Climate:

Integration in time of the Physical state of the atmospheric conditions, characteristic feature of a
certain geographic location.
Weather:
Integration in time with the momentary state of Atmospheric conditions at a certain location
1. Macro climatology:
It is concerned with features of climates of large areas of the earth and the large scale
atmospheric motions that cause the climate;
2. Meso climatology:
It is concerned with the study of climate oer relatiely small areas of !etween 1"#1""$m across %e.g. the
study of ur!an climate or seere local weather systems li$e tornadoes and thunderstorms&; and
'. Microclimatology:
It is concerned with the study of the climate close to the ground(s surface or ery small areas less than
1"" meters across
1. )olar radiation
a. *uality
!. *uantity
2. +ilt of earth(s a,is
'. -adiation at earth surface
.. /arth(s thermal !alance
0. Wind 1 +hermal force
a. +rade wind %coriolis force&
!. Mid latitude westerlies
c. Polar wind
2. Annual shift of wind
3. Influence of topography
1 .a. Solar Radiation Quality
/arth receies all form of energy from sun in form of radiation.
)pectrum of solar radiation e,tends from 24"nm# 2'""nm.
1. 5ltra#iolet radiation, 24" to '6"nm, producing !leaching, sun#!urn,etc
2. 7isi!le light, '6" to 3""nm
'. )hort infra#red radiation# 3"" to 2'""nm# radiant heat with photo chemical effect.
)pectral energy distri!ution aries with altitude# due to filtering effect of atmosphere.
)hort waelength reradiated as long infra red upto 1","""nm
+he alue of 1"" lumens8watt can !e ta$en for solar radiation and this would gie an illumination
of 1"" lu, for eery W8m2 or 1""""" lu, for eery 9W8m2
1. b. Solar Radiation Quantity
Intensity of radiation reaching upper surface of atmosphere is ta$en as )olar :onstant
)olar constant: Intensity of solar radiation reaching the upper surface of earth atmosphere
1'40W8m2.
7aries ;8# 2< due to sun itself and aries ;8#'.0< due to earth#sun distance.
/arth moes around sun in elliptical or!it. It ta$es '20 days, 0 hours, .6 min and .2 sec to complete one
reolution
2. Tilt of earths axis
3. Radiation at earths surface
1. :osine =aw of Angle of Incidence
+he intensity of
solar radiation on a hori>ontal or tilted surface e*uals the normal intensity times the cosine of the angle of
incidence.
?ow, :os @A@ B C8:
And Area : D Area C
/rgo: Intensity : E Intensity C
)o, Intensity : B Intensity C , :os @A@
2. Atmospheric depletion
a. A!sorption of radiation !y o>one, apours and dust particles in the atmosphere.
!. =ower the solar altitude angle, longer the path of radiation through the atmosphere. +hus
smaller part reaches earth surface.
'. Furation of sunshine: length of daylight
period
/arth thermal !alance
+otal amount of heat a!sor!ed !y earth each year is !alanced !y sufficient heat loss.
Without which the thermal !alance of earth could not !e maintained.
/arth surface release heat !y three processes:
1. Cy long wae radiation to cold outer space
2. Cy eaporation # earth(s surface is cooled as li*uid water change into apour and mi,es with air.
'. Cy conection 1 air heated !y contact with warm earth surface !ecomes lighter and rises to the
upper atmosphere, where it dissipate its heat to space.

Land and sea breees

Furing the day, the land heats up faster than the water, so a !ree>e will !low from the sea
to the land, called a sea !ree>e.
At night, the land will cool off faster than the water, so the cool land air will flow toward
the warmer ocean water air, creating a land !ree>e, where the wind !lows from the land
to the sea
!ountain and "alley #reees
Furing the day, the alley heats up, so the warm less dense air flows up the mountain,
creating a alley !ree>e
At night, the mountain will cool off faster than the alley, so the cool mountain air
descends !ecause it is more dense, creating a mountain !ree>e

$lements of climate
Tem%erature
Measurement:
o +emperature of air is measured in degree :elsius with mercury thermometer.
o Fry# !ul! 8true air temperature is alue ta$en in shade.
o +hermometer mounted inside louered wooden !o, $nown as G)teenson )creen( H ht of 1.2"
to 1.6"m a!oe Iround.
o If ma, and min thermometer is used, one reading daily gie the momentary temp J ma, and min
temp reached in past 2. hr.
FA+A -/K5I-/F:
o Monthly mean temperature for each of 12 month. Aerage ta$en !etween
each day ma, and min and then aerage of '" days aerage is found
o +o gie indication of diurnal ariations 1 Monthly mean Ma,ima and Minima
will !e calculated. +his will esta!lish Monthly Mean -ange of +emperatures.
o Monthly e,treme ma,ima and minima to esta!lish Monthly /,treme range of
+emperature.
+hese 0 alue for 12 month gie reasona!le correct temperature condition.
&umidity
Measurement:
o Lumidity of air descri!ed as a!solute humidity%AL&. i.e amount of moisture
actually present in air
o Amount of moisture the air hold $nown as saturation point humidity depend
on its temperature.
o -elatie humidity B AL8)L , 1"" %<&
o Lumidity is measured with wet J dry !ul! hygrometer. :onsist of 2 thermometer
o Mne measures FC+. )econd one coered with gauge $ept wet measure WC+.
o WC+ less than FC+ !(co> in dry air eaporation is faster.
FA+A:
+o $now the preailing humidity condition the following data should !e esta!lished
o Monthly Mean Ma,imum
for /ach Mf 12 Month
o Monthly Mean Minimum
-L 7alue Nor /ach Mf 12 Month
o -eading Will Ce +a$en Cefore
)unrise H 2 AM %Ma,&and ' PM %Min&
7apour pressure
Another indication of atmospheric humidity is apour pressure, i.e. partial
pressure of water apour in air.
Atmospheric pressure%P& is sum of partial pressure of dry air %Ps& and partial apour
Pressure%P&. PBPs ; P.
