MOS 2181 Research in organizational behaviour, personality, behaviour

September 15
th
, 201
APPENDIX
Re!erence letters "on#t "o a goo" $ob o! pre"icting things in %uman Resources
Research is o!ten a better metho" in pre"iction
Research allo&s !or goo" pre"ictors an" ba" ones
%ypotheses
' !ormal statement o! the e(pecte" relationship bet&een t&o variables) ' pre"iction)
%ypotheses are not necessarily accurate &e simply &ish to test them
*() +e hypothesize that people &ho are traine" in groups &ill per!orm better than people &ho
are traine" alone
,n"epen"ent an" -epen"ent variables
.ariable measure that can ta/e on t&o or more values
,n"epen"ent variables in!luence the "epen"ent variable, pre"ict or cause variation in the
"epen"ent variable
-epen"ent variables in!luence" by the in"epen"ent variable, vary as a result o! changes to the
in"epen"ent variables
*(ample 1
,n"epen"ent variable0 &hether they are traine" in groups vs alone
-epen"ent variable0 1our per!ormance
*(ample 2
,n"epen"ent variable0 &hether unstructure" or structure"
-epen"ent variable0 peoples reactions
Mo"erating an" me"iating variables
Mo"erating variable a!!ects the nature o! the relationship bet&een the ,. an" -.
2he ,.3-. relationship "epen"s on the level o! the mo"erating variable
2he mo"erating variable tells un"er &hat con"itions, &hen, or !or &hom
*() the relationship bet&een intervie& scores an" $ob per!ormance "epen"s on the structure
o! the intervie&
Me"iating variable e(plains ho& or &hy a relationship hol"s
*() &hy "o people &ho train together per!orm &ell4 5ecause they "evelop transactive
memory systems
*() Stress an" "epression0 social support is an e(ample o! a mo"erator
*() 5o"y "issatis!action in &omen0 ,nternalize i"ea o! being thin is a me"iator, e(plains
&hy this relationship ma/es sense
*() 'utonomy vs Motivation *(perience" responsibility !or outcomes at &or/
*() 'utonomy vs) *(perience" responsibility !or outcomes at &or/ 6ro&th nee" strength
Reliability vs .ali"ity
Reliability consistency, stability, or e7uivalence o! a measure
'n in"e( o! the consistency o! a research sub$ect#s responses
.ali"ity "egree to &hich a test is an accurate measure o! &hat it purports to measure
'n in"e( o! the e(tent to &hich a measure truly re!lects &hat it is suppose" to measure
.ali"ity
8onvergent vali"ity e(ists &hen scores on a measure are highly relate" to scores on other
/no&n measures o! the same concept
2here is a strong relationship bet&een "i!!erent measures o! the same variable
*() scores on a ne&ly "evelope" intelligence test shoul" correlate &ith scores on e(isting
measures o! intelligence
-iscriminant vali"ity e(ists &hen scores on a measure are only &ea/ly relate" to scores on
measures o! "i!!erent concepts
*() scores on a ne&ly "evelope" intelligence test shoul" not be relate" to scores on tests
about concepts /no& to be unrelate" to intelligence 9e() :hysical strength, personality;
Research 2echni7ues
Observation, 8orrelation, *(perimentation
1; Observation activities in a natural setting by listening to &hat they say an" &atching &hat
they "o
2he observer may participate 9participant observation; or may not participate 9"irect
observation;
Researcher can participate or may not
*() :olice o!!icers sit in the bac/ o! the car an" observe
*() Observation o! e!!ective an" ine!!ective supervisors
2; 8orrelation re!lects the "egree o! linear relationship bet&een t&o variables
-ata comes !rom 7uestionnaires, intervie&s, organizational recor"s
*() Relationship bet&een height an" &eight
*() relationship bet&een absenteeism an" $ob satis!action
8orrelation "oes not e7ual causation
*() 2oo much sa!ety ma/es /i"s !at sa!ety "oesn#t "o this, there#s another variable in
the reason !or obesity
<; *(perimentation research that changes or manipulates a variable un"er controlle"
con"itions an" e(amines the conse7uences
*() :eople training in groups per!orm better than people &ho are traine" alone
,nternal vali"ity e(tent to &hich one is con!i"ent that changes in a "epen"ent variable are
"ue to the in"epen"ent variable
=='ppen"i( page >12, orange chart is on the e(am==
2hreats to internal vali"ity
Selection o! participants0 &hen participants selecte" !or the e(perimental group "i!!er
