation 1.5 is the denition of the electric potential: ...
Theorem. -: The voltage U
12
between the points 1 and 2 is the work/energy, which
must be/can be spend/get from the movement from 1 to 2 per unit charge.
For the general case,
Gradient of the electric eld is arbitrary

E(x, y, z), not homogenous
Way s from point 1 to point 2 is arbitrary
results in the following equation:
Voltage:
U
12
=
_
2
1
ds (1.6)
Theorem. -: Denition Electrical Potential:
The potential of a spacial point is the voltage between the point and
an arbitrary reference point, which will be given the potential = 0
(e.g. earth).
Theorem. -:
The voltage is the difference of two potentials.
1.4. FIELDS IN GENERAL 15
1.4 Fields in General
The topics presented here will all be taken and translated from [Strassacker, 1984]
and [Schwab, 1985].
Before Faraday, physicists (Ampere, Biot, Savart) postulated the so called
action at a distance-theory. This says, that electrically charged or magnetised
bodies affect their counterparts over a distance without inuencing the space in
between.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) introduces lines of force as a notion of eld.
He stated, that the lines of force between electrically charged or magnetised bodies
transforms the space into a special state. The notion lines of force has been
chosen because of the observed effects of force between those bodies. Today, the
term lines of force has been replaced by eld lines. The density tells us how
much the space in between those bodies will be in the modied state.
James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879) founded theoretically the electromagnetic
eld theory. It is a macroscopic theory and states, that light and electromagnetic
waves will be of the same principle.
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) proved experimentally the existence of electro-
magnetic waves.
Ampere, Biot, Savart
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879)
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894)
1.4.1 The Scalar Field
If a scalar quantity, e.g. temperature in a room, changes with the position, is this
called a scalar eld. It can be described as a function of position, T = T(x, y, z).
Other examples are air humidity, air pressure.
If within this scalar eld, lines or planes of equal values could be found, this
will be called equipotential lines or equipotential planes.
T = T(x, y, z)
equipotential lines
equipotential planes
Figure 1.1: Field Lines
Figure 1.2: Field Line
1.4.2 The Vector Field
In summer, a corneld could indicate the wind. There is a direction and an idea
of the strength. This will be described by a vector eld v.
An example of eld lines could be seen in gure 1.1. It is a connection of
the tangents of the vector eld at every point of the space. It gives an idea of the
direction and of the eld strength (drawing density of the lines).
In the following general description of vector elds, the small letter u will be
used. It has nothing to do with the voltage. The eld vector u and the line element
ds of the corresponding eld line fullll the condition u

ds = 0 (u parallel

ds)
at every point on the eld line (gure 1.2).
vector eld v
idea of the direction and of the eld strength
1.4. FIELDS IN GENERAL 17
Figure 1.3: Velocity Distribution in a Cross-Section of a pipe
1.4.3 The Flux
The ux can be described by means of a laminar uid ow through a pipe (gure
1.3). In the middle of the pipe is the magnitude of the velocity maximal (speed is
a scalar, velocity is a vector). At the wall is nearly |v| = 0, because of the friction
between wall and uid.
One can dene a quantity called ux with = v
f. Here are f rings

with a constant v.
Flux / Flu:
=
__
vd
f =
volume
time
(1.7)
The result is a scalar quantity - the ux.
Also, if the ux has nothing to do with matter, the denition holds:
=
__
ud
f =
__
undf (1.8)
n: Normal vector on the area element df / Normalenvektor des Fl achenelements
df
d
f = ndf: Vector of the area element df / Vektor des Fl achenelements df

The relations of the normal vector on the area element and the vector is illustrated
in gure 1.4.
d
f = ndf is the area element of the area f, which is penetrated by the vector
eld u. The ux to be calculated penetrates this area. This area will be limited by
a boundary curve s (right-hand oriented).
Some examples from electrical engineering:
=
__

Bd
f =
__

Bndf; B is the magnetic ux density
=
__

Dd
f =
__

Dndf; D is the electric ux density
I =
__

Jd
f =
__

Jndf; J is the current density
Figure 1.4: Denition of Flux (area element, boundary curve)
Figure 1.5: Electric Field Between Two Bodies
1.5 Sources and Sinks - Cause of a Field
One can differentiate between source elds and eddy elds. First, the source
elds will be described.
source elds
eddy elds
1.5.1 Source Fields - Principle
Origins are charged particles like electrons and ions which are singular or quasi
continuous distributed (space-charge density). The point is: the charges must be
separated in positive and negative ones.
If there are two charged bodies, the electric eld starts at the positive charged
side and ends at the negative charged surface (gure 1.5). This is called a source
eld.
If there is no counter-charge in the neighbourhood and the charge is called
positive, a spherical-symmetric source eld could be observed (gure 1.6).
1.5. SOURCES AND SINKS - CAUSE OF A FIELD 19
Figure 1.6: Sphere with Positive Charge (Surplus) - Source
Figure 1.7: Sphere with Negative Charge (Surplus) - Sink
If there is no counter-charge in the neighbourhood and the charge is called
negative, a spherical-symmetric source eld could be observed (gure 1.7). But
the charged body is called a sink.
So, positive charges are the starting point or the source and negative charges
are the ending point or the sink of a electric source eld.
A more complicated eld could be seen in gure 1.8.
1.5.2 Source Fields - Math
Yield
The vector eld u denes a ux by means of an area integral
=
__
u d
f
This area will be chosen as a closed area, a hull, f
H
, which surrounds the volume
v. The hull will be penetrated by the vector eld u. The normal vector of the area
Figure 1.8: Source Field with Three Charged Spheres
Figure 1.9: Positive and Negative Flux Contributions
n points outwards. So, the area element is:
d
f = n df
All eld lines which points outwards contribute positive to the ux, all eld
lines which points into the hull contribute negative to the ux. Field lines pointing
tangential to the surface will not contribute to the ux - with ud
f follows ud
f =
0 (gure 1.9).
All vectors u pointing out of the hull contribute positive to the hull ux
__
ud
f > 0 (gure 1.10). There must be at least one source inside the hull - the
yield is positive.
All vectors u pointing into the hull contribute negative to the hull ux
__
ud
f <
0 (gure 1.11). There must be at least one sink inside the hull - the yield is nega-
tive.
Normally, both will happen, there are sources an sinks inside the hull (gure
Figure 1.10: Positive Hull-Flux - all ud
f > 0
Figure 1.11: Negative Hull-Flux - all ud
f < 0
1.12).
The hull ux, also called the yield, is:
Yield / Ergiebigkeit, H ullenu:
H
=
__
f
H
u d
f (1.9)
If equation 1.9 is positive, there will be more sources inside the hull, if it is nega-
Figure 1.12: Volume with Possible Sources and Sinks within f
H
Figure 1.13: Charged Metall Sphere / Geladene Metallkugel
tive, more sinks are inside. If it is zero, there will be either no sinks and sources
inside or the magnitudes of the sources and sinks will be equal.
Ex. 1.5.1. A metal sphere with radius r
0
is charged positive with +Q. The charge
is equal distributed over the surface. This results in the charge density
=
Q
4r
2
0
For r r
0
, the vectors of the electric ux density
D =
Q
4r
2
e
r
and the electric eld strength
E =
=
D
e
r
are pointing radial outwards (gure 1.13).
The yield at the radius r > r
0
is
__
f
H
D d
f =
__
f
H
Q e
r
4r
2
df e
r
with e
r
e
r
= 1
=
Q
4r
2

__
f
H
df =
Q
4r
2
4r
2
= +Q
The yield is equal to the surrounded charge.
Divergence or Source Strength
The yield is an integral statement. But one can not know where inside the hull
(within the volume) the source (or sink) will be located.
To get more insight, the volume could be made smaller and smaller - a limiting
process. At the end a division by this small volume element is needed. The result
is the yield per volume element or also called, the divergence.
lim
vdv
1
v

__
f
H
u d
f = div u
It is an scalar and could be calculated in cartesian coordinates:
div u =

u =
u
x
x
+
u
y
y
+
u
z
z
(1.10)
u = u
x
e
x
+ u
y
e
y
+ u
z
e
z
For further formulas and the respective formulas in other coordinate systems see
sections 8.1, 8.1 and 8.1.
Theorem. The divergence or the source strength of a vector eld u is the yield of
a volume element related to it.
Ex. 1.5.2. Given is a linear polarised vector eld u,
u = u
x
(x, y, z)e
x
+ 0e
y
+ 0e
z
=
_
_
u
x
(x, y, z)
0
0
_
_
.
Calculate the source strength (divergence) in general.
Calculate the source strength (divergence) for u
x
(x) = 2x.
This results in the source strength
div u =

u =
u
x
x
+ 0 + 0
If the divergence should be non-zero, the component u
x
must change in di-
rection of e
x
. E.g., u
x
= 2x div u = 2 > 0.
Ex. 1.5.3. In the environment of long cylindrical cathode is a constant density
of volume charge =
Q
v
.
div

D = = const.
It is assumed, that this constant density of volume charge exists between r
0
r
r
1
.
Calculate

D within this spacial sector.
It is a cylindrical coordinate system, so
div

D =
1
r
(rD
r
)
r
+
1
r
D
+
D
z
z
Because of symmetry reasons, is
D
= 0 and also, if the cylinder is long,

D
z
z
= 0. It remains
div

D =
1
r
(rD
r
)
r
So,
= const. =
1
r
(rD
r
)
r
rD
r
=
r
_
r
0
rdr =
_
r
2
2
_
r
r
0
D
r
(r) =

2
_
r
r
2
0
r
_
Ex. 1.5.4. There is a vector function
f(x, y, z) =
_
_
xy
xz
x
2
y z
2
_
_
= xye
x
+ xze
y
+ x
2
y z
2
e
z
Calculate the divergence of

f.
Calculate the divergence of

f for the point r = (1, 2, 3)
T
.
div
_
_
xy
xz
x
2
y z
2
_
_
=

f =
_
_
z
_
_
_
_
xy
xz
x
2
y z
2
_
_
=
(xy)
x
+
(xz)
y
+
(x
2
y z
2
)
z
= y +0+x
2
y 2z
y + 0 + x
2
y 2z = 2 + 0 + (1)
2
2 2 3 = 14
Gausss Theorem - Divergence Theorem
The source strength or the divergence div u is according the denition the yield
of a volume element related to it. This could be multiplied with dv and summed
up (integrated) over all volume elements, the result is the yield.
yield =
___
div u dv
On the other side is the denition of the yield (equation 1.9):
yield =
__
f
H
u d
f
So, it is
Gausss theorem / Satz von Gau:
___
div u dv =
__
f
H
u d
f (1.11)
Equation 1.11 is Gausss Theorem or the Divergence Theorem. The volume of
the left side is limited by the hull from the right side.
Ex. 1.5.5. There are no single sources of a magnetic eld, north-pole and south-
pole will always be a pair and tightly coupled. So, the source strength of the
magnetic eld is zero, means div
B = 0. Apply this with the Gaussian Law.

Figure 1.14: Separation Plane with Area-Distributed Sources / Trenn ache mit
Fl achenladungsdichte
___
div
Bdv =
__

B d
___
0dv =
__

B d
f
0 =
__

B d
f
Ex. 1.5.6. tbd.
Step-Divergence
If there are sources (thin, area-distributed) on a separation plane between two
different matters, the normal component u
n
of a eld vector u will change rapidly
(step-function). An example could a charge distributed on a metal surface - the
density of area charge (gure 1.14). The shown vectors and components of it
are valid in the very small neighbourhood of the separation plane.
It could be seen, that
u
2n
= u
1n
+
The differentiation in the divergence operator will only be dened if the func-
tion is continuous. This is not the case here. But distributions theory delivers:
Step-Divergence / Sprungdivergenz:
Div u = n
12
(u
2
u
1
) = u
2n
u
1n
(1.12)
This is called the Step-Divergence.
Ex. 1.5.7. It is the same gure as shown in gure 1.14. The general eld vector
u will be replaced by

D. The general sources are charges distributed over the
separation plane = Q/f. The incident displacement density is

D
1
, the emerging
D
2
. It is D
2n
> D
1n
. So,
Div

D = D
2n
D
1n
= D
1n
+ D
1n
=
1.5.3 Expressing Source Fields by Gradients
The source elds can also be derived from superordinate potential functions. A
vector eld, source eld, u can be derived from a scalar potential (x, y, z).
Gradient:
u = grad (x, y, z) = (1.13)
=

x
e
x
+

y
e
y
+

z
e
z
=
_
_
z
_
_
(x, y, z) =
_
_
_
(x,y,z)
x
(x,y,z)
y
(x,y,z)
z
_
_
_
=
(x, y, z)
x
e
x
+
(x, y, z)
y
e
y
+
(x, y, z)
z
e
z
For the denition in the respective coordinate systems see sections 8.1, 8.1 and
8.1.
Ex. 1.5.8. For the electrical eld strength
E = grad
The negative sign is given because of historical reasons, the vector direction is
from a higher potential to lower potential.
[] = V, [
E] =
V
m
The vector eld u is always perpendicular to lines or planes with (x, y, z) =
const.
Ex. 1.5.9. A scalar function is f(x, y) = x
2
+y
2
.
Calculate the gradient of f.
Calculate the gradient of f for the point r = (1, 2)
T
.
f(x, y) =
_
(x
2
+y
2
)
x
(x
2
+y
2
)
y
_
=
_
2x
2y
_
_
2x
2y
_
=
_
2 1
2 2
_
=
_
2
4
_
Ex. 1.5.10. A simple linear polarised vector eld u:
u = u
x
e
x
= c e
x
Calculate the potential.
u = grad = c e
x
grad = ce
x
=
_
x
e
x
+

y
e
y
+

z
e
z
_
only with the x-component of the vector, the condition could be fulllled
x
= c (x) = c x +const.
1.6 Eddy Fields
Just from gures, it is hard to decide if a eld is an eddy-eld or a source-eld
(gure 1.15).
So, also here a mathematical background is needed.
1.6. EDDY FIELDS 29
Figure 1.15: Source Field or Eddy Field? / Quellenfeld oder Wirbelfeld?
Figure 1.16: Eddy Field / Wirbelfelder
1.6.1 Basics
Source elds have a beginning and an end, eddy elds have closed eld lines -
without a beginning and without an end. But they have an direction. So, sources
and sinks cannot be the cause of an eddy eld.
In gure 1.16 is an eddy eld illustrated. There is a wire with an current I
owing through it. The current is an integration of the current density

J. The
current density is the cause of an eddy eld around the wire, the magnetic eld
H.
1.6.2 Circulation
The circulation is the counterpart in eddy elds of the yield in source elds.
yield =
__
f
H
u d
f
Circulation / Zirkulation:
circ. =
_
vds = z (1.14)
Figure 1.17: Circulation / Zirkulation
Figure 1.18: Linear Polarised Vector Field / Linear polarisiertes Vektorfeld
It must be proved, whether there is a closed path integral along s (gure 1.17)
not equal to zero.
Ex. 1.6.1. There is a linear polarised eld u (gure 1.18). Calculate the circula-
tion.
_
uds =
B
_
A
u
1
ds +
C
_
B
u
hor
ds +
D
_
C
u
2
ds +
A
_
D
u
hor
ds =
B
_
A
u
1
ds + 0 +
D
_
C
u
2
ds + 0 =
u
1
s
AB
u
2
s
DC
= s
AB
(u
1
u
2
)
1.6. EDDY FIELDS 31
Figure 1.19: Eddy Field u and Cause of it c / Wirbelfeld u mir Ursache c
If along a closed path the integration delivers a value not equal to zero, there
will be eddy elds. The circulation gives information about the strength of the
cause of the eld. E.g. the electric circle voltage (Umlaufspannung)

U =
_

Eds
or the magnetomotive force (magnetische Umlaufspannung) =
_

Hds.
But this is an integral information. Where exactly the eld origin is located,
can not be answered. To get this information, a differential magnifying lens will
be needed.
1.6.3 Curl or Eddy-Strength
It is required to get the circulation around an microscopic area element related to
it. This is the curl (Eddy-Strength, Wirbelst arke) (gure 1.19).
Also here it goes differential:
lim
f0
1
f
_
uds = curl u =c
is the circulation around a small area related to it.
The root cause of the eddy eld u is the vector c. The curl describes the lateral
changes of a vector eld.
Curl / Rotation:
curl u = rot u =

u =c
So, c is the eddy strength of u. For the calculation rules of the curl in the respective
coordinate systems see sections 8.1, 8.1 and 8.1.
Ex. 1.6.2. simple mathematical curl example.
1.6.4 Stokes Theorem
According the previous section is the eddy-strength of a vector eld the curl. But
it could also derived by the circulation around a very small area element related
to it.
So, if the curl will be integrated over all area elements, the circulation could
be calculated. This is Stokes Theorem:
Stokes-Theorem / Stokesscher Satz:
_
uds =
__
curl ud
f (1.15)
Ex. 1.6.3. The magnetic eld around the current density.
_

Hds =
__
curl

Hd
f
_

Hds =
__

Jd
f
Ex. 1.6.4. Review the example with the magnetic eld inside a wire and around a
wire.
1.6.5 Step-Curl
Curl

H = n
12
(
H
2

H
1
) =
j
s
|Curl

H| = H
2t
H
1t
1.6.6 Absence of Sources in Eddy-Fields - Absence of Eddies in
Source-Fields
A mathematical proof delivers:
u = grad
curl u = curl(grad )
= () = () 0
1.6. EDDY FIELDS 33
The eddy-strength of all vector elds u established by the gradient of a potential
(source eld) is zero.
Also for eddy-elds is this in a dual way the case. The source strength of
curl u should be calculated.
div(rot u) (u) = ()u 0
Source-elds u are always eddy-free
Eddy-strength curl u are always source-free
1.6.7 Path Independence of Eddy-Free Fields
Every eddy-free vector eld u is characterised by the differential equation:
curl u = 0 (1.16)
Now, apply the Stokes theorem:
__
curl u d
f =
_
u ds = 0 (1.17)
This proofs the path independence.
Later, we will see, that the electric eld strength, which is eddy-free, is path
independent (generalised mesh-rule):
_

Eds = 0
Chapter 2
Electrostatic Field
Denition of static:
t
= 0 : no changes over time
dW = 0 : no change of energy
div

D = ; Div

D = ; curl

E = 0; Curl

E = 0;
div

B = 0; Div

B = 0; curl

H = 0; Curl

H = 0;
div

J = 0,
__

Jd
f = 0
_

Eds = 0;
__

Dd
f = Q
_

Hds = 0;
__

Bd
f = 0
D =

E, =
0

r
B =

H, =
0

r
The rst two equations are valid for magneto-static and for electro-static. There
are no time-dependencies and so no current, and so no change of the energy.
In the static description, the elds ar not coupled, so the third line has only
electric components and the fourth line is just for magnetic elds.
Units and Denitions: The units are:
_
E
_
=
V
m
_
D
_
=
As
m
2
[] = [
0
] =
As
V m
35
36 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
Figure 2.1: Electrostatic Force/Elektrostatische Kraft ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 2])
_
curl

E
_
=
V
m
2
_
Curl

E
_
=
V
m
_
div

D
_
=
As
m
3
_
Div

D
_
=
As
m
2
= density of volume charge / Ladungsdichte [] =
As
m
3
= density of surface charge / Fl achenladungsdichte [] =
As
m
2
2.1 Charge &Force: Basics, Experiments, Coulombs
Law
2.1.1 Thoughts and Experiments
Experiment 1: Charge and Force -: The electric features of rubbing glas and
hard rubber will be described ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 2], g. 2.1).
(a) Transfer of positive charge from a rubbed glas bar to a metallised ball
(b) repulsion between ball and glas bar
(c) repulsion between two positive charged balls
(d) transfer of negative charge from a rubbed hard rubber to a metallised
ball
(e) repulsion between ball and hard rubber
(f) repulsion between two negative charged balls
(g) attraction between a positive charged ball and a negative charged ball
2.1. CHARGE & FORCE: BASICS, EXPERIMENTS, COULOMBS LAW 37
To describe the experiment, the electric charge will be introduced. Theorem:
Because of rubbing will be positive carge on the glas rod and negative charge on
the hard rubber loaded. With contact, a part of the charge will be transported to
the ball. Result: Charges of different sign attract each other, charges with equal
sign repulse each other.
Experiment 2: Conductor and Non-Conductor -: There is a very big conduc-
tive sphere - much bigger than the speres in g. 2.1c. Furthermore, two bers
exist, one of plasik, the other of metall. If the ber of plastic will make a connec-
tion between the big sphere and one of the two small speres, nothing will happen.
If the ber of metall will make a connection between the big sphere and one of
the two small speres, the observed force between the two small balls dissapears -
discharge of the small sphere.
Conclusion: There exists material, with which charges can be transported -
conductors - and such with which charges can not be transported - non-conductors,
insolator.
If a metall sphere contains the complete charge Q, all charges will distributed
all over the surface of it with equal distances to each other. An density of surface
charge will be dened:
=
Q
4R
2
So, we have three features:
There are conductors and insolators (e.g. air)
with contacting two conductors, charge could be transported/exchanged
charges will distribute uniformly over the metall surface.
With this follows:
If a small charged body will be contacted with a very big conducting body
(earth), the charge will be distributed uniformly all over both surfaces, the
small body will be (almost) discharged (g. left 2.2a,b).
If there are two equal sized metall spheres separated by air, no charge will
be exchanged (g. right 2.2a).
If the two spheres will be contacted, and one has been charged with Q
1
= Q
and the other was uncharged (Q
2
= 0), then both spheres will have, after a
short transient, the same charge of Q/2 each (g. right 2.2b).
After the separation of both spheres, they will have the charges Q
1
= Q/2
and Q
2
= Q/2 (g. right 2.2c).
Figure 2.2: Charge Transport/Ladungsaustausch ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 4])
Figure 2.3: Demonstrate Coulombs Law ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 5])
2.1.2 Coulombs Law
Maesurement of a force between two charges Q
1
and Q
2
with a distance r (g.
2.3, 2.4).
two conducting balls of equal diameter
both spheres in g. 2.3 get the same charge, Q = Q
1
= Q
2
repulsing force F between the spheres
torque D = l F (l: distance ber - sphere)
deection of the rotating pendulum by the angle =
D
k
(k: proportion-
ality constant)
Figure 2.4: Demonstrate Coulombs Law ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 5])
for small angles is: =
d
l
=
S
2L
, d =
Sl
2L
force F =
D
l
=
k
l
=
Sk
2Ll
=
kd
l
2
for small angles is r = r
0
+d
reading of the deections and entry in a table:
F
1
r
2
The charges of the single spheres will be made independent of each other - similar
result: F
Q
1
q
2
r
2
. What is the proportionality constant? 2.5 The radius r is
the distance between the two spheres (g. 2.5) and the proportionality constant is
(sphere)
1
4
0
. So, the force is:
Coulombs Law / Coulombsches Gesetz:
F =
1
4
0
Q
1
Q
2
r
2
(2.1)
Vector formulation: The force