-L can also !e e,pressed as ratio of actual apour pressure to saturation point
7apour pressure. -L B AL8)L , 1"" B P 8P s , 1"" %<&
'reci%itation
o Precipitation is any form of water that falls to the
/arthOs surface. Fifferent forms of precipitation include dri>>le, rain,hail, snow, sleet, and free>ing rain.
o Precipitation is important !ecause it helps maintain
the atmospheric !alance..
o Measured !y rain gauge J e,pressed in mm8month or mm8day.
o alues indicating total precipitation for each month of the year show the dry and wet season.
o /er recorded ma, and min gies deiation from aerage.
o ma, rainfall for any 2. hr period is useful for predication of flooding
o for designing surface drainage, roof, paed area and gutter ma, hourly rainfall intensity should
!e $nown.
Friing rain
o -ain associated with strong wind # Friing rain
o Friing rain inde, is the product of annual rainfall %in m& and annual aerage wind
7elocity % in m8sec&. +hus its dim is s*m8sec.
o 5pto 's*m8sec 1 location is considered as G sheltered(
o If the e,posure is !etween 's*m8sec to 3 s*m8sec then it is Gmoderate(.
o =ocation is considered Gseere( if oer 3s*m8sec.
o the actual rain penetration will depend on instantaneous rain intensity and
wind elocity.
)9P :M?FI+IM?
o )$y condition usually descri!ed in terms of presence or a!sence of clouds.
o Min of two o!seration will !e made per day J proportion of s$y coered !y
cloud is e,pressed as percentage
o It will !e useful to $now the time of day and fre*uency of o!seration.
o A single aerage figure giing s$y condition for a typical day of a month may
hide significant difference. /g. Cetween morning and noon condition which affect
the design of roof , oerhangs and shading deice.
o )$y luminance alue are needed if day lighting in !uilding is to !e predicted.
)olar radiation
o )unshine recorder will record the duration of sunshine . /,pressed in no of
hours8day, as an aerage for each month.
o Mther instruments used for *uantitatie recording of solar radiation 1 solarimeter,
Leliometer, actinometer and pyranometer.
o Accepted international standard %)I& unit is watt8s*m. Ie incidence of energy in
Qoules8s*m of surface8sec.
o +otal radiation receied oer a long period , eg one day will !e e,pressed in
Q8)KM day

FA+A:
o Aerage daily amount of solar radiation for each month of the year will
gie indication of climatic condition including seasonal ariation.
o Nor detailed design, hourly totals for typical day of each month or typically
Ligh8low radiation day of the year must !e $nown.
o 5) Weather !ureau collect recordings of solar radiation intensity from all
:ountries of the world.
()*+
Measurement:
o Wind elocity is measured !y cup type 8propeller anemometer and direction !y
Wind ane.
o An Anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind elocity and
directional changes.
o Wind elocity normally recorded in open flat ground at ht of 1"m and in ur!an
area at ht of 1" to 2"m
o 7elocities are measured in m8s. a wind force scale deeloped !ased on isual
o!seration is still in use.
FA+A:
o Fesigner must identify whether there is preailing direction of winds, whether daily
or seasonal shift occur and whether there is considera!le pattern of daily or
seasonal elocities. J the calm period of each month.
o All o!seration record the occurrence of storms, hurricanes or typhoons
S%ecial characteristics
o Most region e,perience unfaora!le condition such as hail and thunder#storms,
/arth*ua$es and dust storms
o )uch eent are rare !ut it is ery important to record their fre*uency, li$ely
duration and nature.
o +he designer must classify rare eents into those which affect human comfort
and those which may endanger the safety of !uilding and lies of inha!itants
"e,etation
(arm humid (arm humid island
Rone Celt near e*uator e,t to 10deg ? J ) Island within e*uatorial !elt J in trade wind >one
/, cities =agos, dar#es#salam,colom!o, )ingapore,
Qa$arta
:ari!!eans, Philippines J other island group in pacific
ocean.
Air temperature FC+#23 deg: to '2 deg :
At night 21# 23 deg :
Fiurnal J annual range of temp are narrow
FC+# day time 24 to '2 deg :. night time minima as low as
16 deg :. normally 2. deg :. diurnal range rarely more than
6 deg :. annual range
1. deg :
Lumidity -L 1 remain high H 30<, ary from 00< to
1""<. 7p 20"" 1 '""" ?8s*M
-L 1 00< to 1""<. 7apour pressure# 130" to
20"" ?8s*m
Precipitation Ligh throughout year. Annual rainfall 1 2"""#
0"""mm, 0""mm in 1 mon# wettest month.
)eere storm 1""mm8h for short period.
Ligh as 120" to 16""mm8annum, 2"" 1 20"mm in wettest
month.
)$y condition Nairly cloudy throughout the year. :loud coer
2"< # 4"<. Cright s$y with luminance of
3"""cd8s*m# dull s$y
60" cd8s*m
?ormally clear or filled with !ro$en clouds of high
!rightness ,e,cept during storms 1 s$ies are dar$ J dull.
:lear s$y with luminance 1 13"" to 20""cd8s*m
)olar radiation Partly reflected J partly scattered !y cloud
!lan$et#so radiation reaching IF is diffuse !ut
strong 1 cause painful glare.
:loud J apour preent reradiating thus heat is
not dissipated soon.
)trong and direct with small diffuse component , when s$y is
clear. It also aries with cloud coer
o 7egetation can influence local or site climate. It is a important element in design of
Mutdoor space for proiding sun#shading and protection from glare.
Classification of climate
+he !asic of this classification is gien !y two atmospheric factors that influence
Luman comfort
1. Air temperature
2. Lumidity
+he tropical regions of earth are diided into three maSor climatic >ones and
three su! 1 groups.
i. Warm humid e*uatorial climate 1su! group: warm humid island or
trade wind climate
ii. Lot dry desert climate 1 su! group: hot dry maritime desert climate
ii. :omposite or monsoon climate # su! group : tropical upland climate
(arm humid (arm humid island
Wind 7elocities are low, clam period are
fre*uent. )trong wind occur during
rain s*ualls. Iusts of '"m8s are
e,perienced.