!rom those in the control group in some &ay that in!luences the results o! an e(periment
2esting0 completing a survey an" ans&ering 7uestions at the start o! an e(periment
might bias participants to the stu"y an" in!luence ho& they respon" to the same
7uestions a!ter the e(periment
,nstrumentation0 i! "i!!erent measures are use" at "i!!erent times "uring the course o! an
e(periment
Statistical regression0 ten"ency o! scores on a measure to shi!t over time to&ar" the
mean score people &ho per!orm poorly on a test be!ore the e(periment might have
higher scores a!ter an e(periment "ue to regression to&ar" the mean
%istory0 events or !actors that occur "uring the course o! an e(periment that can e(plain
changes in the "epen"ent variable
Maturation0 natural changes in participants that are "ue to the passage o! time an" can
result in changes in the "epen"ent variable
Mortality0 &hen certain types o! participants "rop out o! an e(periment be!ore it has
en"e" an" those &ho remain have "i!!erent "epen"ent measures than the ones &ho
"roppe" out
Sampling
,mportant to use large, ran"om sample so that our !in"ings can be generalize" 9e(ternal
vali"ity;
*(ternal vali"ity0 the e(tent to &hich the results o! a stu"y generalize to other samples an"
settings
?se as many participants as possible
Ran"om sample0 means that the research participants have been ran"omly chosen !rom the
population o! interest
Ran"om assignment0 ran"omly assigning participants to the e(perimental an" control
con"itions o! an e(periment
@uasi3e(periment "esign
:articipants are not ran"omly assigne" to the e(perimental an" control con"itions
+e cannot be sure that the participants in each con"ition are similar
*thics
2he &ell being o! your participants are highly important
CHAPTER 2 PERSONALITY AND LEARNING
Personality
Relatively stable, psychological characteristics
,n!luences interactions &ith our environment, ho& a person !eels, thin/s, an" behaves
Stable set o! psychological characteristics that in!luence the &ay an in"ivi"ual interacts &ith his
or her environment an" ho& he or she !eels, thin/s, an" behaves
'pproaches to organizational behaviour
-ispositional approach &ho &e are on a "eterminant on ho& &e behave
,n"ivi"uals possess stable traits or characteristics that in!luence their behaviours an"
attitu"es
Situational approach !ocuses on the setting or the environment on our attitu"es an" behaviour
8haracteristics o! the organizational setting in!luence people#s attitu"es an" behaviour
,nteractionist approach attitu"es an" behaviours are "etermine" by our attitu"es an"
behaviours 'A- the situation an" environment
,nteractionist approach
Strong situations personality "oesn#t have a chance to shine through
e() Re" lights &hen &e are "riving, social norms "etermine that the ma$ority o! us stop
2hese have "e!ine" roles an" rules
+ea/ situations personality can shine through
:ersonality "etermines ho& &e are going to act
e() 1ello& lights, people &ho run yello& lights may o!ten be more ris/ ta/ing
+ea/ situations are loosely "e!ine" roles, !e& rules, an" &ea/ re&ar" an" punishment
contingencies
Situation an" personality matters
2rait 'ctivation 2heory
2raits lea" to certain behaviours only &hen the situation ma/es the nee" !or that trait salient
:ersonality characteristics in!luence people#s behaviour &hen the situation calls !or a particular
personality characteristic
Bive3!actor mo"el o! personality
O8*'A
Openness to e(perience
8urious, original vs status 7uo, unimaginative
*(tent to &hich a person thin/s !le(ibly an" is receptive to ne& i"eas
*() , en$oy hearing ne& i"eas
8onscientiousness
'chievement oriente" vs irresponsible an" lazy
-egree to &hich a person is responsible an" achievement3oriente"
*() , pay attention to "etails
*(troversion
Outgoing sociable vs &ith"ra&n, shy
*(tent to &hich a person is outgoing or shy
*() , ma/e !rien"s easily
'greeableness
8ooperative, eager to help vs in!le(ible, argumentative
*(tent to &hich a person is !rien"ly an" approachable
*() , ma/e people !eel at ease
AeuroticismCemotional stability
Stable, con!i"ent vs an(ious, insecure
-egree to &hich a person has appropriate emotional control
%igh emotional stability D lo& neuroticism
Eo& emotional stability D high neuroticism
*() , am not easily bothere" by things
Research *vi"ence on O8*'A
