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Pump Users' Handbook

Some of the contents of this handbook are extracts from an original text by H. Addison.

Second Edition

Compiled by F. Pollak

GULF PUBLISHING COMPANY Book Division Houston, London, Paris, Tokyo

i

1

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Pump Users' Handbook This edition published 1980 by Gulf Publishing Company Houston, Texas

First published in 1980 by Trade & Technical Press, ltd. Crown House, Morden, Surrey SM4 5EW England

Copyright © 1980 by Trade & Technical Press ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN 0-87201-770-2

library of Congress Catalog Card No. 80-83759 Manufactured in the United States of America

iv

III'"

CONTENTS

Chapter

1. FOREWORD, Note to U.S. Readers

2. The Principles of Pumping; main classifications of pumps and physical properties of liquids

2a Rotodynamic Pumps

2a1 Principles and functions

2a2 Specific speeds and significance of shapes 2a3 Pump designs for industrial duties

2a4 Performance laws

2a4a Definition of terms

2a4b Performance at constant speed 2a4c Effect of variation

2a4d Range charts

2a5 Regulation of Rotodynamic pumps 2a6 Changes of the system characteristic 2a7 Thrusts in Rotodynamic pumps

2a8 Parallel and series ops. in rotodynamic pumps

2b Positive Displacement Pumps 2b1 Principle of operation

2b2 Pump design, application and use 2b3 Performance laws

2b3a Effect of variations

2b3b Range charts for pos. displacement pumps

2b4 Regulation of positive displacement pumps

2b5 Relief valves

2b6 Thrusts and their control

2b7 Parallel and series op. of positive displacement pumps

2c Self-priming Rotodynamic Pumps 2c1 Liquid ring pump

2c2 Side channel pumps

2c3 Regenerative pumps

2c4 Self priming pumps - recirculation principle

3. How to Make Liquid Flow Into Pump (Pumping Element) 3a Explanation and NPSH required

3b The vapour pressure

Page

3 5 5 5

13 14 14 15 18 25

27 29 31 34

34 34 35 35 37 39

39 40 42 44

44 44 45 47 48

50 50 54

v

i

1

1

I

,

~ j

3c NPSH available

3d Balance sheet of suction heads 3e Cavitation and its effects

3el What is cavitation?

3e2 Cavitation - its effects on rotodynamic pumps

3e3 Cavitation - its effects on positive displacement pumps 3e4 Operation pumps under cavitation

3e4a Rotodynamic pumps

3e4b Positive displacement pumps

31 Why, Whether, and How to prime pumps 311 Priming of rotodynamic pumps

3f2 How to prime positive displacement pumps 3f3 How to calculate priming times

3f4 Air handling and displacement of air 3g Pumping from open sumps

3h Vortex prevention

4. How to Define the Total Pump Head (Pressure) 4a Total head formulae for various systems 4b Total head for vertically mounted pumps

5. The Stuffinq-Box

5a Soft packed bo x 5b Mechanical seals

5c Leakless (Glandless) pumps

6. The Choice of Materials for Pumps

7. How to Select and Order the Correct Pump

8. Electric Pump Drives Sa A.C. electric data

8b Starting torque and starting

Bb1 A.C. motor starting torque characteristics Bb2 The pump torque

9. Pipeline SYstems and Valves

9a The Inlet System

9a1 Inlet sump or chamber

9a2 Screens, strainers and filters 9a3 Suction pipe

9b The Delivery System

9b1 Piping and discharges

9b2 Control valves, reflux valves etc

10.Pressure Surges in Pipelines - and Control

lOa Hotodvnarnlc Pumps

10al Starting a centrifugal pump 10a2 Starting a propeller pump

10a3 Effects of stopping rotodynamic pumps 10a4 Negative and positive surge pressures 10a5 Control of pressure surges'

10a6 Slam pressure

10a7 Some exceptional surge conditions

vi

54 56 58 58 59 61 61 61 64 64 64 69 69 70 71 71

73 73 74

79 79 83 88

89 90 92 92 92 92 94

97 98 98 98 98 98 98 99

101 102 102 102 103 104 105 106 107

lOb Positive Displacement Pumps

10bl Cyclical pressure fluctuations in reciprocating pumps 10b2 Control of pressure fluctuations

10b3 Positive rotary pumps

10b4 Starting and stopping positive pumps

11. How to Test Pumps 118 Types of test

llb Types of measuring instruments and apparatus llc Testing routine

11d International test code

12. Hints for Users

13. Health and Safety Append ices I, II, III Technical Data Bibliography

Index

109 109 110 111 111 112 112 112. 113 113

115 120 124 179 206 207

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vii

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i

1. FOREWORD

This revised edition of the Pump Users' Handbook is, like the earlier edition, written for the benefit of the user. It is a practical handbook and is not intended as a scientific treatise. For this reason certain liberties have been taken with the exact sciences involved and also a number of simplifications and 'technical shortcuts' have been used by which it is hoped to ease the task of the reader. The theory of head development and the design of hydraulic components, such as impellers and volutes, have been entirely omitted, but for those readers who wish to study these and similar problems, the short bibliography at the end will be found useful.

I

Emphasis is laid on the importance of the correct interpretation of pumping requirements both by the user and supplier; advice is given to the user to enable him to make his requirements clear when ordering from the manufacturer, thus avoiding the misunderstandings that even today occur far too often, resulting in operational difficulties and possibly expensive failures.

The suction performance of pumps and associated problems, such as sump design, are treated in some detail, and a special chapter is devoted to selfpriming pumps and allied priming problems.

The text contains Imperial and Metric references (units) ie it is neither exclusively Metric nor Imperial. In this respect it follows the practice of U.K. industry in that, in spite of intensive official efforts to popularize the use of the metric system, so far as day to day communications are concerned, certain expressions are still mainly in Imperial units eg, volume, flow, head, specific speed etc. However, the reader will find a" necessary conversion charts in the Technical Data Section.

The new chapter 'Hints for Users' will help to avoid mistakes which, in the experience of the author, often lead to avoidable operational failures; a new chapter on 'Health and Safety' has also been added, whilst chapters on 'Changes in operating conditions' and an enlarged section on 'Parallel and series operation' will also contribute to the careful selection of pumps. The chapter on suction performance has been considerably extended and somewhat simplified. As this facet of pumping operations often contributes to pump failures, its detailed study is recommended.

A number of tables, giving useful information, are included, in addition to a technical data section relating to problems that occur in pumping tech nology.

____________ - , 'I

2

PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK

j

j

Certain important applications, such as boiler feeding, sewage pumps, deep well pumps and others, have not been treated in detail in view of their special nature, and the ready availability of literature on the subject, such as manufacturers' brochures etc, on the design, operation and detailed maintenance of such machines.

It is hoped that users of pumping equipment of all types will find this handbook useful as a guide to the solution of day-to-day applications and service problems.

Suggestions for improvement are invited and, where suitable, could be incorporated in future editions.

F. POLLAK,

IMPORTANT NOTE TO U.S. READERS

Volume is expressed in British Imperial units. The imperial gallon equals 1.201 U.S. gallons.

1.

PRINCIPLES OF PUMPING

3

2. THE PRINCIPLES OF PUMPING; MAIN CLASSIFICATIONS OF PUMPS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Pumps are machines which increase the static pressure of fluids (liquids). or, as a more general definition, 'Pumping is the addition of energy to a fluid which is used mainly for the purpose of moving the fluid from one point to another.' This increase can be achieved in different ways:

a) By the transfer of mechanical energy to the fluid by means of an impeller ie rotating device which is equipped with suitably shaped vanes. In this case the energy is transferred to the pumped medium, partly by an increase of pressure due to centrifugal forces respectively, deflection of liquid, and partly by an increase in the kinematic energy which, in due course, is converted into pressure energy.

This is by far the largest group of pumps,which is called 'rotodynemic pumps' although, as a more common expression, the name 'centrifugal pumps' is often used. The liquid is delivered in a continuous and uninterrupted flow.

A special group within rotodynamic pumps; which do not come within the exact terms of this definition, are side channel and water ring pumps, which are described briefly.

By the exertion of a force on the fluid by means of either a reciprocating, rotating piston, or equivalent device. In some cases the transmission of energy can also be achieved by the direct action of the pressure of gas or steam on the pumped fluid. In this class belong piston pumps having a reciprocating piston; certain types of vane pumps with osclllatinq pistons: gear pumps, screw pumps and other rotary pumps. Pumps working on the principle of direct action of gas or steam pressure, are known as 'pulsometres'. Whilst, in general, pumps of the rotary type deliver a more or less continuous stream of liquid, the mode of operation of piston and other reciprocating units is characterized by the intermittent delivery of the liquid. The resulting accelerations and decelerations of the pumped medium require special arrangements to deal with mass forces, etc. This group of pumps is called 'positive displacement pumps'.

b)

c)

By energy exchange, by using a drive medium at high speed, either in gas or liquid form, and mixing it with a low velocity pumped medium. The drive medium delivers a part of its energy to the pumped liquid. The increase of pressure of the pumped medium is due to impulse, and the transfer of velocity energy into pressure

4


energy. The process is a continuous one, and these types of pumps are normally called 'ejector' or 'jet pumps'.

By introducing pressurized air or indeed gas, into one branch of a communicating vessel containing the liquid to be pumped. Due to the different specific weight of the fluid in the two branches, a difference in the static level in the vessel results, leading to a continuous delivery of liquid. These pumps are called 'airlifts'.

A further method of pumping liquids makes use of the shock energy created by the sudden arresting of a moving column, resulting in the pumping of a portion of the column. Pumps making use of this principle are normally known as 'hydraulic rams'.

d)

e)

The input (required) horsepower for pumps is calculated:

Symbols

o Capacity (volume) delivered

00 Displacement (volume). (Only for positive displacement

pumps)

S Specific weight

H Pump total head

P Pump total pressure

1/ Overall efficiency

C Factors depending on units for 0, 00, H, P

(See Technical Data Table 2).

No Fluid horsepower delivered (rotodynamic pump)

NH Hydraulic horsepower (positive displacement pumps)

NF Friction horsepower (positive displacement pumps)

N = Horsepower required at pump shaft

a, Hotodvnarnic pumps b, Positive displacement pumps

N Q·H·S. NH=Oo·P_

o = C C,

N = No· 100 1/

N

The two main groups treated in this work are positive displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps. Among the former, the reciprocating types are normally characterized by a high efficiency, which can reach up to 90%.

. I


5

However, these types of pumps are normally running at low speed, and are of relatively large size, leading to high capital cost, etc. In the case of rotodynamic pumps, efficiencies are in general lower, although modern units reach high values indeed and, under certain conditions, not much lower than reciprocating units. Rotodynam ic pumps are characterized by relatively high speed, small size, and low capital expenditure. These are some of the reasons why the field of applications of rotodynamic pumps has extended so considerably in this century ..

2a. ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS

2a1. Principles and Function

Rotodynamic pumps are essentially high speed machines containing what is normally called a {rotating element' carrying one _ or several rotors (impellers! usually in series, ie rnulti-staqe _ but sometimes in parallel. The rotating element is surrounded by a casing equipped with inlet and outlet branches. The casing and its various parts serve to convert, as efficiently as possible; velocity energy of the liquid leaving the circumference of the rotatting impeller(s) into pressure energy. The impeller has vanes (blades) shaped in such a way as to guide the liquid, and to impart energy during this guidance. Fig 1 shows the names and purpose of impeller and volute parts.