Predominant trade wind !low at 2 to 3 m8s .
Proide relief from heat and humidity. Much
higher elocity during cyclones.
7egetation Irow *uic$ly due to fre*uent rains and
high temperature. Fifficult to control
-ed or !rown laterite soil poor for
agriculture. Plant supporting organic
su!stance and mineral salts are washed
!y rain. )u! soil water leel is high.
=ittle light reflected from ground
Is less dense and of lighter green colour . 7aries
with the rainfall. )unlight reflected from light
colored coral, sand and roc$ are !right. )oil is dry
with low water ta!le.
)pecial
characteristic
Ligh humidity accelerate mould and
algal growth, rusting and rotting.
Mrganic !uilding material decay
rapidly. Mos*uitoes and other insects
a!ound. +hunder storm accompanied
!y fre*uent air to air electrical
discharges.
+ropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind
elocities from .0 to 3"m8s, which constitute a
seasonal ha>ard. +he high salt content of the
atmosphere lead to corrosion in coastal area .
&ot dry desert &ot dry maritime desert
Rone =atitude !etween 10 and '" deg ? J
) of e*uator
Mccur in same latitude !elts as the hot# dry desert
climates, where sea adSoins a large land mass.
+his is the most unfaora!le climate of earth.
/, cities Assuan, Caghdad, Alice springs and
phoeni,
9uwait ,Antofagasta and 9arachi.
Air
temperature
FC+# .' deg: to .4 deg : %day time&
Ma, 06 dec :
:ool season# mean ma,# 23# '2 deg:.
At night 2.# '" deg : in hot season
and 1" 1 16 deg: in cool season.
Fiurnal range 1 13 to 22 deg :
+here are two seasons : hot and cooler one.
FC+: ma,# '6 deg : in cool season !etween 21#
22 deg :. the night time min temp of hot season
2. deg : 1 '" deg: . :ool season 1 1" to
16deg:. Fiurnal range 4 # 12deg:. =arger
diurnal ariation during cool season.
Lumidity -L# 1" +M 00<. 7P# 30" to
10"" ?8s*m
-L# 0" to 4"<. 7P# 10""# 20"" ?8s*m. )trong
solar radiation causes strong eaporation from
sea. +he moisture does not get precipitated !ut
remain suspended in air create unfaora!le
conditions.
Precipitation 0" to 100mm8annum. Nlash storms
may occur oer limited areas with
0"mm rain in few hours. )ome region
may not hae rainfall for seeral
years.
As in other desert region. It is ery low.
)$y condition ?ormally clear. New clouds due to low
humidity of air. Far$ !lue s$y with
luminance of 13"" to 20"" cd8s*m.
Far$ened during dust8sand storms to
60" cd8s*m. H end of hot period
white ha>e created !y dust in air with
luminance of '0"" to 1"""" cd8s*m
that produce diffuse light and painful
glare
=ittle more cloudy than hot dry desert climates,
which may occur in the form of a thin,
transparent ha>e that may cause glare
&ot dry desert &ot dry maritime desert
)olar radiation Firect and strong during day .
A!sence of cloud permit easy
release of heat stored during
day as long wae radiation
toward cold night s$y. Fiffuse
radiation present during dust
ha>e.
Is strong with higher diffuse component than in
desert climates, due to thin cloud and suspended
moisture.
Wind 5sually local. Leating of air
oer hot ground causes
temperature inersion and as
lower warm air mass !rea$
through higher cooler air, local
whirlwind are created. Winds
are hot, carry dust J sand J
deelop into dust storm.
Mostly local, coastal winds caused !y une*ual
heating and cooling of land and sea surfaces.
+end to !low of from sea towards land during
day and =and towards sea during night.
7egetation )parse and difficult to maintain
due to lac$ of rain and low
humidity. )oil ery dusty and
dry. )trong sunlight illuminate
highly reflectie light colored
J dry ground create luminance
of 2"""" to 20""" cd8s*m.
)u!#soil water ta!le is ery
low.
)parse , not more than some dry grass. +he
ground of roc$s are !rown or red. It is dusty
throughout the year. Iround glare can !e intense.
)pecial
characteristics
Furing certain months dust and
sand storms are fre*uent. Ligh
day time temp and rapid
cooling H night cause material
to !rea$.
Fust and sand storms may occur. +he salt in
atmosphere accelerates corrosion.
Com%osite -monsoon climate Tro%ical u%land climate
Rone Mccur in large land masses near tropics of cancer and
:apricorn far from e*uator.
Mountainous region and plateau more
than 4"" to 12"" m a!oe sea leel.
/,ample of
cities
=ahore, Mandalay, Asuncion, 9ano and new Felhi. Addis A!a!a, Cogota, Me,ico city and
?airo!i
+wo season occur normally. 28' of year is hot#dry
and other third is warm# humid. +hird season is cool#
dry.
)easonal ariations are small in upland
climate near e*uator, !ut away from
e*uator, the season follow those of
near!y lowland.
Air
temperature
)eason Lot#dry Warm#humid :ool#dry FC+ decrease with altitude. At an
altitude of 16""m the day time mean
ma, 1 2. to '" deg: and night mean
min 1 1" to 1' deg:. At some locations
is may fall !elow . deg:. Fiurnal range
is great. Annual range depend on
latitude at e*uator it is slight. At tropic
of cancer and :apricorn it is 1 11 to 2"
deg:
Fay#
ma,
'2#.' 23#'2 5p to 23
?ight#
min
21#23 2.#23 .#1"
:ool#
dry
11#22 '#2 11#22
Lumidity -L is low in dry periods H 2"# 00<. 7P#1'"" to
12"" ?8s*m. Wet Period# 00 to 40< with 7P of
2""" to 20""?8s*m
-L !etween .0 1 44< and 7P 6"" to
12""?8s*m.
