9.

Radar Antennas
Functions of an Antenna
The antenna is one of the most critical parts of a radar system. It performs the
following essential functions:

! It transfers transmitter energy to space with the required pattern and with high
efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.

! It has to provide the required frequency of target position updates. In the case of a
mechanically scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate. A high revolution
rate can be a significant mechanical problem given that a radar antenna in certain
frequency bands can have a reflector with immense dimensions and can weigh
several tons.

! It must measure the pointing direction with a high degree of accuracy.

The antenna structure must maintain constant operating characteristics under all
environmental conditions.

Radomes are generally used where relatively severe environmental conditions are
experienced.
Functions of an Antenna
Radar Antennas
The name antenna has its seeds in the work of the Italian inventor Guglielmo
Marconi.

During his experiments with the electromagnetic waves he used a wooden
tent pole along which was carried a radiating wire. The word for tent pole in
Italian is l'antenna.
An antenna transmits or receives electromagnetic waves. It is a transducer
to convert electromagnetic waves into high-frequency electrical currents and
vice versa.

The size of the antenna will be a multiple of wavelength. The size determines
the antenna directivity.

There are antennas with more than hundred meters length using HF
frequencies and antennas with a length of just a few millimeters for milli-
meter ranges.
Radiation from an Antenna
0
Z
X
Y
M
u
B =
1
!
u! E
E =!B!u
The wave propagates with velocity
! =
1
"
=# / k
The radiated field in spherical coordinates is: E(r,!, ") =
exp(!jkr)
kr
e(!, ")
! =

"
Radiating Fields
Consider a negatively charged particle sitting somewhere in space. All charged
particles have an electric field associated with them.











A negative charge has an electric field that occurs everywhere in space.

The electric field is a vector quantity. It has magnitude and a direction.

The field strength reduces with increasing distance.
Radiating Fields
Consider the charged particle to be disturbed such that the charge accelerates and
travels away at a constant velocity.

The resulting electric field disturbance will propagate away from the charge at the
speed of light - c = 3x10
8
meters/second.

Once the charge has accelerated away (or stopped), the fields re-align themselves.

The fields want to surround the charge exactly as they did before they were
disturbed. However, the fields can only respond to events at the speed of light.

If a point is very far away from the charge, it will take time for the disturbance (or
change in electric fields) to propagate to the point and will be diminished in
strength.

There are 3 regions. In the light blue (inner) region, the fields close to the charge
have readapted themselves and now line up. In the white region (outermost), the
fields are still undisturbed and have the same magnitude and direction as they would
if the charge had not moved. In the pink region, the fields are changing - from their
old magnitude and direction to their new magnitude and direction.

This is the fundamental reason for radiation - the fields change because charges are
accelerated. The fields always try to align themselves around charges. If we produce
a moving set of charges (i.e. a time varying electric current), then we will have
radiation.
Radiating Fields
Far Field (Fraunhofer) Region
The far field is the region far from the antenna, as you might suspect. In this
region, the radiation pattern does not change shape with distance (although
the fields still die off as 1/R, the power density dies off as 1/R
^2
). Also, this
region is dominated by radiated fields, with the E- and H-fields orthogonal to
each other and the direction of propagation as with plane waves.

If the maximum linear dimension of an antenna is D, then the following must
be satisfied to be in the far field region:




Near Field (Fresnel) Region
The radiating near field or Fresnel region is the region between the near and
far fields. In this region the radiating fields begin to emerge. However, unlike
the Far Field region, here the shape of the radiation pattern may vary
appreciably with distance.

Far and Near Fields
R =
2D
2
!
R <
2D
2
!
Isotropic Radiation
Isotropic radiation An antenna that radiates energy equally in all
directions is known as an isotropic radiator.

Isotropic radiation is uniform at all (solid)
angles.

This is results in the weakest density of
radiation per unit area (of a sphere).

Isotropic radiation doesnt tell us anything
about target location. The target could be any
where on the sphere surface.



The power density (W/m
2
) at a distance R
from the isotropic antenna is


I =
P
t
4!
Q=
P
t
4!R
2
Directional Antennas
Some antennas are highly directional; that
is to say, more energy is propagated in a
preferred direction.

