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Control Output
DevicesActuators
and Displays for
Process Automation
Part 12 in a series of tutorials in instrumentation and measurement
Clarence W. de Silva and Ying Wang
Sensor Input Processing Output
Display,
actuators,
signals,
control
A
ctuators are an integral part of practical con-
trol (and instrumentation) systems. During
operation, actuators continuously receive
commands from their controllers and drive a plant or
process to achieve a pre-specified control objective.
The performance of the plant/process and its actuators
may be monitored using sensors and transducers. The
sensed information may be used for control of
the system (feedback control, feedfor-
ward control, or supervisory con-
trol), generation of other actions
(alarms, task sequencing,
fault management), and
presented or displayed
on output devices such
as computer screens, data
loggers, recorders, and
printers. There are a va-
riety of common actuators
that include:
electric motors (dc, step-
per, ac induction, and ac syn-
chronous)
linear actuators (solenoid devices, hy-
draulic actuators, and pneumatic actuators [1],
[2].)
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a feedback control
system with various output operations.
This article introduces the principles and applica-
tions of dc motors, ac induction motors, stepper motors,
solenoid actuators, and micromotors used in process
automation.
Direct Current Motors
A dc motor is driven by a direct current and converts
electrical energy into rotational mechanical
energy. They are commonly used in
automated industrial processes
like robotic manipulators, ma-
chine tools, computer hard
disks, and servo-valve ac-
tuators. Most industrial
robotic arms employ
dc motors to drive their
joints because the motor
speed can be controlled,
which enables accurate
positioning.
The operating principle of
a dc motor is based on Lorentzs
law, which governs the generation of
a resultant force F on a conductor carrying dc
current placed in a steady magnetic eld. Specically,
the force vector F, which is generated by the interac-
tion of the magnetic eld in the conductor (rotor) and
the magnetic eld of its environment (stator), can be
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Sensor Input Processing Output
Display,
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signals,
control
expressed as the cross product of the dc current vector i and
the ux density vector B
F = i B (1)
where B is the ux density of the stator magnetic eld, i is the
current through the conductor, and F is the generated force.
As a result of the force F the conductor will be moved at
velocity v in the magnetic eld B. This motion will generate
(induce) a voltage in the conductor, called the back electromotive
force (EMF), and is given by
v Blv
b

(2)
Here, B is the ux density, l is the length of the conductor,
and v is its moving velocity. According to Lenzs law, the mag-
netic ux due to the back EMF, vb, will inhibit the ux caused
by the current through the conductor and thereby oppose the
motion. This results in the phenomenon of electrical damping.
Two important components of a dc motor are the rotor and
stator. The stator, which is xed, provides a constant magnetic
eld for the motor. A permanent magnet stator is commonly
used because it has stable ux density, even though electro-
magnetic stators are also available. The rotor is the moving
part of the motor that experiences the magnetic torque
generated according to Lorentzs law and provides torque to
drive an external load. A typical rotor has many closely spaced
slots on its surface (see Figure 2) that carry the rotor windings
or conductors [1], [2]. When a dc current passes through the
rotor windings, the eld ux in the radial direction of the ro-
tor will generate a magnetic force in its tangential direction, as
described before, that will drive the rotor to rotate.
The rotor is usually made from a ferromagnetic material that
helps to concentrate the magnetic ux. In addition, it has a lami-
nated cylinder structure to prevent the generation of eddy cur-
rents that cause energy loss and undesirable thermal problems.
Note from Figure 2 that when a conductor crosses the com-
mutation plane, the torque generated on it is reversed, which
will result in a worthless device with zero net torque. This
problem may be corrected by physically reversing the direction
of the current in the con-
ductor, using a split-ring
and brush arrangement, as
shown in Figure 2(b). The
brushes are typically made
of carbon blocks and are
stationary. They make slid-
ing contact with a split ring
that rotates with the rotor.
This split-ring is called the
commutator; the armature
current supplied to the ro-
tating conductors through
the stationary brushes will
change direction as the com-
mutator plane is crossed,
thereby maintaining a uni-
directional torque.
Direct current motors
with permanent magnet
rotors are also available. These are brushless dc motors.
They cannot commutate using the method shown in Figure
2(b); they use electronic commutation instead, where the rotor
position is sensed through a device such as a Hall-effect sensor
[1], [2], and the stator current (eld) is switched electronically
as the rotor crosses the commutation plane.
The magnetic torque of a dc motor is determined by the
product of its rotor (armature) current and the stator (eld)
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic diagram of a dc motor (stator and rotor); (b) The rotor
brushes and wiring.
Fig. 1. A typical industrial automatic control system and its components.
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current. Assuming that the stator eld is steady, the torque-
current relationship may be expressed as
T K i
t