Precipitation Monsoon rain are intense .occasionally 20 to
'6mm can fall in an hour. Annual rainfall aries
from 0"" 1 1'""mm with 2""# 20"mm in
wettest month. =ittle or no rain in dry seasons.
-arely less than 1"""mm. -ain often
falls in heay, concentrated showers
reaching an intensity of 6"mm8 hr
)$y condition Leaily oercast and dull during monsoon.
:lear with dar$ !lue colour in dry season. /nd
of hot season s$y !ecome !right with fre*uent
dust ha>e.
?ormally clear or partly cloudy to the
e,t of ."<. Furing monsoon rain# s$y
is oercast and clouds are heay and
low.
)olar radiation Alternate !etween condition found in warm#
humid climate and hot#dry climate
)trong and direct during clear periods,
stronger than at the same latitude, !ut at
sea# leel. 57 rays are stronger at lower
altitudes. Cecome more diffuse as cloud
coer increases
Wind Lot J dusty during dry period. Firectional
changes in preailing winds at !eginning of
warm humid season !ring rain cloud and humid
air from sea. Monsoon winds are strong and
steady.
Predominantly north east and south#
easterlies, !ut may !e deflected !y local
topography. Wind elocity rarely
e,ceeds 10m8s.
7egetation )parse in hot#dry season with !rown and red
!arren IF.change *uic$ly with rain. =andscape
!ecome green and fertile within few days.
Plants grow *uic$ly. In cooler period egetation
coers the ground !ut diminishes with temp
rise.
)oil is damp during rains !ut it dries out
*uic$ly. -is$ of soil erosion in monsoon. In dry
season there will !e strong ground glare.
Ireen although not ery dense during
wet season !ut it wither in dry season,
when ground turn !rown or red. )oil
may !e damp in rains !ut dries *uic$ly.
)pecial
characteristic
)easonal change in relatie humidity cause
rapid wea$ening of !uilding materials. Fust
and sand storms may occur. +ermites are
common pro!lem
Leay dew at night. )trong radiation
loss at night during dry season, which
may lead to formation of radiation fog.
+hunder# storms with fair proportion of
electric discharges# air to ground.
&uman body heat balance
Leat gain
o Meta!olism
o :onduction
o :onection
o -adiation
Leat =M))
o :onduction
o :onection
o -adiation
o /aporation
#ody Tem%erature
o ?ormal !ody core temperature: '3
o
:.
o We hae separate Leat# and :old#sensors.
o Leat sensor is located in hypothalamus. )ignals when temperature is higher than '3
o
:.
o :old sensors are located in the s$in. )end signals when s$in temperature is !elow '.
o
:.
o Leating mechanism:
o -educed !lood flow.
o )hiering.
o :ooling mechanism:
o Increased !lood flow.
o )weating %/aporation&.
!etabolism
/ach person has a different meta!olic rate, and these rates can fluctuate when a person is performing
certain actiities, or under certain enironmental conditions. /en people who are in the same room can
feel significant temperature differences due to their meta!olic rates, which ma$es it ery hard to find an
optimal temperature for eeryone in a gien location
#asal !etabolic Rate %#!R&, and the closely related restin, metabolic rate %R!R&, is the amount
of energy e,pended daily !y humans and other animals at rest. -est is defined as e,isting in a
neutral temperate enironment while in the post#a!sorptie state. In plants, different considerations apply.
+he release, and using, of energy in this state is sufficient only for the functioning of the ital organs,
the heart, lungs, nerous system, $idneys, lier, intestine, se, organs, muscles, and s$in.
!uscular !etabolism :
Leat production of muscles while carrying out consciously controlled wor$.
Mnly 2"< Mf /nergy Is 5sed As 5seful /nergy, 6"< is conerted as )urplus Leat. +his 6"< of surplus
heat should !e dissipated to the enironment.
When the en.ironment is colder than the neutral one, then !ody loses more heat than is generated.
+hen the regulatory processes occur in the following order.
1. /one of .aso0motor re,ulation a,ainst cold 1.aso0constriction&: Clood essels adSacent to the s$in
constrict, reducing flow of !lood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. +he outer s$in
tissues act as insulators.
2. /one of metabolic re,ulation: If enironmental temperature drops further, then aso#motor regulation
does not proide enough protection. Lence, through a spontaneous increase of actiity and !y shiering,
!ody heat generation is increased to ta$e care of the increased heat losses.
'. /one of ine.itable body coolin,: If the enironmental temperature drops further, then the !ody is not
a!le to com!at cooling of its tissues. Lence the !ody temperature drops, which could proe to !e
disastrous. +his is called as >one of ineita!le !ody cooling.
When the en.ironment is hotter than the neutral one, then !ody loses less heat than is generated.
+hen the regulatory processes occur in the following order.
1. /one of .aso0motor re,ulation a,ainst heat 1.aso0dilation&: Lere the !lood essels adSacent to the
s$in dilate, increasing the flow of !lood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. +he outer
s$in temperature increases proiding a greater temperature for heat transfer !y conection and radiation.
2. /one of e.a%orati.e re,ulation: If enironmental temperature increases further, the sweat glands
!ecome highly actie drenching the !ody surface with perspiration. If the surrounding air humidity and
air elocity permit, then increase in !ody temperature is preented !y increased eaporation from the
s$in.
'. /one of ine.itable body heatin,: If the enironmental temperature increases further, then !ody
temperature increases leading to the >one of ineita!le !ody heating. +he internal !ody temperature
increases leading seeral ill effects such as heat e,haustion %with symptoms of fatigue, headache,
di>>iness, irrita!ility etc.&, heat cramps %resulting in loss of !ody salts due to increased perspiration& and
finally heat stro$e. Leat stro$e could cause permanent damage to the !rain or could een !e lethal if the
!ody temperature e,ceeds .'
o
:.
+hermal comfort
+hermal comfort is defined as 2that condition of mind 3hich ex%resses satisfaction 3ith the
thermal -surroundin, en.ironment4. +his condition is also sometimes called as Tneutral conditionU,
though in a strict sense, they are not necessarily same.