Fig 2 shows the path of the liquid through a typical centrifugal pump, although depending on the relationship between the capacity, head and speed expressed as 'specific speed', the shape of the impeller, and hence, direction of flow through the impeller, and relative to the shaft axis, may vary as shown in Fig 3. This figure also shows various vane shapes developed for the pumping of fluids containing solid or semi-solid fibrous/stringy matter, slurries and sewage.

In contrast to positive displacement pumps, the amount of liquid which rotodynamic pumps deliver is influenced greatly by the pressure (head) which they work against, and by other causes (see Section 2a4).

2a2. Specific speed and its significance for the shape of pumps Efficiency of pumps

The usual way of expressing the performance of a particular pump, is 1", state its speed, its rate of discharge, and the head it generates. However, if we wish to compare one pump with another, it is better to use a single term which would itself convey a general description of the type and characeristic performance of a given machine.

6


w o c w

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en w .J o J:

a:, w I< ~ I:> o

w U < a.. en

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CIl (!) Z

0:

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:r:

CIl :r: o J:

CIl

o Z

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-c 0: c

L1. o a.. o I-

One of the most convenience of these descriptive terms, especially in the case of rotodynamic pumps, is the 'specific speed' of the pump. This is normally defined as the speed in rev/min at which 'an impeller' would operate if reduced proportionally in size so as to deliver a unit capacity against a unit total head. An alternative value value of specific speed is sometimes defined as the speed in rev/min at which an impeller would operate so as to consume a unit of energy, whilst delivering a unit capacity. Table I shows specific speeds in various units, and their conversion figures, as well as the formulae. Values of specific speeds in this book will be expressed in the imperial system.

Inlet Branch

Fig 2

In Table I, H is the effective or total head in feet or metres 'at the design point'ie developed at the point on the performance curve of a rotodynamic pump when delivering a capacity with the pump operating at its maximum efficiency. Further details on this subject are to be found later in this chapter.

Chart 12, in the Technical Data section, can be used to determine qraphically the value for specific speed in the imperial system.

In order to avoid misunderstandings which might arise when using the term of specific speed for impellers which have two inlets (double entry impellers), or in the case of multi-stage pumps, 'specific speed' refers to the performance of one impeller eye only, ie in the case of a single-stage pump with a double entry impeller, only half the capacity of (or half the energy consumed by) the impeller must be inserted into the formulae for specific speed, whilst in the case of multi-stage pumps, specific speed refers to one impeller only.

Fig 4 shows impeller shapes and efficiencies for various design capacities, against specific speed.

w Z < ~ ~ o -c m

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SpecifiC "'"""

Type

SINGLE ENTRY

Shape of .. ..., looking irdirection

"XU

Impeller type,

;~ ,

Impeller ,hapflsfor liquids contllining solid, or semi ,olid,

which can block'P8$$11f1ft of norma' imptH'ers

111 LOW

121 MEDIUM

131 MEDIUM-

141 MEDIUM HIGH

151 HIGH

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111 STRAIGHT VANES

121 FRANCIS VANES

131 "SCREW" TYPE VANES

141 PROPELLER VANES

..!e C -c a:

..!e. -c .. a:

111 REGENERATIVE

121

CLOSED UNBALANCED IMPELLER, MOSTl Y USED FOR CONTAMINATED FLUIDS

AT MODEST HEAD

131 SEMI-OPEN IMPELLER WITH BACK VANES

141 TORGUE FLOW

IMPELLER DOES NOT RE L Y ON WEAR RING ETC BETWEEN VOLUTE SPACE AND SUCTION

111 SINGLE VANE

131 DOUBLE CHANNEL

141

3 VANE (TREBLE CHANNEL)

121 SINGLE CHANNEL

Fig 3 This shows the various vane shapes developed for the pumping of fluids containing solid, semi-solid or fibrous stringy matter, slurries and sewage.

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100

H 1--
- -- --. --- OVER 1000 gal/min
- ~Fl-
..::-- t- - :--
z-: -d-- ~..._ <;
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,/"' __,~ ~ 'Y. 3000 TO 10,000 gal/mIn -
V ~ i\ \ 1000 TO 3000 gal/mIn
sao TO 1000 gal/mrn
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V ./~\\<f:' ~ 200 TO 500 gal/mIn
7 r.>-Qi - -100 TO 200 gal/min
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70

60

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500

4000

BOOO

15000

1000

2000

Specrfic Speed

IMPELLER AXIS

RADIAL

FRANCIS

MIXED FLOW

PROPELLER

Fig 4

In order to appreciate the meaning of efficiency of rotodynamic pumps, Fig 5 should be studied, which shows the various losses occurring in them, and the art of the designer and producer is to keep these losses as low as possible, without affecting reliability.

a)

The 'entry loss' caused by the liquid streaming past the vanes' edge into the impeller. This is especially important as this loss has a direct bearing on the capability of the impeller to, as it were, swallow the specified amount of liquid (see Chapter 3a). Loss can be kept low by correct vane shape and finish.


11

A

TYPES AND POSITIONS OF LOSSES

LOSSES

LEAKAGE

ENTRANCE

SHOCK LOS

B

HEAD LOSSES

I

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c

POWER

at:

W

~ o L

. FLUID H.P.

CAPACITY

Fig 5

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12


b)

The hydraulic losses in the pump which are caused by friction and turbulence in all passages, must be kept as low as possible. Losses can be kept low by smooth finish, correct velocity and distribution

of flow.

Disc friction is caused by the impeller shrouds rotating in liquid. This loss can be kept low by providing a good machining or casting finish to the impeller walls. Reducing the volume of liquid between impeller and volute walls is often an advantage.

Leakage losses across a pressure differential, usually at the wearrings. This loss can be minimized by running the machine with close - but not dangerously close - clearances.

Stuffing-box losses must be kept low:

i) by cutting out all unnecessary turns of packing

c)

d)

e)

by running the gland just tight enough for a satisfactory seal with adequate lubrication of packing and, in the case of mechanical seals, by ensuring that no undue friction horsepower is consumed, due to unsuitable rubbing faces or too high face loading.

f) Conventional means should be used to ensure low mechanical loss in

ii)

bearings and other rotating components.

The shape of the characteristics of pumps. for a range of specific speeds is shown in Fig 6.

In a general way, there is no direct connection between the rotational speed of the pump shaft and the specific speed of the pump. A large.propeller pump of high specific speed may have quite a low shaft speed, whereas a small centrifugal pump of low specific speed could very easily have a high shaft speed.

Figure 7 shows relative sizes and configurationn of pumps for an identical duty - say 1150gal/min against 40feet, and at different specific and rotational speeds. The advantage of having so wide a range of permissible shaft speeds becomes more obvious when a choice of driving unit has to be

made.

As can be seen, for stipulated conditions of head and discharge, the pump is likely to become smaller with increasing specific speed. The variation in overall casing diameter is likely to be even more marked that the change in rotor diameter, because the propeller pump casing is relatively less bulky than that of the centrifugal pump.

From this point of view alone then, the best way to keep down the size and cost of a pump is to choose the machine with the highest permissible specific speed, limited by economic considerations. Thus, for instance, for a

------------~~-- --~-~


12B

TABLE II

Item and Application (Industry)

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1) 11 112 13 14 15 16 17

I

Basic design

E l!

•

o

•

01 Sinal.-uan. rh na 02 Sln.le-staae "'lit case I n3 Axial flow numo

o

o •

o •

•

04 Multi·sta .. rinasl B~

05 Multi-sta ae (barrel I

•

• •

.0.

•

•

06 Multi-staae solit case 7 07 r:~~I)' multi-stage 30

08 Canned pump 31 I!.

09 Electric submersible 25 E

10 Deep weli PUI!'P ~

11 I Side channel turb.etc. ._

12 Salf1Jrime contr'ctr type ~

rl~3~V~er~ti~ca~l~in~-li~ne~ __ ~ ! 14 Vertical susnended 15 0

15 Food oumo a:

16 Condenser circulator I 17 Boiler circulator

o 0

•

•

o

o

•

•

•

o

o • • •

•

• 0

..0.

•

• ••

I·"

o 0 • 0 .0.

•

• •

•

•

•

~18~V~K~u~um~ex~tr~~~to~r __ ~

19 Gravel, slurry, etc 5

20 Wet stator circulator

21 Glass pump

• •

•

•

• • •

•

•

22 Domestic circulator 23 Reciorocal crank driven t

• 0 ••

• • • • • •

•

24 Reciprocal direct

o

25 Semi-rotarv I!.

26 Gear ou';;;;- E

27 Internal eear pump ~

28 Single- and two-vane _

29 Lobe ou rnD 21 ti

30 Non-geared screw pump~3 .!! 31 Geared screw pump 22 i

32 Helical rotor 24 Q

33 Archimedian screw 18 ~

~: :I:i:ii~~!s::~e Ii

36J Diaphra.m 32

37 Prooortiooina

000

• ••

•

• ••• IOf&

• •

• 0

• •

•

•

• •

•

• • •

•

• •

• 0 ••

• • • •

• • •• 0

• •

• 0

•

• • • •

• •

•

•

•

• • •

• •

a Indicates a special vernon of the basic design

Note: Th3 numbers printed in red refer to the drawing numbers of Appendix II.

•


13

high speed, the choice of a high specific speed pump at conventional speeds, would lead to relatively expensive multi-stage units.

The specific speed has also a definite influence on the suction performance of the pumps, and this subject is treated in some detail in Section 3e2.

2a3. Pump designs for industrial and other duties

The range and applications of rotodynamic pumps is so vast that this subject can only be touched upon within the context of this book. Table II shows the grouping of pumps from various points of view, and the respective designs are shown in Appendix II. As can be seen, the pump design is, in many cases, adapted to meet a special purpose and the pump location, as well as to make the pump suitable for the nature or physical and chemical properties of the liquid to be pumped. The Table also shows a number of industries and applications.

200

r-, 1 Ns = 500
2 .. =900
0 ~ 3 .. = 1500
4 .. =2200
5 .. =3000
~ ~ 6 .. =4000
'" ~ 7 .. =5700
o~ s ;:::: ~

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0 ~
0 I
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2 ~
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040 18

1110

1<40

12

100

00

eo

o

Fig 6

o

o ISO

SO

100

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14

ut)

(iii!

(iv)

Ns = 2400

Ns = 4600 Ns = 6530

420 rev/min

1120 rev/min

2200 rev/min

3300 rev/min

Fig 7

2a4 Performance Laws 2a4a. Definition of terms

The duty of a pump is usually expressed thus:- The pum~ is required to deliver a stated quantity of liquid in unit time, when workmg at a stated speed, against a specified head or pressure.

Quantity, rate of flow or discharge, may be stated in gallons per minute, litres per second, pounds per hour, or other conventional units.

Speed is nearly always expressed in revolutions per minute (rev/min).

Alternatively, the speed can be expressed in Radians/se~ond (Rad/sec). The Radian is the angle between two radii of a circle for which the length of the

arc is identical to the radius, ie

1 Radian =

1800

= 57.270

1T

1 Radian/sec = 9.52rev/min

In the case of rotodynamic pumps, head is normally expressed in feet or metres.