F
21
, with which the charge Q
1
affects the charge
Q
2
:
Figure 2.5: Coulomb Force ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 8])
Coulombs Law - vector form / Coulombsches Gesetz - Vektorform:
F
21
=
1
4
0
Q
1
Q
2
r
2

r =
1
4
0
Q
1
Q
2
|r
2
r
1
|
2

r
2
r
1
|r
2
r
1
| (2.2)
Here is
r the unit vector in direction of r.
0
is the Vacuum permittivity.
0
= 8, 854 10
12
C
2
m
2
N
(2.3)
2.1.3 Force between two Point Charges
Force on Q2:

F
2
= Q
2

E
1
Force on Q1:

F
1
= Q
1

E
2
Field of a point charge: E =
Q
4r
2
Magnitude of the force (2): F
2
= Q
2
Q
1
4r
2
Magnitude of the force (1): F
1
= Q
1
Q
2
4r
2
... and this force is called ... Coulombs Law:
Coulombs Law:
F =
Q
1
Q
2
4 r
2
(2.4)
The charges attract each other with not equal signs, reject each other with equal
signs. This dependency was discovered 1785 by the French physicist Coulomb.
2.1.4 Force between two Plate Electrodes
Ex. 2.1.1. Calculate the force between the electrodes of a plate capacitor. Use
the change of the energy in the capacitor while applying mechanical energy to it.
Q = C U U =
Q
C
W =
1
2
C U
2
=
1
2
C
Q
2
C
2
=
1
2

Q
2
C
Assume: Q is constant:
mechanical energy because of the movement along ds:
dW = F ds F =
dW
ds
=
d
_
Q
2
2C(s)
_
ds
=
1
2
Q
2
d
_
1
C(s)
_
ds
Now it is C(s) =
A
s
F =
Q
2
2
d
_
s
A
_
ds
=
Q
2
2A

ds
ds
=
Q
2
2A
with Q = C U
F =
C
2
U
2
2A
=
(A)
2
U
2
d
2
2A
=
A
2d
2
U
2
Ex. 2.1.2. Calculate the force between the plate electrodes of a capacitor, which
is charged to 500V . The plates have a area of 1m
2
and a distance of 1mm, the
dielectric is air.
F =
A
2d
2
U
2
F =
500
2
V
2
8, 85 10
12
As 1m
2
2 V m 10
6
m
2
= 1, 1
Ws
m
= 1, 1N
2.2 Field Strength: Electrostatics without Matter
2.2.1 Electrostatic Field of a Point Charge
Charge Q in the origin of a coordinate system:
non-movable
no spacial width - point charge
a second, agile test chargs q at the place r
q will be affected by the Coulomb-Force:
F
Q
= q
1
4
0
Q
r
2
r
r
To remove the inuence of q in the formula, it will be related to it. It results the
inuence of Q on any other charges - electric eld strength of the point charge
Q:
2.2. FIELD STRENGTH: ELECTROSTATICS WITHOUT MATTER 43
Figure 2.6: Electric Field/Elektrisches Feld ([Dahmen, 2005, p. 11])
Electric eld of a point charge / Elektrisches Feld einer Punktladung:
E
Q
=
1
q
F
Q
=
1
4
0
Q
r
2
r
r
(2.5)
Drawing of the electric eld by means of vector arrows (g. 2.6 left) or by means
of eld lines (g. 2.6 right). This type of a eld is a radial symmetric eld of the
expression:
E =
r
r
3
2.2.2 Field of an Arbitrary Charge Distribution - Charge Den-
sity
The eld of multiple pointcharges at different places r can ba calculated by super-
position.
E =

E
1
+

E
2
+ +

E
N
=
N
i=1
E
i
In general, the eld

E
i
(r) of a point charge at place r
i
:
E
i
(r) =
1
4
0
Q
i
|r r
i
|
2
r r
i
|r r
i
|
... after the superposition is the total eld strength:
E(r) =
1
4
0
N
i
1
Q
i
|r r
i
|
2
r r
i
|r r
i
|
(2.6)
A distributed charge could be described by means of a charge density - the charge
dQ within the volume dV :
dQ = (r)dV
After integration, one gets again the total eld strength:
Electric eld of a density of volume charge / Elektrisches Feld einer
Raumladungsdichte:
E(r) =
1
4
0
_
(r
)
|r
|
2
r
|r
|
dV
(2.7)
The position vector r marks the point where the eld

E(r) will be calculated, the
position vector

r
marks the positions of the charges, which generates the eld.

Point charges Q can be described by means of charge distributions
Q
(r);
limiting process of the spacial spread towards 0:
_
V
Q
(r)dV = Q (2.8)
The Dirac-Impulse will be dened:
n
(x)dx = 1
A Dirac-Pulse can be approximated by a Gauss-function:
f
G
(x, ) =
1
2
exp
_
x
2
2
2
_
(2.9)
In three dimensions, the Gauss-point charge will be described by:
f
G3
(r, ) = f
G
(x, )f
G
(y, )f
G
(z, ) =
1
(2)
3/2
3
exp
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
2
2
_
=
1
(2)
3/2
3
exp
_
r
2
2
2
_
(2.10)
After the limiting process in three dimensions, one gets a three-dimensional Dirac-
Pulse:
f
G3
(r, )
0
(x)(y)(z) =
3
(r) (2.11)
2.3. FIELD STRENGTH: INDUCTION, SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 45
Figure 2.7: Point-Charge in two dimensions/Punktladung in zwei Dimensionen
([Dahmen, 2005, p. 14])
With this tree-dimensional Dirac-Pulse, the point-charge will be described by
means of a charge distribution:
(r) = Qf
G3
(r, ) =
Q
(2)
3/2
3
exp
_
r
2
2
2
_
(2.12)
... limiting process:
(r)
0
Q
(r)
3
(r) (2.13)
Fig. 2.7 und 2.8 shows gures of an approximated point charge in two and three
dimensions.
2.3 Field Strength: Induction, Superposition Theo-
rem
Experiment in Experimental Physics: Section of a large-area plate capacitor;
boundary elds can be neglected (induction experiment).
Figure 2.8: Point-Charge in three dimensions/Punktladung in drei Dimensionen
([Dahmen, 2005, p. 14])
Because the outer eld and the inner eld - generated through charge separa-
tion - compensate.
Each eld line starts and ends at a charge. On all plates are equal surface charges
Q
A
.
Induction: Charge separation in an electrostatic eld.
Shielding: A spacial volume can be shielded by conductors against an outer elec-
trostatic eld (because of inducted charges at the surface). The inner volume
is free of electrostatic elds.
Superposition theorem: The from multiple spacial distributed charges Q
i
in a
point generated eld strength will be added (vectorial) to an resulting eld
strength vector:
2.4. FIELDSTRENGTH: FIELDOF ELECTRICALLYCONDUCTINGBODIES47
Superposition Theorem:
E
res
=
n
i=1
E
i
(2.14)
Ex. 2.3.1. Field of a single (negative, positive) point charge (counter charge in
innity):
Field of two opposite charged point charges:
2.4 Field Strength: Field of Electrically Conducting
Bodies
In an electrical ow eld is (because of

E =

J): The electrical ow lines are
equal to the electrical eld lines, which give the direction of the electrical eld
strength vector

E.
Outside the hatched material with the specic resistance are no electrical ow
lines but an electrical eld (theoretical going to innity)
For goes the current density J 0, but there is still an electric eld
between both metall plates.
Electrostatics describes the state of space with static (not moving)
charges.
For current-less electric conductors is:
Inside the conductor: electric eld strength

E = 0. Reason: Would be

E = 0,
then a force F = Q E will be inuence the free electrons and a current
will ow - contravenes to electrostatics!
Boundary of the conductor: eld strength vector

E and the eld lines are per-
pendicular to the surface. Reason: Otherwise a tangential component of

E
would exist and a current along the surface would ow.
Outside the conductor (in insolator): If the conductor is charged, the eld lines
will go from +Q to Q.
Field lines: The density of the eld lines is a relative measure for the norm of the
electric eld strength. The direction of the eld lines show at each spacial
point the direction of the eld strength vector.
Ex. 2.4.1. Charged plates
2.4. FIELDSTRENGTH: FIELDOF ELECTRICALLYCONDUCTINGBODIES49
Between two charged plates exists an electric eld, inside homogenous, outside
(at the boundary) in-homogenous. It is:
Force on charges:
F = Q

E
Electric voltage general:
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds
Inside the capacitor:
U
12
= E
i
d because homogenous
E
i
=
U
12
d
Theorem. -:
In an electrostatic eld are all charges on the surface of a conducting
body.
Areas with equal potential are equipotential surfaces. These are per-
pendicular to the eld lines. Conductor surfaces are always equipoten-
tial surfaces in an electrostatic eld.
Field Picture of a Plate Capacitor:
2.5 Voltage & Potential: Denition Voltage and Po-
tential
Here, we look a little bit deeper into these terms.
Work at Movement in an Electric Field:
General is: Energy W = F x; If the force and the movement have the same
direction, energy will be set free.
From introduction known: |
F| = F = Q E
Energy at point P
1
: W
1
= Q E s
1
Energy at point P
2
: W
2
= Q E s
2
Energy to be expended for movement of the charge +Q from P
1
to P
2
:
W = W
12
= W
2
W
1
= Q E (s
2
s
1
) = Q E s
12
W
12
Q
= E s
12
= U
12
(2.15)
Equation 2.15 is the denition of the voltage:
Theorem. -:
The voltage U
12
between the points 1 and 2 is the work/energy, which must be
expended or will be get per unit charge for a movement from point 1 to 2.
2.5. VOLTAGE &POTENTIAL: DEFINITIONVOLTAGE ANDPOTENTIAL51
Denition Electric Potential:
Theorem. -:
The Potential of a point is the voltage between this point and an arbitrary
reference point which have the potential
0
= 0 (e.g. earth).
Acc. denition:
1
= U
10
,
2
= U
20
Acc. mesh rule is:
U
12
+U
20
U
10
= 0
U
12
+
2
1
= 0
U
12
=
1
2
(2.16)
The voltage will be given as the difference of two potentials.
General Computation of a Voltage: , if
Field strength gradient

E(x, y, z) is arbitrary, means not homogenous
Way s from point 1 to 2 arbitrary
Preliminary thoughts:
Movement of a charge in a force eld
Vectors

F and

ds parallel, means force and direction of movement equal
Energy variation with movement of ds:
dW = F ds
Force and direction of movement not equal
Only the force component

F
x
is responsible for the change of the energy:
W = F dx = |
F| ds cos =

F

ds
With

F = Q

E:
W = Q

E

ds
2
_
1
dW =
2
_
1
Q

Eds
W
2
W
1
= W
21
= Q
2
_
1
Eds
With eq. 2.15 and an general way element

ds instead of

dx is:
U
12
=
1
2
=
2
_
1
ds (2.17)
And
U
12
= U
21
(2.18)
This integral is called line integral, because it will be integrated along the way
s. Eq. 2.17 is true for an arbitrary eld strength gradient (norm and direction must
not be constant) and an arbitrary integration way.

E
ds is a scalar product.
Ex. 2.5.1. Plate capacitor
Applying a voltage U
12
to the plate of the capacitor results in a constant eld E
(Assumption: d << l).
E =
U
12
d
For special cases are easy solutions of the integral 2.17 possible:
1.

E is constant, means norm and direction of

E are equal in every point (ho-
mogenous eld)
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =

E
2
_
1
ds =

E s
12
= E s
12
cos()
2.

E = const;

E||ds (additional, is the way element s parallel

E, means =
0)
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =
2
_
1
E cos()ds =
2
_
1
Eds = E
2
_
1
ds = E s
12
Acc. eq. 2.15, the voltage characterizes the needed energy to let an current ow.
Ex. 2.5.2. Transport of a charge +Q from point 1 via 2 and back to 1 on a closed
way:
It is:
2
_
1
Eds
is independent of the way.
U =
W
Q
=
2
_
1
Eds +
1
_
2
Eds =
2
_
1
Eds + (
2
_
1
Eds)
Generally, in an electro static eld:
_

Eds = 0 (2.19)
This is the most general form of the mesh rule. It is
2
_
1
ds integral on a way from 1 to 2,
_
ds integral on a closed way.
This has been derived by rot

E = 0. The interpretation is, that the calculation
of the voltage is path-independent, it is only the difference of the potentials of the
respective end points.
Ex. 2.5.3. Show, that in the gure the integral
2
_
1
Eds is independent from its

integration way. Chose the ways:
a. Way 1 - 2 direct
b. Way 1 - 3 - 2
a.
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =
2
_
1
E cos(0)ds = E
2
_
1
ds
= Es
12
= E l = 1
V
cm
10cm = 10V
b.
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =
3
_
1
Eds +
2
_
3
Eds
=
3
_
1
E cos()ds +
2
_
3
E sin()ds
= E cos()
3
_
1
ds + E sin()
2
_
3
ds
= E [cos() s
13
+ sin() s
32
]
= E [cos() l cos() + sin() l sin()]
= El[cos
2
() + sin
2
()] = E l 1 = 10V
2.6 Electric Displacement Field/Electric Flux Den-
sity
Different german words - the same meaning:
Elektrische Verschiebungsdichte
Elektrische Flussdichte
Elektrische Verschiebung
A repetition of the induction experiment with oil instead of air between the plates
(equal conditions): The induced charges on the little plates are bigger; can be
proved with voltage measurement.
Observation. Conclusion: Because |
E| =
U
d
= const in air and in oil as dielec-
tric, it is not possible, that

E is responsible for the different charge. There must
be an other eld value. This is the Electric Displacement

D.
The electric displacement

D describes the capability of an electric eld to in-
duce charges on a surface of a conductor. It (the displacement) exists not only on
the surface, it exists in the complete eld space. On the boundary of the surface
and the non-conducting eld space is the electric displacement equal to the sur-
face charge. The electric displacement

D is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor/metall.
The amount of the induced charges on the surface of the inner plate is propor-
tional to the electric displacement

D:
Flux density / Flussdichte:
Q = D A bzw. Q =

D

A (2.20)
The vectors

D and

A are always parallel on the surface of the plates; this causes
A = D A. Here is

A a vector perpendicular to the surface (area A) - the Area
Normal Vector.
2.6. ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD/ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY 57
The unit of the displacement D can be calculated with an unit equation:
[D] =
[Q]
[A]
=
As
m
2
This is the unit of the surface charge.
Relation between Electric Displacement and Field Strength:
Flux density / Flussdichte:
D =

E (2.21)
D and

E have always the same direction. The proportionality factor is a scalar.
It is called permittivity (dielectric constant) and consists of two factors:
Permeability / Permeabilit at:
=
0

r
(2.22)
0
is called electric eld constant and has the value:
0
= 8, 8542 10
12
F
m
= 8, 8542
pF
m
The relative permittivity number (dielectric number)
r
is dependent of the
material in which

D exists. Some numbers
r
:
Vacuum: 1
Air: 1,006
Glas: 5 ... 7
Mica: 5 ... 8
Ceramic material: 10 ... 10000
Unit test: [
0
] [
r
] [E] =
F
m
V
m
=
s
1
m
V
m
=
AsV
m
2
V
=
As
m
2
= [D]
Polarisation of a Dielectric: The permittivity is an attribute of the material
(dielectric) in which a eld exists. The insertion of a dielectric (e.g. oil) between
the capacitor plates causes an increase of the electric displacement eld and so an
increase of the surface charge on the plates about the factor
r
. The reason is the
polarisation of the molecules of the dielectric. There are various different kinds:
Orientation Polarisation in liquid material: The molecules of the dielectric are
dipoles (water). These can be aligned along the eld direction.
Displacement/Ionic Polarisation in liquid and solid material: The dipoles can
be moved a little (caused by the eld). In this case a (solid) material must
have some ionic character. It then automatically has internal dipoles, but
these built-in dipoles exactly cancel each other and are unable to rotate. The
external eld then induces net dipoles by slightly displacing the ions from
their rest position. The paradigmatic materials are all simple ionic crystals
like NaCl.
The polarisation causes, in case of inserting a dielectric into a plate capacitor, the
following:
1. Case: plate capacitor charged at U; detached from voltage source U; insert
dielectric with
r
: elds of the alligned dipoles deliver eld components
opposite to the original eld
(a) resulting eld decreases and so the voltage decreases U = E d.
(b) the surface charges on the plates (and so do the displacement D) stay
constant, because no charges can be added (D = E E =
D
).
2. Case: capacitor remains at voltage source U; insert dielectric:
(a) the eld E can not be changed - U is held constant ...
(b) ... but the elds of the dipole-charges inside of the capacitor try to
decrease the the eld E - but the voltage source delivers instantly new
charges for the plates to hold E constant - the surface charges and so
the electric displacement D increases.
2.6. ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD/ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY 59
Ex. 2.6.1. An air capacitor with an plate distance of d will be attached to a
voltage source U. Then, a dielectric with
r
(dielectric number) will be inserted.
Calculate for both cases (with and without dielectric) the electric eld strength E
and the electric displacement D, if ...
Case 1: the capacitor remains at the voltage source,
Case 2: the capacitor will be charged at U, detached from the source and
then the dielectric will be inserted. How changes the voltage in this case at
the capacitor?
Case 2: C detached from voltage source after charging
D = const
E =
D
r
will decrease by factor
r
(compared to a capacitor without dielec-
tric)
U = E d U E
Case 1: C x at U
E U = const
D =
0
r
E will increase by factor
r
(compared to a capacitor without
dielectric)
Q D
Ex. 2.6.2. An air capacitor with a plate distance of d = 40mm is at a voltage
source U = 4kV . Two thin metall plates with an area of A = 1cm
2
will be
inserted into the homogenous electric eld (First, the thin plates stick together).
1. What is the induced charge on each thin plate?
2. Which voltage can be seen between the probe plates if they will be taken
out of the eld of the capacitor? The distance of the thin plates will be
a = 1mm.
To 1.
Precondition: all elds homogenous
From eq. 1.7:
U =
_

Eds = E d
E =
U
d
From eq. 2.21:
D = E
Induced charges on the thin plates (eq. 2.20):
Q = D A = E A =
U
d
A
With dielectric air =
0
:
Q =
8, 85 10
12 As
V m
4 10
3
V 10
4
m
2
40 10
3
m
= 8, 85 10
11
As
To 2.
The distance of the thin plates should be much smaller than its length; a << l.
After the removement of the thin plates, the charge Q stays on the plates. The
elctric displacement eld D
between the thin plates is:

2.7. SOURCES IN ELECTROSTATICS 61
D
=
Q
A
=
UA
d

1
A
= D
The electric displacement eld D
is equal to D (which was inside the capacitor).

Because there is the same dielectric inside the big and the small capacitor (air,
0
), the elds E
and E are equal.

For the small capacitor is:
U
= E
a = E a =
U
d
a =
4 10
3
V 10
3
m
40 10
3
m
= 100V
The voltage will be scaled by the ratio a/d. So, the voltage U
is the potential
difference of two equipotential surfaces inside the big capacitor (same distance
a).
2.7 Sources in Electrostatics
The most simplest source of an electrostatic eld is an electric point charge. It can
be realised by one or more electrons (or the lack of it) with e = 1, 602 10
19
AS.
Q = n e; n is integer
In case of a density of volume charge or in case of a density of surface charge
is:
div

D = Div

D =
The density of volume charge or the density of surface charge can be inte-
grated:
___
div

D dv =
___
dv =
Q
And with the Gaussian Theorem follows the electric hull ux:
__

D d
f =
Q (2.23)
Next, we have a look on the step divergence
Div

D = (x, y, z)
... it is
Div

D = D
2n
D
1n
= (x, y, z)
This results for surfaces:
__
df = Q
Figure 2.9: Cylinder with charge
Ex. 2.7.1. It is a long cylinder, on its surface is the charge +Q.
Calculate the electric ux density

D at the distance r > r
0
.
Calculate the electric eld strength

E at the distance r > r
0
.
Start with the hull integration
__

D d
f = +Q
The hull is a coaxial cylinder around the metall cylinder. The upper and
lower circular surfaces contribute neglectable (
D is almost perpendicular
to d
f). The remaining radial eld

D is independent of the angle. So, on a
constant hull with r > r
0
, is the magnitude of |
D| = const..