Thermal comfort is a term used !y the 5merican Society of &eatin,6 Refri,eratin, and 5ir0
Conditionin, $n,ineers6 an international !ody. %A?)I8A)L-A/ )tandard 00&. Maintaining this
standard of thermal comfort for occupants of !uildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals
of L7A: %heating, entilation, and air conditioning& design engineers.
+hermal comfort is affected !y heat conduction6 con.ection6 radiation6 and e.a%orati.e heat loss.
+hermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated !y human metabolism is allowed to dissipate,
thus maintaining thermal e*uili!rium with the surroundings
7actors determinin, thermal comfort:
Personal factors %health, psychology, sociology J situational factors&
o Insulatie clothing %:lo 7alue&
o Actiity leels %Met -ate&
Ieneral Nactors
o Air temperature
o Mean radiant temperature
o -elatie humidity
o Frifts and ramps in operatie temperature
=ocali>ed factors
o Air moement8elocity.
o -adiant asymmetry
o Nloor surface temperatures.
o Air temperature stratification
Clothin, insulation
Furing cold weather, layers of insulating clothing can help $eep a person warm. At the same time,
if the person is doing a large amount of physical actiity, lots of clothing layers can preent heat
loss and possi!ly lead to oerheating. Ienerally, the thic$er the garment is the greater insulating
a!ilities it has. Fepending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air moement and
relatie humidity can decrease the insulating a!ility of the material.
A person wearing suit will re*uire 4 deg temp more than a person in na$ed condition.
Iender differences
+hermal comfort preferences !etween genders seems to !e small, there are some differences.
)tudies hae found men report discomfort due to rises in temperature much earlier than women.
Men also estimate higher leels of their sensation of discomfort than women. Ienerally women
will re*uire 1deg c higher temp than men
7ood and drin8 habits
may hae an influence on meta!olic rates, which indirectly influences thermal preferences. +hese effects
may change depending on food and drin$ inta$e. Cody shape is another factor that affects thermal
comfort
#ody surface area
Leat dissipation depends on !ody surface area. A tall and s$inny person has a larger surface#to#olume
ratio, can dissipate heat more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures than a more rounded !ody shape
Subcutaneous fat:
fat under the s$in is an e,cellent thermal insulator. A fat person will need a cooler
air to dissipate the same amount of heat.
State of health:
in an illness the meta!olic rate may increase, !ut proper functioning of the regulatory
Mechanisms may !e impaired. +he tolera!le range of temperatures will !e narrower.
5cclimatiation:
/,posed to new set of climatic conditions, the human !ody will reach full adSustment in '" days and !y
time the thermal preferences of the indiidual will change. Nor e, 1 a person in tamilnadu will prefer an
aerage room temperature of 22 deg:, !ut after spending some month in =ondon #he8she would prefer
aerage temp of 16 deg:.
'redication of Thermal Comfort
V '!"
V a comple, function of si, maSor comfort parameters;
V predict mean alue of the su!Sectie ratings of a group of people in a gien
enironment
V ''+
V determined from PM7 as a *uantitatie measure of thermal comfort
V Gdissatisfied( means not oting #1, ;1 or " in PM7
V normally, PPF D 3.0< at any location and =PPF D 2<
+he term Predicted Mean 7ote %PM7& is the mean ote e,pected to arise from
aeraging the thermal sensation ote of a large group of people in a gien
enironment. +he PM7 is a comple, mathematical e,pression inoling actiity,
clothing and the four enironmental parameters. It is e,pressed !y e*n.
!ahoney tables
+here are four ta!les; four are used for entering climatic data, for comparison with the re*uirements
for thermal comfort; and two for reading off appropriate design criteria. A rough outline of the ta!le usage
is:
1. 5ir Tem%eratures. +he ma,, min, and mean temperatures for each month are entered into this
ta!le.
a. &umidity6 'reci%itation6 and (ind. +he ma,, min, and mean figures for each month are entered into
this ta!le, and the conditions for each month classified into a humidity group.
2.Com%arison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. +he desired ma,8min temperatures are entered, and
compared to the climatic alues from ta!le 1. A note is made if the conditions create heat stress or cold
stress %i.e. the !uilding will !e too hot or cold&.
a. )ndicators %of humid or arid conditions&. -ules are proided for com!ining the stress %ta!le '& and
humidity groups %ta!le 2& to chec$ a !o, classifying the humidity and aridity for each month. Nor each of
si, possi!le indicators, the num!er of months where that indicator was chec$ed are added up, giing a
yearly total.
3.Schematic +esi,n Recommendations. +he yearly totals in ta!le . correspond to rows in this ta!le,
listing schematic design recommendations, e.g. O!uildings oriented on east#west a,is to reduce sun
e,posureO, Omedium si>ed openings, 2"<#."< of wall areaO.
9.+esi,n +e.elo%ment Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from ta!le . are used to read off
recommendations, e.g. Oroofs should !e high#mass and well insulatedO.
:*)T ;))
-M+A+IM?
+he /arth rotates a!out on a fi,ed plane that is tilted 2'.0W with respect to its ertical a,is around the sun.
+he /arth needs 2'hrs 02mins to complete one true rotation, or one sidereal period, around the sun.
A sidereal day %period& is the time ta$en for a gien location on the earth which is pointing to a certain
star to ma$e one full rotation and return !ac$ pointing to the same star again. )ince the speed of the
/arth(s rotation is constant throughout the year, the /arth(s sidereal day will always !e 2'hrs 02mins.
+he solar day, on the other hand, is the time needed for a point on earth pointing towards a particular
point on the sun to complete one rotation and return to the same point. It is defined as the time ta$en for
the sun to moe from the >enith on one day to the >enith of the ne,t day, or from noon today to noon
tomorro3.
+he length of a solar day aries, and thus on the aerage is calculated to !e 2.hrs. In the course of the
year, a solar day may differ to as much as 10mins. +here are three reasons for this time difference.