(3)
which is the counterpart of equation (1). Here T is the motor
(magnetic) torque, Kt is the torque constant, and i is the rotor
(armature) current.
In addition, according to the equation (2), the back EMF, vb, is
directly proportional to the rotational speed, w, of the motor as-
suming that the ux density, B, of the stator eld and the length
of the conductor, l, are constant. This relationship is given by
v K
b e
=
(4)
where Ke is the electrical back-EMF constant. With consistent
units for electrical and mechanical variables and with ideal
(loss-free) electro-magnetic energy conversion it can be shown
that Kt = Ke.
Figure 3 shows an equivalent circuit that may aid the study
of the behavior and characteristics of a dc motor. Here, the sta-
tor is represented by a simple circuit with a resistance, Rf, and
an inductance, Lf, and the eld (stator) voltage, vf, provides a
stable magnetic eld for the motor. The governing equation of
the eld circuit is
v R i L
di
dt
f f f f
f

(5)
where if is the eld current. Similarly, the relationship between
the armature supply voltage v and the armature current i may
be expressed using the armature circuit equation
v v L
di
dt
Ri
b

(6)
Here, R is the resistance of the rotor windings, and L is
the inductance that represents the leakage of magnetic eld
generated by the rotor (leakage inductance), which does not
contribute to torque generation.
According to Newtons second law, the mechanical equation
of a dc motor can be expressed as
T T b J
d
dt
L m m


(7)
where TL is the torque transmitted to drive the external mechan-
ical load (load torque), Jm is the moment of inertia of the motor
rotor, and bm is the mechanical damping constant of the rotor.
According to equations (3) through (7), a transfer function
relation may be established for a motor, as shown in Figure 4.
By using the motor model in Figure 4, you can develop a
control system for a dc motor through incorporation of various
control schemes. Figure 5 presents two typical control schemes:
position plus velocity feedback control and PID (proportional-
integral-derivative) position control.
Induction Motors
Induction motors are driven by alternating current and are a
class of ac motors [1], [2]. Because ac power is more economical
and conveniently available than dc power, induction motors
are commonly employed in industry, especially in heavy-duty
applications. Compared with dc motors, induction motors
possess advantages such as low cost, convenient power sup-
ply, no need for a commutator and brush mechanisms, no
electric arcing, high reliability, and light weight.
The speed-control performance of an induction motor is
not as effective as that of a dc motor. Consequently, servo con-
trol commonly uses dc motors as the main actuators. However,
the control of induction motors has made signicant progress
over the years through excitation frequency control and ux
vector control; these technologies combined have enabled in-
duction motors to have comparable control performance with
dc motors and have increased their popularity [1], [2].
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of a dc motor.
Fig. 4. Transfer function relation of a dc motor.
Fig. 5. Two types of a dc motor control. (a) Position plus velocity feedback
control. (b) PID position control.
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Sensor Input Processing Output
Display,
actuators,
signals,
control
Basically, there are two types of ac motors: induction mo-
tors (also called asynchronous motors) and synchronous mo-
tors. Both types of ac motors are based on the concept of a ro-
tating eld. When a set of windings is distributed in a circular
arrangement and excited by ac voltages with uniform phase
difference among the windings, a rotating magnetic eld will
be generated. For example, consider a standard three-phase ac
power supply with the phase voltages given by
v a t
v a t
v a t
p
p
p
1
2
3
2
3
4

_
,

cos
cos
cos
u
u
r
u
r
33

_
,

(8)
In equation (8), wp is the common frequency of the ac supply
(the line frequency). The amplitudes, a, of the phase voltages
are the same, and the phase difference between two adjacent
voltages is 2/3. If each of these voltages is used to excite a
pair of windings placed at radially opposite locations and uni-
formly arranged around a circle, the voltage status and the cor-
responding magnetic eld status will switch from one winding
segment to the adjacent one in time intervals consistent with a
speed of rotation of wp. Therefore, the magnetic eld of the sta-
tor appears to rotate at an angular velocity wp. Now suppose
that each phase excites p winding pairs, which are uniformly
distributed around the rotor circle. Then the magnetic eld ap-
pears to rotate at speed wf as given by