*ach o! the big !ive "imensions is relate" to $ob per!ormance an" organizational citizenship
behaviours
6enerally lea" to better $ob per!ormance
%igh e(troversion is important !or managers an" salespeople
%igh conscientiousness pre"icts per!ormance in all $obs across occupations an" is also the
strongest pre"ictor o! all !ive
8onscientiousness is relate" to retention an" atten"ance at &or/
*(troverts ten" to be absent more o!ten at &or/ than introverts
Aeuroticism an" conscientiousness &ere the strongest pre"ictors o! motivation
Strong pre"ictor !or $ob satis!action &as neuroticism openness to e(perience &as not relate"
to $ob satis!action
O8*' &as relate" to $ob search an" career success
:age 8 "e!initions o! the purple "iagram
Eocus o! control0
a set o! belie!s about &hether one#s behaviour is controlle" mainly be internal or
e(ternal !orces
Sel! monitoring0
the e(tent to &hich people observe an" regulate ho& they appear an" behave in social
settings an" relationships
Sel! esteem0
the "egree to &hich a person has a positive sel!3evaluation
5ehavioural plasticity0
people &ith lo& sel!3esteem ten" to be more susceptible to e(ternal an" social
in!luences than those &ho have high sel!3esteem
:ositive a!!ectivity0
e(perience positive emotions an" moo"s li/e $oy an" e(citement an" vie& the &orl" in a
positive light
Aegative a!!ectivity0
e(perience negative emotions an" moo"s li/e !ear an" an(iety an" vie& the &orl" in a
negative light
:roactive personality0
' stable personal "isposition that re!lects a ten"ency to ta/e personal initiative across a
range o! activities an" situations an" to e!!ect positive change in one#s environment
6eneral sel!3e!!icacy0
' general trait that re!ers to an in"ivi"ual#s belie! in his or her ability to per!orm
success!ully in a variety o! challenging situations
8ore sel!3evaluations
Re!ers to a broa" personality concept that consists o! more speci!ic traits
,n"ivi"uals hol" evaluations about themselves an" their sel!3&orth or &orthiness,
competence, an" capability
Learning
' relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that occurs "ue to practice or e(perience
+hat people learn in organizations4
:ractical s/ills
Fob speci!ic s/ills, /no&le"ge, an" technical competence
e() 5eing able to type, being able to "ra& bloo" as a nurse
,ntrapersonal s/ills
:roblem solving
8ritical thin/ing s/ills important to you as a person 9&ithin the person;
,nterpersonal s/ills
2hings li/e communication an" team&or/
8ultural a&areness
Eearning the organizations norms 9&hat is the culture li/e4 +hat is acceptable to &ear
at &or/4;
Operant learning theory
Eearning on &hich &e operate on the environment
Eearning by &hich the sub$ect learns to operate on the environment to achieve certain
conse7uences
*() person ta/es 2ylenol, hea"ache goes a&ay, increase" ten"ency to ta/e 2ylenol !or hea"ache
relie!
-o something 3G see a conse7uence 3G &e change or maintain our behaviour
+e can increase behaviour by a""ing positive or negative rein!orcement
+e can "ecrease the behaviour by e(tinction or punishment
:age 5H use to un"erstan" score terms
,ncreasing the probability o! behaviour
Rein!orcement0 is the process by &hich stimuli strengthen behaviours
:ositive Rein!orcement
,ncreases or maintains the probability o! some behaviour by the application or a""iction o! a
stimulus to the situation in 7uestion
Aegative Rein!orcement
,ncreases or maintains the probability o! some behaviour by the removal o! a stimulus !rom the
situation in 7uestion
*() managers nagging employees unless their employees &or/ har") Aagging is terminate"
&hen employee &or/s har"er
:unishment
,nvolves !ollo&ing an un&ante" behaviour &ith some unpleasant, aversive stimulus
Aegative rein!orcement a nasty stimulus is remove"
:unishment, a nasty stimulus is applie" a!ter some behaviour, "ecreasing the probability o! that
behaviour
*(tinction
Simply involves terminating the rein!orcement that is maintaining some un&ante" behaviour
+or/s best &hen couple" &ith the rein!orcement o! some "esire" substitute behaviour
*( 1 2&o siblings !ight over a toy, parents scol" them, !ighting "ecreases punishment
*( 2 8at presses lever an" no !oo" pellets are provi"e" e(tinction
*( < ' cat presses a lever an" !oo" pellets appear positive rein!orcement