Nirstly it is !ecause the earths motion around the )un is not %erfect circle !ut is eccentric. +he second
reason is due to the fact that the )un(s apparent motion is not parallel to the celestial e<uator. =astly, the
third reason is !ecause of the precession of the /arth(s a,is.
Nor simplicity, we aeraged out that the /arth will complete one rotation eery 29hrs %!ased on a solar
day& and thus moes at a rate of 1=> %er hour %one full rotation is '2"W&.
Cecause of this, the sun appears to moe proportionately at a constant speed across the s$y. +he sun thus
produces a daily solar arc, which is the apparent path of the sun(s motion across the s$y. At different
latitudes, the sun 3ill tra.el across the s8y at different an,les each day. Ireater detail a!out this
phenomenon will !e touch on in the later part of the section
+he rotation of the earth a!out its a,is also causes the day and night phenomenon. +he length of the
day and night depends on the time of the year and the latitude of the location. Nor places in the
northern hemisphere, the shortest solar day occurs around +ecember 21 13inter solstice? and the
lon,est solar day occurs around Qune 21 %summer solstice& %Nigure 1.2&. In theory, during the time of
the e*uino,, the length of the day should !e "e*ual to the length of the night. +his will !e further
discussed in the later part too.
-/7M=5+IM?
It is generally accepted that the earth(s complete reolution around the )un is '20 days. Loweer, to
!e e,act, the num!er of days the earth ta$es to reole around the sun actually depends on whether
we are referring to a sidereal year or a tropical %solar& year.
A sidereal year is the time ta$en for the earth to complete e,actly one or!it around the )un. A sidereal
year is then calculated to !e 3@=.2=@9 solar days.
A tro%ical year is the time interal !etween two successie ernal e*uino,es, which is 3@=.2922
solar days. +he difference !etween the two is that tropical year ta$es into consideration precession
!ut the sidereal year does not.
Precession is the eent where the earth(s a,is shifts cloc$wise in circular motion which then changes
the direction when the ?orth Pole is pointing.
+he difference !etween the sidereal and the tropical year is 2"mins. +his difference is negligi!le in
the short run, !ut in the long run will cause time calculation pro!lems. +hus readSustments to
calendars must !e made to correct this difference. Lence for simplicity, the aerage time the earth
ta$es to moe around the sun in appro,imately '20 days. +his path that the earth ta$es to reole
around the sun is called the elliptical path.
/K5I?MA
+o e,plain solstices, e*uino,es and season, it will !e easier if we use the heliocentric model.
/*uino,es happen when the ecliptic %sun(s apparent motion across the celestial sphere& and celestial
e*uator intersect. When the sun is moing down from a!oe the celestial e*uator, crosses it, then
moes !elow it, that point of intersection !etween the two planes is when the Autumnal /*uino,
occurs. +his usually happens around the 22
nd
of )eptem!er. When the )un moes up from !elow the
celestial e*uator to a!oe it, the point of intersection !etween the sun and the celestial e*uator is
when )pring %7ernal& /*uino, occurs. It usually happens around the 21
st
of March. Furing the
e*uino,es, all parts of the /arth e,periences 12 hours of day and night and that is how e*uino, gets it
name as e*uino, means Te*ual nightU. At winter solstice %Fec&, the ?orth Pole is inclined directly
away from the sun. ' months later, the earth will reach the date point of the March e*uino, and that
the sun(s declination will !e "W. ' months later, the earth will reach the date point of the summer
solstice. At this point it will !e at declination #2'.0W. +his cycle will carry on, creating the seasons
that we e,perience on earth %Nigure 1.2&.
)M=)+I:/
It is !eing tilted on an a,is ma$es the northern hemisphere of the /arth get more sun than the southern
during the months of Quly, August and )eptem!erXwe call that summer. +he days are longer and the
nights are shorter, creating a warmer temperature for that time. In the southern hemisphere, it is winter.
+he longest day of the year in the north is Qune 21Xwe call it the summer solstice. +he north pole gets 2.
hours of daylight and the south pole gets " hours of daylight during our summer solstice
It is !eing tilted on an a,is ma$es the northern hemisphere of the /arth get less sun than the southern
during the months of Qanuary, Ne!ruary, and MarchXwe call that winter in the northern hemisphere. +he
nights are longer and the days are shorter, creating a colder temperature for that time. In the southern
hemisphere, it is summer. +he shortest day of the year in the north is Fecem!er 21Xwe call it the winter
solstice. +he south pole gets 2. hours of daylight and the north pole gets " hours of daylight during our
winter solstice.
+he earth is tilted 2'.0
o
, so is the ecliptic, with respect to the celestial e*uator, therefore the )un
ma,imum angular distance from the celestial e*uator is 2'.0W. At the summer solstice which occurs
around 21
st
of Qune, the ?orth Pole is pointing towards the sun at an angle of 2'.0
o
as shown in figure
1.'. +herefore the apparent declination of the sun is positie 2'.0
o
with respect to the celestial
e*uator. At the Winter solstice which occurs around 21
st
Fecem!er, the ?orth Pole is pointing away
from the sun at an angle of 2'.0
o
. +herefore the apparent declination of the sun is negatie 2'.0
o
with
respect to the celestial e*uator.
)/A)M?
)easons are caused !y the /arth a,is which is tilted !y 2'.0
o
with respect to the ecliptic and due to
the fact that the a,is is always pointed to the same direction. When the northern a,is is pointing to the
direction of the )un, it will !e winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the northern
hemisphere. ?orthern hemisphere will e,perience summer !ecause the )un(s ray reached that part of
the surface directly and more concentrated hence ena!ling that area to heat up more *uic$ly. +he
southern hemisphere will receie the same amount of light ray at a more glancing angle, hence
spreading out the light ray therefore is less concentrated and colder. +he conerse holds true when
the /arth southern a,is is pointing towards the )un. %Nigure 1.0&
)5?() APPA-/?+ MM+IM?
Nrom the heliocentric point of iew, the /arth rotates and reoles around the sun in a counter
cloc$wise direction. Loweer, when we loo$ at the )un on earth, it appears to !e moing in a
cloc$wise direction. +his phenomenon is $nown as the apparent motion of the sun.