The ratio between the amount of energy
propagated in the preferred direction
compared to the energy that would be
propagated if the antenna were not
directional is known as its gain.

When a transmitting antenna with a certain
gain is used as a receiving antenna, it will
also have the same gain for receiving.
The emission form a dipole antennas
is a slightly flattened torus
Antenna Patterns
The energy radiated from an antenna
forms a field having a definite radiation
pattern. A radiation pattern is a way of
plotting the radiated energy from an
antenna.

The shape of this pattern depends on
the type of antenna used.
The polar-coordinated graph has
proved to be of great use in observing
radiation patterns.
In the polar-coordinate graph, points
are located by projection along a
rotating axis (radius) to an intersection
wi th one of several concentri c,
equally-spaced circles.
Antenna Patterns
The main beam (or main lobe) is the region
around the direction of maximum radiated
power. This is defined as the region that is
within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam.

The sidelobes are smaller beams that point
in different directions to the main beam.
These sidelobes radiate in undesired
directions and can never be completely
eliminated. The sidelobe level is an
important parameter used to characterize
radiation patterns.

One sidelobe is called backlobe. This is the
portion of radiation pattern that is directed
opposing the main beam direction.
The horizontal axis on the rectangular
coordinate graph corresponds to the
circles on the polar-coordinate graph. The
vertical axis on the rectangular-coordinate
graph corresponds to the rotating axis
(radius) on the polar-coordinate graph.

From a plotted antenna pattern you can
measure some important characteristics of
an antenna:
the front-to-back ratio,
the ratio of power gain between the
front lobe and isotropic radiation
the side lobe ratio, the maximum value
of the sidelobes away from the main
beam.
The integrated sidelobe ratio, the sum
of all the sidelobes.
Antenna Patterns
Beamwidth
The angular extent of the antenna pattern
in which most of the radiated power is
emitted is defined as the beam width.

The beamwidth of the main lobe lobe is the
point at which the field strength has fallen
in by 3 dB compared to the maximum field
strength. I.e. it is the half power width

This angle is described as beam width or
aperture angle or half power (-3 dB) angle.




The average sidelobe level is given by: SL
ave
=
P
SL
!
SL
P
t
4!
=
(Pt " P
MB
)
(4! "!
MB
)
4!
P
T
=
(1"
P
MB
P
t
)
(1"
!
MB
4!
)
=1"
P
MB
P
t
Apertures
An isotropic radiator disperses all energy at a surface of a sphere. A directive antenna
concentrates the energy in a smaller area. The power density is higher than by an
isotropic radiator.

The density can be expressed as power per unit area.

The received power can be compared with a related surface. This area is called
effective aperture. The effective aperture of an antenna A
e
is the surface presented to
the radiated or received signal. It is a key parameter, which governs the performance
of the antenna. The antenna gain is related to the effective area by the following
relationship:
G =
4!A
e
"
2
A
e
= K
a
A where
! = wavelength
= effective antenna aperture
= Aperture efficiency
= Aperture physical size
A
e
K
a
A
The aperture efficiency depends on the distribution of the illumination across the
aperture.
Aperture Tapers
Polarization
The radiation field of an antenna is
composed of electric and magnetic lines of
force.

These lines of force are always at right
angles to each other. The electric field
determines the direction of polarization of
the wave.

When a single-wire antenna is used to
extract energy from a passing radio wave,
maximum pickup will result when the
antenna is oriented in the same direction
as the electric field.

The oscillations of the electric field may be
oriented in a single direction (linear
polarization), or the oscillation direction of
the electric field may rotate as the wave
travels (circular or elliptical polarization).
Polarization
Linear Polarization

Vertically and horizontally mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive
vertically and horizontally polarized waves, respectively. Therefore, changes in
polarization cause changes in the received signal level due to the inability of the
antenna to receive polarization changes. Two planes of polarization are used
mostly:

! In a vertically polarized wave, the electric lines of force lie in a vertical direction.

! In a horizontally polarized wave, the electric lines of force lie in a horizontal
direction.