The units chosen should invariably by clearly stated when specifying a pump, and the terms should be used in their correct sense. Att~ntion is drawn to Data Chart 5, showing units recommended for the pump industrv,

When the pump is so regulated that its performance conforms - as nearly as possible - to the specified conditions, it is said to be working at its 'duty point' which is not necessarily the 'design point'. But the user m~y also .want to know what will happen if the head, speed or discharge are vaned, or If the nature of the liquid flowing through the pump is changed. These effects can be shown graphically by suitable 'characteristic' curves.


15

2a4b. Performance at constant speed

When running at its design speed, a rotodynamic pump does not deliver liquid at a fixed unvarying rate irrespective of the head - on the contrary, the rate of flow is almost wholly dependent on the pressure or resistance in the rest of the system. If the resistance is considerable, the discharge will be relatively small; as the resistance diminishes, the rate of flow will increase. These changes can best be shown by characteristic curves such as Fig 8 in which the (effective) head generated, the power and the efficiency of three typical rotodynamic pumps of varying specific speed are plotted against the discharge.

Supposing the variations in head and flow are to be created by a throttle valve in the delivery pipe. The pump would deliver the greatest discharge under the lowest head when the valve was fully open but, as the valve is progressively closed, the flow would decline and the head rise, until eventually no liquid would flow through the pump at all. (See Fig 8).

Three significant points on the head-discharge characteristic are:

i) The design point '8' corresponding to the design or normal discharge of the pump (maximum efficiency) and

ii) The 'closed valve', 'zero-discharge' or 'shut-off point' 'A'. While it is true that the pump may run for a short time without immediate discomfort under closed-valve conditions, overheating would occur if the pump were not soon stopped. This can be avoided by providing a suitable leak-off, which is especially important in cases where there is a high ratio of horsepower to liquid content of the pump; for instance, in the case of multistage pumps.

A

LOW SPECIF IC SPEED

MEDIUM SPECIFIC HIGH SPECIFIC

SPEED SPEED

Fig 8

EFFECT OF CAVITATION

16


The following equation and factors are a guide to calc~lation of temperature increase when running a pump with closed valve. This formula and factors can normally also be used for positive displacement pumps.

a. Symbols

W Weight of pump (Ibs) N Horsepower (bhp)

t Time (seconds)

T Temperature rise (oF) o Calculation factor (I)

b. Factors "C"

Type of Pump

Small centrifugal Large centrifugal Multi-stage centrifugal Screw pump

Rotary pump

C1 C2
0.020 4
0.010 8
0.015 5
0.020 6
0.030 3 c. Formula

0.7' N • t • C2

W

0=

T=O-C10°.s

iii) The point at which the curve breaks more or less suddenly, 'C'. This latter subject is treated in detail in Section 3f2.

As the discharge varies from a maximum to zero, there are corresponding changes in the power input and in the overall efficiency. It is apparent from