D and d
f are
parallel, so the vector multiplicationist the multiplication of its magnitudes.
D
__
df = Q D 2rl = Q D =
Q
2rl
D =
Q
2rl
e
r
E =
=
Q
2rl
e
r
Cutting Surface without Sources: If a cutting surface separates two media of
different
r
and there is no charge on it, the step divergence is
Div

D = 0 or D
2n
= D
1n
2.7. SOURCES IN ELECTROSTATICS 63
Figure 2.10: Cutting surface with charge
If now the change to the electric eld strength will be made, it is
r2
E
2n
=
r1
E
1n
E
2n
= E
1n
r1
r2
Cutting Surface with Sources: Also in case of
r1
=
r2
, the normal compo-
nent of

E jumps at a surface, if on the surface is a density of surface charge (g.
2.10). There are the relations:
Div

D = = const.
D
2n
D
1n
= D
2n
= +D
1n
E
2n

0
r2
= + E
1n

0
r1
E
2n
=

r2
+ E
1n

r1
r2
The refraction law for electric elds:
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
=
E
1t
E
1n
r2
E
2t
+
E
1n
E
2t

r1
r2
_
E
1t
= E
2t
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
=

r2
E
1n
+

r1
r2
Without any density of surface charge :
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
=

r1
r2
2.8 Electrostatic Electric Field - Summary
Electrostatic will be described by the vectors

E,

D and the material equation
D =
E.
E is dened by the force of an electric eld on a carrier of a small positive test

charge q. q should be small, so that it will not inuence the external eld.
F = q

E or

E =
F
q
The electric ux density

D will be dened by (see plate capacitor):
D =
Q
f
and

D =
E (2.24)
Here, the charges are constant: +Q on the left plate and Q on the right plate
of the capacitor.
Because is a scalar, the directions of

E and

D are the same.
2.9 Electric Flux and Electric Hull Flux
There are analogies between an electric ow eld and an electrostatic eld:
electric ow eld electrostatic eld
current density:

J [
A
m
2
] electric displacement:

D [
As
m
2
]
current: I =
_
A
Jd
A ux: =
_

Dd
A
The ux through an angular area d
A can be calculated as a scalar product.
Dd
A = Dcos()dA
For

D area A and D = const., the ux is (with D = Q/A)
Electric ux / Elektrischer Flu:
=
_

Dd
A =
_
DdA = D
_
dA = DA = Q (2.25)
2.9. ELECTRIC FLUX AND ELECTRIC HULL FLUX 65
analogue to I = J A.
Theorem. -:
If A is a metal surface, then the Electric Flux resulting by this surface
is equal to the charge of the surface. The charge per area (the surface
charge) is equal to the electric displacement.
Electric Hull Flux
0
: Instead of the Electric Flux , the Hull Flux
0
is get,
if one integrates over the complete surface (or a surrounding hull) of a charged
(with Q) body. With:
A: closed surface/hull e.g. sphere, cube
Q: inside of A existing charge (reason for

D) one gets the ...
Gaussian Theorem:
Hull ux / H ullenu ss:
0
=
_
A
Dd
A = Q (2.26)
The charge surrounds itself with an electric displacement. The electric dis-
placement area is the ux. This is equal to the charge Q.
Approximation: no integral - a sum over small areas
A: this results for the

encased charge:
If the body is conducting:
D||
A, da
EA oder

E||
A
Theorem. General, the Gaussian Theorem says:
The complete, from a body emanateing hull ux is equal to the sum of
all from the hull encased charges.
Ex. 2.9.1. Charges inside a hull:
The hull (dotted line) wraps the whole body; encases all charges. The distance of
the hull and the distribution of the charges is irrelevant.
2.10. ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS ARE EDDY-FREE 67
Gausss Theorem / Satz von Gauss:
0
=
_
A
Dd
A = Q
1
+Q
2
+Q
3
+Q
4
= Q
ges
=
4
1
Q
i
(2.27)
Units / Einheiten:
[
0
] = [Q] = As
The Gaussian Theorem is the base line for all eld- and capacity calculations.
General procedure:
Procedure for capacity calculations:
Assumption of a charge Q on an electrode
Calculation D = f(Q) acc. Gaussian Theorem Q =
_

Dd
A
Calculation E = f(Q) E =
D
Calculation U = f(Q) U =
_

Eds
Calculation C = f(Q) =
Q
U
2.10 Electrostatic Fields are Eddy-Free
For the electrostatic eld vector

E is:
rot

E = 0; Rot

E = 0
In electrostatic are no closed electric eld lines (eddy current is not electrostatic).
This results in:
__
rot

E d
f =
_

E ds (2.28)
So, the voltage drop along a circular closed path is zero.
Rot

E = 0 denes, that the tangential component of the electric eld

E will
not jump at surfaces.
Rot

E = n
12
(
E
2

E
1
) = 0
|Rot

E| = E
2t
E
1t
= 0
2.11 Laplace and Poisson Differential Equations
We know:
E = grad
Now, the source strength:
div

E = div(grad ) =

(
) =
2
=
is the Laplacian operator. For cartesian coordinates:
=

2
=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
Now, electric elds originating from a density of volume charge will be consid-
ered.
div
D =
div
D = div
E
() =
This is Poissons Differential Equation:
Poissons Differential Equation:
=
(2.29)
For cartesian coordinates:
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
=
(x, y, z)
In case of = 0 results the Laplacian Differential Equation:

Laplacian Differential Equation:
= 0 (2.30)
Ex. 2.11.1. Given is the charge +Q on a metal sphere of radius r
0
. Calculate by
using the Laplacian Diffrential Equation, the potential for r > r
0
.
2.11. LAPLACE AND POISSON DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 69
Use 3-D polar coordinates.
=
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin()
_
sin()
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
()
2
The potential is only changing with r, so:
=
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
r
_
The charges are only present on the sphere, not outside, so:
= 0
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
r
_
= 0
r
_
r
2
r
_
= 0
First integration:
r
2
r
= c
1

r
=
c
1
r
2
= E(r)
Determine constant:
Div

D = =
Q
4r
2
0
= D
2n
D
1n
All charges ar on the surface, the inner part of the sphere is eld free
D
1n
= 0
=
Q
4r
2
0
= D
2n
E(r
0
) =
D
2n
=
Q
4r
2
0
Result of the rst integration at r

0
:
c
1
r
2
0
=
Q
4r
2
0
c
1
=
Q
4
Second integration:
(r) =
c
1
r
+c
2
=
+Q
4r
+c
2
The second constant can not be determined, because the reference potential
is not given.
Other solution; with the hull ux:
Q =
__

Dd
f
D ist radial and constant at a chosen r.
Q = D
__
d
f = D 4r
2

D(r) =
Q
4r
2
e
r
=
E(r)
Using polar coordinates (sphere) and knowing, that E only depends on r:
E =
r
e
r
(r) =
_

Edr =
Q
4
_
1
r
2
dr =
+Q
4r
+ c
2
2.12 Solution of Poissons Differential Equations
Strassaker, p. 61; Dahmen, p??
2.13 Capacity of a Plate Capacitor
Capacitor:
Charge storage; arbitrary arrangement of two spacial separated isolated
conductors (electrodes)
Plate Capacitor:
2.13. CAPACITY OF A PLATE CAPACITOR 71
Needed / Gesucht: Q = f(U
12
)
Wrap a hull (rectangular box with side surfaces A1 ... A6) around the upper
electrode - must include all charges on it. Then it is:
+Q =
_
A
ges
Dd
A =
_
A
1
D
1
d
A +
_
A
2
D
2
d
A + +
_
A
6
D
6
d
A
Neglecting the boundary elds:
D
2
D
6
0
D
1
=

D = const. and perpendicular to A
1
+Q =
_
A
1
D
1
d
A = D A
1
If one wraps the hull around electrode 2, the vectors

A and

D will be of opposite
direction. This will cause according the gaussian rule a negative sign; which
corresponds to the negative charge on the lower electrode.
Calculation of the eld strength for a given charge Q:
D =
Q
A
1
E =
D
=
Q
A
1
With

E||ds:
U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =
2
_
1
Eds = E d
put in:
U
12
=
Q
A
1
d
Q =
A
1
d
U
12
U
12
The fraction is a proportionality factor.
The proportionality factor is called capacity. So, it is:
Capacity / Kapazit at:
Q = C U (2.31)
This equation is valid for arbitrary capacitive arrangements, it is generally true.
For the proportionaly factor, one can write according the equation above ...
Capacity Plate Capacitor:
Capacity plate capacitor / Kapazit at des Plattenkondensators:
C =
A
d
(2.32)
A precondition, that eq. 2.32 is valid: plate distance d <<side length. Otherwise,
the boundary elds must be taken into account when calculating the Gaussian
Rule.
Unit: [C] =
[Q]
[U]
=
As
V
= F(Farad)
Ex. 2.13.1. Calculate the capacity of a quadratic plate capacitor (air lled) with
following dimensions: length 1m, plate distance 1mm.
C =

0
r
A
d
=
8, 85 10
12
As 1m
2
V m 10
3
m
= 8, 85nF
The calculation of arbitrary formed electrodes is difcult (higher mathemetical
effort). In the following chapters, we will focus on easy geometrical forms.
2.14. POINT CHARGE, SPHERICAL CAPACITOR 73
2.14 Point Charge, Spherical Capacitor
2.14.1 Field Distribution Around a Point Charge (or Sphere)
Because of radial symmetry is:
D = const for r = const
Vector

D is perpendicular to the little plane element dA.
Acc. Gaussian Rule: Calculation of the eld strength around a sphere with radius
r:
+Q =
_
A
Dd
A =
_
A
DdA = D
_
A
dA = D A
Kugel
= D 4r
2
With eq. 2.21 is the eld strength of a point charge Q at a distance r:
Electric eld of a point charge / Elektrisches Feld einer Punktladung:
E =
Q
4r
2
= f(r
0
) (2.33)
The result shows:
1. E = f(r
0
); independent of the dimensions of the inner sphere.
2. Let r
0
0 (point charge), the eld distribution outside the sphere will
not change. Also, the equipotential surfaces will not change. So, for eld
calculations, one can work with the model of a concentrated (sphere) charge
in the middle - with a point charge.
Potential between a Hull-Plane and Innity
Acc. eq. 1.7 is for

E||dr with integration along a eld line:
U
r,
=
r
_
r
Edr
If one denes the null-potential in innity:
= 0, one gets with eq. 2.33:

U
r,
=
r
=
_
r
Edr =
_
r
Q
4r
2
dr
=
Q
4

_
r
1
r
2
dr =
Q
4

_
1
r
_
r
=
Q
4

_
0 +
1
r
_
2.14.2 Potential Around a Point Charge (or Sphere)
Potential around a sphere / Potenzial einer Kugel:
(r) =
Q
4r
(2.34)
The reference point for = 0 is in innity. The voltage between the surface of a
sphere and innity is (radius of the sphere r
0
):
U = U
r
0
,
=
r
0
=
Q
4r
0
With C = Q/U is the capacity of a sphere (r
0
) in free space:
2.14. POINT CHARGE, SPHERICAL CAPACITOR 75
Capacity of a sphere / Kapazit at einer Kugel:
C
Kugel
= 4r
0
(2.35)
Ex. 2.14.1. Calculate the capacity of the earth.
r
0
= 6370km
C = 4r
0
= 4 8, 85 10
12
F
m
6, 37 10
6
m = 708F
2.14.3 Capacity of a Sphere Capacitor
For calculations it is assumed, that the complete charge of the inner spere is con-
centrated in the center. So, the eld distribution outside the inner spere is the same
as if the charge would be distributed on the surface of the inner shere.
The potential (caused by the virtual charge in the center) on the surface of the
inner sphere (eqipotential surface) is acc. eq. 2.34:
(r
1
) =
Q
4r
1
And so, on the outer sphere:
(r
2
) =
Q
4r
2
The potential difference between inner- and outer sphere is:
U
r
1
,r
2
= (r
1
) (r
2
) =
Q
4

_
1
r
1
1
r
2
_
=
Q
4

r
2
r
1
r
1
r
2
With C =
Q
U
, it is the ...
Capacity Sphere Capacitor:
Capacity spherical capacitor / Kapazit at des Kugelkondensators:
C = 4
r
1
r
2
r
2
r
1
(2.36)
Ex. 2.14.2. Calculate the capacity of a (air-) sphere capacitor with the following
dimensions: outer diameter 1m, plate distance 1mm.
r
2
= 50cm
r
1
= 49, 9cm
C = 4 8, 85 10
12
F
m

49, 9 50 10
4
m
2
0, 1 10
2
m
= 27, 7nF
2.15 Line Charge, Cylindrical Capacitor
thin straight wire with charge +Q on it; the charge Q is located in innity; it is
l >> r
2.15. LINE CHARGE, CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR 77
The charge Q is uniformly distributed (as line charge) over the wire length. Be-
cause of cylindrical symmetry is on an assumed cylindrical hull plane:
D = const.
... on the upper and lower side plane for r << l:
D 0
With the gaussian rule:
Q =
_

Dd
A =
_
Zylinderh ulle
DdA + 2
_
Zylinderdeckel
DdA
= D A
Zylinderh ulle
+ 0 = D 2rl
D =
Q
2rl
This leads to the eld strength in dependency of the distance r from the centre of
the wire:
Field strength around a wire / Feldst arke um eine Draht:
E =
D
=
Q
2rl
(2.37)
This result is a base for the calculation of the eld distribution and the capacity of
a cylindrical capacitor.
Cylindrical Capacitor: l >> r1, r2
If the the length l of the cylinder is big compared to the distance of the inner and
outer cylinder, the boundary elds can be neglected and eq. 2.37 will be still valid.
Calculation of the voltage U
12
:
U
12
=
r
2
_
r
1
Edr =
r
2
_
r
1
Edr
=
r
2
_
r
1
Q
2l

1
r
dr
=
Q
2l
[ln r]
r
2
r
1
=
Q
2l
(ln r
2
ln r
1
) =
Q
2l
ln
r
2
r
1
With C = Q/U, one gets the ...
Capacity ot the Cylindrical Capacitor:
Capacity of a cylinder / Zylinderkondensator:
C =
2l
ln
r
2
r
1
(2.38)
A coaxial cable is a special cylindrical capacitor. Its capacity can be calculated
with the equation above.
Ex. 2.15.1. Calculate the capacity of a 50 coaxial cable with d
1
= 1mm,
d
2
= 4mm,
r
= 2, 5 , length l = 1m?
C =
2 2, 5 8, 85pF 1m
m ln 4
= 100, 2pF
With small distances of the inner and outer spheres is the capacity of the
cylindrical capacitor nearly equal to a furled plate capacitor.
2.15.1 Capacity of a Parallel Wire
We have a parallel wire (two cylindrical conductors of length l at a distance of
a << l).
2.15. LINE CHARGE, CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR 79
Each wire has the radius a << l.
To calculate this parallel wire, we determine the voltage between both wires
in dependence of the charges. For this, we assume a common cylinder wrapped
around this wires; it should be r
a
>> a.
We calculate the potential
P
of the arbitrary point P within the eld space
between one wire and the imaginary cylinder
We set the potential of the imaginary cylinder to zero (
a
= 0). The voltage
between point P and the imaginary cylinder is:
U =
P

a
=
P
With the eld strength in the inner area of a cylindrical capacitor, we get:
P
= U =
r
a
_
r
P
Edr =
Q
2l
ln
r
a
r
P
At a parallel wire, the superposition of potentials is only possible, if the charges
+Q and Q are equally distributed ofer the cylinder surfaces. This is approxi-
mately valid for a >> r
L
(otherwise the charges on both cylinders will inuence
each other).
The potential of the point P (rst gure) can be calculated (for r
1
<< r
a
and
r
2
<< r
a
) with superposition of the individual potentials of both wires:
P
=
1
+
2
=
Q
1
2l
ln
r
a
r
1
+
Q
2
2l
ln
r
a
r
2
With Q
1
= +Q and Q
2
= Q is:
P
=
Q
2l

_
ln
r
a
r
1
ln
r
a
r
2
_
=
Q
2l
ln
r
2
r
1
Field gure of two charged cylinders:
The equipotential lines can be calculated with the equation above.
The voltage U between the wires is the differece of the potentials of both wires
(left
l
, right
r
).
First, take the point P on the surface of the left cylinder (wire); here is r
1
=
r
L
> 0 and r
2
a because of a >> r
L
. These radii will be put into the equation
above:
1
=
Q
2l
ln
a
r
L
Now, we move point P to the surface of the right cylinder (wire); here is r
1
a
because of a >> r
L
and r
2
= r
L
> 0. This will put into the equation also:
r
=
Q
2l
ln
r
L
a
=
Q
2l
ln
a
r
L
2.16. PARALLEL- AND SERIAL CONNECTION OF CAPACITORS 81
From the voltage
U =
1
r
=
Q
l
ln
a
r
L
we get the capacity of the parallel wire
Capacity of a parallel wire / Capazit at einer Paralleldrahtleitung:
C
D
=
Q
U
=
l
ln
a
r
L
(2.39)
2.16 Parallel- and Serial Connection of Capacitors
2.16.1 Parallel Connection
Q
ges
= Q
1
+Q
2
+Q
3
+ +Q
n
= C
1
U +C
2
U +C
3
U + +C
n
U
= (C
1
+C
2
+ C
3
+ + C
n
) U = C
ges
U
Parallelconnection / Parallelschaltung:
C
ges
=
n
i=1
C
i
(2.40)
2.16.2 Serial Connection
Before connecting the capacitors, all are uncharged. This is also valid for the
right electrode of C
1
and the left electrode of C
2
. After connecting the voltage
U, induction will seperate charges +Q and Q. Because, it is impossible, that
charges come from outside od dissaper into nothing, the charges on all plates are
equal (norm) - also if the capacities are different.
Q = C
1
U
1
= C
2
U
2
= C
3
U
3
= = C
n
U
n
= C
ges
U
U = U
1
+U
2
+ U
3
+ + U
n
above eq. into eq. below:
U =
Q
C
1
+
Q
C
2
+
Q
C
3
+ +
Q
C
n
=
Q
C
ges
1
C
ges
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
+
1
C
3
+ +
1
C
n
Serial Connection / Reihenschaltung:
1
C
ges
=
n
i=1
1
C
i
(2.41)
And it is always: C
ges
< C
i,min
.
Serial Connection of two Capacitors
1
C
ges
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
=
C
1
+ C
2
C
1
C
2
Parallel connection of two capacitors / Parallelschaltung zweier Kon-
densatoren:
C
ges
=
C
1
C
2
C
1
+ C
2
(2.42)
Ex. 2.16.1. Calculate the resulting capacity of the following connections:
2.17. INTERRELATIONBETWEENCURRENT, VOLTAGE ANDCAPACITY83
1.
C
ges
=
1F 1F
2F
= 0, 5F
2.
C
ges
=
10pF 1F
1F + 10pF
= 9, 99990pF
3.
1
C
ges
=
1
3F
+
1
3F
+
1
3F
=
3
3F
=
1
1F
C
ges
= 1F
2.17 Interrelation between Current, Voltage and Ca-
pacity
What is the relation between charging current (discharging) and voltage of a ca-
pacitor?
It is Q = C U. But while charging or discharging, the situation is not stable -
time-variant.
q(t) = C u(t)
With
i(t) =
dq(t)
dt
is:
i(t) =
dq(t)
dt
= C
du(t)
dt
This can look like this:
i(t) = C
du(t)
dt
(2.43)
2.18 Energy of a Capacitor
In the electrostatic eld of a capacitor energy can be stored. This energy can be
used again while discharging the capacitor.
To calculate this energy, an uncharged capacitor will be connected to a con-
stant current source. The charge and the voltage of the capacitor increase linear
with time (Q = U C).
2.18. ENERGY OF A CAPACITOR 85
U is not constant - calculate differentially.
dW = u(t) i(t) dt
It is also:
i(t) = C
du(t)
dt
transformed
i(t) dt = C du(t)
This, put in into the energy equation:
dW = C u(t)du(t)
W =
u(t
2
)
_
u(t
1
)
Cu(t)du(t)
= C
_
u(t)
2
2
_
u(t
2
)
u(t
1
)
With u(t
1
) = u(t = 0) = 0 and u(t
2
) = U
1
:
W =
C
2

_
u(t
2
)
2
u(t
1
)
2
=
C
2

_
U
2
1
0
This leads to the energy:

Energy stored in a Capacitor / Gespeicherte Energie im Kondensator:
W =
1
2
C U
2
(2.44)
W is obviously independent of I. With Q = C U, this equation can be trans-
formed to the charge.
Chapter 3
Magnetic Field
3.1 Magnetostatics
3.1.1 Units and Denitions
The units are:
_
H
_
=
A
m
_
B
_
=
V s
m
2
[] = [
0
] =
V s
Am
_
rot

H
_
=
_
curl

H
_
=
A
m
2
_
Rot

H
_
=
_
Curl

H
_
=
A
m
_
div

B
_
=
V s
m
3
_
Div

B
_
=
V s
m
2
3.1.2 Magnetostatic - Equations
The magnetostatic eld will have no sources and no eddys:
div