Shadin, de.ices
)hading deices can play important role in control the solar radiation that
enter into the room especially during summer months. )hading deices can
control solar radiation in three ways. Nirst, they protects from sunlight. )econd,
they redirects the solar radiation and softens the e,cessie solar energy. +hird,
they diffuses the light and gies isual comfort %Ieun, 1443&. According to
Fu!ois %2"""&, the appropriate design of shading deices can effectiely reduce
cooling load. +his reduction ranges !etween 2'#64< depending on the type of
shading deice used, the !uilding orientation, the climate, etc.
)hading deices differ in their characteristics and dimensions according to
the duration of sunshine on the window facade. Nor e,amples, south windows
can easily !e shaded during summer !ecause of the high position of the sun in
the s$y and they can !e designed to accept high solar heat gains during winter. In
contrast, there are some difficult in shading of west and east windows !ecause of
the low position of the sun in the s$y. ?orth windows also accept ery limited
solar heat gains, restricted to the summer early morning and late afternoon hours,
so shading may !e not necessary in the north faYade %7ogel, 2"".&.
+he functions of shading systems are to improe thermal and isual
comfort !y reducing oerheating and glare, and to proide priacy %Mc9ay,
2"1"&. In some cases the disadantage of shading deices is that it may reduce
aaila!ility of daylight which enter the !uilding, hence increasing consumption
of energy for artificial lighting. +hus, an effectie shading deice should !e a!le
to preent the unwanted solar heat and allow the needed daylight to reach the
!uilding interior %Mathur, 2""'&. )hading deices should !e a!le to perform
some of these functions:
)top solar radiation penetration into the !uilding during hot periods.
Allow solar radiation penetration into the !uilding during cool periods.
)hould allow iew to the outside from inside the !uilding.
)hould allow daylight into the !uilding.
Proide some priacy wheneer re*uired.
Protect the occupants of the !uilding from glare.
)hould not interfere with air circulation through the windows.
Although adSusta!le shading deices may respond to multi demands than
fi,ed ones, it is difficult for a shading deice to effectiely perform all preious
functions. +hus, a deice should !e chosen after identifying its functions
Ienerally, solar radiation entering a room through windows can cause
three effects: increase in air temperature !y radiation a!sor!ed on room surfaces,
increase in the mean radiant temperature of occupants, and the third important
effect is that high intensities of radiation from direct sun can cause discomfort
glare. +he performance of shading deices is measured !y the leel of reduction
in negatie impacts of these three effects .+he following section
discuss in details the performance parameters of the shading deices.
3.@.1 'erformance %arameters for shadin, ad.ices
Performance parameters for the shading deices include: thermal, isual,
acoustic and aesthetic performance. +he alues of these parameters depend on
the independent aria!les such as climate, site, and !uilding type, and dependent
aria!les, such as heat transfer, facade type, and position of the !linds relatie to
the window
1. Thermal %erformance
+here are three parameters determine the thermal performance of the
shading deice: protection from oerheating in summer !y reflection or
a!sorption, protection from heat loss in winter, and collection of sun energy. In
hot climates, shading deice systems should protect the interior space from
oerheating in summer. +he thermal performance can also !e measured !y the
0.
leel of protection from heat loss during winter nights in cold climates. Another
parameter is the collection of solar energy !y a!sor!ing instead of reflecting
which can !e used in many applications li$e the !uilding(s mechanical systems.
2. "isual %erformance
7isual performance of the shading deice includes: proiding sufficient
illuminance, proiding sufficient luminance, protection from glare, proiding
priacy, proiding desired dar$ening of the interior space, and proiding direct
isual contact to the outside space. +he !uilding type affects the preious isual
performance parameters. Nor e,ample, proiding priacy and dar$ening of the
space is desira!le in residential !uildings, !ut not necessarily in office !uildings.
3. 5coustic %erformance
Acoustic performance parameters of the shading deice include: sound
transmission and i!ration of the !linds. Coth !uilding location and site affect
the acoustic performance of the shading deice. Nor e,ample, a higher leel of
noise occurs in ur!an areas re*uires selecting a specific shading deice to reduce
this noise. +he !linds installed outside can i!rate !ecause of wind, resulting in
increased noise leel. +hus, they should !e fi,ed carefully to aoid the pro!lem
of i!ration %Ml!ina, 2""0&.
9. 5esthetic %erformance
+he shading deice is an important architectural element. It has a
significant impact on !oth the e,terior and interior appearance of the facade.
Aesthetic performance parameters of the shading deice include: !linds(
transparency, !linds( translucency, and percent of window area o!structed !y the
!linds. +here is a strong relationship !etween the aesthetic performance
parameters and thermal, isual, and acoustic performance. Nor e,ample, the
!linds( transparency and percent of window area o!structed !y the !linds depend
on the re*uirements for the protection from oerheating and the desired daylight
leel in the interior space %Ml!ina, 2""0&.
00
3.@.2 +ifferent shadin, de.ice ty%es
+here are many different $inds and categories of shading deices. It can
!e classified into three main types fi,ed oerhang shades, louers, and moa!le
shades as illustrated in fig. %'.2&. According to the position of a shading deice
relatie to the !uilding enelope, shading deices can !e diided into internal
and e,ternal deices. +he e,ternal deices also can !e diided into the su!
categories of ertical, hori>ontal and com!ined deices. In addition, egetation
element is considered as a important type of shading deices All
these types of shading deices and its main characteristics will !e discussed in
the following sections.