h . F' 8 that the power changes are dependent on the type

the power grap s m Ig . . . f II I at

(specific speed) of the pump. The efficiency only rnatntams Its u v~ ue

the design point. At any other rate of flow the efficiency falls away with the different slopes of the curves, and of course, drops to zero at the shut-off

~~~~: The term 'design point' is used in a special sense only. It is n~ more than a convenient abbreviation of the phrase 'point at w~ich, w~:n ru~nmg a~ a particular speed, the pump works at its maximum possible ef~lclency . But,. in fact, many pumps must necessarily be designed to work at various rates ~f discharge against various heads and, consequently, they may only occasionally run exactly at the nominal 'design point').

. f F' 6 are

For the purpose of comparison, the values In the curve.s 0 . Ig. ' .

expressed as a percentage of their respective values at the design point: that IS

••


17

to say, the design point values for capacity head and efficiency are plotted as 100%. Mixed flow pumps have head discharge characteristics that slope down more steeply than the corresponding curve for centrifugal pumps but, on the other hand, the power-discharge curve is nearer the horizontal.

In axial flow pumps, sometimes called propeller pumps, these tendencies are still further developed. At the closed-valve or shut-off point (Fig Be), the head may be up to three times the design head, and the power input to the pump may be double the normal, or design, input. This explains why it is that it may be particularly unwise or even dangerous to try to run such pumps continuously in these extreme conditions.

An essential virtue of a true characteristic curve is that it is 'characteristic' of one particular pump only - it shows how that machine alone will behave. Any change in the shape or design of the pump rotor or casing will automatically be reflected in a change in the shape of the pump performance curves.

Among the many possible shapes of centrifugal (low specific speed) pump characteristics, there are two that have distinctive names. If the pump is so designed that the head-discharge curve is relatively flat and includes head-rise above the shut off head, while the power-discharge curve continues to rise beyond the design point (Fig gal. then it is said to have an unstable head characteristic and an overloading power characteristic. On the other hand, if the head curve falls relatively steeply, and the power curve only reaches a summit near the design point (Fig 9bl. the head characteristic is described as stable, and the power characteristic is non-overloading. Mixed flow and axial flow pumps have, on the whole, stable characteristics although, under certain circumstances, an unstable portion can occur in the case of performance curves for axial flow pumps. (Fig gc).

Un~tQble region

100 1i

~, '0 \

"",

Ic)

100

Percentage discharge

Percentage discharge

Percentage discharge_

Fig 9 e., unstable, b., stable type of centrifugal pump characteristic, c., prooetter pump characteristic with unsteaittty region. (note the high power at shut off.

Stabie performance implies that a specific head corresponds to one rate of discharge only, whereas if there are two rates of discharge applicable to a given head, then instability may result. If such a pump works in parallel with an

18


identical pump, it may choose to give either the rate of discharge or the other.

The ex-.ent of the effect of an overloading characteristic may, however, be governed by cavitation performance. The maximum horsepower for a pump having an overloading characteristic, may be determined by the point on the capacity head curve at which the performance of the pump brakes off suddenly due to 'cavitation' (see Fig 8), and this should be taken into account when interprating performance curves supplied by the maker. This is an important consideration, as the shape of an overloading characteristic determines the power to be provided by the driver, which is particularly important in the case of electric motors. In the case of certain C.1. engines, an overloading characteristic is normally not so significant, as it is possible to control the engine speed _ and with it, the power demand of the pump - by a fuel cut-off.

The characteristic of a centrifugal pump driven by a C.1. engine equipped with a fuel cut-off, is shown approximately in Fig 10.

I

I I I I

I '

I I

/' FUEL CUT OFF SETTING

il

Fig 10

2a4c Effect of variation

1. Speed and impeller diameter

By running a centrifugal pump at a speed other than the design speed, new head discharge and horsepower characteristics can be plotted (a similar effect as reducing the speed, has a reduction of the impeller diameter). Although the speed can be reduced indefinitely (until commercially unacceptable), the impeller diameter reduction is limited by the ratio of the eye diameter against impeller diameter, ie the maximum permissible reduction is a function of the


19

specific speed. In general, a relatively low specific speed pump can have its impeller diameter cut by, say, 15 to 20%, whilst in the case of a mixed flow pump, this reduction might be as low as 3 to 4%. In the case of an axial flow pump, an impeller reduction as such cannot normally be carried out. Both by speed variation and impeller reduction a new head-discharqe on horsepower characteristic can be plotted, as shown in Fig 11. In this way a family of curves is displayed, all of a common general shape. Such a composite chart can be made still more effective by adding to it another set of curves, viz, lines of equal overall pump efficiency or 'iso-efficiency' curves. The resulting completed graphs show that, within quite a wide range, the pump can be made to give any selected head or any desired discharge, either by throttling on the delivery valve, or by speed variation. For any such combination of head and discharge, the corresponding efficiency can be read off from the adjacent iso-efficiencv curve, and thereby the power input may be calculated as shown in Chapter 2.

If 0, H, N are capacity, head and horsepower at a speed n and impeller diameter D, then ai' HI, and NI can be calculated for a new speed nl, and impeller diameter DI according to the following formulae:

01 = nl x E.J._ x a

n D

Factors CI and C2 refer to a change in efficiency if the conversion is carried out from nand D referring to design parameters, ie conditions at maximum efficiency.

The following figures can only be used as a guide and must be specifically confirmed.

n, _D.2_ c,
C, L_S_. Hi ... ~.
n D
Spood Spood
2.0 1.08 0.98 1.01 1.03
1.5 1.06 0.96 1.02 1.04
1.2 1.01 0.94 1.03 1.05
Q.8 1.01 0.92 1.00 1.08
0.7 1.02 0.90 0.99 1.08
0.8 1.08 0.85 0.98
0.5 1.10 0.80 0.97
0.70 0.96 20
~
:J:
"C
c:
co
"C
co
CD
:J:
120 100 H(PI/Q
96 80
72 60
48 40
24 20
0 0 CAPACITY

120 1100
nl
96 80 Dl
72 60
I
48 40
24 20
CAPACITY
0 0
Specific gravity = 1.2
Fig 11 PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK

H(PI/Q


21

The above mentioned impeller cut can be carried out by a reduction of the diameter over the whole width of the impeller, including shrouds, (Fig 12a), but in the case of pumps equipped with diffusers, usually only the width of the vane is cut, as shown in Fig 12b.

Fig 12

When studying the theory of rotodynamic pumps, it will be found that the shape, ie the slope of the performance curve, is governed partly by the angle at which the fluid leaves the circumference of the impeller. By increasing this angle artificially, by a method which is called 'backing off the impeller', the performance curve of relatively low specific speed rotodynamic pumps can be changed. This method consists of carefully removing a certain amount of metal on the trailing face of the vanes, ie changing the outlet angle, as shown in Fig 13.

EffECT Of CHANGE TO VANE ounn EDGE

H

-----

fULL VANE

lACKED Off VANE

IAIS¥ED Off VANE

Fig 13

fUll VANE

o

20

22



2. Density

Supposing - as usuallyhappens - that characteristic curves are available, showing what a rotodynamic pump will do when delivering clean cold water (specific gravity 1.0), then its behaviour when pumping some other liquid of different density can be deduced: The family of head discharge curves will not be altered at all, but the pressure generated by the impeller and the power input are modified thus:

Let SI denote the specific gravity of the new liquid. Then, for a given pump speed, n, and volumetric rate of discharge 0, the resulting changes will be:

Pressure for water x S( = New Pressure Horsepower for water x SI = New Horsepower

It should be noted that the head - if expressed as a length (feet or metres) - remains unaffected by specific gravity.

3. Viscosity

Rotodynamic pumps (depending on their size and design) can normally deal with viscosities up to 2500 SRI.

When a rotodynamic pump handles liquids of elevated viscosities, the performance of the pump varies as shown in Fig 14.

23

With increasing viscosity the head and efficiency drops, whilst the horsepower increases. The new curves can be calculated from the water performance by multiplying capacity, head and efficiency at design point, with percentage factors as per Table III.

For points on the curve removed from the point of highest efficiency other factors are valid, details of which can be found in the general literature. Normally it is sufficient to draw a smooth curve through the calculated design point, observing the principles shown in Fig 14.

o'L--------------------- __

Fig 14 Effect of viscosity on performance

TABLE III - CONVERSION METHOD FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP VISCOUS PERFORMANCE

Non-viscous performance Viscous performance

EXAMPLE:"

Ql

Q1 = design output

HI = design head Non-viscous flow

N 1 = horsepower @ Q 1

111 = efficiency @ Q1

~20

':x;

~ 15

UI

7 10 :z Q; 5

x 2

iii

,~r-
..... ~
'" ..... ~ H
'" '1 rs H
I \
- -' - N
~~ I ""==N
-r
/ ........ i'
.~
'v ~ 1,.-- 1- .... ....... ,
,., I
~V/ I 1 2

Q2 = output H2 = head

Viscous flow

N2 = horsepower @ Q2 112 = efficiency @ Q2

o 100 200 300 400 500

OUTPUT Q gal/min

A pump designed for 400gal/min @ 150' Hd of non-viscous performance S.G.1. has an efficiency of 70%

. QlxHIX'Y1 400x150x1.0 6

Horsepower N 1 = = = 2

3300 X 111 3300 x 0.70

In order to calculate viscous performance when handling 600 S.R.I. S.G.O.g obtain or interpolate viscosity correction factors, Fa, FH and FlI from Table.

Table III cont ...

24


CONVERSION FACTORS Fa. FH. Fl1 (%1

~c VISCOSITY S.R.I. ..
c!!:.
l~ .2''''CI
40 80 100 300 600 1 000 IS:
ljlJ. C.c
95 83 96 98 95 66 95 94 57 92 90 46 85 87 200
94 83 95 81 96 65 94 93 55 90 90 45 85 86 150
100 94 81 94 80 99 95 64 94 92 50 89 86 40 82 83 80
93 80 93 78 98 94 50 93 91 45 86 85 35 76 80 60
96 88 93 85 97 74 98 94 64 95 93 54 i 90 89 200
95 87 93 85 97 73 97 94 63 94 92 52 89 88 150
200 95 86 97 84 96 71 96 93 59 93 91 48 87 86 80
94 85 96 83 95 68 95 93 59 921 90 45 85 85 40
97 91 83 , 99 77 99 94 68 96 831 59 92 83 200
96 90 87 97 76 98 94 'I£] [E'~ 57192 87 150
400 96 89 85 95 74 97 93 • 65 94 82 55 91 86 80
95 87 99 84 95 72 96 93 ' 62 93 81 52 i 90 85 40
: 97 : 83 64 95 93 200
99 94 92 80 94 73
99 93 90 98 79 99 94 , 72 97 83 64 93 93 150
800 98 92 89 97 77 98 94 i 71 96 83 63 93 91 80
97 88 87 95 78 98 93168 95 82 61 93 90 40
I
95 94 85 97179 98 : 96 73,97 95 200
94 93 85 97 . 78 98 I 96 72 96 94 150
1600 94 93 84 96! 76 97 i 95 70 95 93 80
93 91 99 83 96 75 97 95 I 67 95 93 40
F1) F1) FH F1) Fa FH F1) Fa FH F1) Fa FH F1) Fa FH Note: Where no figure and lor performance parameter is shown the value remains 100%.

Then

02 = 01 X FO ; 400 x 0.95; 380 H2; HI x FH; 150 x 0.B3; 124 112 = 111 x Fl1; 70 x 0.67; 47

02 x H2 X 12 3BO x 124 x 0.9

N2 ; ; 27.3

3300 x 112 3300 x 0.47

Note: The relevant factors are shown boxed in the above Table.

4. Suspended Solids

When a liquid-solid mixture passes through the pump. eg crude sewage of liquids heavily charged with paper-fibres. sand or gravel. the pump performance cannot be predicted by any general set of rules. This is chiefly because the shape of the rotor and casing must often be modified to ensure unchecked flow. at some sacrifice - possibly a heavy sacrifice - of overall efficiency. A typical casing and impeller are shown in Appendix II Drg 4.


25

2a4d. Range Charts

The establishment of a standard performance range for pumps and indeed other machines with a practically unlimited variety of performance demands for output and head (pressure) is based on the following considerations:

a) The steps between sizes should preferably be based on a geometric series.

b) These steps which refer to head and capacity should result in optimum conditions regarding price. efficiency. branch speeds. suction performance. variety.

c) The steps should preferably be chosen in such a way that design points lie along isospecific speed lines. so that model similarity exists between the design points lying along such isospecific speed lines.

d) Head steps should be chosen in such a way that impeller reductions are not excessive when completely covering the range field.

The following equations show the relations referring to paragraph c above:-

1 Q2 Specific speed: ns = n - H~

in order to keep specific speed constant:

1

Q2

= constant

Ha

Capacity step : x Head step: y

1 3'

Therefore: x 2 = Y ii 3 X = y2 2

Y = x3

Example:

1

Steps for specific speed: 223= 1.42

1.6ii = 1.42

A logical distribution of pump sizes is often a good guide to their design quality. and results in a favourable price structure. For the user a range of this type offers advantages of interchangeability of parts and a good choice of duties.

26


The result is a "range chart" from which one can pick out the particular machine that will normally satisfy the requirements.

Fig 15 shows a typical range chart on logarithmic scales showing also iso specific speed, iso efficiency, iso fluid power, and also in one case, an iso horsepower line which is usually a guide to the distribution of the mechanical portion of the pump, (bearing and drive shaft). The iso efficiency lines follow the principle of Fig 4 and the shaded portion lying between the iso fluid horsepower and the iso horsepower represents the varying efficiency of the pumps lying along the iso fluid horsepower line.

20

40

80 160

320

640 CAPACITY UNITS

Fig 15

Due to the varying shape of the efficiency curve, maximum permissible impeller reduction depending on the specific speed and maximum permissible price-steps between pumps, it is sometimes necessary to vary the steps for capacity and head by decreasing the capacity steps with increasing size and less so with increasing head as with increasing head the specific speed at a given capacity is reduced,resulting in a flatter efficiency curve and a larger permissible impeller reduction. Fig 16 shows such a modified range graph and it can be seen that, with the same number of pump sizes, a smaller field of the range is covered than the one shown in Fig 15.


27

20

40

80

160

320

CAPACITY UNITS

Fig 16

2a5. Regulation of rotodynamic pumps

There are, in general, three methods of controlling the flow of discharge of rotodynamic pumps:

a)

In the case of a constant speed pump, by regulating on the delivery valve of the pump. See also Section 2a4b.

Example A

A constant-speed centrifugal pump lifts liquid against a steady static head, pipe friction losses being negligible. The rate of flow is controlled by a throttle valve. (See Fig 17).

By plotting the head and efficiency characteristics, it is seen that at low discharges the installation efficiency is quite low; not only is the pump efficiency considerably below maximum, but there is a direct energy loss in the regulating valve. Because of the shape of the headdischarge characteristic, the pump cannot help generating a greater head than is necessary, and this additional head must be eliminated in the regulating valve.

Energy head loss in valve

Valve Pump

Fig 17

Discharge

28

PUMP USERS HANDBOOK

b)

By varying the speed of the pump. (See also Section 2a4c). Example 8

A variable-speed pump delivers liquid into a long pipe-line in which the friction head is considerable in relation to the static lift (Fig 18). Rate of flow is controlled by varying the pump speed. Since the friction' head hf in the pipe is approximately equal to a constant x (discharge)2, a curve bb between discharge and effective head (Hs + hf) can be plotted. On the same coordinates are plotted the pump head-discharge characteristics and the line aa of maximum pump efficiency.

.I

Head-discharge characteristics ~

Fig 18

Iso-efficiency curves could also be added. For each speed, the intersection between the 'external' head curve, bb, and the pump characteristic will show the particular discharge and head that the pump is yielding: for example, at speed N3 the discharge is Q3 and the head is H3• By reference to the iso-efficiency curves, the corresponding efficiency could be estimated. Since over a fairly wide range of conditions, the curve bb keeps fairly close to curve aa, this implies that the actual pump efficiency does not fall much below the maximum possible value except at very low discharge rates. In other words, the variable-speed system offers the best solution for this particular problem.

c)

If two or more pumps work in parallel, by alternating the number of pumps in service.

Example C

Three constant-speed pumps work in parallel against a steady head. Total discharge may be controlled either by (a) keeping all the pumps running, and throttling each one, or by (b) starting up the pumps one by one, as the demand increases.


29

The diagrams (Fig 19) show that method (a) is no better than in Example C above; but in method (b) the overall efficiency only becomes unsatisfactory at very low flow rates.

A summary of some frequently encountered series and parallel operatine conditions is shown in Data Chart 16.

Total discharge at

Total discharge at

Fig 19

2aG. Changes of the system characteristic

Figure 20 shows in graphical form problems which may be encountered when using either centrifugal or positive displacement pumps when the actual system characeristic "aries from the conditions on which the pump was chosen and the duty point established. As can be seen there are significant differences and the following Table summarizes them. In order to minimize these difficulties special pumps or pumps having special features or characteristics might have to be chosen, and often the use of special and expensive units can be avoided by bearing this in mind.

CENTRIFUGAL I"UW I"O$ITIV£

OISPI..ACEMENT PUMP

Dutyc:apllcity

s • .,.. I FI .... '
111 121
Op,IR.V.l 0"
o,~.o" - 0"
a"
0,,<0 0,) >Q
p,,>p
pp,IR.V.) P"
Pp, >p pp) <p
.... O'fi.good
Ilf_Dlu .....
L ......... O.K.
O.K .• illl R.V. a.-_
_ . OPMintp' ......... of ... ief .... ,

a.-._ ~1h.,"ch~K _ .. -

• k'ldiQtIIs .... , inc..-d PGW" ""Y be ,_..iNd

Po,

COmPl.ilOlll

P,., >PCI PPl<'

>p >PCl

Action ........ edto ",i_minimum

· ....... ity

01_ pump O.K. with with_p

~~~~r----+

Uf9I' pump O.K. wim·

.

Action'''';Ndto .,...nhinlYl_ pi ......

o lndIalfttll" i~ POWIt may" nquirlid in_ of hit"

-~WT"...:=tfOftUbricni"'.,.. iUtIl.

_lrif\I"'pumpmlYprOI'idt._ tic~to

~fori_ ......... _ ••• "tD_of'" l*'1Iof .... bricnId~.

30


SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC STEEPER SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC FLATTER

THAN ESTIMATED THAN ESTIMATED

.. w Ir

e

Ir ..

I I I

I /

I /

I I

/ I

I /

I / I ,,"

/"",.-'

character.

CAPACITY Q

Centrifugal character.

/ I I /

I I I

/

/

/

"

/

"

/ ;'

, --"

I I I

I

CAPACITY Q

Symbols

S Estimated system characteristic

SI Actual system characteristic

o Duty capacity

P Duty pressure

~ Capacity into system by positive displ. pump

~p capacity delivered by positive displ. pump

Oc Capacity delivered by centrifugal pump

P p svstem pressure for positive displ. pump

PR Relief valve opening pressure

OR Capacity bypassed by relief valve

Pc System pressure for centrifugal pump

SR Relief valve characteristic

Ss Combined (system + r.v.l characteristic

R System pressure (posit. pump) without relief valve

Note: Index 1 refers to 'steeper' characteristic than estimated Index 2 refers to 'flatter' characteristic than estimated

Fig 20

•


31

2a7. Thrusts in rotodynamic pumps

The head or pressure generated by the rotating element in centrifugal pumps, acts on all surfaces in contact with the liquid, resulting, generally, in axial and radial thrusts. Certain precautions are taken when designing pumps, either to eliminate these thrust, or at least to reduce them to an acceptable level. If this is not done, the pump would have to include expensive components such as heavy shafts and high load carrying bearings, otherwise uncontrolled thrusts could easily cause damage, eg excessive bending moments on shafts and heavy bearing loads.