f
p
n

(9)
where n is the number of three-phase winding sets.
In a synchronous motor, the rotor itself has a magnetic eld
(generated by an auxiliary dc source) that locks to the rotating
magnetic field. Consequently, the motor rotates at the
same speed wf as (i.e., synchronous with) the
rotating eld.
In an induction motor, the stator
windings and the rotor wind-
ings constitute a transformer
circuit. In addition, the rotor
windings are not excited
by an external voltage, so
they are purely second-
ary windings. When the
stator windings are ex-
cited by a three-phase ac
voltage, as stated above, a
rotating eld will be gen-
erated. Because of mutual
induction of the transformer,
an induced current will appear
in the rotor windings (the second-
ary windings), which results in the
magnetic flux in the secondary wind-
ings. This magnetic flux will interact with
the ux of the primary windings (the rotating eld),
thereby generating a toque to drive the rotor in the direction
of the rotating eld.
The rotating speed of the rotor has to be lower than the
speed of the stator eld to generate a positive torque; this dif-
ference in speed is called slip. That is why an induction mo-
tor is also called an asynchronous motor. The fractional slip, S,
measures the speed difference between the rotor and the stator
eld, and is given by
S
f m
f

(10)
where wm is the rotor speed, and wf is the speed of the stator
field. Figure 6 shows a typical torque-speed characteristic
curve of an induction motor. This curve is used as the basis for
motor selection and sizing, assessment of the motor perfor-
mance, and design of its control system [1], [2].
From Figure 6, it is clear that there are two working
regions called the stable region and the unstable region in
the characteristic curve. In the unstable region, it is very
difcult for the induction motor to maintain
a constant speed because any minor
change of the motor torque will
result in a signicant change in
the motor speed. However, in
the stable region, the motor
speed does not change too
much even when there is
a large torque uctuation.
In other words, in the sta-
ble region, the induction
motor returns to a steady
speed when excited and
runs at a constant speed.
This is clearly a good char-
acteristic, particularly for
industrial applications with
changing load conditions.
The constant speed characteristic
of an induction motor also means that
it is more difcult to adjust and control the
motor speed when compared with a dc motor. How-
During
operation, actuators
continuously receive commands
from their controllers and drive
a plant or process to achieve a
pre-specied control objective. The
performance of the plant/process
and its actuators may be
monitored using sensors and
transducers.
Fig. 6. Torque-speed characteristic curve of an induction motor.
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ever, signicant progress has been made in the speed control
of ac motors. There are four basic methods of induction motor
control:
Excitation frequency control
Supply voltage control
Rotor resistance control
Pole changing control
The method of excitation frequency control, where the rotor
speed is changed by changing the frequency of the ac power
supply of induction motors, shows a comparable control per-
formance to dc motor control.
Solenoids
Solenoids are linear actuators that push or pull their load when
excited by an electrical power source. A solenoid usually acts
as an on/off actuator that switches the mechanical state of
a moving device. For this reason, solenoids commonly oper-
ate in applications like valves, switches, and relays. Figure 7
shows the structure of a dc solenoid. It has a set of windings,
which generate a magnetic eld when excited by a dc power
supply. The inner shaft of the solenoid, called the plunger, is
a piston-like cylinder made of soft iron or other ferromagnetic
material. The magnetic eld applies a force to the plunger to
attract or repel it. When the power is turned off, the magnetic
force will disappear and the spring will return the plunger to
its initial position [1], [2].
Figure 8 shows a commercial solenoid manufactured by
Bicron Electronics. The size of ST1939 is 19 mm in diameter
and 39 mm in length and has a 12.2 mm stroke. It can provide a
force output of 0.85 Kg.
A dc linear actuator can provide a continuously variable
motion in response to an applied dc signal. The principle of
its operation is similar to that of a dc motor, except that the
motion is linear rather than rotary. Hydraulic and pneu-
matic linear actuators are available, which use uid power
and principles to move piston devices in response to valve
actuation [1], [2].
Stepper Motors
A stepper motor receives a sequence of electrical pulse com-
mands and drives its rotor to rotate in discrete steps. The
pulse count, frequency, and the phase of the pulse sequence
determine the angle of rotation, speed, and direction, respec-
tively, of the stepper motor. Due to the open-loop manner in
which the motion can be controlled by controlling the stepping
sequence, stepper motors are commonly used in many indus-
trial equipments such as machine tools, printers, plotters, and
medical devices. Several advantages of stepper motors are:
The rotational angle can be controlled accurately by se-
quencing the input pulses.
Precise positioning and repeatability are possible. Error is
not cumulative from one step to the next.
Simple open-loop control can perform well at reduced
cost.
There is increased robustness and operating life because
there are no contact brushes.
Speed of the motor can be easily adjustable by changing
the pulse frequency.
The three types of stepper motors are the permanent mag-
net (PM) stepper, the variable reluctance (VR) stepper, and the
hybrid (HB) stepper [1], [2]. The PM motor has a permanent-
magnet rotor, and the VR motor has a rotor made of a non-
magnetized ferromagnetic material. The HB motor is a hybrid
of PM and VR motors.
The operating principle of a PM stepper motor may be
explained using Figure 9. Two stator windings (Phase 1 and
Phase 2) are shown. When they are energized, their poles will
be magnetized into south or north poles, depending on the
direction of the current. The rotor is a permanent magnet that
has its own south and north pole. When Phase 1 or Phase 2 is
energized, the rotor will align itself along the resultant eld of
the stator. If a sequence of pulses excites the stator windings
in a predened design, the resultant stator eld will move in a
corresponding way, taking the rotor with it in steps.
A computer or a digital logic circuit can generate the driv-
ing pulses of a stepper motor; thus, the rotational angle, speed,
and direction of the stepper motor can be accurately controlled
by carefully designing the number, frequency, and sequence
of the pulses.
An HB stepper typically has a rotor consisting of a pair of
PM rotors with a polar misalignment between them. The po-
lar misalignment allows a ner step resolution than found in
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of a dc solenoid.
Fig. 8. The ST1939 solenoid (Source: Bicron Electronics).
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control
PM motors. The HB stepper motors are most commonly used
today even though they tend to be more expensive than PM
motors, because they provide better step resolution, torque,
and speed. For example, typical step angles of HB stepper mo-
tors range from 3.6 down to 0.9, whereas typical angles of PM
motors range from 7.5 up to 15.
Commercial stepper motors, regardless of whether they
are PM, VR, or HB, use a toothed construction for its rotor
and stator. Specically, each rotor pole has a set of teeth as in a
gear wheel; there is a complementary set of teeth in the stator,
corresponding to each stator phase. The tooth arrangement
not only provides a ner step resolution, it also provides more
uniform magnetic eld distribution, smoother operation, and
better torque capability.
Microactuators
In recent years, the micro-fabrication technology has received
increased attention in industrial applications. The ongoing
trend in this eld has been to develop micro-electro-mechani-
cal systems (MEMS) devices with smaller size, lighter weight,
and reduced power consumption. These MEMS devices are
useful in advanced, state-of-the-art applications such as micro-
robots, drug delivery, and microfabrication where high preci-
sion and microminiature size are needed. One challenging task
is to design, develop, and implement microactuators to drive
other microstructures or microcomponents whose sizes may
be in the millimeter or micrometer range.
Usually, when the dimensions of actuators are reduced
from the macro-level to the micro-level, their driving forces
also decrease. Theoretically, if the size of a mechanical struc-
ture is decreased by a factor of m, its electromagnetic force will
be reduced by m
4
[3]. To implement effective force output, very
different force generation mechanisms are needed for microac-
tuators. These include the bimetal effect, piezo-electric effect,
shape memory effect, and electrostatic forces.
Microactuators require very different manufacturing proce-
dures from those used for macro-actuators. These manufactur-
ing approaches include lithography and anisotropic etching,
surface micromachining for poly-crystalline production, LIGA
technology (x-ray lithography electroplating and molding), elec-
trical discharge machining (EDA), and microinjection molding.
A representative example of a micro-actuator is the micro-
motor series produced by FAULHABER Group, which are
only 15 mm in length, 6 mm in diameter, and 2 g in weight, but
provide 0.12 W and a speed of up to 13,000 rpm. Some relevant
technical information is given in Table 1.
In addition to these micromotors in the millimeter range,
some actuators in the micrometer range have been developed,
based on the new MEMS technology, by integrating microme-
chanical components, sensors, actuators, and electronics on a
common silicon or polymer plate using micromanufacturing
technologies. These actuators usually work in the range of
micrometers and constitute a core component of micro-electro-
mechanical equipment. Figure 10 shows a schematic diagram
of such a microlinear actuator, which uses Lorentz force (as in
a dc motor [4]).
In Figure 10(a), the actuator is monolithically fabricated;
it is based on a polymer magnet, which provides a constant
magnetic eld for the actuator. First, an electroplated copper