When a single-wire antenna is used to extract energy from a passing radio wave,
maximum pickup will result when the antenna is oriented in the same direction as
the electric field. Thus a vertical antenna is used for the efficient reception of
vertically polarized waves, and a horizontal antenna is used for the reception of
horizontally polarized waves.
Polarization
Circular Polarization
Circular polarization has the electric lines of force
rotating through 360 degrees with every cycle of RF
energy. Circular polarization arises due to a 90
degree phase shift between the E and H fields.

In some cases the orientation of the electric field
does not remain constant. Instead, the field rotates
as the wave travels through space. Under these
conditions the wave is said to have an elliptical
polarization.

Circular polarization can be right-handed or left-
handed.

A circularly polarized wave is reflected by a spherical
raindrop opposite to that of the incident wave. On
reception, the antenna rejects waves of the opposite
sense of circular polarization thereby minimizing the
attenuation by rain.
The Half-Wave Antenna
A half-wave antenna (referred to as a dipole, Hertz, or doublet)
consists of two lengths of wire rod, or tubing, each "
wavelength long at a given frequency.

It is the basic unit from which many complex antennas are
constructed. For a dipole, the current is a maximum at the
center and a minimum at the ends. Voltage is a minimum at the
center and a maximum at the ends.

Energy may be fed to the half-wave antenna by dividing the
antenna at its center and connecting the transmission line from
the final transmitter output stage to the two center ends of the
halved antenna.

Since the antenna is being fed at the center (a point of low
voltage and high current), this type of feed is known as the
center-feed or current-feed method. The point of the feed is
important in determining the type of transmission line to be
used.
The Half-Wave Antenna
Standing waves of current and voltage arise. The half-
wave antenna has a gain of about 1.5 and the
maximum radiation is in a direction perpendicular to
the antenna axis.

The half-wave dipole also is similar to a simple
oscillating circuit. Imagine that the condenser plates of
an oscillating circuit are bent a little. The capacity is
reduced, but the condenser is still a condenser.

When the condenser plates are moved further apart
the lines of force of the electrical field have to cover a
bigger and bigger distance. Eventually the form of the
condenser cannot be recognized any more. The lines
of force of the electrical field go out into free space. We
now have a half-wave dipole which is now being fed at
the center.
The Yagi Antenna
This antenna (named after one of its Japanese inventors, Professor Yagi) has
especially been developed for short wave up to the UHF.

Yagi-antennas use mutual coupling between standing-wave current elements to
produce a traveling-wave unidirectional pattern. It consist of a dipole and additional
closely coupled parasitic elements.

Since the driven element is center-fed, it is not welded to the supporting rod. The
center impedance can be increased by using a folded dipole as the driven element.

The spacing between the elements is not uniform.



The only element of the structure that is excited is the dipole. All other parasitic
elements are closely coupled by radiation.

The radiation from the different elements arrives in phase in the forward direction,
but out of phase by various amounts in the opposite directions.
All reflected rays will be parallel to the axis of the
paraboloid. This gives asingle reflected ray
parallel to the main axis with no sidelobes.

The field leaves the feed horn with a spherical
wave front. As each part of the wave front
reaches the reflecting surface, it is shifted 180
degrees in phase and sent outward in parallel
paths.

This is an idealized radar antenna and produces
a pencil beam.

If the reflector has an elliptical shape, then it will
produce a fan beam.

Surveillance radars may use two different
curvatures in the horizontal and vertical planes to
achieve the required pencil beam in azimuth and
in elevation.
The Parabolic Dish Antenna
The Parabolic Dish Antenna
The parabolic dish antenna is the form most
frequently used in radar systems.

The parabolic dish antenna consists of one
circular parabolic reflector and a point source
situated at the focal point of the reflector.

This point source is called primary feed or
feed.

The circular parabolic reflector (paraboloid) is
constructed of metal, usually a frame covered
by metal mesh at the inner side.

The width of the slots of the metal mesh has
to be less than # / 10.

This metal covering forms the reflector acting
as a mirror for the radar energy.
The Parabolic Dish Antenna
More realistic parabolic antenna patterns have a conical form because of irregularities
in the dish and feed.