Axial thrusts in centrifugal pumps are due to the fact that one or severai impellers have an unbalanced area exposed to a portion of the generated head. Fig 21, Section A, shows the magnitude of these pressures as shaded areas, the axial force being the product of the area exposed to the pressure x average pressure. Diagram 1 refers to an entirely unbalanced impeller, whilst the remaining diagrams show the various means which are employed to

balance the forces, as follows: .

,

Diagram 1: Unbalanced impeller.

Diagram 2: A back wear-ring is used, allowing the pressure behind the impeller between the centre line of the impeller and the wearring to be reduced to near suction pressure. Unrestricted flow back to suction of the liquid passing through the wear-ring must be allowed, as shown. The slight residual pressure shown in red represents head loss through balance holes.

Diagram 3: The use of radial back vanes running at close clearance against the casing, reduces the pressure on the back of the impeller.

Diagram 4: A double inlet impeller which is inherently balanced, although even in this case tbrust bearings must be incorporated in the pump as there are several factors which can contribute to the disturbance of this balance.

(a) As the impeller is usually cast, it is seldom possible to make it absolutely symmetric.

(b) Turbulence, and other disturbances in the suction line can cause an uneven distribution of fluid flow in the inpeller eyes, so that the two halves of the impeller work on slightly different points of the performance curve. This sort of situation leads to a certain amount of instability, tending towards shaft vibrations.

(c) A difference in the clearances at the wear-rings, leads to an uneven leakage flow,resulting in slight differences in the pressure distribution over the two impeller halves .

~~ .. ---------------=~~------------------------------

32


Diagram 5: Opposed impellers which are usually arranged for two stage pumps.

Diagram 6: Again, opposed impellers in an arrangement which might be used for pumps dealing with high vacuums at the suction of the pump where it is preferred to arrange discharge pressure at both stuffing-boxes, to prevent the ingress of air.

Diagram 7: Shows a typical arrangement for a multi-stage pump where the thrust is balanced by means of a balance disc, or drum.

Diagram 8: Shows distribution of pressure of an open impeller, and it will be and 9 noticed that such impellers have inherently higher unbalanced axial thrusts due to the steep slope of the pressure gradient at the front of the impeller.

It should be pointed out that for a specific duty it is always possible (by suitable location of the back wear-ring diameter) to entirely balance or unbalance impellers in order to create a controlled uni-directional thrust of a required magnitude.

Diagram 10: Shows the relatively high unbalanced thrust of a propeller pump.

Significant radial thrusts occur when a volute pump is not performing at the point of best efficiency, ie at the design point, as under these conditions the equilibrium of forces due to pressure distribution in the volute, is disturbed. The magnitude of the pressure depends on the position in the volute, and acts on the projected area of the impeller periphery x impeller width. Section B of Fig 21, shows the typical pressure distribution over the circumference of the impeller. The unbalanced forces are at their maximum at closed valve, and approach a minimum at the design point.

The following diagrams refer to radial thrusts:

Diagram 11: Shows a standard volute pump.

Diagram 12: Shows a double volute. The unequal pressure distribution over half the circumference of the impeller is balanced by a similar distribution over the other half.

Diagram 13: The impeller is surrounded by a diffwser which results in complete balance. If the diffuser is surrounded by a volute, the influence of the volute is still effective through the diffuser passages - although on a reduced scale.

Diagram 14: Shows a circular casing which is used for certain pump types, especially when handling solids carrying liquids. However, although radial thrusts are reduced, this type of casing usually results in a more inefficient conversion of energy.

Diagram 15: Two volutes displaced by 1800 against eacn other. The discharge from each volute is taken into a common conduit.


33

Fig 21 Thrusts in rotodynamic pumps A. Axial thrustcenrrifugal pumps.

vv

Dia 2

Impeller with back wear rings and balance holes

Dia 3 Dia 4

Impeller with Double suction

radial ribs impeller

Dia 1

Impeller with no back wear ring

Dia 5 Back-to-back impellers

Dia 6 Face-to-face impellers

Dia 7 Multi-stage pumps

Balance

disc drum

N.B. Diameters so arranged that force equals the sum of the impeller out of balance forces.

DiaS Open impeller

Dia9

Open impeller with radial ribs

Dia 10 Propeller type impeller

I!miI\!Ii\I Inherently balanced thrust

IIiIIIIIIIIIIII Reduction of out of balance thrust _ Balanced thrust by disc or drum

"........................... Inherently unbalanced thrust balanced by disc or drum _ Ultimate unbalance

B. Radial thrusts, centrifugal pumps.

Dia 11 Single volute

Dia 12 Double volute

Dia 13 Diffuser with spiral

Dia 15

Half volute double outlet

Dia 14 Circular volute

34


288. Parallel and series operation of rotodynamlc pumps

In order to operate satisfactorily in parallel, units - whether they are of identical or different sizes - should be working on the stable part of their characteristic. As the characteristic of the pipe system might vary for each pump, the pumps automatically adjust themselves to the operating conditions. By establishing the system characteristics, the performance of individual pumps can be arrived at.

When determining the total flow of pumps working in parallel, a combined performance graph can be drawn by adding the individual capacities of the pumps for a given head. For a given combined delivery head, the capacity would be divided between the pumps according to their individual capacities at such a head.

In the case of pumps operating in series, the combined head for any flow amounts to the sum of the individual heads of the pumps. Naturally, in the case of series operation, the capacity of the first pump must be such that, for any system flow, its head creates at least the NPSHreq of the second pump (see Section 3c).

A summary of some frequent operating conditions is shown in Data Chart 16.

2b. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS 2b1. Principle of operation

When running at a constant speed, pumps of this type positively displace a liquid volume at almost a fixed rate, irrespective of the resistance the flow of liquid encounters. The two main types are:

n Reciprocating

ii) Rotary

A typical reciprocating pump has a ram, plunger, piston or other cylindrical element working backwards and forwards within a cylinder or pump barrel: this motion is usually derived from a crank revolving at uniform speed, and a connecting rod. Automatic valves control the flow of liquid into the cylinder, and out again. (Fig 22).

Connecting Rod'

Pump Cylinder

Crank

Fig 22


35

A positive rotary pump usually' has one or more closely-fitting elements that revolve continuously within a fixed casing. It has no valves. and the liquid flows through the passages in a nearly uniform stream (Fig 23).

CLiq~:.d carried round in ~aces between teeth.

~-~

Fig 23

2b2. Pump design, applications and use

As with rotodynamic pumps, range and applications cover a very large field. Table II shows several types of positive displacement on a similar basis to rotodynamic pumps; and respective designs are included in Appendix II. The pump design is, in many cases, adapted to meet special purposes or conditions.

2b3. Performance laws

Positive displacement pumps displace a volume of fluid which changes pro rata, with the speed. Due to internal leakage, varying with the pressure and viscosity of the liquid, the output of the pump is reduced by this amount. Thus, at various speeds, the positive pump has head discharge characteristics parallel to each other and almost vertical to the capacity (discharge) ordinate (Fig 24).

m .....

[

< co

"tl

ca

..

l!! ca

Q. ::;;

.....

~

co ::I n co

Fig 24

36


Usually the rotary pump has a greater internal leakage than the reciprocating pump, and therefore, the head discharge characteristic will depart more from the vertical, for an identical viscosity.

Pump characteristic and performance

A typical performance graph of a positive displacement pump is shown in Fig 25, which also gives typical formulae necessary for the various conversions for variation of speed, pressure, viscosity, etc.

Positive displacement pumps: Definitions of terms, performance and formulae

CAPACITY o

- (High Viscosity)

----- (Low Viscosity)

OIB

PRESSURE P

EFFICIENCY 11 HORSEPOWER N

PRESSURE P

Indices

1 High pressure 2 Low pressure A High viscosity B Low viscosity k High speed

l Low speed

Symbols

00 Q

QL No N

Equations

Ql1A = Ql2B ~ .i» )X P2 \"A

Displacement capacity Pump capacity (output) leakage capacity Hydraulic horsepower

NFKA (VAr (nk y
= NFLB -;; x~
No = Qo • P Qo gal/min
1428 P Ib/in2
Q = Qo - QL
N = No + NF Total horsepower

NF Friction horsepower

n Speed

P Pressure

11 Viscosity

11 Efficiency

x = Viscosity factor (leakage) ~ to t 'Y = Viscosity factor (friction) ~ to t z = Friction factor (speed) 2 to 3

Fig 25 Performance graph of positive displacement pump at various pressures, speeds and viscoslti


37

2b3a. Effect of variations

i) Speed

Displacement varies directly with the speed. Friction horsepower varies with the speed to a factor which, depending on the type of pump, varies between 1.5 and 3. Normally, the amount of internal leakage is unaffected by the speed of. the pump.

ii) Density

Density as such normally has no effect on the performance graph of positive 'displacement pumps.

iii) Viscosity

Viscosity is that property of a liquid which resists any force tending to produce motion between its adjacent particles. Viscosity is usually measured by an instrument called a viscosimeter. The viscosity as determined by this instrument is known as kinematic viscosity. ln order to arrive at the absolute viscosity of a fluid the kinematic viscosity has to be multiplied by the specific gravity of the fluid. (Poises) .

The viscosity of certain types of fluid is sensitive to agitation as occurs during pumping. The most common types are:

a) Newtonian liquids - such as water and mineral oils which are referred to as "true liquids". Their viscosity or consistency is not affected by agitation.

b) Thixotropic liquids - are those which reduce their viscosity as the agitation is increased. Examples of this type of liquid are asphalts, cellulose, glue, paints, certain greases, soap, etc.

c) Dilatant liquids - are those whose viscosity increases as the agitation is increased. Examples are clay, slurry, .some sugary liquids, and starches. Most dilatant liquids will return to their original viscosity as soon as agitation ceases. Some liquids may change from thixotropic to dilatant, or vice versa, as the temperature or concentration is varied.

d) Rheopictic liquids - are those whose viscosity increases with time

to some maximum value at any constant rate of agitation.

As the output and horsepower requirements of the pumps depend significantly on viscosity it is always of great importance to determine the true viscosity and, if necessary, by an actual experiment, the effect on the pump performance,especially perhaps in the case of the more frequent thixotropic fluids.

With increasing viscosity, internal leakage is reduced, and friction horsepower increased. The factors covering these ratios also vary with the type of pump, but in both cases the factor is usually between one-half and one-third, as shown in Fig 25.