structure is partially deposited on a sacricial layer above
the polymer magnet. Then, etching removes the sacricial
layer to produce a movable copper conductor above the
magnet. Springs, made from electroplated copper, nickel, or
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of a permanent-magnet stepper motor.
Fig. 10. (a) Schematic diagram of the Lorentz force micro-actuator; (b) Three-
axis parallel drive micro-robot ( IEEE, [4]).
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nickel-iron, suspend the movable conductor and provide the
restoring force. The other ends of the springs attach to the
xed conductor. Advanced, state-of-the-art micromachining
techniques fabricate the structure; these techniques include
UV depth lithography, screen printing of polymer magnets,
electroplating of copper conductors, and insulating and em-
bedding using SU-8 (code name of a commonly used negative
photoresistor).
When an electrical current passes through the movable con-
ductor of the micro-actuator in Figure 10(a), coupled with the
polymer magnet, it generates a Lorentz force, which drives the
conductor to move in a linear direction. The springs in the ac-
tuator provide the restoring force to balance the Lorentz force
and protect the actuator from reaching an extreme position.
The actuator in Figure 10(a) can provide a linear displacement
up to 10 m and a driving force up to 0.6 mN, which enable the
actuator to work in extremely small equipment. Figure 10(b)
shows an application of a three-axis parallel drive micro-robot
using the linear micro-actuator.
Display and Recording Equipment
Computer Display
In the instrumentation and measurement eld, computers are
taking over the role of the traditional display devices such as
oscilloscopes because computer-based displays have several
signicant advantages over them. First, a computer-based dis-
play is more powerful because it can display complex graphs,
curves, shapes, and digits, a difcult task for an oscilloscope or
other conventional data display equipment, all with equal ease.
Second, complex signal and image processing technologies like
fast Fourier transform (FFT) and wavelet analysis may be easily
incorporated, modied, or changed in a computer-based display
system. Also, by changing its software modules, computer-based
display can become more exible than the conventional devices.
Finally, a computer system can provide a more intuitive display
and a friendlier human-machine interface. In view of these ad-
vantages and low cost, it is believed that computer-based display
systems will replace most of the existing industrial displays and
monitoring equipment in the near future.
Among the existing computer-based display products,
the LabVIEW developed by National Instruments is rapidly
becoming the standard platform for industrial measurements
and display [5]. By closely integrating data acquisition, signal
processing, control design, data analysis, monitoring, and
display, LabVIEW enables end-users to set up and implement
a customized measurement/control/instrumentation system
in a very short time. With respect to data display, LabView pro-
vides a set of powerful graphic user interface (GUI) tools such
as waveform display, knobs, x-y graphs, and digital indicators
so that users can easily design a data display interface. For
example, Figure 11 shows a GUI design of a water tank level
control system using LabVIEW.
Data Loggers
Compared with computer-based display systems, data loggers
can be cheaper and more portable, so they can be quite suitable
for elded projects. A data logger system usually integrates its
sensor, signal processing, display unit, power supply, memory,
and alarm circuit in a compact case. It can work independently
through continuously sampling, displaying, and saving data
for a long period. Through USB ports, the data saved in the
memory of a data logger can be downloaded into a computer
for further processing and analysis. Such systems are desirable
for researchers and engineers who need to sample data in the
eld and do not want to carry heavy computer equipment
with them.
Figure 12 shows the OM-DVTH. It is a portable data logger
with a display for temperature and relative humidity, which is
manufactured by Omega Engineering, Inc.
The OM-DVTH data logger is an easy-to-use and versatile
device that can measure, record, and display temperature,
relative humidity, and dew point simultaneously. A total of
43,444 measurement values can be stored in its memory, and
the sampling interval can be changed by the user, from 1s to 18
h. It has two types of display modes: text display and graph
display. The text display mode can display real time tem-
perature, humidity, and dew point whereas the graph display
mode can show measurement trends graphically. In addition,
it has a temperature resolution of 0.01C and a humidity reso-
lution of 0.01% RH, which meets the requirements of many
engineering projects. Equipped with an internal alarm func-
tion, this compact data logger with the dimensions 7.7 10.2
3.8 cm only weighs 200 g, and its market price is about US
$200. The data logger is powered by three AA alkaline batter- Fig. 11. A GUI of a water tank level control system using LabVIEW.