The radiation pattern of a parabolic antenna contains a major lobe, which is directed
along the axis of propagation, and several small minor lobes.

Very narrow beams are possible with this type of reflector. The beamwidth, in degrees,
of an antenna is given by
!
B
=
"
D
For a wavelength of 3cm and an aperture of 1m,
the beamwidth equals 0.03 rads or 1.7 degrees

Fan Beam Antenna
A fan-beam antenna is a directional antenna
producing a main beam having a narrow beamwidth
in one dimension and a wider beamwidth in the
other dimension.

This pattern can be obtained by illuminating an
asymmetrical section of the paraboloid, e.g. by a
truncated paraboloid reflector.

If the reflector is narrow in the vertical plane and
wide in the horizontal, it produces a beam that is
wide in the vertical plane and narrow in the
horizontal.

If the reflector is narrow in the horizontal plane and
wide in the vertical, it produces a beam that is wide
in the horizontal plane and narrow in the vertical.

This type of antenna system is generally used in
height-finding equipment (if the reflector is rotated
90 degrees).
Fan Beam Antenna

If the reflector is narrow in the
horizontal plane and wide in the
vertical, it produces a beam that is
wide in the horizontal plane and
narrow in the vertical.

This type of antenna system is
generally used in height-finding
equipment (if the reflector is
rotated 90 degrees).
Off-Set Feeds
One problem associated with feedhorns is the shadow introduced by the feedhorn if it
is in the path of the beam.

The shadow is a dead spot directly in front of the feedhorn. Normally the feed horn
constitutes an obstruction for the rays coming from the reflector at a parabolic
antenna.

To solve this problem the feedhorn can be offset from center.

In an offset feed, the feed is outside the path of the wave so there is no pattern
deterioration due to aperture blocking. The horn faces upwards relative to the axis of
the parabola and the lower half of the parabola is removed. The net effect is that the
parabola is shallower with a larger focal length.

The feed horn is therefore situated further from the reflector and requires greater
directivity to avoid spill over of energy.

This design therefore requires larger horns and is generally more difficult and
expensive to construct.
Feeds
The feed is design to provide
the required directivity, gain and
sidelobe performance.
The feed horn is off-set to eliminate
blockage. Moving the horn from the
focal point limits beam scanning
Cosecant Squared Patterns
In the practice a cosecant squared pattern can be achieved by a deformation of a
parabolic reflector. A radiator is placed at the focal point of a parabolic reflector and
produces a relatively sharply bundled radiation lobe.

To get the cosecant squared pattern, a part of the radiated energy must be increased.
One way of doing this is to deform the top of the reflector. The part of the rays which
fall on the less bent area (in the top) are reflected reflected upwards.

A further possible method, analogous to this, is to bend the lower part of the reflector.
Cosecant Squared Patterns
The cosecant squared pattern is a means of
achieving a more uniform signal strength at
the input of the receiver as a target moves
with a constant height within the beam.

Antennas with cosecant squared patterns are
special designed for air-surveillance radar
systems.

There are different possible ways to form a
cosecant squared pattern in practice:

! deformation of a parabolic reflector

! a stacked beam by more horns feeding a
parabolic reflector
Inverse Cosecant Squared Patterns
Surface Movement Radars and Vessel Traffic Systems use antennas designed to
provide inverse cosecant squared coverage and direct energy preferentially towards
the surface giving constant gain for targets on the surface.

The coverage diagram shows the antenna pattern of a vessel radar with an inverse
cosecant squared antenna patter. The antenna is designed to preferentially radiate
below the horizon line to provide constant detection for targets approaching on sea
surface.
A cosecant squared pattern can be achieved
by two or more horns feeding a parabolic reflector.

Every feed horn already emits directionally. The
combined antenna pattern approaches a cosecant
squared pattern.

If several receiving channels are used a height
allocation also can be made and targets can be
assigned to beams with a defined elevation.

The cosecant squared pattern isn't restricted to
parabolic reflectors. It can be realized also with
other kind of antennae.
Stacked Beam
Cosecant Squared Patterns