38


Summary : A summary of the positive displacement rotary pump's technology is shown in Fig 26.

~~~~E~70~

~+=~~~-r~-+~60~

~t-t-t-i-~=i=±~50~

L_.L_.L__j_--,---___J_l_:_:_:__:_C_.:_j 40 500 600 700 800 900

SPEED

'0'

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY

~ :::1~::

C) 100 m I.Olb.b~~r;Ooi =---'--"11""=1

o 201~_'_""":;:

OF'

PERMISSIBLE SPEED FOR A GIVEN

10' SUCTION II FT

10

1
,
I
,
/
,
/
. SPEEO

·C· SLIP & VISCOSITY


10

10

10

O~~~S~~12

SPEED AND ROTOR VELOCITY

Fig 26

SLIP -I. OF DISPLACEMENT

'E

FRICTION HORSEPOWER

39

The geometry of efficiency for such pumps is shown symbolically in Fig 27. The example shows the efficiencies for 30 and 3000 SRI for 601b/in2 and at 1150rev/min lying in the respective planes. The inter-relation of pressure, speed and viscosity and its important effect on the efficiency is demonstrated ..

Two surfaces, formed by lines of efficiencies for varying speeds and pressures for low and high viscosity, intersect at an iso-efficiency line. Note that, for low viscosity and increasing pressure, speeds should be high, whilst for high viscosity, efficiency remains more constant, especially at high pressure.

Fig 27

2b3b Range charts for positive displacement pumps

Range charts for positive displacement pumps are normally prepared for varying viscosities. They are shown on a logarithmic scale, and as their head discharge characteristic is a straight line, (the inclination of which depends on the viscosity), they have a configuration as shown in Fig 28. Since the displacement is proportionate to speed, range charts are made for the most likely commercial speeds, which decrease with increasing size of pump.

2b4. Regulation of positive displacement pumps

The only direct way of varying the discharge of mechanically driven pumps is to regulate the speed. Certain types of pumps have a built-in possibility of output variation similar to changing the pitch of screw pumps, varying, as it were, the stroke of a pumping member in other types of pumps. It is normally quite impractical to use a throttle valve in the same way as in rotodynamic pumps. If the pump has a bypass, the discharge passing into the delivery pipe can certainly be controlled, but it is very wasteful. Pump power input remains essentially the same, no matter whether all the liquid goes into the discharge pipes or none of it does.

40


Direct acting steam pumps are automatically self-regulating in the sense that their rate of liquid discharge adapts itself to the delivery head. Any desired or stipulated rate of discharge can be obtained by regulating the valve on the steam inlet pipe.

I

Speed 1450rev/~i~

i
I ,
j
.: I I !
ILP' I~ om
50 100 500 1000
Capacity PRES

Speed 1450rev/min
'1~
\ 4\5 ~ :!
SURE I b 7 !\ I
:
50 ,
,
! .,
! 'i
I ,1' rr
10 fil 115 o SIT II! : Fig 28 Typical positive displacement pump range chart at constant speed and for low and high viscosity.

10

50 100

500 1000 Capacity

2b5. Relief valves

Most positive displacement pumps are equipped with a relief valve, usually of the spring loaded type, preferably allowing the whole output of the pump to be returned from the delivery space to a suction space without undue pressure rise. Should a valve in the discharge line be closed, either by design or error, relief valves are often equipped with a device to lift open the seat, so that the pressure can be regulated. The pressure rise through the relief valve follows the laws of fluid flow, and in the main, is due to the friction in the flow passages through the valve opening. This valve opening depends on the magnitude of the pressure differential and with it the force exerted on the spring. The flow speed through the valve opening is relatively high, depending on the operating pressure of the pump.


A. UNBALANCED RELIEF VALVE

To pump suction P2 or low pressure area

Spring has to keep valve closed agai nst pressure differential

(PI - P2) • AREA

B. BALANCED RELIEF VALVE

To pump suction P2 ---t __ or low

pressure area P2

Spring has to keep valve closed against pressure differential

(PI - P2) • (AI - A2)

41

Typical unbalanced relief valve

Pressure I r~lief ·1 pipe

1

Typical balanced relief valve

Fig 29

42


Fig 29 shows typical designs of relief valves. The effect of relief valve control when a pipeline valve is being closed, is shown in Fig 30.

Capacity delivered into pipe system

D - Duty point

S - Valve setting pressure above duty pressure

P - Pressure rise for full by-pass via relief valve

Capacity into pipe system falls to zero for

~ Operating ~ completely closed dis-

pressure charge valve.

-P-

Fig 30

As a rough guide to the required area: to allow a flow at a given pressure and for an acceptable pressure rise, the following formula can be used:-

A p

S

Area (in2) Pressure (Ib/in2) Specific gravity Viscosity (SR 1 ) Flow (gal/min)

v Q

A

2b6. Thrusts and their control

As with rotodynamic pumps, axial and radial thrusts are encountered in positive displacement pumps of the rotary type. In most cases radial thrusts cannot be balanced and they have to be taken by suitably dimensioned and lubricated bearings, either running in the pumped liquid, or independently lubricated.

Pumps in which the flow of the liquid takes place in the axial direction, are either of symmetric construction ie where two sets of pumping elements are pumping in opposite direction, in which case the axial thrust is balanced;


43

or balancing is carried out by balancing pistons which are under essentially identical differential pressure, but acting in the opposite direction to the pumping element, and as near as possible of the same area as the projected area of the pumping elements.

In Fig 31, 'A' is a typical gear pump, flow vertical to the pumping gearwheel axes, showing the unbalanced thrust force which has to be taken by the bearings. 'B' shows an axial flow machine with symmetric pumping elements, the axial flow machine being balanced.

Balancing methods for axial machines being inherently not in axial balance (ie where the flow through the pump is one direction only), are more complex and vary greatly with the design. Balance areas are created by discs and/or shaft ends of suitable dimensions being exposed to the pump discharge pressure. A pump of this type is shown in Appendix II, Fig 23.

In some cases there exist residual axial thrusts due to the drive shaft extending through a stuffing-box etc. These residual thrusts and, indeed, any slight unbalanced thrusts due to unequal pressure development in axial1y balanced pumps, must be taken either by thrust bearings, or in some cases, (as in 'A'), by the side and walls of the pump.

DISCHARGE '. SUCTION

DISCHARGE

Rotary pump with flow vertical to drive shafts.

A

__.R ...... A

Radial thrust Axial thrust Flow

Inherently balanced axial flow pump.

B

- I:

Axial and radial thrust loads for positive displacement rotary pumps.

Fig 37

44


2b7. Parallel and series operation of positive displacement pumps

In the case of parallel operation, each pump will deliver its rated capacity against the pressure established in the system. Thus, for normal volumetric efficiencies, there will be no significant change in the output of each pump, but naturally, the system pressure in the case of high frictional content will depend on the total capacity delivered.

In the case of series operation, the first pump should be equipped with a relief valve, set to the pressure which is desired to be created in the first pump, ie the first pump should normally work at an output greater than the delivery of the second pump.

2c. SELF-PRIMING ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS

Rotodynamic pumps of normal construction cannot dispose of the air by creating the differential pressure which normally exists between the suction side and the discharge side of the pump - eg in the case of priming the static liquid level. In some cases a foot valve solves this problem, but there are many plants which require starting with an empty suction line - for instance, certain types of marine pumps, fire pumps, pumps which are used to lower the level of water in foundations, and certain irrigation pumps, etc. Although some of the pumps mentioned in this chapter are not based on the conventional design of the impeller, and although some of them are based on an action which, as it were, is partly due to the positive displacement of a volume, they are included in this chapter for the sake of convenience and continuity.

In the case of liquid ring and side channel pumps, the mode of operation however consists, in the main, of displacement of the pumped medium which, during the priming action, may be air or gas. In the case of so-called re-circulating or inherently self-priming centrifugal (rotodynamic) pumps, an exchange of fluid within the rotating chambers or vanes of the impellers, takes place. The principle of the liquid ring pump is shown in Fig 32a and 32b. Side channel pumps with 'star' impeller are shown in Fig 33a, b, and c. A version of the side channel pump is the regenerative (peripheral) pump shown in Fig 34a, band c.

2c1. Liquid ring pump

An impeller having vanes which are either straight or bent forward, runs with close clearance against the end covers of the pump. The impeller is mounted eccentrically in the casing. When pumping air, a liquid ring of unequal thickness is created, sealing adjacent spaces between the vanes (from each other) in a radial direction. Due to the eccentric position of the rotor, the vanes of the pump, when rotating, penetrate to a different degree into the liquid ring, so that the space, which is free of liquid within the chambers, increases and decreases during each revolution. The two sickle-like ports are


45

for the intake and discharge of air, (and, after priming of liquid is completed) against the required pressure. In the case of normal priming operation, the air enters, in due course, under vacuum conditions and is compressed to atmospheric pressure. The maximum pressure differential depends to some extent on the speed of the unit, and is sensitive to the clearances within the pump. When the pumps are used for pumping of liquid, tt.e reduction of the available space on the discharge side, due to incompressibility of the liquid, is a disadvantage. As the area decreases, the liquid ring must increase its speed until the relevant chamber has reached the discharge slot. Only then can the pressure be raised, and therefore, when such units are used for the pumping of water, as compared with their purpose of priming only, the discharge slot must be moved against the sense of rotation. By doing so, however, the air handling capacity is reduced. Such pumps are of low efficiency when handling liquid and, therefore, their main application is as priming units. The fundamental action of the unit is a positive displacement of fluid space.

2c2. Side channel pumps

These pumps are less sensitive than liquid ring pumps against impurities, and are characterized by 'star impellers'. Contrary to the liquid ring pump, the impeller is running concentrically in a casing. As in the case of the liquid ring pump, the side channel pump is sealed by a liquid ring on the periphery of the impeller. The delivery of the liquid, (or, indeed, air), is achieved by one or two side channels, whose depth varies over the circumference of the pump, leading to the displacement of the fluid, which may be either liquid or gas.

Fig 32a Liquid ring pump with straight vanes.

Fig 32b Double liquid ring pump with forward bent blades.

46


Fig 33a Two-stage side

channel pump (star impeller)

Fig 33c Section of vane.

Fig 33b Vane and circulation in channel.

i ~ !

Fig 34a Turbine impeller pump.


47

Fig 34b Vane and circulation in channel.

Fig 34c View on vane.

2c.3. Regenerative pumps

In the case of turbine impellers, the action is somewhat similar to the side channel pump,with the exception that the channel has a different configuration, as shown in Fig 34a,b and c. Fundamentally, the performance curve of all side channel pumps is as seen in Fig 35, showing the steep shape of the curves reaching considerable pressures, and requiring a relatively high horsepower against a closed valve.

Fig 35 Typical performance of side channel pump.

L-_-" __ .L... _ _,J __ ...L. __ " Capacity

The air handling capacity of the liquid ring design - which is, as mentioned, based on the positive displacement of a volume, (Fig 32a, b) - is greater than the air handling capacity of the side channel and turbine type impeller pumps, with the latter, in this respect, being inferior to the star impeller. Peripheral pumps with suction on the periphery of the impeller have less satisfactory priming characteristics than those designs which provide entry near the pump axis. The efficiency of side channel and peripheral pumps cannot exceed 50%.

48


2c4. Self-priming pumps based on the recirculation principle