B = 0; Div

B = 0 (3.1)
rot

H = 0; Rot

H = 0 (3.2)
(3.3)
So, the hull ux in magnetostatics will be:
H
=
__

Bd
f =
___
div

Bdv = 0 (3.4)
87
88 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC FIELD
3.2 Magnetism - Action of Force in a Magnetic Field
Already in greek ancient times, it was known that by means of a special iron ore
(magnetite, Fe
3
O
4
), it was possible to observe a force effect. Two objects made
of this, can attract or repulse each other.
Furthermore, such objects can attract objects made of some metalls.
3.2.1 Magnetic Poles
The analysis of a natural or articial magnet according its action of force, it can
be seen, that iron lings show an concentration gradient and direction. There are
two places with a high activity - the poles. The different force directions can be
seen by the orientation of the iron lings.
The earth has its own magnetic eld. So a compass needle will show the north
direction. This leads to the conclusion, that the poles of a magnetic needle are
different - North Pole and South Pole.
3.2. MAGNETISM - ACTION OF FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 89
If one approaches the north pole of a magnet to the north pole of a compass needle,
then both poles will repulse each other (same effect with south poles).
correspondent magnet poles repulse each other
not correspondent magnet poles attract each other
3.2.2 Magnetic Effect on Metalls
Experiment: Soft iron in the environment of a magnet - it will become magnetic
itself. Amagnetic needle showdened poles. Iron lings will stick on it. Removal
of the magnet, removes the magnetic effect of the piece of soft iron; the iron lings
will fall down.
This effect is called Magnetic Inuenz.
3.2.3 Theory des Molecular Magnetism (Simplied)
If one breakes a bar magnet into two pieces, each part will have again two poles.
One can think of breaking the magnet endlessly - down into molecular regions.
This leads to a modell of a molecular magnetic dipole - the Molecular Magnet.
So, a magnet is build up of many ordered molecular magnets.
A magnetic material (e.g. soft iron) consists of such molecular magnet, but these
do have different orientations - the magnetic effect to the environment is not
existent. By means of magnetische Inuenz, these molecular magnets will get
the same orientation and a magnetic effect occurs.
3.2.4 Magnetic Field
We will call the space containing magnetic effects the magnetic eld. This can
be described by means of eld lines. The direction of the eld lines show the
direction of the magnetic force effect. The direction of the eld lines outside
of a permanent magnet goes from the north pole to the south pole, inside a
permanent magnet from the south pole to the north pole (magnetic eld lines
must be closed). Example of eld lines (bar magnet)/Beispiel Feldlinienbild
eines Stabmagneten:
3.3. MAGNETISMINELECTRICCONDUCTOR- AMPERES CIRCUITAL LAW91
A size for the magnetic effect is the magnetic eld strength

H:
Vector with
Norm: relative measure for the density of the eld lines
Direction: tangent on the eld lines
3.3 Magnetismin Electric Conductor - Amperes Cir-
cuital Law
Christian Oersted discovered 1820, that the force between two parallel wires with
current ow, comes from a magnetic eld (magnetic force).
Every current ow is surrounded by a magnetic eld
... also a long, straight cylindrical wire
Can be proven by means of compass needle (the magnetic eld lines circled
around a wire)
The north pole shows in direction of the eld
The magnetic eld lines surround the current in the sense of a right-hand turning
screw; moving towards positive current direction.
More Examples of Field Pictures (iron lings): ...
... of a metal loop/... einer Leiterschleife
... of a cylindrical coil/... einer Zylinderspule
... of a ring coil/... einer Ringspule
3.3.1 Amperes Circuital Law (Der Durchutungssatz)
The magnetomotive force (MMF) is the sum of all currents (take care of the
sign) through a closed path s. If the current is time-variant, the MMF will be time
variant, too.
= i
1
i
2
+ i
3
+ 2 i
n
Gennerally, is: Magnetomotive Force
=
N i
i
(3.5)
This is also called the magnetic voltage.
The eld strength at an arbitrary spacial point can be calculated with the
help of Amperes Circuital Law:
=
_

Hds (3.6)
The symbol
_
denotes an integral along a closed path. Until now we know:
Integral along an arbitrary path s between 2 points:
2
_
1
Eds
Integral along a closed surface:
_

Dd
A
Ex. 3.3.1. Area with current conductors penetrated:
_

Hd
S = I
1
+I
2
I
3
= f(I
4
)
_

Hd
S can become zero, e.g.:

This effect will be used for the ground fault circuit interrupter.
3.3.2 Example: Field Calculations
Following, the elds around and in a straight wire, in a cylindrical coil and in a
ring coil will be calculated by means of Amperes Circuital Law.
1. Long Straight Wire with Radius r
0
1a. Field Outside the Wire: r > r
0
= I
ds||
H

Hds = H ds
H=const. for r = const.; according symmetry reasons.
_

Hds = H
_
ds = H2r = = I
The magnetic eld strength:
Magnetic eld around a wire:
H =
I
2r
(3.7)
The assignment of the eld lines to the direction of the current is according the
right-handed screw rule.
1b. Field Inside the Wire: r < r
0
Current density: S =
I
A
=
I
r
2
0
I
A
0
=
I
Current inside a circle with radius r
: ...
I
(r
) = I
A(r
)
A
= I
r
2
r
2
0
=
(r
)
With eq. 3.7:
H =
I
2r
=
Ir
2
r
2
0
2r
=
I
2r
2
0
r
This is a straight line through the origin.

Figure 3.1: A Wire with a Current Density and Magnetic Field / Draht mit
Stromdichte und Magnetfeld
Direction of the magnetic eld lines
Theorem. The eld lines surround the current (conventional current direction) in
a wire according the right-hand screw direction.
Ex. 3.3.2. Same example, but solve with curl: A wire with DC current has its curl
(eddy-strength) inside the wire, the current density

J. So, curl

H =

J (gure
3.1).
Outside r
o
is curl

H = 0, but there is a magnetic eld

H
a
. Outside the wire is
no cause for the magnetic eld strength.
a) Inside the wire:
J =
I
A
=
I
r
2
0
e
Because of symmetry:

H = H
(r)e
Given formula: curl

H =

J =
_
1
r
H
z
z
_
e
r
+
_
H
r
z

H
z
r
_
e
+
_
1
r
(rH
)
r

1
r
H
r
_
e
z
=
J e
z
no H
z
component, no H
r
component, no change of H
with dz,
1
r
(rH
)
r
e
z
= J e
z
(rH
)
r
= rJ
rH
= J
r
_
0
rdr =
J
2
r
2
=
J
2
r =
I
2r
2
0
r
b) Outside the wire:
curl

H = 0
1
r
(rH
)
r
= 0
(rH
)
r
= 0
rH
= const. H
=
const.
r
from part a), eld at r
0
H
(r
0
) =
I
2r
0
at the boundary is:
const.
r
0
=
I
2r
0
so
const. =
I
2
so
H
(r) =
I
2r
2. Cylindrical Coil
Inside the coil: strong homogenous eld H
i
(eld lines tight)
Outside the coil: weak eld H
a
For length l >> d:
_

Hds =
_
S1
H
i
ds +
_
S2
H
a
ds
_
S2
H
a
ds <<
_
S1
H
i
ds
because H
a
<< H
i
and S
1
= S
2
= N I =
_

Hds H
i
_
S1
ds = H
i
l
Magnetic eld of a cylindrical coil/Magnetisches Feld einer Zylinder-
spule:
H
i

N I
l
(3.8)
3. Ring Coil
3.4. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY AND MAGNETIC FLUX 101
The cross section of the ring is circular, also. D = 2 R is the medium diameter
of the circular ring; which should be much bigger than the thickness d of the ring.
_

Hds = H
_
ds = H 2R = = N I
Magnetic led in a ring coil/Magnetisches Feld einer Ringspule:
H =
N I
2R
(3.9)
3.4 Magnetic Flux Density and Magnetic Flux
Observation. The insertion of an iron core into a cylindrical coil (at constant
coil current) increases the magnetic force by orders om magnitude. Because the
magnetic eld strength H will not be inuenced by the iron core (acc. eq. 3.8; by
the way, the eld strengt can not be measured, it is just a calculation quantity),
there must be another eld quantity. This is the ...
Magnetic Flux Density: ... also called magnetic induction, because it is respon-
sible for induction effects.
Magnetic ux density:
B =

H (3.10)
The scalar is a function of the matter in which the eld lines are.
Both eld quantities

B and

H have the same direction.
The factor is called absolute permeability.
In vacuum the value for is:
Absolute permeability:
=
0
= 4 10
7
H
m
Unit of the magnetic ux density/Einheit der magnetischen Flussdichte:
[B] = [] [H] =
V s
Am

A
m
=
V s
m
2
= T Tesla
The magnetic ux density transforms to the magnetic ux in the same style as it
can be done in the electric ow eld and the electrostatic eld.
Electrostatic Magnetic
Field Field
Flux density

D
_
As
m
2

B
_
V s
m
2
Relation to eld

D =

E

B =

H
Unit eld constant [] =
F
m
[] =
H
m
Flux =
__
A
Dd
A =
__
A
Bd
A
This leads to a .../Das f uhrt zum ...
Magnetic Flux: ... through the area A:
Magnetic ux:
=
__
A
Bd
A (3.11)
If one chooses a closed hull surface as area A(like in the case of the electric eld),
one will get:
__

Bd
A = 0
This means: The magnetic eld lines are closed (contrary to the electric eld).
All eld line which enter the hull, must leave it at an other place.
Is the magnetic ux perpendicular/orthogonal to the area A, then it is:
3.5. MATTER INSIDE THE MAGNETIC FIELD 103
=
_
A
BdA
Is furthermore, the ux constant over the area A, the formula is even easier:
= B A (3.12)
If this ux is bound in a ring core, one will speak of an unbranched magnetic
circuit. The ux is constant in such a circuit (equivalent to the unbranched electric
circuit).
= const. (3.13)
Units of Magnetic Field Quantities:
old ones
[H] =
A
m
1 Oersted =
10
3
4

A
m
[B] =
V s
m
2
= T (Tesla) 1 Gau = 10
4 V s
m
2
[] = V s = Wb (Weber) 1 Maxwell = 10
8
V s
[
0
] =
s
m
=
H
m
3.5 Matter inside the Magnetic Field
In equation B = H is:
Permeability/Permeabilit at:
=
0

r
(3.14)
Here is:
: Permeability
0
: Permeability of free space
r
: Relative Permeability = f(matter)
If one inserts different matter into a magnetic eld, one can see, that only a few
materials (e.g. iron, nickel, some alloys) will be affected by a force. The most
materials will nearly not be affected (can only be measured by means of very
sensitive instruments). These tiny force can be attraction or repulsion. The reasons
lie in the atomic structure or in the crystal structure.
Three groups of magnetic materials can be distinguished:
Diamagnetic Materials: (
r
< 1, e.g. 0,9999); z.B. Ag, Cu, H
2
O, glas. The dia-
magnetic effect is valid for all materials. The electrons circulating around
the atom core are the cause of magnetic elds (which compensates each
other for the outside world). If an external magnetic eld exists, there will
arise additional magnetic moments, which counteract to the external eld.
This effect is weak, which can be seen at the
r
which is just slightly below
1,0. Diamagnetic Materials will be repulsed in a magnetic eld.
Paramagnetic Materials: (
r
> 1, e.g. 1,00001); e.g. air, Si, Al. The atoms
of paramagnetic materials do have even without an external magnetic eld
own magnetic moments (small). These originates from the paths of the
electrons around the atom core and from the own spin. These moments do
have different directions and compensate each other for the outside world.
An external eld is able to align these moments. Because of superposition,
the eld will be strengthened. This effect more than compensates the dia-
magnetic effect. Paramagnetic Materials will be attracted by a magnetic
eld.
Ferromagnetic Materials: (
r
>> 1, e.g. 10 000); e.g. iron, Co, Ni, various
alloys. In general, is 10 <
r
< 10
5
. The value
r
depends on the magnetic
eld strength and the history. In the Weiss Domains (10
3
10
1
mm
3
),
the atoms inuence each other and its magnetic moments align to the same
direction. In an unmagnetized material, the allignments of these Weiss Do-
mains are statistical distributed and compensate each other.
If one applies an external magnetic eld, this domains will align to this eld
and amplify the summed eld (orders of magnitude) until saturation to
0
.
The dependency of the magnetic ux density B from the magnetic eld strength
H (in ferromagnetic materials) can be described by means of the magnetisation
curve.
Here is:
B
r
Remanence (residual magnetism): The material behaves like a magnet with-
out an external megnetic eld.
H
c
Coercive Field Strength: A eld strength of H
c
is necessary to remove the
magnetic bahaviour of the material.
The permeabillity =
B
H
(slope of the magnetisation curve) is a funktion of H.
Magnetisation Curves: of normal dynamo plates (cast steel), medium alloyed
plates and gray iron/von normalem Dynamoblech bzw. Stahlguss, mittelstark
legiertem Blech und Grauguss:
Magnetic Hard and Soft Matter:
Magnetic soft iron: H
c
small (ca. 3 - 100 A/m); Application: dynamo plates,
laminations
Magnetic hard iron: H
c
high (ca. 5000 - 200000 A/m); Application: permanent
magnets
In an iron-core coil, the permeabillity is a function of the magnetic eld strength
(and so of the current ow). This causes a variable inductivity of the iron-core
coil (function of the current).
Hysteresis Losses: There will be energy collected per loop around the hystere-
sis. The energy corresponds to the area spanned by the hysteresis loop. This
energy will be transformed into heat and are the hysteresis losses. The unit test
shows, that the area inside the loop is of dimension enrgy/volume.
[B] [H] =
V s
m
2

A
m
=
Ws
m
3
=
Energie
V olumen
This leads to:
1. The hysteresis loss increases with the strength of the magnetic eld (excita-
tion).
2. The hysteresis loss increases with the frequency (the hysteresis loop will be
circulated more often).
3.6 Magnetic Field at Boundaries
In the example is
2
= 3
1
.
For the calculation of the incident angle and emergent angle of a eld line, one
have think about:
1. Because of

B =

H, the direction of the vectors

B and

H must be the
same on both sides of the boundary.
2. We look on a single area element A of the boundary. The magnetic ux
through it (orthogonal to the surface) is constant:
1
=
2
. It is =
BA, and Ais the same; so, the ux densities (only the orthogonal/normal
components) on both sides must be equal:
B
N1
= B
N2
(1)
3. On the surface, the magnetic eld is not allowed to make a jump (no current
ows). So,
H
T1
= H
T2
(2)
The incident- and emergent angles on both sides can be calculated:
tan(
1
) =
H
T1
H
N1
tan(
2
) =
H
T2
H
N2
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
=
H
T1
H
N2
H
N1
H
T2
With (2):
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
=
H
N2
H
N1
3.6. MAGNETIC FIELD AT BOUNDARIES 109
From (1):
1
H
N1
=
2
H
N2
2
=
H
N2
H
N1
=
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
2
=
tan(
1
)
tan(
2
)
(3.15)
This equation shows the behaviour of the practical important boundary air/iron;
differs by orders of magnitude.
Ex. 3.6.1. Draw and calculate the eld line vectors at the transition air/low car-
bon steel (
r
= 5 10
3
) for an incident angle in air of
1
= 10
:
2
= 89, 9
and
1
= 1
:
2
= 89, 3
.
tan(
2
) =
tan(
1
)
2
1
Magnetic Shielding: e.g. hollow iron sphere in a homogenous magnetic eld:
Acc. refraction law: deection of the eld lines towards the iron bound-
ary. The remaining eld in the inner volume decreases with an increasing
thickness of the iron and with
r
of the material.
Sphere of copper: parallel eld lines will nearly not be inuenced and cross
the shere without change.
The shielding of magnetic elds is more difcult, than the shielding of electric
elds (shielding of electromagnetic waves by means of a combination of iron and
copper).
3.7 Magnetic Circuit
The magnetic circuit leads the magnetic ux . Ideally, no eld lines will be lost;
= const.
3.7.1 Unbranched Circuit
The laws of magnetic circuits will be derived by means of a iron core consisting
of parts of different dimensions and a air gap.
3.7. MAGNETIC CIRCUIT 111
Calculate the magnetic eld strength, the magnetic ux density and the magnetic
ux in all four parts. Known is:
magnetomotive force =
N i =
0

r
circuital law =
_
s
Hds ux: =
_
A
Bd
A B A
ux density

B =

H = const
For Amperes Circuital Law, a central eld line for the closed path s will be
choosen. It is

H||ds and H piece-wise constant; so:
=
_

Hds = =
_
Hds =
_
s
1
H
1
ds +
_
s
2
H
2
ds +
_
s
3
H
3
ds +
_
s
4
H
4
ds
= H
1
s
1
+ H
2
s
2
+H
3
s
3
+H
4
s
4
So, (with eq. 3.5) Amperes Circuital Law will become:
Simplied Amperes circuital law/Vereinfachtes Durchutungsgesetz:
=
j
N
j
I
j
=
i
H
i
s
i
(3.16)
With/Mit:
B
i
=

A
i
and/und
H
i
=
B
i
i
=

i
A
i
Put into eq./Einsetzen in 3.16:
=

1
A
1
s
1
+ +

n
A
n
s
n
= (
s
1
1
A
1
+ +
s
n
n
A
n
) = (R
M,1
+ +R
M,n
)
General:
Unbranched magnetic circuit/Unverzweigter magnetischer Kreis:
=
n
i=1
R
M,i
(3.17)
This formulation of Amperes Circuital Law is also called: mesh rule of the
magnetic circuit.
The product R
M
is called magnetic voltage V
m
.
V
m
= R
M
= H
i
s
i
The sum of all magnetic voltages is equal to the magnetomotive force. For every
part of the magnetic circuit exists a magnetic reluctance:
Magnetic reluctance/Magnetischer Widerstand:
R
M
=
s
0

r
A
(3.18)
There are analogies:
Electric Magnetic
Circuit Circuit
U cause for I,
I constant in unbranched circuit
R R
M
G =
1
R

M
=
1
R
M
magnetic permeance
U = I R = R
M
This leads to:
Theorem. The same rules as for electric circuits are valid for magnetic circuits.
Units: -
[] = A [R
M
] =
[]
[]
=
A
V s
=
1
s
=
1
H
= V s
M
= H
There exists a so called core factor: A
L
=
L
N
2
Ex. 3.7.1. Given is a iron core with a tiny air gap/Gegeben ist ein Eisenkern mit
einem schmalen Luftspalt:
Calculate
the ux,
the ux density,
the magnetic eld strength.
data for the iron and the air gap:
windings N = 10
current I = 1A
center eld line length in iron: 10cm
air gap length 1mm
cross-section area of the iron 0, 8cm
2

r
= 1000
How will the values change, if the air gap reduces to zero?
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 0, 8 0, 001
Fe. 0, 8 0, 10
MMF:
= N I = 10A
reluctance/Widerstand:
R
M1
=
s
1
r
A
=
0, 1m
4 10
7
H
m
1000 0, 8 10
4
m
2
10
6
A
V s
R
M2
=
s
2
0
A
=
0, 001m
4 10
7
H
m
0, 8 10
4
m
2
10 10
6
A
V s
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 0, 8 0, 001 10
Fe. 0, 8 0, 10 1
ux (const.)/Flu ss (const.):
=

R
M,i
=
10A
11 10
6
A
V s
= 0, 9090 10
6
V s
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 0.9090 0, 8 0, 001 10
Fe. 0.9090 0, 8 0, 10 1
ux density/Fludichte:
B =

A
=
0, 9090 10
6
V s
0, 8 10
4
m
2
= 1, 13636 10
2
V s
m
2
= 1, 13636 10
2
T
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 0.9090 0, 8 0, 0114 0, 001 10
Fe. 0.9090 0, 8 0, 0114 0, 10 1
eld strength/Felds arke:
H
1
=
B
r
=
1, 13636 10
2 V s
m
2
4 10
7
H
m
1000
=
1, 13636 10
2 V s
m
2
4 10
7
V s
A
m
1000
= 9, 04
A
m
H
2
=
B
0
=
1, 13636 10
2 V s
m
2
4 10
7
H
m
= 9, 04 10
3
A
m
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 0.9090 0, 8 0, 0114 9, 04 0, 001 10
Fe. 0.9090 0, 8 0, 0114 0, 009 0, 10 1
air gap gets zero/Luftspalt geht gegen Null:
R
M2
= 0
R
M
= R
M1
=

R
M
=
10A
10
6
A
V s
= 10
5
V s
B
A
=
10
5
V s
0, 8 10
4
m
2
= 0, 125T
H
=
B
r
= 99, 5
A
m
3.7.2 Branched Magnetic Circuit
Similar to the current in an electric circuit, the node rule is valid for magnetic cir-
cuits / Wie f ur den Strom im elektrischen Kreis gilt f ur den Fluss im magnetischen
Kreis die Knotenregel::
2
+
3
= 0
i
= 0 (3.19)
Ex. 3.7.2. Calculate on different ways the ux (generally), if the MMF and
the three reluctances are given / Man berechne auf unterschiedliche Arten in dem
nebenstehenden verzweigten magnetischen Kreis allgemein die Fl usse in den drei
Schenkeln, wenn die Durchutung und die magnetischen Widerst ande der drei
Zweige gegeben sind.
Equivalent circuit / Ersatzschaltbild:
... the equivalent circuit will become /... der Ersatzschaltkreis wird:
Kirchhoff:
mesh 1:
R
M,2

2
R
M,1

1
= 0
mesh 2:
R
M,2

2
R
M,3

3
= 0
node A:
3
= 0
Three equations for three unknown variables,
1
,
2
,
3
.
Faster:
1
=