*( 2eenager receives negative reactions !rom her !rien"s punishment
*( 5 +omen ta/es a bath to get ri" o! bac/ pain negative rein!orcement 9bac/ pain going
a&ay;
*rrors in rein!orcement
8on!using re&ar"s &ith rein!orcers
:ay, promotions, !ringe bene!its, vacation, etc can !ail to serve as rein!orcers because
organizations "o not ma/e them contingent on speci!ic behaviours that are o! interest to
the organization
Aeglecting "iversity in pre!erences !or rein!orcers
*(plore "i!!erent possible range o! stimuli un"er their control !or their applicability as
rein!orcers !or particular employees
Aeglecting important sources o! rein!orcement
:er!ormance !ee"bac/ provi"ing 7uantitative an" 7ualitative in!ormation on past
per!ormance
Social recognition in!ormal ac/no&le"gement or genuine appreciation !or &or/ &ell
"one !rom one in"ivi"ual or group to another
Rein!orcement Strategies in organizations
Bast learning
Bacilitate" by continuous, imme"iate rein!orcement
*() sa!ety &or/ behaviour shoul" be ma"e 7uic/ly an" continuously in or"er !or !ast
ac7uisition
:ersistent learning
Bacilitate" by "elaye", partial rein!orcement
*() !ee"bac/ !or on3time employees is partially ma"e an" longer term to create persistence
:roblems &ith using punishment in organizations
:unishment "oes not "emonstrate &hich activities shoul" replace the punishe" response
:unishment evo/es strong emotional reactions
Managers shoul" ensure that their o&n emotions are un"er control be!ore punishing an"
avoi" punishment in!ront o! observers
Ma/e sure the chosen punishment is truly aversive
:unish imme"iately
-o not re&ar" un&ante" behaviours be!ore or a!ter punishment
-o not ina"vertently punish "esirable behaviour
6enerally rein!orcement an" e(tinction are sa!er strategies
Social cognitive theory
*mphasizes the role o! cognitive processes in learning an" in the regulation o! people#s
behaviour
Observational theory
process o! observing an" imitating the behaviour o! others
Mo"els are generally attractive, cre"ible, high3status people
5ehaviour shoul" provo/e conse7uences that are seen as positive by the observer
*ngage in behaviour that is vivi" an" memorable
Sel!3e!!icacy belie!s
the belie! that one has the ability to per!orm a speci!ic tas/
in!luence the activities people choose to per!orm, the amount o! e!!ort an" persistence they
"evote to a tas/
,n!luence" by
*(periences an" success o! per!orming the tas/
Observation o! others per!orming the tas/
:ersuasion an" social in!luence
:hysiological state
Sel! regulation
basic process involves observing one#s o&n behaviour, comparing &ith a stan"ar", an"
re&ar"ing onesel! i! the behaviour meets the stan"ar"
Observe evaluate 3 rein!orce
-iscrepancy re"uction0 in"ivi"uals are motivate" to mo"i!y their behaviour in the pursuit o!
goal attainment
-iscrepancy pro"uction0 &hen in"ivi"uals attain their goals, li/ely to set even higher an"
more challenging goals
Organizational Eearning :ractices
Organizational behaviour mo"i!ication
,nvolves the systematic use o! learning principles to in!luence organizational behaviour
*() sa!ety intervention I supervisors praising instances o! sa!e per!ormance
*mployee recognition programs
Bormal organizational programs that publicly recognize an" re&ar" employees !or speci!ic
behaviours
:eer recognition programs
*mployees ac/no&le"ge an" re&ar" co3&or/ers !or per!ormance
2raining an" "evelopment programs
2raining is planne" organizational activities that are "esigne" to !acilitate /no&le"ge an"
s/ill ac7uisition to change behaviour an" improve per!ormance on one#s current $obJ
"evelopment !ocuses on !uture $ob responsibilities
2hey also teach employees non3technical s/ills
5ehaviour mo"elling training 95M2;
5ase" on observational learning component o! social cognitive theory
-escribe to trainees a set o! &ell3"e!ine" behaviours 9s/ills; to be learne"
:rovi"e a mo"el or mo"els "isplaying the e!!ective use o! those behaviours
:rovi"e opportunities !or trainees to practise using those behaviours
:rovi"e !ee"bac/ an" rein!orcement
Ma(imize the trans!er o! those behaviours to the $ob
8areer "evelopment
'n ongoing process in &hich in"ivi"uals progress through a series o! stages that consist o! a
uni7ue set o! issues, themes, an" tas/s