There are many types and designs available, but their principle is, on the whole the same. Due to the rotation of the impeller, fluid which, in general is water-retained by suitable means in the relatively large volume casing - forms a circular layer around the impeller axis, with the inner 'portion of the impeller, there is no distinct division between the liquid layer and the air, and therefore, there exists a zone which is filled with a mixture of water and air. Fig 36a shows a pump where a nozzle N is used in order to separate the two media. During the reduction of the velocity of the mixture of water and air when passing through the nozzle separation between these two media takes place, and whilst the air escapes to the top of the casing, the water sinks back into the impeller space. The process is repeated until all the air has been released, and the pump is primed.

Fig36a

Another version of an inherently self-priming pump is shown in Fig 36b and, in this case, air and water leave the impeller periphery at the cut-water point, and pass into the casing chamber which - by providing a relatively large free liquid surface - allows air to separate whilst the water is flowing downwards, where it enters the impeller periphery, mixing again with the air - repeating the above described cycle. After the priming cycle has been completed, the pumping action consists of water flowing through both volute channels and out through the discharge, as indicated in the figure.

In both cases, the air extracted from the suction pipe is discharged through the discharge flange of the pump, and then through the delivery pipe. No restrictions should be placed on this air escape.

Apart from the described versions, there are many other designs available containing, in the main, elements which improve the relative quantity of air


49

Priming Action

A mixture of fluid and air leaves the impeller periphery at cut water and flows (b) into the separating chamber T with a free liquid level L. Fluid returns (a) to the impeller periphery forming a mixture of air and fluid, repeating the process, when all the air has been removed.

Pumping Action

When all air has been removed, liquid flows and is discharged through both channels (a) and (b).

Fig36b

or gas being handled. Some of these designs refer to valve arrangements covering the circulation of liquid and gas. In general, it can be said that the priming capacity of air handling capacity of such pumps depends on the size of the impeller outlet area, and varies approximately with the square of the speed of the pump.

In the case of all designs, priming liquid must be retained within the pump ensuring that the liquid cannot be emptied by syphonic action during suction loss or when stopping the pump.

50


3. HOW TO MAKE LIQUID FLOW INTO THE PUMP (PUMPING ELEMENT) - A PROCESS ON WHICH THE SUCTION PERFORMANCE OF THE PUMP DEPENDS

3a, Explanation of the problem and NPSH required

In order to ensure that a liquid enters a pump or - more accurately - the pumping element of a pump, where the pumping energy can be imparted to the liquid, energy in the shape of pressure (head) - as it were from an outside source, like the atmospheric pressure and/or a static head - must be available.

This available energy must not only push the liquid into the pump, but it must also overcome the losses in the flow passages of the pump and the losses incurred when the liquid enters the pumping element, which happens at the entry edge of the vanes of centrifugal pumps, or losses in valves of reciprocating pumps.

'.

This outside energy must also create a sufficient flow velocity to enable the fluid to enter the pumping element at the velocity corresponding to the required flowrate of the pump. In the case of rotary positive displacement pumps, the velocity (energy) must be sufficient to fill the space of a moving pocket, eg, the space formed by the teeth of a gear pump whilst, in the case of a piston or ram pump, the velocity of the instreaming liquid must be sufficient to fill the space created by the moving piston, etc. The conditions are shown in Fig 37. The energy or pressure (head) representing the total sum of velocity and losses is called "Net Positive Suction Head Required"

(NPSHrequired).

The basic curves determining the NPSHrequired for rotodynamic and positive displacement pumps are shown in Fig 38. Fig 38a refers in general only to the "design point" of a centrifugal pump and the two parameters which determine the NPSHrequired are the "eye speed", which is the speed at which the fluid enters the free area of the impeller and the perinheral speed at the maximum diameter of the vane entry edge. Figs 38b, c refer to positive displacement pumps, where it is customary to state the manometric lift instead of NPSHrequired which is shown in Fig 38c for atmospheric pressure of 14.7 Ib/in2•

As can be seen, the two parameters which determine the NPSHrequired (manometric lift) are the speed-axial or peripheral, depending on the type of the positive displacement pump (see Fig 37) and the viscosity of the pumped medium.

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

51

A. Centrifugal pump. Energy has to make fluid flow into the impeller eye (1) and be sufficient to prevent fluid pressure being reduced below its vapour pressure when passing the inlet vane edge

B. Reciprocating pump. Energy has to make fluid entering cylinder via suction valve (1) and follow ram (2) without its pressure being reduced below its vapour pressure, preventing at the same time the formation of a vacuous space (3).

C. Positive displacement rotary pump_ Energy has to make fluid filling s rotating and gradually opening pocket (1) formed by an outer and innter lobe rotor, without the fluid pressure falling below its vapour pressure.

D. Positive displacement axial flow (screw) pump. Energy has to make fluid flow into a gradually formed chamber (moving in axial direction) created by the rotation of two or more tntermeshing screws (1), without the fluid pressure falling below its vapour pressure_

Fig 37

II ,

52

so NPSHrequired (feet)

P[RIPHElIAL

30 vnOCITY

20

10

10 20 30

Eye velocity (ft/s)

NPSHrequired for rotodynamic pumps

Lift/Head (feet)

SP.G: 0·8

••

so

SP.G: 1'0

40

30

20

o .. c

'" z

Speed of moving pocket (ft/s)

10

30


o (inches) d (inches) VE (ft/s) Vp (ft/s)

Q (gal/min) AE (in2)

eye diameter

hub diameter

eye velocity peripheral velocity pump capaci?;

eye area = .!!_ (02 - d2) 4

0.3850 Q

VE = ft/s (includes reserve)

AE

Vp

Don --ft/s

229

(a)

40

50 NPSHrequired (feet)

30

20

10

10

20

30

Speed of moving pocket etc (ft/s)

lift/head for positive displacement pumps. NPSHrequired for positive

liquids of varying specific gravity and for displacement pumps

stendard atmosphere lc) (b)

Fig 38 NPSHrequired and permissible lift for rotodynamic and positive displacement pumps

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

53

Thus, whilst the NPSHrequired for rotodynamic pumps is to all intents independent of the viscosity - which normally should not exceed say 2 500 SR I for such pumps - the NPSHrequired for positive displacement pumps increases (the lift decreases) with increasi ng viscosity.

Speeds shown in Fig 38 are approximate but can be taken as a fair guide to actual data supplied by pump makers.

In order to show the effect of specific gravity of the pumped liquid on the lift (not on the NPSHrequired) several scales of lift for various specific gravities are shown in Fig 38c.

Based on the experimental test results, or charts as shown in Fig 38, it is usual for pump manufacturers to supply, in the case of rotodynamic pumps, (together with the performance diagram of the pump) a curve showing the NPSHrequired by the pump over its capacity range, and for a given pump speed (see Fig 39). In the case of a positive displacement pump the "speed of moving pocket" shown in Fig 38a, b must be converted to the rotational speed of the pump or piston speed.

Head t-"- __

Rated for ONE speed only

NPSH

required

Fig 39

Capacity

54


3b. The Vapour pressure

Even after overcoming the obstacles to entering the pumping element, the absolute pressure at any point of flow or movement of the liquid must remain above the vapour pressure of the liquid (see Data Chart 10) in order to prevent the formation of gas or vapour pockets. However, should such pockets or cavities form, we are confronted with the phenomenon of cavitation which is described in Section 3e. This normally happens when NPSHavailable is lower than NPSHrequired.

3e. NPSHavaiiable

As mentioned in Section 3a, the "supply energy" is either the atmospheric pressure, the absolute of value of which at sea-level is 14.7lb/in2 (10.34 metre water sp.q, 1.0) or any additional pressure acting on the free liquid level to which can be added any other energy (pressure/head) provided by another pump (booster), to which must be added (algebraically) the static level difference between the free liquid level and the "critical" point of the pump whose NPSHavailable is being considered. These critical points are shown in Fig 37. Deducted from these values must be all losses incurred during the flow from the free liquid level to the pump, or from the discharge of the booster pump to the pump.

. !', II'

, 'I

i! ,I !

iil!I' i,l"

K

In order to enable the pump to operate successfully the NPSHavailable must be greater than NPSHrequired preferably with a reasonable reserve.

The calculation of NPSHavailable is quite simple, and Fig 40 can be used for various suction conditions which do not include the provision of a booster pump.

It is important to remember that the NPSHavailable is expressed in feet and whilst the atmospheric pressure provides approximately 34feet of water, if the pumped liquid has a specific gravity of say 0.8, the atmospheric pressure provides 42.5feet.

Example: It is assumed that suction conditions are as per Fig 40a, and the pump has to work with a static lift. The NPSHrequired given by the manufacturer is 12feet.The pump is pumping water at a temperature of 170°F (76°C) and the installation is at an altitude of 2000feet. The maximum permissible static lift, assuming a friction loss in the suction pipe of 4feet can therefore be computed as follows:-

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

GUIDE TO CALCULATION OF NPSH -AVAILA8LE

IN ORDER TO CALCULATE NPSH AVAILABLE THE FOLLOWING VALUES MUST BE KNOWN

I. 8AROMETRIC PRESSURE (SEE TA8LEI

2 ABSOLUTE VAPOUR PRE SSURE (~~O~A~tti"OO". SEE AL$OI 1 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ON LlOUID SURFACE

4. STATIC LEVEL DIFFERENCE

FREE LlOUID LEVEL-PUMPING ELEMENT

NOTE' CALCULATION REFERS TO CONDITIONS WHERE NO OTHER ENERGY OTHER THAN THE ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ON THE FREE LIQUID LEVEL IS AVAILABLE FOR OTHER CONDITIONS REFER ALSO TO TABLE

SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Po BAROMETRIC PRESSURE rHql

p, PRESSURE ON LIQUID LEVEL (PSIGI

Pv' VAPOUP PRESSURE (PSIA I

V VAC UUM ON LIQUID LE VEL(" Hq I

r SPEC GRAVITY OF FLUID (II

hf FRICTION ~ ENTRY LOSS OF

SUCTION LINE (FEETI

h STATIC LEVEL DIFFERENCE (FEET)

8AROMETRIC PRESSURES AT ALTITUDES

A l TI TUDE I ;!AO~~~R:;E:~~~~UA
-1000 FEET 31
- 500 FEET 0
SE LEV -A- 3QL
+IOOOFEET 28-q
+ 2000 Fl 27 8
t4000FT. 25 8
+IQQO FT 240 55

A LlOUID LEVEL EXPOSED TO ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

CD ~ Ipo-2'04'pv'l+h-hf ® '~ I po- 2-04 pv'l- h -hf

Fig 40

8 LlOUID LEVEL EXPOSED TO A PRESSURE

CD 2-;' Ip,TO'4Q po-pv'hh-hf 2JI

® ~ Ip,.O 4Qpo-pv'l- h-hf

C LlOUID LEVEL UNDER VAPOUR PRESSURE IWITH EXAMPLES I

(pvl-

pa-v

20.41

D lIOUID LEVEL EXPOSED TO A VACUUM

'~. ~0

! v v

CD - ® ®

I 13

'"i" Ipo-v -204pv'l.h -hf

I 13 7Ipo-v-204pv'I-\-hr

56


From Technical Data Sheet 5:

Vapour pressure of water at 170°F (76°C) - 6lb/in2 Specific gravity of water at 170°F (76°C) - 0.97

From Data Sheet 7 barometric pressure at 2000ft 27.8"Hg Assume NPSHavailable = NPSHrequired therefore

12 = ~ x (27.8 - 2.04 x 6) - static lift - 4 0.97

static lift =

1.13 x (27.8-2.04x6)-12-4 0.97

= 2.1 feet

Allowing a small reserve, the maximum static lift permissible would be only 1ft.

From this example it can clearly be seen what an important part the vapour pressure of the liquid plays in reducing the permissible lift.

Should conditions exist where the NPSHavailable is not sufficient, the pump will work under cavitation conditions, and this phenomenon is explained in some detail in Section 3e.

Il'l 1:,

I,

,~.!."

U

,

3d. Balance sheet of suction heads

Table IV shows a balance sheet of the energies, and the role played by the vapour pressure. The Table also shows what means are available to keep a sufficient suction pressure at the pump to ensure uninterrupted operation.

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

... w w ::t III W CJ Z

~ ~ >"

CJ a: w z !! o c( w ::t

Z o

~ ~

I

~

w ~ CD

~

ci ui u:

3 Iii ii CD

" u.

~

o ...

...

i G

57

~----+-------------~--~--~.

t S .~

~ .. B .. w~U)g

ai

~

o ...

...

i

c

... c

:2 ~

::J CD cr-

.- .,

" .,

:0 .!!!

.~

::t (/) e,

z

ii

o z

g

e.., to ~

> a

., .. ... .,

~d: o

1) <{

X

E

::> e.

:2

::> ;;::: .,

-E '0

58


3e. CAVITATION AND ITS EFFECTS 3e1. What is cavitation?