R
M,1
+
R
M,2
R
M,3
R
M,2
+R
M,3
current divider:
2
=
1
R
M,3
R
M,2
+ R
M,3
and
3
=
1
2
If only
3
is needed - loaded current divider:
3
=
R
M,2
R
M,1
R
M,2
+R
M,1
R
M,3
+ R
M,2
R
M,3
Ex. 3.7.3. An iron core is build up of iron plates, the ll factor is F = 0, 92. The
leakage can be neglected. The windings are N = 1000. / Der Eisenkern ist aus
Elektroblech geschichtet, wobei sich ein F ullfaktor F=0,92 ergibt. Die Streuung
und die Luftspaltaufweitung sind zu vernachl assigen. Die Windungszahl der Spule
ist N = 1000.
Calculate: central path length in iron and air gap
Calculate: reluctance of the air gap
Calculate: caracteristic curve = f(V
m
) of the iron core
1.)
l
Eisen
= 4 75mm0, 5mm 300mm
A
air
= 25mm 25mm = 625mm
2
A
Fe
= 25mm 25mm 0, 92 = 575mm
2
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 6, 25 0, 0005
Fe. 5, 75 0, 30
2.)
R
M
=
l
Luft
0
A
Luft
=
0, 5 10
3
m
4 10
7
H
m
625 10
6
m
2
= 636, 62 10
3
1
H
part /10
6
V s A/10
4
m
2
B/T H/
kA
m
l/m V
m
/A R
m
/
MA
V s
gap 6, 25 0, 0005 0, 637
Fe. 5, 75 0, 30
3.) Characteristic curve:
= B A =
0

r
H A
Eisen
V
m
=
2
_
1
H ds = H l
Eisen
H =
V
m
l
Eisen
=
0

r
V
m
l
Eisen
A
Eisen
3.8. FORCE IN MAGNETIC FIELDS 119
3.8 Force in Magnetic Fields
3.8.1 Field between Magnetic Poles
Force (without derivation)/ Kraft (ohne Herleitung):
F =
B
2
A
2
0
(3.20)
Write eq. 3.20 as unit equation and prove, that the resulting unit is the unit of
force.
[F] =
V
2
s
2
m
2
m
4
V s
A
m
1
=
V As
m
=
Ws
m
= N
Calculate the energy to spend for moving the poles apart along the way ds (with
constant magnetic fux density B):
W = F s =
BBAs
2
0
W =
BHV
2
(3.21)
3.8.2 Force on a Conductor with Current Flow
Known from Physics: Force on a moving charge (Lorentz Force) in a magnetic
eld / Aus Physik bekannt: Kraft auf bewegte Ladung (Lorentzkraft) im Magnet-
feld:
It is: F v, F B and F Q
Movement into eld direction causes no force on the charge; movement perpen-
dicular to the eld direction causes a maximal force on the charge. This means,
only the velocity component perpendicular to the magnetic ux density vector

B
contributes to the force.
Magnitude of the force / Betrag der Kraft:
F = Q B v sin() (3.22)
The general description of the Lorentz force is: Die allgemeine Formulierung der
Lorentzkraft ist:
F =

t
(Q
l)

B
=
_
Q
t

l +Q

l
t
_

B
=
_
Q
t

l

B
_
+
_
Q

l
t

B
_
=
Q
t
_
l

B
_
+ Q
_
l
t

B
_
= i(t)
_
l

B
_
+ Q
_
v
q

B
_
= v
_
J

B
_
+Q
_
v
q

B
_

F: Lorentzkraft / Lorentz force

l: Leiter mit Stromussrichtung im Magnetfeld / conductor with current
ow direction in the magnetic eld

B: Magnetische Fludichte / magnetic ux density
l
t
= v
q
: Geschwindigkeit der Ladungen im Magnetfeld / speed of the
charges in the magnetic eld
i(t) =

J

A
wire
und

A
wire
l = v: stromdurchossenes Volumen / volume

with current ow; i(t)
l = v

J
So, the Lorentz force can be applied with the existence of a wire and current
ow (rst term) and with pure charges ying through a magnetic eld (second
term). Damit beschreibt die Lorentzkraft das Verhalten von stromdurchossenen
Leitern im Magnetfeld und auch das Verhalten von frei iegenden Ladungen im
Magnetfeld.
If a solid metal bar will be moved with a constant speed to the right, the solid
bar slides on metall wires which will be attached to a very high ohmic voltage
meter, the speed of the positive charges inside the wire (counter part of electrons)
together with the magnetic eld results in a Lorentz force affecting the positive
charges. The charges will be moved to the top of the metal bar and will be col-
lected there (no current possible because of the innite high impedance) - the
electrons will be collected at the bottom of the bar.
If the the impedance will be reduced, so that a current through the voltage
meter can ow, the current ow through the bar of length

l, together with the
magnetic eld, will result in a Lorenz force to the left side affecting all of the
positive charges in the bar, which will slow down the whole wire bar (brake).
The direction of the force will ip if one of the quantities Q, B or v changes its
sign. One gets the direction by means of the Right-Hand-Rule (the three vectors
v,

B and

F form a orthogonal system).
Force Direction for Q > 0:
orthogonal system of the three vectors right hand
v Cause (only effective components
B) Thumb
B eld forenger
F effect middle nger

Norm and direction of the Lorentz Force can be seen by means of the vector
product:
F = Q (v

B)
Application of the Lorentz Force:
1. Deection of electrons in a TV-tube (not oscilloscope; cause here is an elec-
tric eld:

F = Q

E)
2. Deection of charged particles in the terrestrial magnetic eld: northern
lights.
3. Hall probe: ...
The hall probe is a n-doped semiconductor. There exists a magnetic eld.
A current I will be applied (direction: from behind to the front). The free
electrons will be deviated to the right side. This causes an increasing electric
eld

E. Additional, to the Lorentz Force, a force component caused by

E
must be added. hall voltage
F
Lor
=

F
E
e v B = e E
E = v B =
I
A n e
B
U
H
=
_
Eds = b E = b
I
b d n e
B =
1
d n e
I B
The hall probe can be used to measure a B-eld. The principle can be seen
in the following gure. By means of the Lorentz Force, the backwards mov-
ing electrons will be deected to the bottom. The result will be a negative
charged carrier coating on the bottom and a positive charged coating on the
upper side. This separated charges cause an electric eld E; which will in-
crease until the Lorenz Force and the electric force are equal. Then, the
electrons ow on a streight line through the semiconductor material and the
voltage between the upper plate surface und the lower plate surface stabilize
and can be measured (Hall Voltage).
The hall effect is valid in all conductors, but can be measured better in semicon-
ductors (lower charge density and so higher drift velocity at constant current). If
there are equal numbers of positive and negative charge carriers there, the effect
is not visible from outside, because it will be compensated.
Force on a Conductor with Current Flow:
Will a wire with current ow be inserted into a magnetic eld, then the magnetic
eld lines (external eld and resulting from current ow) must be superimposed.
The eld line desity changes; with this, the direction of force can be determined.
Here also, the three values:

I; Current

B; Flux density

F; Force
build a orthogonal system.
The norm of the force can be calculated by means of the Lorentz Force / Der
Betrag der Kraft ergibt sich uber die Lorentzkraft:
During a time intervall t is
Q = I t
Put into eq. 3.22
F = Q B v = I t B
l
t
sin()
Lorenz force / Lorenzkraft:
F = I B l sin() (3.23)
Application: motors, moving coil measurement instrument. / Anwendung: Mo-
toren und Drehspulmesswerk. A rotatable wire loop is in a hmogenous magnetic
eld / Eine drehbare Drahtschleife bendet sich im homogenen Magnetfeld:
In a moving coil instrument, a balanced state between the electric moment of
torque and a spring constant will be reached. The resulting angle is proportional
to the current.
In a motor: In an upright position of the loop, the current will reverse its
polarity (commutator). This reverses the direction of force.
3.8.3 Force between two Conductors with Current Flow
Assumptions:
wire length l >> s
wire radius r << s
wire 1 and wire 2 parallel
Calculation of the Norm of the Force on Conductor 2: Collect equations /
Zun achst werden einige Formeln gesammelt:
Acc. eq. 3.7:
H
1
=
I
1
2s
Acc. eq. 3.10:
B
1
=
0
H
1
=

0
I
1
2s
Acc. eq. 3.23:
F
2
= I
2
B
1
l = I
2

0
I
1
2s
l
F
2
=

0
I
1
I
2
l
2s
(3.24)
Calculation of the force on wire 1 will deliver the same result.
Direction of the Force:
Currents in the same direction (e.g. Trafo, coil): attraction
Currents in opposite directiong: repulsion
Ex. 3.8.1. Relay:
Given: A
Fe
= 1cm
2
, A
Luft
= 5cm
2
, l
Fe
= 0, 2m, l
Luft
= 0, 3mm,
r
= 2000,
N = 1000 und I = 0, 24A.
Needed: F
= N I = 240A
R
M,Fe
=
l
Fe
r
A
Fe
=
2 10
1
m
410
7
H
m
2000 1 10
4
m
2
=
1
410
7
H
= 79, 5 10
4
A
V s
R
M,Luft
=
l
Luft
0
A
Luft
=
3 10
4
m
410
7
H
m
5 10
4
m
2
= 47, 7 10
4
A
V s
R
M,ges
= 127, 2 10
4
A
V s
=

R
M,ges
=
240A
127, 2 10
4
A
V s
= 1, 89 10
4
V s
B
L
=

A
Luft
=
1, 89 10
4
V s
5 10
4
m
2
= 0, 38T
F =
B
2
A
Luft
2
0
=
(0, 38T)
2
5 10
4
m
2
2 4 10
7
H
m
= 0, 0287 10
3
N = 28, 7N
Ex. 3.8.2. Lifting magnet:
Given: F = 100N, l
Luft
= 1mm,
r
= 2000, N = 1000.
Needed: I to generate the needed force.
F =
B
2
A
x
2
0
The area of the air gap is:
A
Luft,halb
= 20mm 20mm = 400mm
2
= 4 10
4
m
2
A
Luft,ganz
= 20mm 20mm 2 = 8 10
4
m
2
B
Luft
=
2
0
F
A
Luft,ganz
=
2 100
V As
m
4 10
7
V s
Am
8 10
4
m
2
= 0, 56T
The ux is constant inside the magnetic circuit (iron and air), so only one cross-
section:
= B A
Luft,halb
= 0, 56
V s
m
2
4 10
4
m
2
= 2, 24 10
4
V s
R
M
= 2
l
Luft
0
A
Luft,halb
+
l
Eisen
r
A
Eisen
A
Luft,ganz
= 2A
Luft,halb
= 2A
Eisen
R
M
=
4 l
Luft
0
A
Luft,ganz
+
2 l
Eisen
r
A
Luft,ganz
=
2
0
A
Luft,ganz
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
=
10
8
16
(2 + 0, 16)
A
V s
= 4, 3 10
6
A
V s
= R
M
= 2, 24 10
4
V s 4, 3 10
6
A
V s
= 963A
I =

N
= 0, 963A
... is necessary to generate the force F = 100N.
If there is now a constant magnetomotive force (Durchutung) of 1000A, how
can the function F = f(l
Luft
) be written?
R
M
=
2
0
A
Luft,ganz
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
and
B
Luft
=
2
0
F
A
Luft,ganz
= R
M
= B
Luft
A
Luft,halb
R
M
= B
Luft
A
Luft,ganz
2
R
M
=
2
0
F
A
Luft,ganz
A
Luft,ganz
2

2
0
A
Luft,ganz
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
=
0
A
Luft,ganz
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
F =
0
A
Luft,ganz
2
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
F =

2

0
A
Luft,ganz
2
_
2 l
Luft
+
l
Eisen
r
_
2
Chapter 4
Stationary Electrical Flow Field
Until now: Behaviour of a ow through linear wires
Now: Behaviour of a ow through arbitrary formed conductors
4.1 Current Density
The characteristic of a stationary electrical ow is:
di
dt
= 0
... but
i =
dQ
dt
= 0
There ows a constant amount of electric charges per time unit.
Homogeneous Flow:
A constant electrical power will be transportet. For d = const and = const, the
current density is:
J =
I
A
= const
133
134 CHAPTER 4. STATIONARY ELECTRICAL FLOW FIELD
4.1.1 New Terms
Flow Lines: direction of the charge ow at every spacial point P(x, y, z)
Current Density Vector

J: vector, which describes the current density completely
Norm: of the current density in P(x, y, z)
Direction: of the ow lines in P(x, y, z)
Flow Field: Field of current density vectors in all P(x, y, z); vector eld
Field examples:
vector eld: gravitation eld of the earth
scalar eld: temperature in a room (spacial distribution)
Homogeneous Flow: vector

J = f(x, y, z), this means, there is the same norm
and direction in every spacial point
In-Homogeneous Flow: either is:
1. |
J| = f(x, y, z) or
2. direction

J is not equal in all points or
3. 1 + 2 together
Ex. 4.1.1. In the shown conductor is a in-homogeneous ow.
It is impossible to store charges in a conductor, so it is: I
1
= I
2
.
Because of

J = f(x, y, z) the equation I = J A is not true any longer. The
current I is now the sum of the currents through the area elements A.
4.1. CURRENT DENSITY 135
4.1.2 Current at Angular Flow
General computation of the current with angular ow.
For the calculation of the ow, the area will be represented by an area vector.
Area Vector

A:
Norm: ... corresponds to the area
Direction: ... of the area normal
To the ow through an area, only the normal component contributes

J
n
:
I =

J

A = |
A| |
J| cos = |
A| |
J
n
|
Scalar product!
Flow through an area
A:
I =

J

A
Flow through the complete area A:
I =
I =

J

A
For

A

dA the ow through an area element

dA is:
dI =

J

dA
and the complete current through the area

A:
Current Density / Stromdichte:
I =
_
A
J

dA (4.1)
The current density distribution J(x, y, z) can be arbitrary.
Ex. 4.1.2. In-Homogeneous ow eld:
Between the metall zylinders is a not good conducting medium.
Description with cylindrical coordinates r, , z:
|
J| = f(r)
|
J| = f()
|
J| = f(z)
Because of symmetry reasons, the current density through a virtual internal zylin-
der with radius r is:
I =
_
A
J

dA
4.2. OHMS LAW IN ELECTRICAL FLOW FIELD 137
J is parallel to

dA (orthogaonal to the surface of the area element)
I =
_
A
JdA
because S depends only on r ...
= J
_
r
dr = J 2lr
J =
I
2lr
The current density is the same on every point of the zylinder and orthogonal to
the zylinder surface. So, there can be no voltage drop along the zylinder sur-
face; which means, at every point of the surface is the same potential. This is a
equipotential surface.
Equipotential Surface: surfaces of the same potential, which can be referenced
on an arbitrary point. Good conducting surfaces (borders) are always equipo-
tential surfaces. The equipotential surfaces are at every point orthogonal to
the current ow.
Ex. 4.1.3. Between the plates of the capacitor are equipotential surfaces.
4.2 Ohms Law in Electrical Flow Field
In a conductor with current ow, a volume element will be regarded
dV = dA dx
If this element is small enough, then inside the element will be a homogenous
ow.
Resistance between the ends acc. (R =
l
A
):
R =
dx
dA
Ohms law:
dU = R dI =
dx
dA
dI
dU
dx
=
dI
dA
It is:
E||dx U =
_
Edx E =
dU
dx
J||d
A I =
_
JdA J =
dI
dA
ll in above ...
E = J
This norm equation can be written as vector equation because the eld strength
vector shows in direction of the current:
Field strength - Current density / Feldst arke - Stromdichte:
E =
J (4.2)
J =
E
4.2. OHMS LAW IN ELECTRICAL FLOW FIELD 139
Here is the specic resistance and the specic conductance.
Ex. 4.2.1. Between two concentrically arranged thin metall spheres (electrodes)
with radii r
1
= 50mm and r
2
= 75mm is a bad conducting material with the
specic resistance = 10
9
m.
1. What is the resistance between the electrodes?
2. What is the electrical eld strength on the surface of the inner and outer
spheres. The voltage between the electrodes is 1000V ?
1.)

E , r and

J show radial outwards (sperical symmetric). We look for
R = U/I. So, it would be good to look for U and I.
J(r) =
I
A
Kugel
=
I
4r
2
all vectors parallel
E = J
E(r) =
I
4r
2
U
12
=
2
_
1
Edr =
2
_
1
Edr
U
12
=
r
2
_
r
1

I
4r
2
dr =
I
4
r
2
_
r
1
1
r
2
dr
=
I
4

_
1
r
_
r
2
r
1
=
I
4

_
1
r
1
1
r
2
_
R =
U
12
I
=

4

_
1
r
1
1
r
2
_
Look for the limits:
r
2
: R =

4r
1
Because in the outer region, the current density and
so the eld strength will be 0. dU 0
r
1
0:
1
r
1
. The area through which the current ows 0 I
0 and R
2.) Approach:
E =
I
4r
2
I is unknown, but U and R ... with
U
12
= R I
E =
U
12
R4r
2
put in R ...
E =
U
12
4

_
1
r
1
1
r
2
_
4r
2
E(r) =
U
12
r
1
r
2
r
2
(r
2
r
1
)
On the surface of the inner sphere (r = r
1
, outer side of the metall):
E(r
1
) =
U
12
r
1
r
2
r
2
1
(r
2
r
1
)
=
1000V 75mm
25mm 50mm
= 60
V
mm
On the surface of the outer sphere (r = r
2
, inner side of the metall):
E(r
2
) =
U
12
r
1
r
2
r
2
2
(r
2
r
1
)
=
1000V 50mm
25mm 75mm
= 26, 7
V
mm
Chapter 5
Induction
Theorem. -:
Induction: Voltage generation by means of a time-variant magnetic
eld.
Until now: Cause I H B , and all quantities are constant.
From now on: Cause
d
dt
U I, the current only ows if the circuit is closed.
The conductor moves or the eld is time-variant.
5.1 Induction Law
The induction of a voltage (in a conductor assembly) will be described by means
of a changing magnetic eld. The derivation of the formulas can start at two
different assumptions (with the same result):
Induction by movement: The conductor assembly will be moved within
a stationary magnetic eld or the magnetic eld will be moved against a
stationary conductor assembly.
Induction by time-variant elds: Nothing will be moved; the magnetic
eld is time-variant.
5.1.1 Induction by Movement
Moved Conductor in a Magnetic Field
There is a well known experiment for the induction law - Fig. 5.1. A conductor
(wire) with length l will be moved in a constant magnetic eld B with the speed
141
142 CHAPTER 5. INDUCTION
Figure 5.1: Moved Conductor in a Magnetic eld / Bewegter Leiter imMagnetfeld
v during the time dt along the way ds. So, the charges inside the conductor will
be moved. This conductor together with the wires to the voltmeter (ideal, with
internal resistance ) can be seen as a conductor loop. On the free charges inside
the moving conductor, the lorentz force will operate:
F = Q (v

B)
The quotient of force vector and charge is an electrical eld strength. If it
is excited by a movement of charges in a magnetic eld, it will be called
induced inner electric eld strength E
i
with the same direction as

F:
E
i
=
F
Q
= v

B
... magnitudes ...
F
magn
= Q B v = Q B
ds
dt
(= Q E
i
E
i
= B v)
Here, v,

B and

F are an orthogonal system.
The force has its origin in the induced electric eld E
i
, which causes a
force on positive charges (with upside direction) and which is the cause for
a possible current ow (closed wire).
The positive charges will be collected at backside/top boundary of the con-
ductor,
5.1. INDUCTION LAW 143
the negative charges at the frontside/bottom boundary.
These charges causes an electric eld E
0
outside the conductor.
This eld, from the positive charges to the negative, also existst inside
the conductor directed opposite to E
i
.
Because of the shift (separation) of the charges, an electro-static eld will be
generated, the outer eld E
0
. This eld causes a Coulomb-force on a charge:
F
el
= Q E
0
Because there is no current ow in the circuit, a balance of the forces will be
the result:
|F
magn
| = |F
el
|
or
Q B v = Q E
0
E
0
= B v = E
i
Here are

B homogenous,
v constant and

B orthogonal on v
So, both elds, E
0
and E
i
, have the same length:
|E
0
| = |E
i
|
If one integrates from the top boundary (point 1) to the bottom boundary (point
2), g. 5.1, across the eld strength E
0
, one will get the terminal voltage:
u
0
=
2
_
1
E
0
ds =
2
_
1
B vds = B v
2
_
1
ds = B v l
Generally, it is (with the angle between

B and v):
Inductive voltage - magnitude / Induktive Spannung - Betrag:
u
0
= B v l sin() (5.1)
This potential difference can not be proved with a coupled moving (with the con-
ductor) voltage meter; the charges in the voltage meter wires will also be moved
(inuenced by the magnetic eld) and neutralise each other.
The vectors are
u
0
=

E
0
l =
E
i
l
Inductive voltage - vectors / Induktive Spannung - Vektoren:
u
0
=
F
Q

l = (v

B)
l = (
B v)
l
If the speed of the conductor is time-variant, the terminal voltage u
0
will be time-
variant, also.
The voltage of E
0
is called inductive voltage, the voltage of E
i
is called in-
duced voltage.
Time-Variant Flux through a Loop Area
The induced voltage between both ends of the conductor bar in a magnetic eld,
can only be measured with a stationary voltage meter.
Now, the voltage meter in g. 5.1 remains at a xed position and the wires
are rails on which the conductor slides. So, the conducting, moving bar changes
the area of the complete conductor construction which will be penetrated by the
magnetic eld.
In time-interval dt, the area changes by
dA = ds l
or written as vectors
d
A = ds
l
With the velocity v =
ds
dt
it becomes:
d
A
dt
= v
l
The magnetic ux changes with the area of the loop ( is perpendicular to A
and so, only the normal component of

B, relative to A, is relevant).
d
dt
=

B
d
A
dt
=

B (v
l)
the cartesian product can be re-written:
B (v
l) = (
B v)
l
... and this is obviously the inductive voltage u
0
.
Inductive voltage:
u
0
= (
B v)
l =