1. 7ixed de.ices
Ni,ed shading deices are parts of the !uilding or e,tra structures
mounted on the !uilding facade. +hey can !e e,ternal or internal structures,
howeer they usually used in the outside of !uilding enelope. +here are many
types of fi,ed shading deices such as hori>ontal oerhangs, ertical fins,
com!ination of hori>ontal and ertical elements, !alconies or internal elements
li$e louers and light#sheles. +he most significant adantage of fi,ed shading
deices is that they are @passie@ or self#operating. In addition, fi,ed deices are
preferred !ecause of their simplicity, low maintenance cost and sometimes low
construction cost .Particularly, fi,ed shading deices are effectie at preenting direct sun
radiation, !ut it less effectie against diffuse or reflected radiation. +he
hori>ontal oerhang is the most common form of fi,ed shading deice. It can
effectiely !e used on the south#facing facade to proide complete shading
during summer and allow solar penetration in winter. Loweer, Ni,ed hori>ontal
deices do not generally proide effectie protection from the low#angled
sunlight of morning and afternoon, particularly on the east and west facades
2. !o.able de.ices
Moea!le deices can !e located e,ternally, internally or !etween the
panes of a dou!le or triple gla>ed window. +hey can !e e,ternal shading
elements in the form of tents, awnings, !linds, pergolas, or internal elements li$e
curtains, rollers and enetian !linds. Moa!le deices are more fle,i!le !ecause
they can modify according to the dynamic nature of the sun(s moement
%Mc9ay, 2"1"&. +he concept of moea!le deices depends on changing the cutoff
angle to match the changing solar altitude as a result of the moement of the
sun. +hese deices can !e operated manually or automatically %9asule, 2""'&.
Coth colour and material influence the effectieness of shading system.
the white enetian !linds gie 2"< shade protection more than dar$ ones, while for roller
!linds the effect can reach ."<. An aluminium !lind can add 1"< more protection than a
coloured one. Nor internal curtains the differences are less, as light coloured ones are only
16< more effectie than dar$ ones. Nig. %'.3& shows shaded performance of arious
materials. Part of the sunlight will !e reflected out through the gla>ing and the
rest of the solar energy will !e a!sor!ed, conected and re#radiated into the
room. Thus, It is not possible to achieve 100% efciency in the shading
system.
In the light of the previous fact, the dark coloured in internal shading
devices
should be avoided
3. Internal devices
Internal shading devices are that mounted on the inner side of the
building
envelope. They can either be fed like interior light shelves or
ad!ustable like
louvers, curtains, etc. "ig. #$.%& sho's the di(erence bet'een interior
and
eternal shading devices. It demonstrates that internal shading devices
are
considered less e(ective than eternal ones because the sunlight
enters the
building envelope. In contrast, eternal shading devices di(use any
absorbed
solar energy to the outside air. Thus, the efciency of eternal shading
devices
increases about $0% over internal shading devices, but internal
devices are
considered cheaper and easier to operate manually
4. External devices
)ternal shading devices are that mounted on the outer side of the
building envelope. Their main function is to trap solar radiation before
it reaches
the building envelope. )ternal shading devices can play important
role in
architectural appearance of the building facade. Thus, their colour,
form, and
shape should be selected carefully during the design phase. )ternal
shading devices can be divided basically into three categories 'hich
are hori*ontal shades, vertical shades, and compound shades. The
vertical devices 'ill be most e(ective 'hen the sun is opposite to the
'all considered, such as an eastern or 'estern facade. The
performance of vertical devices can be measured by a hori*ontal
shado' angle.
Table sho's many forms of vertical shading devices.
In contrast, The hori*ontal devices 'ill be most e(ective 'hen the sun
is
opposite to the building face considered and at a high angle, such as
for north
and south facing 'alls. The performance of hori*ontal devices can be
measured
by a vertical shado' angle .+ome forms of hori*ontal shading
devices is sho'n in Table
Vertical shading devices
Horizontal shading devices
Combined shading devices
Sizing Overhangs and Fins (Equations method)
Use these equations to find starting dimensions for shading elements. Do the calculations to
find:
Depth required for a shading element, or
Extent of shadow cast by a shading element with given depth.
. !or each facade, select a critical month and time for shading. "uggested: south windows use
"eptember noon, east use "eptember # am, west use "eptember $ pm, or as% mechanical
engineer for estimate of pea% cooling time in east, south, and west &ones.
'. !ind solar altitude and a&imuth for target month(hour from the sun path diagrams.
$. Use the formulas below to si&e overhang, fin, or both. )esults are a minimum starting point.
*. +f overhang is too big, try brea%ing it into several smaller elements or dropping part of it down
for an equivalent depth.
,. +f si&ing overhang for east or west window, you may notice that a fin must be added for
adequate
shading- otherwise overhang becomes unreasonably deep.
.. /est solution with a physical model and sundial.
0. +mprovements: Extend ends of overhang wider than window or use a continuous element.
1a%e overhang deeper or add another hori&ontal element part2way down the window. 3dd
vertical elements to the scheme.
For an overhang: h =D x tan (solar altitude) / cos (solar azimuth indo azimuth) !
!or total shade at your target month(hour, set h to height of window from sill to head and solve
for D, required overhang depth.
!or partial shade, set h to acceptable height of shadow 4perhaps '($ of window height5 and
solve for D, required overhang depth.
6ith a given overhang, set D to its depth and find h, the height of shadow it will cast at your
target month( hour.
For a "in: = D x tan (solar azimuth # indo azimuth) !
"olve for either w, width of shadow, or D, depth of fin, as with the overhang equation
7 8e sure to observe proper signs. +f both solar and window a&imuths are on the same side of
the south
vector, then both values are positive. +f they are on opposite sides of south, then set one
a&imuth as
negative. !or example: solar azimuth # (#indo azimuth) = solar azimuth $ indo
azimuth%
&alculating Shading Devices using the Factor method
/he following equation provides a quic% method for determining the pro9ection of a fixed
overhang.
'ro(ection = indo o)ening (height) / F F = "actor "rom the "olloing ta*le
+orth latitude F "actor
': ,., ; .
$' *.#2 ..$
$. $.#2 *.,
*# '.,2 $.*
** '.#2 '.0
*: .02 '.'
,' .,2 .:
,. .$2 .,
"elect a factor according to your latitude. /he higher values will provide ##< shading at noon
on =une 'st, the lower values until 3ugust .