Table 1Specications of the
0615-1.5S series dc micromotors
(Source: FAULHABER Group)
Nominal voltage 1.5 volt
Terminal resistance 3.9
Output power 0.12 w
No-load speed 19,100 rpm
Stall torque 0.24 mNm
Friction torque 0.02 mNm
Operating temperature range 30 to +85C
Weight 2 g
Recommended max speed 13,000 rpm
Recommended max torque 0.11 mNm
Recommended max current 0.341 A
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ies, which can last for 2 years. A USB port enables a connection
to a computer for further processing and analysis.
Conclusions
We dened several output devices typically used in industrial
applications in this article. We presented the principles of dc
motors, ac induction motors, stepper motors, and solenoids;
we outlined their operating principles, characteristics, and
control approaches. We also introduced microactuators, new
members of the output equipment family. We described sev-
eral real industrial actuator products and their specications.
Finally, we introduced two types of display and recording
equipment and pointed out important technical trends.
It is clear that future applications of output devices will fo-
cus on the development of industrial actuators of smaller size,
lighter weight, higher output power and torque, and better
static and dynamic characteristics. We expect novel mecha-
nisms for force generation and more sophisticated machining
techniques to facilitate the realization of these goals.
References
[1] C.W. de Silva, MechatronicsAn Integrated Approach, Boca Raton,
FL: Taylor&Francis/CRC Press, 2005.
[2] C.W. de Silva, Sensors and ActuatorsControl System
Instrumentation, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor&Francis/CRC Press, 2007.
[3] H. Janocha, Unconventional actuators, Chapter 5, in Actuators:
Basics and Applications, H. Janocha, ed., Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2004.
[4] M. Feldmann and S. Buttgenbach, Novel microrobots and
micromotors using Lorentz forces driven linear microactuators
based on polymer magnets, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol.
43, pp. 38913895, 2007.
[5] C.W. de Silva, VibrationFundamentals and Practice, 2nd ed., Boca
Raton, FL: Taylor&Francis/CRC Press, 2007.
Dr. Clarence W. de Silva (desilva
@mech.ubc.ca) Ph.D. (MIT),
Ph. D. (Cambridge), D. Eng.
(h.c., Waterloo), Fellow ASME,
Fellow IEEE, P.Eng., Fellow
Canadian Academy of Engi-
neering, has been a Professor
of Department of Mechanical
Engineering and holder of the
NSERC-BC Packers Chair in
Industrial Automation, at the
University of British Columbia, since 1988. He has also held
the Mobil Endowed Chair Professorship in the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Univer-
sity of Singapore. He has authored 16 books and 170 journal
papers, including SENSORS AND ACTUATORSControl
System Instrumentation, (CRC Press, 2007); VIBRATIONFun-
damentals and Practice, 2nd Edition (CRC Press, 2007); and
MECHATRONICSAn Integrated Approach (CRC Press, 2005).
He works in robotics, sensors, actuators, intelligent control,
mechatronics, and industrial automation.
Ying Wang is a Ph.D. Candidate
with the Industrial Automa-
tion Laboratory, Mechanical
Engineering Department, The
University of British Columbia,
6250 Applied Science Lane, V6T
1Z4, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
He obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc.
degree in Mechatronics from
Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
China in 1991 and 1999 respec-
tively. He has worked as a faculty member at Ningbo Univer-
sity, China since 1991. His research and development areas are
Autonomous and Multi-robot systems, Machine Learning and
Intelligent Control.
Fig. 12. The OM-DVTH temperature and relative humidity data logger (Source:
Omega Engineering, Inc.).
For additional information and technical details, see our sister publication,
the IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement:
A. Ferrero and A. Raciti. A digital method for the determination of the magnetic characteristic of variable reluctance
motors, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 39, pp. 604608, 1990.
L.A.P. Marcal, J.V.F. Leao, G. Nader, R.T. Higuti, C. Kitano, E.C.N. Silva. Analysis of linearity and frequency response
of a novel piezoelectric extensional actuator using a homodyne interferometer and the J1-J4 Method, IEEE Transactions
on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 56, pp. 954961, 2007.
A.F. Vat. Composite modeling of exible structures with bonded piezoelectric lm actuators and sensors, IEEE Trans-
actions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 47, pp. 513520, 1998.
Editors Note: This has been an excellent introduction to output
actuators and devices. The next four tutorials will cover specic ap-
plications and control theoryall of which will necessarily rely on
this tutorial.
For implementing these output designs, you will need some addi-
tional basics in circuit design, power drives, and practical hints in robust
operation. We will plan to supply an addendum to this tutorial to give
you those practical hints. Regardless, I trust that you will thoroughly
appreciate the value of this ne tutorial for reference in your own projects
and designs.