B
d
A
dt
=
d
dt
5.1.2 Induction by Time-Variant Fields (Magnetic Flux)
In the experiment of chap. 5.1.1, the area of a closed loop has been varied through
a movement of the conductor bar; this resulted in a varying magnetic ux perpen-
dicular through the loop. If one sets v =
ds
dt
in eq. 5.1, one will get:
u
0
= B l
ds
dt
= B
l ds
dt
= B
dA
dt
=
d(B A)
dt
=
d
dt
The varying ux d (over time dt) causes a terminal voltage u
0
. This leads to the
general form of the ...
Induction Law: ... for one wire-loop:
Induction for one conductor loop / Induktionsspannung - eine Leiter-
schleife:
u
0
=
d
dt
(5.2)
Induction for N windings (with varying ux d) / Induktionsspannung
f u N Windungen (bei zeitver anderlichem Fluss):
u
0
= N
d
dt
(5.3)
The terminal voltage u
0
delivers the polarity, which can be seen on a measurement
instrument at open terminals. In physics the induction law, eq. 5.3, has a negative
sign. The reason is, that there the inner induced voltage u
i
is taken. So, in an
open-circuit condition u
i
= u
0
.
Theorem. -:
The direction of the current and the terminal voltage is given by Lenzs
Law: An induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose the
motion or change causing it.
Ex. 5.1.1. Simple conductor loop:
A wire without resistance has a terminal voltage u
0
which has equal magnitude
as the induced voltsge u
i
. If there is a resistance R
i
in the wire, the voltage drop
across it must be substracted from u
i
(if there is a current ow).
Rule. Right-hand-rule: The thumb shows in direction of the induced current, the
bent ngers show the direction of the generated magnetic eld eddies (,

B,

H).
Rule. Left-hand-rule: The thumb shows in direction of the change of the magnetic
ux dB/dt > 0, d/dt > 0, the bent ngers show the direction of the electric eld
strength of the induced eld

E
i
.
Because the loop act as a generator and the load resistance R as a load, fol-
lowing equivalent circuit can be constructed:
So, in the load-arrow-system is:
in generator: u
0
and i opposite direction,
in load: u and i same direction.
For a positive terminal voltage u
0
must be
d
dt
> 0; but itself can be negative:
In general is, every varying magnetic ux is surrounded by an electric eld which
strength is only zero in innity:
For the induction law (eq. 5.2. eq. 5.3), it doesnt matter at which distance the
wire loop is located around the varying magnetic ux. The induced voltage u
i
is
a result of the path integral
_

E
i
ds. While in a electro-static eld the eld lines
start and end at charges, are in case of a varying magnetic ux the electric eld
lines closed loops, the eddy-eld. The general relation between a time-variant
magnetic eld and an electric eld can be seen with eq. 5.2:
u
i
=
_

E
i
ds = u
0
=
d
dt
=
d
dt
_
A
Bd
A
This is the 2. Maxwells Equation (James Maxwell 1873), which together with
Amperes Circuital Law in its most general form, describe the propagation of
electro-magnetic waves:
2. Maxwells Equation:
_

E
i
ds =
d
dt
_
A
Bd
A (5.4)
Because of = B A or =
_

Bd
A there are (u
0
=
d
dt
=
d(BA)
dt
) two possibili-
ties for a varying ux:
1. Voltage because of movement
ux density B is constant
area A varies
d = B dA
(a) effective area: A = s l
(b) movement of the wire loop to the right side
(c) effective area decreases, this means
dA
dt
< 0
(d)
d
dt
< 0, B shown into the area, but decreases. This means d/dt >
0 comes out of the area (Left-Hand-Rule: Thumb upwards, E
i
and
current clock-wise).
(e) the current in the wire loop has a direction (Right-Hand-Rule), that
the ux
i
caused by it tries to strengthen the decreasing ux (acc.
Lenzs Law).
Question: Which direction would the current have (gure above), if the
wire loop is completely inside a homogenous eld?
i = 0 , da d = 0
Ex. 5.1.2. Give the direction of the current ow in the following gures:
2. Transformation voltage
area A is constant
ux density B varies
d = A dB
Left-Hand-Rule: B directs into the plane; dB/dt > 0 and so E
i
and so
i(t) counter-clock-wise
Right-Hand-Rule: i(t) ows downwards in the left wire-loop-part
i
ows out of the drawing plane (inside the wire loop) and ows into the
drawing plane (outside the wire loop) - weakening the magnetic eld.
Ex. 5.1.3. An air coil with N = 2500 windings and a cross-sectional area of
A = 10cm
2
is in a eld B (cross-sectional area ortogonal to the eld lines),
which increases linear 0, 1s from 0, 1 to 0, 5T. Calculate the voltage induced in
the coil (U
0
)?
u
0
= N
d
dt
= NA
dB
dt
= NA
B
t
= 25001010
4
m
2
0, 4V s
m
2
0, 1s
= 10V
Ex. 5.1.4. A wire loop with resistance R = 10m will be moved (v = 10cm/s)
through a constant eld of a permanent magnet (B = 1T). Calculate the function
i = f(x) with x as distance.
For 10cm x 20cm:
u
0
=
d
dt
= B
dA
dt
= B 10cm
dx
dt
= B 10cm v =
1
V s
m
2

0, 1m 0, 1m
s
= 10mV
i =
u
0
R
= 1A
Ex. 5.1.5. The fux density B increases in a ring-core with a diameter of 3, 57cm
in one second linear from 0T to 1T. Around the core is a closed wire loop. With
a milli-voltmeter will now the voltage be measured at different locations of the
wire loop. Which value van be seen for the different scenarios (take care of the
polarity)?
2.)
U
0
=
d
dt
=
B A
t
= A
B
t
= r
2

B
t
= 10cm
2
1V s
m
2
1s
= 1mV
5.1.3 Generation of Sinusoidal Voltages
The gure shows a wire-loop rotating in a magnetic eld

B. The area of the
wire-loop is A.
The magnetic ux density is assumed to be constant. The effective area of the
wire-loop (part perpendicular to the magnetic eld) is:
A
s
= A cos()
The angle is time dependent and changing with a constant speed. This results
in the angular speed:
(t)
2
=
t
T
(t) =
t 2
T
= t 2f = t
A
s
= A cos(t)
This could be used to calculate the induction:
u
ind
= n
d
dt
= 1
d(B A
s
)
dt
= B
A cos(t)
dt
= ABsin(t)
With more windings, the induced voltage is:
Sinusoidal Voltage (magnitude) / Sinusf ormige Wechselspannung (Be-
trag):
u
ind
= nBA sin(t) (5.5)
U = nBA
5.2. EDDY-CURRENT 155
5.2 Eddy-Current
5.2.1 Movement of a Metall Plate in a Magnetic Field
An Eddy-Current will occur if a metal plate moves relative to a magnetic eld
and so, the magnetic eld in the plate steadily changes. What is the cause of this
effect? Because of the movement through the magnetic eld, the Lorenz Force
affect the electrons of the metall, this causes a deviation of the electrons. The
deviation is according the 3-nger rule. From the metall parts, which are not in
the magnetic eld, electrons will be delivered. So, the magnetic eld induces a
current. The ongoing movement of the plate, causes a circular path of the electrons
- eddy-current.
As a model, the metall plate will be decomposed into many wire loops. So,
many part-currents emerge, which must be superimposed.
Movement of a plate to the side - eddy current:
induced voltage U v B
eddy-currents i
force F opposite the direction of movement (acc. 3-nger rule, Lenzs
law).
Applications:
Eddy-current retarder (vehicles, damping of moving-coil instruments)
Drive of the disc in an AC-meter: The eddy-currents (load current) caused
by a magnetic circuit causes in a eld of a second magnetic circuit ( load
voltage) a moment of force.
5.2.2 Eddy-Currents Caused by Flux Variations
Skin Effect
Skin Effect / Stromverdr angung
5.2. EDDY-CURRENT 157
1. step:
i is the cause;
di
dt
> 0
2. step:
a

H-eld emerges;
dH
dt
> 0 bzw.
d
dt
> 0
3. step:
a radial electrical eld emerges (direction?); (u
i
=
_

E
i
=
d
dt
)
4. step:
a radial current i
emerges (direction?)
5. step:
i

i
; according Lenzs Law gets i
a direction.
i
is opposite to the
cause H or .
Result (eddy-current because of variing ux):
in the center of the wire is i
opposite to i weakening of i
at the wire perimeter has i
the same direction as i amplication of i

the skin-effect increases with
d
dt
, this means with the frequency of the cur-
rent i(t)
Magnetic Circuit
The following gure shows a wire loop which contains a current i(t). In the center
is a iron core. Because of i(t) with
di
dt
> 0 emerges a magnetic ux (t) with
d
dt
> 0 in the iron core (the direction is marked with the x). The ux is directly
coupled to B and H. The time-variant magnetic ux causes a eddy-current i
(t)
in the iron (with opposite direction to i(t)). This eddy-current causes a magnetic
ux
(t) which has the opposite direction of (t).

The voltages induced by
d
dt
causes eddy-currents in the iron core, these are the
cause of losses (heat in the iron). This is the reason for using many thin layered
iron plates (isolated). The currents in these thin plates are much smaller than in a
thick iron block (because
d
dt
is smaller because of a smaller A).
So, solution:
Interruption of the current paths by means of thin isolated plates.
5.3 Self-Induction
Action order: Apply a voltage to a wire loop:
changing current in the conductor/wire
changing eld
dH
dt
due to Amperes Circuital Law and changing ux
induction of a voltage in the same wire according the induction law
... which leads us to the Inductivity ...
5.3. SELF-INDUCTION 159
5.3.1 Inductivity
The shown eld lines are H, B and .
This results, with DC and ...
1 winding: I = I H B
N windings: I = N I H
ges
= N H B
ges

ges
= N ;
the elds of all windings will be superimposed
For an air coil is:
ges
= N I
The proportionality factor is called: Inductivity Lor coefcient of self-induction.
So, it is:
N = L I
Inductivity / Induktivit at:
L =
N
I
=

ges
I
The inductivity L tells us which total ux
ges
emerges if a current I ows. So, it
is a measure of the self-induced voltage : ......
Self induced voltage / Selbst-induzierte Spannung:
u
0
=
d
ges
dt
= L
di(t)
dt
(5.6)
Here is L = f(Geometry, Material, Space), so L = f(R
M
). The unit is /
Einheiten:
[L] =
[]
[I]
=
[L] =
[]
[I]
=
V s
A
= s (Henry)
Ex. 5.3.1. Calculate the inductivity of a cylindrical coil. The eld inside the coil is
homogenous; this assumption becomes better, the bigger the fraction of the length
of the coil and the diameter of the coil is.
L =
N
I
=
N B A
I
=
N H A
I
According Amperes Circuital Law and for l >> d is the magnetic eld:
H =
N I
l
L =
N N I A
l I
this leads to the ...
Inductivity of a Cylindrical Coil: Length l >> d diameter:
Inductivity of a long cylindrical coil / Induktivit at einer langen Zylin-
derspule:
L =
N
2
A
l
(5.7)
If the cylindrical coil has an iron core, then it will be =
0

r
= f(I). This
means, the inductivity is dependent of the (through owing) current, too.
Ex. 5.3.2. Calculate the inductivity of a cylindrical coil with 25 windings and the
dimensions: l = 5cm, d = 0, 5cm (without and with iron core
r
= 1000).
Without iron core:
L =
25
2
4 10
7
s (0, 25cm)
2

10
2
cm 5cm
= 0, 3H
With iron core:
L
=
1000 25
2
4 10
7
s (0, 25cm)
2

10
2
cm 5cm
= 0, 3mH
Short Cylindrical Coils: If the condition of the length l >> d is not true:
Inductivity of a short cylindrical coil / Induktivit at einer kurzen Zylin-
derspule:
L = k
N
2
A
l
with the correction factor k. This can be taken from tables:
d/l 0 0,1 0,5 1 2 5 10
k 1 0,96 0,87 0,69 0,53 0,32 0,2
Inductivity of a Magnetic Circuit:
In the magnetic circuit is:
= N I =
R
M,i

N I
=
1
R
M,i
... expand with N
2
...
N
2
N I
=
1 N
2
R
M,i
... this looks like a inductivity if one reduces ...
N
I
= L =
N
2
R
M,i
Inductivity of a magnetic circuit / Induktivit at eines magnetischen
Kreises:
L =
N
2
R
M,i
= A
L
N
2
(5.8)
The value A
L
=
1
R
M,ges
will be called Inductivity Factor. This can be get from
tables for some coil bodies.
Ex. 5.3.3. Coil bodies / Spulenk orper:
The magnetic circuit in a coil body consists of both body halfes (ferrite). In the ex-
ample, one can also see an air gap. Often, coil bodies have a set-screw (of ferrite),
which is able to short-circuit the air gap more or less (change the inductivity).
The A
L
-value of such bodies is around 0, 5H to 10H (dependent of the
material).
Inductivity of a Two-Wire Line: It should be: l >> d
Procedure:
Assumption of a current I
Calculation of the ux (through the area between wires 1 and 2) caused
by I
L =

I
Field Strength and Flux Density at Point P:
H is circular wrapped around the wire. It is = N I = I =
_

Hds. The
path of the path integral is a circle around the wire (with radius x or (d x)).
H
1
=
I
2(d x)
B
1
=
0
H
1
H
2
=
I
2x
B
2
=
0
H
2
B
ges
= B
1
+B
2
=

0
I
2

_
1
d x
+
1
x
_
Complete Flux between both Wires:
ges
=
_
B
ges
dA
With dA = l dx:
ges
= l
_
B
ges
dx =

0
Il
2

dr
_
x=r
_
1
d x
+
1
x
_
dx
=

0
Il
2
[ln(d x) + ln(x)]
dr
r
=

0
Il
2
[ln(d d +r) + ln(d r) + ln(d r) ln(r)]
=

0
Il
2
[ln(d r) ln(r)] 2
=

0
Il
ln(
d r
r
)
One gets the outer inductivity:
With L =

ges
I
L
a
=

0
l
ln(
d r
r
)
... not including the ux inside the wire!
The inner inductivity of a wire is (without derivation):
L
i
=

0
l
8
= f(diameter)
ca. 0, 5nH/cm. So, the total inductivity of the two-wire system (take L
i
twice)
is:
L
ges
=

0
l

_
ln(
d r
r
) +
1
4
_
(5.9)
Ex. 5.3.4. Calculate the inner and outer inductivity of a two-wire system with
following dimensions: Length 1m, wire diameter 1mm, wire distance 5mm.
L
a
=

0
l
ln(
d r
r
) =
4 10
7
H 1m
m
ln(
4, 5
0, 5
) = 879nH
L
i
=

0
l
8
2 =
4 10
7
H 1m
m 4
= 100nH
5.3.2 Series/Parallel-Connection of Inductors
Series Connection
It is acc. eq. 5.6: u
0
= L
di
dt
derived with u
0
= N
d
dt
and L =
N
i
. So, it
becomes:
u
1
= L
1
di
dt
u
2
= L
2
di
dt

u = u
1
+ u
2
+ +u
n
= (L
1
+L
2
+ + L
n
)
di
dt
= L
ges
di
dt
L
ges
= L
1
+L
2
+ +L
n
it follows the ...
Total inductivity of a series connection / Reihenschaltung:
L
ges
=
n
i=1
L
i
(5.10)
Parallel Connection
u = L
1
di
1
dt
= L
2
di
2
dt
= = L
ges
di
dt
to get the sum of the currents, one have resolve the equation for the current
...
u dt = L
1
di
1
i
1
=
1
L
1
_
udt
i = i
1
+ i
2
+ +i
n
= (
1
L
1
+
1
L
2
+ +
1
L
n
)
_
udt =
1
L
ges
_
udt
1
L
ges
=
1
L
1
+
1
L
2
+ +
1
L
n
this delivers the ...
Total inductivity of the parallel connection / Parallelschaltung:
1
L
ges
=
n
i=1
1
L
i
(5.11)
It is always L
ges
< L
i,min
.
A parallel connection of two inductors can be calculated according:
1
L
ges
=
1
L
1
+
1
L
2
=
L
1
+L
2
L
1
L
2
Two inductors / Zwei Induktivit aten:
L
ges
=
L
1
L
2
L
1
+L
2
(5.12)
Ex. 5.3.5. Calculate the resulting equivalent inductivity of the following connec-
tions:
L
ges
= 1, 001H
L
ges
=
1mH 1H
1, 001H
1mH
L
ges
=
1H 1H
2H
= 0, 5H
1
L
ges
=
1
30mH
+
1
30mH
+
1
30mH
=
3
30mH
L
ges
= 10mH
5.4. MUTUAL-INDUCTION 167
5.4 Mutual-Induction
If there is a second inductor in the neighbourhood of a coil, a varying current
in the rst will induce a voltage in the second inductor. The other way round is
also true. This effect is called Mutual Induction. A mutual inuence caused by
magnetic elds is called Magnetic Coupling.
5.4.1 Current in Inductor 1
i
1
in inductor 1; i
2
= 0
The current i
1
causes a ux
1
=
12
+
s1
. Here is called:

12
fraction through inductors 1 and 2: main ux

s1
fraction only through inductor 1 but not through inductor 2: leakage
ux
The ux
1
generates a self-induction voltage in coil 1:
u
1
= N
1
d
1
dt
= L
1
di
1
dt
The ux
12
generates the mutual-induction voltage in inductor 2:
u
2
= N
2
d
12
dt
= M
12
di
1
dt
(5.13)
Here is called:
L1: Open-Circuit Inductivity ; this means, inductor 2 has no load (open cir-
cuit).
L
1
=
N
1
1
I
1
(5.14)
M12: Mutual Inductivity ; mutual inductivity of coil 1 to coil 2. In analogy to
N = L I, one calls the proportionality factor between total ux and the
generating current: Mutual Inductivity M:
N
2

12
= M
12
I
1
M
12
=
N
2
12
I
1
(5.15)
Ex. 5.4.1. There are N
1
= N
2
windings. Calculate the mutual inductivity at
1. complete coupling
12
=
1
(This means no leakage ux).
L
1
=
N
1
1
I
1
M
12
=
N
2
12
I
1
=
N
1
1
I
1
= L
1
2. part coupling
12
= 0, 5
1
?
M
12
=
N
2
12
I
1
=
N
1
0, 5
1
I
1
= 0, 5L
1
5.4. MUTUAL-INDUCTION 169
5.4.2 Current in Inductor 2
i
2
in coil 2; i
1
= 0
The current i
2
causes a ux
2
=
21
+
s2
. Analog is true for coil 2 for
the self-induction voltage, the mutual induction voltage and the mutual induction
M
21
:
u
2
= N
2
d
2
dt
= L
2
di
2
dt
u
1
= N
1
d
21
dt
= M
21
di
2
dt
M
21
=
N
1
21
I
2
(5.16)
5.4.3 Current in Both Inductors
If in both coils ow a current, then in both coils the self-induction voltage and the
mutual-induction voltage must be added:
Coupled set of equations - mutual induction:
u
1
= L
1
di
1
dt
+M
21
di
2
dt
(5.17)
u
2
= L
2
di
2
dt
+M
12
di
1
dt
A prerequisite for the signs in eq. 5.18 was, that in both coils, the voltage- and cur-
rent arrows have the same direction. And a positive i
1
and a positive i
2
generates
positive uxes (same direction). The windings have the same orientation.
With constant permeability is:
M
12
= M
21
= M (5.18)
5.5 Magnetic Coupling und Leakage
5.5.1 Magnetic Coupling
Needed: M = f(L
1
, L
2
)
It is (1):
Open-circuit inductances:
L
1
=
N
1
1
I
1
L
2
=
N
2
2
I
2
The coupling factor describes the
ux parts through the other coil:
k
1
=

12
1
k
2
=

21
2
Coupling included in (1) results in (2):
L
1
=
N
1
12
I
1
k
1
L
2
=
N
2
21
I
2
k
2
From eq. 5.15, 5.16 (3):
12
=
M
12
I
1
N
2
21
=
M
21
I
2
N
1
(3) in (2) results in (4a, 4b):
L
1
=
N
1
M
12
I
1
I
1
k
1
N
2
L
2
=
N
2
M
21
I
2
I
2
k
2
N
1
(4a) (4b) with eq. 5.18:
5.5. MAGNETIC COUPLING UND LEAKAGE 171
L
1
L
2
=
N
1
M
I
1
k
1
N
2
N
2
M
I
2
k
2
N
1
M
2
= k
1
k
2
L
1
L
2
With the total coupling factor
k =
_
k
1
k
2
(5.19)
results the ...
Mutual induction and coupling / Gegeninduktion und Kopplung:
M = k
_
L
1
L
2
(5.20)
5.5.2 Magnetic Leakage
Another quantity is the leakage factor:
1
=

s1
2
=

s2
2
(5.21)
Determination of the relationship of coupling factor and leakage factor:
k
1
=

12
1
=

1
s1
1
= 1
1
; k
2
= 1
2
(5.22)
In eq. 5.19:
k =
_
k
1
k
2
=
_
(1
1
)(1
2
)
k
2
= 1 (
1
+
2
1

2
) = 1
There is a total leakage factor:
=
1
+
2
1

2
(5.23)
Total leakage factor / Totaler Streufaktor:
= 1 k
2
(5.24)
So, it is in summary:
coup. f. leak. f. ux mutual ind.
no coupling k = 0 = 1
12
=
21
= 0 M = 0
complete coupling k = 1 = 0
s1
=
s2
= 0 M =
L
1
L
2
5.6 Leakage Free, Ideal Transformer
5.6.1 Leakage-Free, Loss-Free Transformer
The current through inductor 1 will be xed:
This results in a magnetic ux
1
in inductor 1
and because of the assumed ideal relations
is the coupled magnetic ux into the passive inductor 2
12
=
1
.
It is assumed a complete coupling: M =
L
1
L
2
, k = 1 ,
12
= 0 . The coils
have the same winding direction. The current i
2
will be needed temporarily. It
is:
u
1
= L
1
di
1
dt
+ M
di
2
dt
(5.25)
u
2
= L
2
di
2
dt
+ M
di
1
dt
Under load with a (ohmic) resistor, the arrows of the load arrow system have to
be applied.
u
2
= i
2
R
or u
2
= i
2
R with i
2
= i
2
5.6. LEAKAGE FREE, IDEAL TRANSFORMER 173
Leakage-Free, Loss-Free Transformer
Leakage free means k = 1, and loss-free means R
Cu
= 0, R
Fe
= 0.
Leakage-Free, Loss-Free Transformer / Streuungsfreier, verlustfreier
Ubertrager:
u
1
= L
1
di
1
dt
M
di
2
dt
(5.26)
u
2
= L
2
di
2
dt
+M
di
1
dt
M =
_
L
1
L
2
Input and Output Voltage: If there is no leaksge (means
s
= 0), the ux in
both coils will be equal:
1
=
2
=
So, the induced voltage is:
in coil 1:
u
1
= L
1
di
1
dt
M
di
2
dt
= L
1
di
1
dt
= N
1
1
The term with M can be neglected, because M
di
2
dt
= N
1

21
= 0, the
coupled ux from coil 2 onto coil 1 is not existing.
in coil 2:
u
2
= L
2
di
2
dt
+ M
di
1
dt
= M
di
1
dt
= N
2
12
= N
2
1
The term with L
2
can be neglected, because L
2
di
2
dt
= N
2
2
= 0 because
u
2
will be generated only from the coupled ux.
The voltages behave to each other like the windings of both coils:
Ideal transformer / idealer Transformator:
u
1
u
2
=
N
1
N
2
(5.27)
5.7 Overview: Stationary Fields
Flow Field Electric Filed
Feld
Magnetic Field
Field Vectors

E: el. eld
strength;

S: cur-
rent density
E: el. eld
strength;

D: el.
ux density
H: mg. eld
strength;

B: mg.
ux density
Combinations

S =

E

D =

E

B =

H
Proportionaly
factors
: specic con-
ductance; : spe-
cic resistance
=
0

r
: dielec-
tric constant
=
0

r
:
permeability
Current and Flux I =
_

Sd
A =
_

Dd
A =
_

Bd
A
Hull integrals
_

Sd
A = 0;
general node rule
_

Dd
A = Q;
included charge
_

Bd
A = 0; eld
lines are closed
Path integral U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds U
12
=
2
_
1
Eds =
_

Hds;
magnetic voltage
V
12
=
2
_
1
Hds
Resistance, Con-
ductance
Resistance R =
U
I
Capacity C =
Q
U
Inductivity L =
I
Field energy - W =
1
2
C U
2
W =
1
2
L I
2
Force

F = Q

E

F = Q

E

F = Q (v

B)
Time variant
quantities
u = i R i = C
du
dt
u = L
di
dt
5.8 Maxwells Equations
In this chapter, the so far seen relations will be combined to the Maxwells Equa-
tions.
If charges will not be moved, they will cause an electro-static eld in their
sourrounding.
5.8. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS 175
If charges will be moved in a DC-current, a static magnetic eld will be
generated, which can be described by the magnetomotive force:
I = =
_

Hds
(general form of the 1. Maxwell Equation)
If the current is time-variant (and so H according the magnetomotive force),
then it is (according the induction law)
u
i
=
_

E
i
ds =
d
dt
=
d
dt
_
A
Bd
A
(2. Maxwell Equation)
In a electro-static eld are the eld lines between the charges, the sources of the
eld. This results in the name Source-Field (no eddy-eld). Mathematical:
_

Dd
A = Q Q is the source
_

Eds = 0 no eddy
The magnetic eld has closed eld lines and no sources. It is called Eddy-Field.
Mathematical:
_

Bd
A = 0 source free
_

Hds = eddy-eld around
General Denition of the Magnetomotive Force: The magnetomotive force
is caused by a current through a conducting body. For this is:
i =
_

Jd
A
The current density is:
J =

E
If there is a capacitor in an AC-circuit, then an AC-current will ow through this
capacitor, even though the capacitor plates are insolated from each other.
The current through the not-conducting space betwen the plates, with the area
A, is called Displacement Current:
i =
dQ
dt
=
d
dt
_

Dd
A =
_
d
D
dt
d
A
d
D
dt
is the Displacement Current Density. The unit is:
_
dD
dt
_
=
As
m
2
s
=
A
m
2
= [S]
So, in an interrupted conducting circuit (by a capacitor), the current will continue
as displacemnet current. In a general way, the current is a superposition of con-
ducor current and displacement current:
i =
_

Jd
A +
_
d
D
dt
d
A =
_
_
J +
d
D
dt
_
d
A
The equation of the magnetomotive force in its most general form is the ...
1. Maxwell Equation:
1. Maxwell Equation / 1. Maxwellsch Gleichung:
_

Hds =
_
_

E +
d
E
dt
_
d
A (5.28)
The term

E =

S calculates the eddy-current in conductors,
the term
d
E
dt
=
d
D
dt
calculates electro-magnetic waves in space.
In conducting materials, the term
d
E
dt
can be neglected compared to

E.
The induction law in its most general form is the ...
2. Maxwell Equation:
2. Maxwell Equation / 2. Maxwellsch Gleichung:
_

Eds =
d
dt
_
A
Bd
A (5.29)
Both equations has been derived in 1873 from James Maxwell (1831-1879). They
are the basis for the description of electro-magnetic behaviour like the propagation
of waves in space (which was discovered after the death of Maxwell by Hertz,
1888).
Beside the equations 5.28, 5.29 are following known relationships important:
J =

E
D =

E
B =

H
Both eld constants
0
and
0
are connected to each other:
0

0
=
1
c
2
(5.30)
According the 2. Maxwell Equation, a time-variant magnetic eld is connected
to an electric eld; according the 1. Maxwell Equation, a time-variant electric
eld is connected to a magnetic eld. This interactive dependency describes the
propagation of electro-magnetic waves.
5.8.1 Maxwells Equations - Other Formulation
Quasi-Stationary Electromagnetic Field
The changes with respect to time are slow compared to the speed of light.
t
0

J =
E
div

D = ; Div

D = ; curl

E =

B; Curl

E = 0;
div

B = 0; Div

B = 0; curl

H =

J +

D; Curl

H =
j
s
;
div(
J +

D) = 0,
__
(
J +

D)d
f = 0
_

Eds =
__

Bd
f =

u(t);
__

Dd
f = Q
_

Hds = i(t);
__

Bd
f = 0
D =

E, =
0

r
B =

H, =
0

r
Also the length l of the wires and antennas must be short compared to wave length
of the operating frequency:
l <<

4
=
speed of light
4
r
frequency
With this, the Maxwells equations are:
1. Maxwells equation / 1. Maxwellsche Gleichung:
rot

H =

J +

D (5.31)
rot

E =

B (5.32)
Figure 5.2: Displacement Current Density / Verschiebungsstromdichte
With

D as the displacement current density (g. 5.2).

If one inserts a capacitor in a AC-circuit, u(t), one will see;
The wire with its resistance R will generate heat. So, despite the interrup-
tion of the circuit, there is a current ow i(t) = 0.
Inside the capacitor,

E(t) is changing with the time.

D(t) =

E(t) is in
phase to i(t).
Magnetic forces and magnetic eld strength are not only around the wires,
but also in phase inside the capacitor and around it.
The displacement current density

D completes the wire based current density.

The total current density is:
J +

D =

J
tot
(5.33)
So, the 1. Maxwells Equation is:
rot

H =

J +

D (5.34)
The same macroscopic:
_

H ds =
__
(
J +

D) d
f (5.35)
Chapter 6
Transformer
In power electronics it will be called transformer and used with constant fre-
quency. In comunication electronics it will be called transducer and a frequency
band will be transmitted. The base principle is the same for both cases.
Application: transformation, this means increase or decrease of:
voltages, e.g. power transformer
currents, e.g. current transformer
resistances, e.g. adaption of loudspeakers to the output of an amplier
6.1 General Transformer Equations
The transformers principle is mutual induction. Is close to a coil a second one, a
change of the current in the rst one will cause an induction of a voltage in the
second one. Vice versa, a changing current in the second coil causes a voltage in
the rst one. This mutual inuence by means of magnetic elds is the magnetic
coupling.
The following gure shows two coils with equal oriented windings on a com-
mon iron core. There is leakage, parts of the magnetic ux from one coil go
through the other coil. The loss resistors of the inductances will be considered
later.
181
182 CHAPTER 6. TRANSFORMER
The following magnetic uxes are eminent:
1.
11
: Flux generated by the primary coil
2.
1S
: Leakage ux of the primary coil, this is the ux of the primary coil
which doesnt reach the secondary coil
3.
12
: Flux of the primary coil which reaches the secondary coil
4.
22
: Flux generated by the secondary coil
5.
2S
: Leakage ux of the secondary coil, this is the ux of the secondary
coil which doesnt reach the primary coil
6.
21
: Flux of the secondary coil which reaches the primary coil
The ux generated by the primary coil is:
11
=
12
+
1S
(6.1)
The ux generated by the secondary coil is:
22
=
21
+
2S
So, in the primary- and secondary coil are the total uxes:
1
=
11
21
(6.2)
2
=
22
+
12
According the induction law is:
u
1
(t) = N
1
d
1
(t)
dt
= N
1
d
11
(t)
dt
N
1
d
21
(t)
dt
(6.3)
u
2
(t) = N
2
d
2
(t)
dt
= N
2
d
22
(t)
dt
+N
2
d
12
(t)
dt
By means of the self-inductivity L
1
of the primary coil, the self-inductivity L
2
of
the secondary coil and the coupling inductivities M
12
and M
21
, which express the
direct dependency between the currents and the magnetic uxes, is:
6.1. GENERAL TRANSFORMER EQUATIONS 183
Coupled set of equations for a transformer / gekoppelte Gleichungen des
Transformators:
u
1
(t) = L
1
di
1
(t)
dt
M
21
di
2
(t)
dt
(6.4)
u
2
(t) = L
2
di
2
(t)
dt
+M
12
di
1
(t)
dt
The coupling inductivities are identical, so: M := M
12
= M
21
.
If one adds the ohmic resistances of the primary and secondary coils, the fol-
lowing mesh equations for the primary circuit and the secondary circuit will result:
u
1
(t) = u
R
1
(t) +u
L
1
(t) u
M
1
(t) = R
1
i
1
(t) +L
1
di
1
(t)
dt
M
di
2
(t)
dt
(6.5)
u
2
(t) = u
R
2
(t) u
L
2
(t) + u
M
2
(t) = R
2
i
2
(t) L
2
di
2
(t)
dt
+ M
di
1
(t)
dt
mit
M = k
_
L
1
L
2
Here is k the coupling factor. It is:
k = 0 M = 0; no coupling
k = 1 M =
L
1
L
2
; total coupling
There is a relation between the coupling factor and the leakage factor: =
1 k
2
.
For excitation with sinusoidal AC-quantities, the equations can be written in
complex notation:
Coupled set of general transformer equations with loss and leakage
(AC) / gekoppelte Transformatorgleichungen mit Verlust und Streuung:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
jMI
2
= U
R
1
+U
L
1
U
M
1
(6.6)
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+ jMI
1
= U
R
2
U
L
2
+U
M
2
This results in a model with current-controlled voltage sources. The coupling will
be shown only indirectly: the voltage sources will be controlled by the current of
the other mesh. For network calculations, this model is not a good solution, it is
complicated. Later, more easy models will be derived.
On the basis of the general transformer equations, eq. 6.6, is it possible to derive
relations of voltages and currents between the primary side and the secondary side.
The voltage relation can be get by dividing eq. 6.6b by eq. 6.6a:
U
2
U
1
=
R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+jMI
1
R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
jMI
2
(6.7)
With U
2
= I
2
Z follows from eq. 6.6 for the current relation:
Z I
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+jMI
1
(Z +R
2
+ jL
2
) I
2
= jMI
1
I
2
I
1
=
jM
Z +R
2
+ jL
2
(6.8)
With this, one gets for eq. 6.7
U
2
U
1
=
_
jM
Z+R
2
+jL
2
(R
2
+jL
2
) + jM
_
I
1
_
R
1
+jL
1
jM
jM
Z+R
2
+jL
2
_
I
1
U
2
U
1
=
jM(R
2
+ jL
2
) + jM(Z + R
2
+jL
2
)
(R
1
+jL
1
)(Z +R
2
+ jL
2
) (jM)
2
U
2
U
1
=
jMZ
(R
1
+jL
1
)(Z +R
2
+jL
2
) + (M)
2
(6.9)
Open-Circuit: Will a transformer be operated under open-circuit condition, not
loaded on the secondary side, eq. 6.7 can be simplied (I
2
= 0):
U
2
U
1
=
jMI
1
R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
=
jM
R
1
+ jL
1
(6.10)
Open-circuit conditions can utilised to measure transformer quantities (metrol-
ogy):
Metrological Determination of Transformer Quantities:
1. Voltge source U
1
on the primary side, open-circuit on the secondary side
(I
2
= 0): With eq. 6.6a is for I
2
= 0 and I
1
= I
10
U
1
= R
1
I
10
+jL
1
I
10
Z
10
=
U
1
I
10
= R
1
+ jL
1
With eq. 6.6b is for I
2
= 0 and U
2
= U
20
U
20
= jMI
10

U
20
I
10
= jM
2. Open-circuit on the primary side (I
1
= 0), voltge source U
2
on the sec-
ondary side: With eq. 6.6b is for I
+
20
= I
20
U
2
= R
2
I
20
jL
2
I
20
Z
20
=
U
2
I
+
20
= R
2
+jL
2
Summary:
Input impedance primary side (secondary side open):
Z
10
= R
1
+jL
1
=
U
1
I
10
... R
1
and L
1
by complex impedance measurement.
Input impedance secondary side (primary side open):
Z
20
= R
2
+jL
2
=
U
2
I
+
20
... R
2
and L
2
by complex impedance measurement.
Mutual induction (I
2
= 0, U
2
= U
20
):
M =
U
20
I
10
... M by magnitude measurement.
k =
M
L
1
L
2
(6.11)
6.1.1 Loss-Less Transformer with Leakage
The loss in the windings of the coil (heat) will be neglected. This will be done by
setting the ohmic resistances to zero.
R
1
= R
2
= 0 simplies the set of equations 6.6 to:
Loss-Less Transformer with Leakage (R
i
= 0) / Verlustloser Transfor-
mator mit Streuung:
U
1
= jL
1
I
1
jMI
2
(6.12)
U
2
= jL
2
I
2
+jMI
1
with/mit
M = k
_
L
1
L
2
Also, eq. 6.8 simplies:
I
2
I
1
=
jM
Z + jL
2
(6.13)
and eq. 6.9:
U
2
U
1
=
jMZ
jL
1
(Z +jL
2
) + (M)
2
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z + (j)
2
L
1
L
2
+ (M)
2
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
2
(L
1
L
2
M
2
)
With/Mit M = k
L
1
L
2
follows/folgt:
U
2
U
1
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
2
(L
1
L
2
k
2
L
1
L
2
)
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
2
L
1
L
2
(1 k
2
)
=
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
2
L
1
L
2
(6.14)
6.1.2 Loss-Less Transformer without Leakage
For this next step leakage-less operation will be assumed:
1S
=
2S
= 0. So,
eq. 6.1 simplies:
11
=
12
+
1S
=
12
22
=
21
+
2S
=
21
For the total ux follows acc. eq. 6.2:
1
=
11
21
=
12
21
2
=
22
+
12
=
21
+
12
1
=
2
11
21
=
22
+
12
Comparing eq. 6.3 and 6.4 delivers:
11
(t)
21
(t) =
22
(t) +
12
(t)
L
1
N
1
i
1
(t)
M
N
1
i
2
(t) =
L
2
N
2
i
2
(t) +
M
N
2
i
1
(t)
To make this equation valid for all i(t) it must be:
L
1
N
1
=
M
N
2
bzw. L
1
=
N
1
N
2
M
und
L
2
N
2
=
M
N
1
bzw. L
2
=
N
2
N
1
M
Division of both equations delivers the fraction of both inductivities:
Loss-Less Transformer without Leakage (R
i
= 0, k = 1) (1) / Verlust-
loser Transformator ohne Streuung:
L
1
L
2
=
N
2
1
N
2
2
= u
2
with u =
N
1
N
2
as the winding number relation.
u =
_
L
1
L
2
(6.15)
Furthermore, is without leakage k = 1, resp. M =
L
1
L
2
and = 0. This
simplies eq. 6.13 for the current fraction/relation to:
I
2
I
1
=
jM
Z + jL
2
=
j
L
1
L
2
Z +jL
2
=
j
L
1
L
2
Z +jL
2
_
L
2
L
2
=
jL
2
Z + jL
2
_
L
1
L
2
=
= u
jL
2
Z +jL
2
(6.16)
For the voltage relation is (acc. eq. 6.14):
U
2
U
1
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
2
L
1
L
2
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
=
L
1
L
2
L
1
=
_
L
2
L
1
=
1
u
Loss-Less Transformer without Leakage (R
i
= 0, k = 1) (2) / Verlust-
loser Transformator ohne Streuung:
U
2
U
1
=
1
u
(6.17)
6.1.3 Ideal Transformer
The last simplication leads to the ideal transformer. Here, the input impedance
will be seen as innitely. So, L
1
and also L
2
and M must be innite.
Eq. 6.17 simplies to:
I
2
I
1
= lim
L
2
u
jL
2
Z +jL
2
= u =
N
1
N
2
I
2
I
1
= u =
N
1
N
2
(6.18)
The currents behave reciprocal to the windings!
Because of the leakage less assumption is again:
U
2
U
1
=
1
u
=
N
2
N
1
(6.19)
The voltage and current relations, only depends und the winding fraction.
Equivalent Circuit for AC:
Both windings have an innite inductivity, so, there is no current ow possible
without a load (open-circuit current).
With this circuit is it possible to calculate the input impedance Z
e
:
For the output is: U
2
= Z
2
I
2
. If one replaces voltage and current by the
primary quantities acc. eq. 6.18 and 6.19, will follow:
U
1
u
= Z
2
uI
1
resp. for the input impedance Z
e
:
Z
e
=
U
1
I
1
= Z
2
u
2
(6.20)
This relation will be utilised for resitance transformations.
Power Calculations:
Primary: P
1
= U
1
I
1
Secondary: P
2
= U
2
I
2
If one replaces the quantities of the primary side by the secondary quantities acc.
eq. 6.18 and 6.19:
P
1
= U
1
I
1
= uU
2
2
u
= U
2
I
2
= P
2
it can be seen, that the output power is equal to the input power. So, an ideal
transformer consumes no power.
Summary
Ideal transformer:
U
1
U
2
=
N
1
N
2
= u
Spannungs/voltage-transformation
I
1
I
2
=
1
u
Strom/current-transformation
Z
1
Z
2
= u
2
Widerstands/resistance-transformation
P
1
= P
2
L = ( d.h. I
= 0) (6.21)
Examples
Ex. 6.1.1. Resistor transformation: Determine the input impedance Z
1
at an
angular frequency of = 1000s
1
for the following circuit.
This is an ideal transformer, so it is L
1
= and L
2
= . The inductivity L
in the load circuit is a real inductivity.
Z
2
= R + jL = 1k + j1000s
1
0, 1s = 1k + j100
Z
1
= u
2
Z
2
= 4 (1k + j100) = 4k + j400 = 4k + j 0, 4H
Z
1
is a series connection of R = 4k and L = 0, 4H.
Ex. 6.1.2. Autotransformer
Given:
U
1
= 100V
N
1
= 100 windings
N
2
= 200 windings
Needed: U
U
1
U
2
=
N
1
N
2
U
2
=
N
2
N
1
U
1
=
200
100
U
1
= 2 U
1
U
1
+U
2
= U
U = U
1
+ 2 U
1
= 3 U
1
= 300V
6.2 Quadrupole - Equivalent Circuits
The drawback, that for network calculations always the via M described/induced
voltage sources (mutual induction) have to be considered, can be avoided by
means of the following equivalent circuit.
6.2.1 T-Equivalent Circuit with Galvanic Coupling
The general transformer equations 6.6 will be expanded:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
jMI
2
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+ jMI
1
as follows:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
jMI
2
jMI
1
+jMI
1
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+jMI
1
+jMI
2
jMI
2
T-Equivalent Circuit / T-Ersatzschaltung:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+j(L
1
M)I
1
+ jM(I
1
I
2
) (6.22)
U
2
= R
2
I
2
j(L
2
M)I
2
+jM(I
1
I
2
)
With this transformations, the last terms in both equations equal will be equal.
So, this term must be common to the input- and output circuit. See the following
equivalent circuit:
T-Equivalent Circuit / T-Ersatzschaltung:
Advantage: The three inductances are not magnetical coupled any more. The
voltage transformation will be described by means of the voltage drop across M.
The current controlled voltage sources can be neglected. So, it is a passive net-
work, which can be solved by means of the known methods.
6.2. QUADRUPOLE - EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 193
Drawback: This model/equivalent circuit describes, as derived, the behavior of
the voltages and currents at the outer terminals. But the physical reality in the
inner part of the transformer will be lost. The inductances L
1
M and L
2
M
can become negative in this model, real inductances are never negative. Also,
the cross-current I
1
I
2
is not a real current. But most important, the galvanic
coupling between input and output, which is not existant in reality, makes this
model unusable if there is an AC-voltage with a superimposed DC part at the
input.
Examples:
Ex. 6.2.1. Calculation of
U
2
U
1
at a loss-less transformer under open-circuit condi-
tion and with an attached load:
Open-circuit:
U
2
U
1
=
jM
j(L
1
M) + jM
=
jM
jL
1
=
M
L
1
=
L
1
L
2
L
1
=
L
2
L
1
=
1
u
Load: loaded voltage divider
I
3
U
1
=
jM
j(L
1
M) jM + jM [j(L
2
M) + Z] + j(L
1
M) [j(L
2
M) + Z]
=
jM
2
L
1
M +
2
M
2
+
jMZ
2
ML
2
+
2
M
2
+ jL
1
Z
jMZ
2
L
1
L
2
+
2
L
1
M +
2
L
2
M
2
M
2
with L
1
L
2
= M
2
=
jM
jL
1
Z
It is I
3
=
U
2
Z
; and so
U
2
U
1
=
jMZ
jL
1
Z
=
M
L
1
=
L
1
L
2
L
1
=
L
2
L
1
=
1
u
Ex. 6.2.2. Calculate the input impedance of a loss-less transformer with leakage
(R
1
= R
2
= 0; L
1
= L
2
= 100; M = 90) under open-circuit condi-
tion (Z
e,l
) and under short-circuit condition (Z
e,k
) on the secondary side/winding.
Calculate the coupling factor.
Open-circuit: sum of the complex impedances:
Z
e,l
= j(L
1
M) + jM = jL
1
jM +jM = jL
1
= j100
jL
1
jM = j100 j90 = j10
because L
1
= L
2
:
jL
2
jM = j10
Short-circuit:
Z
e,k
= j10 +
j10 j90
j10 + j90
= j19
Coupling factor:
M = k
_
L
1
L
2
= k
_
L
1
L
1
= k L
1
k =
M
L
1
=
M
L
1
=
90
100
= 0, 9
6.2.2 Leakage-Equivalent Circuit
The drawback of the not existing physical reality in the model can be minimised
by the leakage-equivalent circuit/model.
Physical measurable are the inductances L
1
and L
2
of the primary and sec-
ondary coils. The more abstract mutual inductivity M will be described now by
means of the following dependency:
M = k
_
L
1
L
2
M u = k
_
L
1
L
2
u
u =
_
L
1
L
2
M u = k
_
L
1
L
2
_
L
1
L
2
= kL
1
= L
h
M =
L
h
u
Here is L
h
= kL
1
the coupled part of the primary coil to the secondary coil, it
will be called main inductance. The remaining part is leakage (1 k)L
1
, so it
will be called leakage inductance L
S1
:
L
S1
= (1 k)L
1
= L
1
kL
1
= L
1
L
h
In the general transformer equations 6.6, the mutual inductance M will be re-
placed by
L
h
u
:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
1
I
1
j
L
h
u
I
2
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+ j
L
h
u
I
1
and eq. (a) will be expanded:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+ jL
1
I
1
j
L
h
u
I
2
jL
h
I
1
+ jL
h
I
1
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+ j(L
1
L
h
)I
1
+jL
h
(I
1
I
2
u
)
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
S1
I
1
+ jL
h
(I
1
I
2
u
) (6.23)
Equation (b) must be transformed in a way, that the last terms are equal again.
This delivers a common branch of input and output circuit and its voltage drop.
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+ j
L
h
u
I
1
First, multiply with u:
uU
2
= R
2
uI
2
jL
2
uI
2
+ jL
h
I
1
It can be seen, that the current in the right mesh is
I
2
u
. This must be made visible:
uU
2
= R
2
u
2
I
2
u
jL
2
u
2
I
2
u
+jL
h
I
1
or with abbreviations:
U
2
= uU
2
I
2
=
I
2
u
R
2
= R
2
u
2
L
2
= L
2
u
2
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+jL
h
I
1
Appropriate expanding of the equation:
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
2
I
2
+ jL
h
I
1
+jkL
2
I
2
jkL
2
I
2
use kL
2
= kL
2
u
2
= kL
2
L
1
L
2
= kL
1
= L
h
:
U
2
= R
2
I
2
j(1 k)L
2
I
2
+jL
h
(I
1
I
2
) (6.23b)
Now, again both equations:
Leakage-Equivalent Circuit / Streuungs-Ersatzschaltung:
U
1
= R
1
I
1
+jL
S1
I
1
+jL
h
(I
1
I
2
) (6.23a)
U
2
= R
2
I
2
jL
S2
I
2
+jL
h
(I
1
I
2
) (6.23b)
The last term in both equations is equal, this is the common voltage drop of the
input circuit and the output circuit. But, this equations model the physical reality
in a better way. The equivalent circuit/model for this equations is:
Leakage-Equivalent Circuit (acc. equations) / Streuungs-
Ersatzschaltung:
A big advantage of this model is, that the iron loss is modeled by the resistor R
Fe
.
It summarises the magnetisation loss and the eddy-current loss.
The real output voltage U
2
can be get by means of a, to the output connected,
ideal transformer with a transmission ratio u. If the ideal transformer is shifted to
the left, the marked quantities R
2
and L
S2
will be avoided. This model describes
in better approximation the physical realities.
Leakage-Equivalent Circuit (with re-substitution of the abbreviations) /
Streuungs-Ersatzschaltung:
L
S
: Leakage inductance
L
h
: Main inductance (normally L
h
>> L
S
)
I
M
: Magnetisation current for generation of the needed ux
R
Fe
: Iron loss (often been neglected, means R
Fe
= )
L, R, U, I: with the transformation ratio u of an ideal transformer to the
primary side related quantities
Because the leakage equivalent circuit/model and the T-model are based on the
transformer equations, it must be possible to transform the elements of the leakage
model to the elements of the T-model and vice versa. For this, the resistors R
1
and
R
2
remain the same. For the inductances is:
Leakage/Streuungs-model T-model: T-model Leakage/Streuungs-model:
L
1
= L
S1
+L
h
L
S1
= L
1
u M
L
2
= L
S2
+
1
u
2
L
h
L
S2
= L
2
M
u
M =
1
u
L
h
L
h
= u M
x (6.24)
Examples:
Ex. 6.2.3. Loss-less transformer with leakage / Verlustfreier Transformator mit
Streuung:
Given: Loss-less transformer with leakage. The data are: u= 2, L
S1
=
4mH, L
S2
= 1mH, L
h
= 100mH
Needed: 1.) U
2
for open-circuit. 2.) Z
e
for short-circuit on the secondary
side.
Open-circuit:
U
h
U
1
=
jL
h
j(L
h
+ L
S1
)
=
L
h
L
h
+L
S1
U
h
U
2
= u U
2
=
U
h
u
=
U
1
u

L
h
L
h
+ L
S1
U
2
=
20V
2

100mH
104mH
= 9, 6V in phase with U
1
Short-circuit:
Z
e
= jL
S1
+
(j)
2
L
h
L
S2
u
2
j(L
h
+ L
S2
u
2
)
=
j4mH + j
100mH 4mH
104mH
= j7, 8mH
Ex. 6.2.4. It will be measured at a transformer under open-circuit condition
(for = 10
3
s
1
) / An einem

Ubertrager wurden bei = 10
3
s
1
im Leerlauf
gemessen:
U
1
= 20V at the primary side: I
1l
= 66, 3mA e
j84,29
; U
2l
= 4, 125V
U
2
= 20V at the secondary side: I
2l
= 0, 941A e
j61,94
Determine L
1
, L
2
, R
1
, R
2
, M, k, , u, L
S1
, L
S2
, L
h
!
U
1
= I
1
R
1
+jL
1
I
1
jM I
2
U
2
= I
2
R
2
jL
2
I
2
+jM I
2
I
2
= 0
Z
1,l
=
U
1
I
1,l
= R
1
+jL
1
=
20V
66, 3mA e
j84,29
=
20V e
j84,29
66, 3mA
=
30 + j300
U
2
I
+
2,l
= R
2
+jL
2
=
20V
0, 941A e
j61,94
=
20V e
j61,94
0, 941A
=
10 + j18, 76
M =
U
2,l
I
1,l
=
4, 125V
0, 066A
= 62, 2
R
1
= 30
R
2
= 10
L
1
=
X
L
1
=
300
1000 1/s
= 0, 3H
L
2
=
X
L
2
=
18, 76
1000 1/s
= 18, 76mH
M =
62, 2
1000 1/s
= 62, 2mH
This results in the T-model:
Calculation of the Leakage-model:
k =
M
L
1
L
2
=
62, 2
300 18, 76
= 0, 83
= 1 k
2
= 0, 313
u =
_
L
1
L
2
= 4
L
h
= uM = 249mH
L
S1
= L
1
L
h
= 51, 2mH
L
S2
= L
2
M
u
= 3, 2mH
Chapter 7
Exercises
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Current, Current-Density, Drift
Ex. 7.1.1. Calculate the function i(t), if Q(t) is given:
Ex. 7.1.2. The capacitor of a ash unit (C = 500F) consumes at U = 500V olt
a charge of Q = 0, 25Coulomb. Which mean current results, if
charging takes 20s, and
dis-charging takes 2ms?
Ex. 7.1.3. In a copper wire (n
Cu
= 8, 47 10
19
mm
3
) with a diameter of d =
2mm is a DC-current of I = 10A.
Calculate the drift-velocity v of the free electrons.
Calculate the drift-velocity v of the free electrons in case of AC.
Ex. 7.1.4. How many electrons N will be moved through a cross-section of a
conductor, if for one second a constant current of 1A ows?
203
204 CHAPTER 7. EXERCISES
7.1.2 Energy, Power
Ex. 7.1.5. A man lifts for one hour, once per second, a mass of 5kg over 1m.
Which hourly wage can he get, if he would be paid according electrical tariff
(0,15EUR/kWh)?
Ex. 7.1.6. A radio will be powered by 4 batteries ` a 1, 5V (in series). At a load of
100mA, it is possible, to operate for 100 hours. How much costs a kilowatt hour
(kWh) if one battery costs 2EUR.
Ex. 7.1.7. How much costs the energy of a lightning of 1 million Volts and 10000
Ampere (duration of 50s). The electricity tariff is 0,15EUR/kWh.
Ex. 7.1.8. A resistor of 2, 7k operates at 230V . It can be loaded with 1/2W. Is
this kind of operation correct?
7.2 Electrostatic Field
7.2.1 Voltage, Potential
Ex. 7.2.1. Transport of a charge +Q from point 1 via 2 and back to 1 on a closed
way:
Ex. 7.2.2. Show, that in the gure the integral
2
_
1
Eds is independent from its

integration way. Chose the ways:
a. Way 1 - 2 direct
b. Way 1 - 3 - 2
7.2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELD 205
7.2.2 Electric Flux Density
Ex. 7.2.3. An air capacitor with an plate distance of d will be attached to a
voltage source U. Then, a dielectric with
r
(dielectric number) will be inserted.
Calculate for both cases (with and without dielectric) the electric eld strength E
and the electric displacement D, if ...
Case 1: the capacitor remains at the voltage source,
Case 2: the capacitor will be charged at U, detached from the source and
then the dielectric will be inserted. How changes the voltage in this case at
the capacitor?
Ex. 7.2.4. An air capacitor with a plate distance of d = 40mm is at a voltage
source U = 4kV . Two thin metall plates with an area of A = 1cm
2
will be
inserted into the homogenous electric eld (First, the thin plates stick together).
1. What is the induced charge on each thin plate?
2. Which voltage can be seen between the probe plates if they will be taken
out of the eld of the capacitor? The distance of the thin plates will be
a = 1mm.
7.2.3 Capacity - Plates
Ex. 7.2.5. Calculate the capacity of a quadratic plate capacitor (air lled) with
following dimensions: length 1m, plate distance 1mm.
7.2.4 Capacity - Sphere
Ex. 7.2.6. Calculate the capacity of the earth.
Ex. 7.2.7. Calculate the capacity of a (air-) sphere capacitor with the following
dimensions: outer diameter 1m, plate distance 1mm.
7.2.5 Capacity - Cylinder
Ex. 7.2.8. Calculate the capacity of a 50 coaxial cable with d
1
= 1mm, d
2
=
4mm,
r
= 2, 5 , length l = 1m?
7.2.6 Connection of Capacitors
Ex. 7.2.9. Calculate the resulting capacity of the following connections:
7.2.7 Force - Electric Field
Ex. 7.2.10. Calculate the force between the plate electrodes of a capacitor, which
is charged to 500V . The plates have a area of 1m
2
and a distance of 1mm, the
dielectric is air.
7.3 Stationary Electrical Flow Field
Ex. 7.3.1.
1. What is the resistance between the electrodes?
7.4. MAGNETIC FIELD 207
2. What is the electrical eld strength on the surface of the inner and outer
spheres. The voltage between the electrodes is 1000V ?
7.4 Magnetic Field
7.4.1 Magnetic Field at Boundaries
Ex. 7.4.1. Draw and calculate the eld line vectors at the transition air/low car-
bon steel (
r
= 5 10
3
) for an incident angle in air of
1
= 10
:
2
= 89, 9
and
1
= 1
:
2
= 89, 3
.
7.4.2 Magnetic circuit - unbranched
Ex. 7.4.2. Given is a iron core with a tiny air gap:
Calculate
the ux,
the ux density,
the magnetic eld strength.
data for the iron and the air gap:
windings N = 10
current I = 1A
center eld line length in iron: 10cm
air gap length 1mm
cross-section area of the iron 0, 8cm
2

r
= 1000
How will the values change, if the air gap reduces to zero?
7.4.3 Magnetic circuit - branched
Ex. 7.4.3. Calculate on different ways the ux (generally), if the MMF and the
three reluctances are given.
Ex. 7.4.4. An iron core is build up of iron plates, the ll factor is F = 0, 92. The
leakage can be neglected. The windings are N = 1000.
Calculate: central path length in iron and air gap
Calculate: reluctance of the air gap
Calculate: caracteristic curve = f(V
m
) of the iron core
7.4.4 Force in Magnetic Fields
Ex. 7.4.5. Relay:
7.5. INDUCTION 209
Given: A
Fe
= 1cm
2
, A
Luft
= 5cm
2
, l
Fe
= 0, 2m, l
Luft
= 0, 3mm,
r
= 2000,
N = 1000 und I = 0, 24A.
Needed: F
Ex. 7.4.6. Lifting magnet:
Given: F = 100N, l
Luft
= 1mm,
r
= 2000, N = 1000.
Needed: I to generate the needed force.
7.5 Induction
Chapter 8
Anhang
8.1 Mathematical Basics
Nabla denition:
=
_
_
z
_
_
=

x
e
x
+

y
e
y
+

z
e
z
Cartesian coordinates:
Figure (see gure 8.1):
Figure 8.1: Cartesian Coordinates
211
212 CHAPTER 8. ANHANG
Variables:
x, y, z
Unit vectors:
e
x
, e
y
, e
z
Coordinate system:
e
x
e
y
= e
z
Point in this system:
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) = p =
_
_
x
1
y
1
z
1
_
_
= x
1
e
x
+ y
1
e
y
+z
1
e
z
= x
1
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
+y
1
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
+ z
1
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
Line element:
ds =
_
dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
Volume element:
dv = dx dy dz
Curl of a vector:
rot u = curl u = u =
e
x
e
y
e
z
z
u
x
u
y
u
z
=
_
u
z
y

u
y
z
_
e
x
_
u
z
x

u
x
z
_
e
y
+
_
u
y
x

u
x
y
_
e
z
Divergence of a vector:
div u = u =
u
x
x
+
u
y
y
+
u
z
z
8.1. MATHEMATICAL BASICS 213
Figure 8.2: Cylinder Coordinates
Gradient of a scalar eld:
grad(P(x, y, z)) = P(x, y, z) =
P
x
e
x
+
P
y
e
y
+
P
z
e
z
Laplacian operator of a scalar eld:
P(x, y, z) =
2
P(x, y, z) =

2
P
x
2
+

2
P
y
2
+

2
P
z
2
Cylinder coordinates:
Variables:
r, , z
Unit vectors:
e
r
, e
, e
z
Coordinate system:
e
r
e
= e
z
P(r
1
,
1
, z
1
) = p =
_
_
r
1
1
z
1
_
_
= r
1
e
r
+
1
e
+z
1
e
z
= r
1
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
+
1
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
+z
1
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
Jacobian determinant:
det
(x, y, z)
(r, , z)
=
cos() r sin() 0
sin() r cos() 0
0 0 1
= r
Conversion from and to cartesian coordinates:
x = r cos(), y = r sin(), z = z
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
= arctan(y/x)
dr = dx cos() + dy sin()
rd = dy cos() dx sin()
dz = dz
Line element:
ds =
_
dr
2
+r
2
d
2
+dz
2
Volume element:
dv = r dr d dz
Curl of a vector:
rot u = curl(u) = u =
1
r
e
r
r e
e
z
z
u
r
ru
u
z
=
_
1
r
u
z
z
_
e
r
+
_
u
r
z

u
z
r
_
e
+
_
1
r
(ru
)
r

1
r
u
r
_
e
z
8.1. MATHEMATICAL BASICS 215
Figure 8.3: Spherical Coordinates
div u = u =
1
r
(ru
r
)
r
+
1
r
u
+
u
z
z
grad(P(r
1
,
1
, z
1
)) = P(r
1
,
1
, z
1
) =
P
r
e
r
+
1
r
P
+
P
z
e
z
P(r
1
,
1
, z
1
) =
2
P(r
1
,
1
, z
1
) =
1
r
r
(r
P
r
) +
1
r
2
2
P
2
+

2
P
z
2
Spherical coordinates:
Variables:
r, ,
Unit vectors:
e
r
, e
, e
Coordinate system:
e
r
e
= e

P(r
1
,
1
,
1
) = p =
_
_
r
1
1
_
_
= r
1
e
r
+
1
e
+
1
e
= r
1
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
+
1
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
+
1
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
Jacobian determinant:
det
(x, y, z)
(r, , )
=
sin() cos() r cos() cos() r sin() sin()

sin() sin() r cos() sin() r sin() cos()
cos() r sin() 0
=
r
2
sin()
Conversion from and to cartesian coordinates:
x = r sin() cos(), y = r sin() sin(), z = r cos()
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= arctan(y/x)
= arctan(
_
x
2
+ y
2
/z)
dr = dx sin() cos() + dy sin() sin() + dz cos()
r sin()d = dy cos() dx sin()
rd = dx cos() cos() + dy cos() sin() dz sin()
Line element:
ds =
_
dr
2
+r
2
sin
2
()d
2
+r
2
d
2
Volume element:
dv = r
2
sin() dr d d
8.2. LITERATURE 217
Curl of a vector:
rot u = curl(u) = u =
1
r
2
sin()
e
r
r e
r sin() e
u
r
ru
r sin()u
=
1
r sin()
_
(u
sin())
_
e
r
+
1
r
_
1
sin()
u
r

(ru
)
r
_
e
+
1
r
_
(ru
)
r

u
r
_
e
div u = u =
1
r
2
(r
2
u
r
)
r
+
1
r sin()
(u
sin()) +
1
r sin()
u

grad(P(r
1
,
1
,
1
)) = P(r
1
,
1
,
1
) =
P
r
e
r
+
1
r
P
+
1
r sin()
P

P(r
1
,
1
,
1
) =
2
P(r
1
,
1
,
1
) =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
P
r
)+
1
r
2
sin()
(sin()
P
) +
1
r
2
sin
2
()
2
P
2
8.2 Literature
Bibliography
[Strassacker, 1984] Rotation, Divergenz und das Drumherum - Eine
Einf uhrung in die elektromagnetische Feldtheorie; G.
Strassacker; Teubner Studienskripten; 1984
[Schwab, 1985] Bergriffswelt der Feldtheorie; Adolf J. Schwab;
Springer-Verlag; 1985
[F uhrer, 2011] Grundgebiete der Elektrotechnik, - Band 1: Sta-
tion are Vorg ange incl. Felder - Band 2: Zeitabh angige
Vorg ange - Band 3: Aufgaben (mit L osungen); F uhrer
u.a.; Carl Hanser Verlag; 2011
[Schaum, 2009] Schaums Outline of Basic Electricity (Schaums Out-
lines); Milton Gussow; MacGraw Hill; November 27,
2009
[Schaum, 2010] Schaums Outline of Electromagnetics; Joseph Ed-
minister; MacGraw Hill; October 26, 2010
[Dahmen, 2005] Elektrodynamik, Eine Einf uhrung in Experiment und
Theorie; S. Brandt, H.D. Dahmen; Springer; vierte
Auage, 2005
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Prof. Dr.-Ing. A.

ds of the corresponding eld line fullll the condition u

f. Here are f rings

f = ndf: Vector of the area element df / Vektor des Fl achenelements df

= 0 and also, if the cylinder is long,

B = 0. Apply this with the Gaussian Law.

r the unit vector in direction of r.

marks the positions of the charges, which generates the eld.

Eds is independent from its

between the thin plates is:

is equal to D (which was inside the capacitor).

and E are equal.

f). The remaining radial eld

E is dened by the force of an electric eld on a carrier of a small positive test

A can be calculated as a scalar product.

A: this results for the

In case of = 0 results the Laplacian Differential Equation:

Result of the rst integration at r

= 0, one gets with eq. 2.33:

This leads to the energy:

S can become zero, e.g.:

Current inside a circle with radius r

This is a straight line through the origin.

Given formula: curl

l = v: stromdurchossenes Volumen / volume

F effect middle nger

the same direction as i amplication of i

(t) which has the opposite direction of (t).

D as the displacement current density (g. 5.2).

D completes the wire based current density.

Eds is independent from its

216 CHAPTER 8. ANHANG

sin() cos() r cos() cos() r sin() sin()

Gradient of a scalar eld:

Laplacian operator of a scalar eld:

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