Cavitation occurs when there is insufficient NPSHavailable, ie too Iowa suction pressure leads to cavitation. The word 'cavitation' is derived from the word 'cavity' - an empty space or hollow. The empty spaces to be found in a liquid when cavitation occurs are bubbles of vapour - or gas and air. These bubbles will be formed of water vapour if the liquid is water, petrol vapour if the liquid is petrol etc, and they are of the same nature as the bubbles observed when a liquid boils. This boiling can be induced without heating the liquid; but by lowering the absolute pressure on it. If the pressure is brought down low enough (that is, to the vapour pressure of the liquid) vapour bubbles form even though the liquid remains at normal temperature. This pressure reduction can be brought about by lifting the liquid to the pump (static lift) and/or by friction (pressure) losses in the pipework leading to the pump. If the liquid is in motion, very low absolute pressures might be induced by modifying the shape of the enclosing walls, and thereby creating local changes in velocity.

Suppose then, that in such a passage - fixed or moving - there is an area where the local pressure has been reduced to the liquid vapour pressure. Bubbles of vapour will inevitably form there, but the flow of the liquid will swiftly carry them away to regions of higher pressure. Almost instantly the bubbles will collapse, for they cannot exist if the surrounding pressure is even marginally higher than the vapour pressure. Moreover, they collapse with extreme rapidity. If the bubbles happen to be in contact with metallic walls of the passage, the liquid rushing in to fill the vacuous spaces generates a kind of water-hammer effect. This means that on very small areas of the metal, extremely high pressures are momentarily developed; and, although each individual hammer-blow may be minute, if the blows are repeated often enough and for a sufficiently long period, the solid metal may be damaged or even destroyed.

It is not the cavities themselves that are necessari Iy destructive but the residual effects after the cavities have disappeared. In a general way, the title 'cavitation' is given not only to the physical phenomena that result from the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles, but to the whole range of consequences that these may have on the performance of hydraulic machines. These consequences include:

i] Erosion of metallic surfaces, which often gives a characteristic appearance to the damaged material, suggesting that it has been gnawed by rodents. The rate of erosion may be accentuated if the liquid itself already has corrosive tendencies; eg, water with large amounts of dissolved oxygen, or acids.

ii) Audible rattling or crackling sounds may be heard which can reach the pitch of dangerous vibration.

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

59

iii) In consequence of the flow disturbances set up in the region where cavitation occurs, the entire performance of the machine may deteriorate; eg the head and efficiency of the pump may fail below acceptable values.

3e2. Cavitation and its effects on rotodynamic pumps

Where, in centrifugal or similar pumps may we expect to find those areas of low absolute pressure that are likely to encourage cavitation? We should first look at the inlet tips of the rotor blades, for it is here that the absolute pressure is probably low, in any event, and it is here also that the local variations of velocity and of pressure may be expected to reduce the pressure still more. The combined effect can easily be to cause local vaporization of the liquid, that is, to initiate cavitation.

In these particular zones, it is to be noted that the absolute pressure is less - and it may be substantially less - than it is at the pump suction flange. This pressure difference between the pressure prevailing when the liquid enters the pump suction flange, and that registered at the areas of minimum absolute pressure is termed the 'dynamic depression head' and it is indeed, the 'Net Positive Suction Head Required' (NPSHrequired).

Because the complexity of the flow conditions in the pump passages, the calculated value of NPSHrequired should preferably be confirmed by running tests on the complete pump, as described in Section 3c, and prescribed in standards for pump tests (see Data Chart 14).

A certain role is played by the total head against which the pump works, and it can be generally said that for a given pump running at constant speed with increasing total head, the tendency is for the NPSHrequired to reduce. In a general sense, the effect of raising the specific speed for a given duty is to lower the permissible suction lift, and Fig 41 shows, symbolically, the effect of the specific speed on the suction lift in a simple case of pumps drawing liquid from an open sump.

The pumps chosen are those whose size is discussed in Section 2a2, Fig 7. Fig 42 shows the performance of a pump, and cavitation limits, at constant speed, and at two different static lifts. It shows that an excessive suction lift, although making no difference to the head discharge curve, B-B 1, at low rates of flow, yet if the throttle valve is opened wider, the pump no longer responds normally. For a given discharge, the head generated begins to fall below its normal value and the characteristic curve trends vertically downwards, as at B1-B2. Probably, too, the pump will show that it is uncomfortable. It may vibrate and emit hissing or roaring noises. These are unmistakable signs that cavitation is beginning or, as some people say, that the 'pump is cavitating'. The contractural determination of the point at which cavitation commences, and the permissible deviation of the curve from its normal characteristic, is complex, and usually requires tests. The shape of the breakoff curve varies with the specific speed and tends to become more gradual

60


with increasing specific speed. Finally, if the vapour pockets fill practically the whole vane passages, the flow can cease completely, especially if the pump operates with a static lift, which necessitates repriming.

(iiJ {iii} tiv! l
0 0
M
0 U'I
(I) (I) 0
.,. .,.
r.. T .. ..
U'I Z en
M N Z J:
0
en 0 0
s: 0
en ~ N
Z J_ II
en
en s:
Z
-
----_ _._._-- -----
-.-._ -_._ --._ ----
Fig 41 "0 .. .,

J:

"i

.,

J:

Discharge

t Discharge

Fig 42

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

61

3e3. Cavitation and its effects on positive displacement pumps

If, in regard to positive displacement machines, we ask the same question as that asked of rotodynamic machines, we get quite a different answer. In the case of reciprocating pumps, cavitation may be created at the beginning of each stroke within the pump barrel or cylinder, whilst in the case of a rotary pump, cavitation will occur if, by the end of the opening phase of a moving pocket, this pocket is not filled by liquid - due to lack of energy (NPSHavailable). When this symptom arises, the condition is critical, and an increase above the maximum permissible speed of the pump can create the difference between the travelling speed of the opening pocket and the speed of the fluid. In the case of the reciprocating pump, the incoming liquid rapidly gathers speed - which can be in excess of the piston or ram - and when it does so (ie, when the transitory vacuous space collapses) there is a violent hammer blow that tells its own story. In the case of a rotary pump having a rotating pocket, or if, in the case of an axial flow machine (such as a screw pump). the pocket or chamber, moving at excessive speed, can only be partly filled, the symptom of cavitation is expressed in a similar way, ie, when the partially filled pocket or chamber is exposed to discharge pressure (fluid). the empty vacuous space is violently filled and collapses.

Whereas cavitation in rotodynamic pumps is a continuous process involving numerous cavities or bubbles, cavitation in a reciprocating pump is an intermittent phenomenon in which, as explained previously, one or several relatively large cavities or vacuous space(s) form and collapse once - or several times - in every revolution. In the case of a positive displacement pump, cavitation sometimes manifests itself in high frequency vibration or a

rattle.

Conditions on the delivery side of the system are normally without influence on the cavitation, although the disconcerting effects of cavitation are made more intense by the pressure against which the pump works. Often the effect of cavitation in positive pumps can be reduced by increasing the internal leakage.

3e4. Operating Pumps under cavitation conditions 3e4a. Rotodynamic pumps

For commercial reasons, ie: in order to keep costs down, it is in some cases acceptable - or indeed sometimes unavoidable - to operate conventional pumps with a certain amount of cavitation under the following headings:

i) reduced output is acceptable,

ii) a certain amount of noise and/or vibration is acceptable

iii) the pump life is not of paramount importance, especially if the pump is working intermittently.

iv) the material of which the pump is constructed is fairly cavitationresisting, which often means it is more expensive.

62


In this connection it is useful to suggest ways to reduce the likelihood of cavitation. Unfortunately all of these normally involve increased costs.

a) Lower the pump speed, which can mean the multistaging and reduction of specific speed.

b) Lowering the pump location, which can mean putting the installation below ground level. A pump of this type is shown in Appendix III, Fig 17.

c) Lower the vapour pressure of the pumped fluid by lowering the pumping temperature (cooling).

d) The provision of an independently driven suction booster pump of lower NPSHrequirements. This pump must have a well-matched performance as it has to operate in series with the main pump.

e) Reduce the friction losses in the suction piping and fittings and valves in the suction line. This normally means an increase of diameter and valves having a low friction loss.

During the last few years two types of design have been developed which d~al m.ore fundamentally with the problem of low NPSHavailable which often arises In the case of the relatively or absolutely high speed pumps such as are used for.chemical process pumps, especially where liquids have to be pumped near t~elr vapour pressure and/or where the free liquid level in the supply vessel IS under vapour pressure.

A. The Inducer

This is normally fitted in front of the conventional pump impeller (see Fig 43) a.nd ro~ates at t.he normal pump speed. This inducer has long blades and is workl~g with partial cavitation. It has a relatively short life, especially if op~ratlng at a duty other than its design duty. Erosion damage to blades from cavity collapse occurs. The use of an inducer results in a sharp break off of the pump performance curves for head and horsepower. The NPSH of the

inducer is low but must be determined from case to case. req

I

I

Fig 43

Inducer

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

63

B_ The Supercavitating pump

The principle of supercavitation can be applied in the following ways:

i) A supercavitating impeller can be fitted in front of the conve~t.ional pump impeller, ie: in the same way as the inducer, providing a relatively small increase because the head developed by such an impeller is relatively low at conventional speeds. (See Fig 1, Appendix II).

An independent high speed supercavitating pump for speeds of up to 30000rev/min (depending on NPSHrequirements) can be down to one third of conventional impeller requirements at identical speeds. From this consideration it is apparent that the supercavitating pump's role is rather a question of cost-saving as, for a given NPSHavailable, its speed can be considerably higher tha~ the speed of a conventional pump. Naturally one has to bear in mind the cost of providing such high speeds as compared with the cost-saving in maintenance of a single-stage super-cavitating pump as against that of a multi-stage pump. The supercavitating pump impeller has short blades and long cavities, completely covering the suction side of the blade. The cavities collapse behind the blades and cause little or no erosion damage. Fig 44 shows a typical impeller of a supercavitating pump.

ii)

Fig 44

Super cavitation impeller

There is no doubt that further developments will lead to improved performance both of inducers as well as supercavitating pumps. The current research into cavitation resisting materials will lead to saving of capital, installation and maintenance costs.

64


3e4b. Positive displacement pumps

Like rotodynamic pumps, positive displacement pumps - to all intents and purposes only of the rotary type - can be operated under cavitation conditions. As they deal with gas or vapour content they continue to discharge against the pressure a mixture of liquid and gas/vapour. As the internal leakage depends on the viscosity, which diminishes with increasing gas content, the output falls eventually when the liquid content of the mixture is insufficient to provide efficient sealing of the internal clearances.

The noise and vibration depends on the pressure, speed and, under certain circumstances, also on the volumetric efficiency of the pump.

It is important, however, to distinguish between operating under cavitation conditions and operating with aerated or gas-containing liquids. In the latter case, the symptoms of noise etc are much less pronounced and, for this reason, positive displacement pumps are often used when the liquid pumped includes quantities of gas or air which have to be discharged against a fixed pressure, as when pumping lubricating oil from open sumps. Under these conditions the oil is fairly aerated and also contains a certain amount of foam.

.1

3f. Why, Whether, and How to Prime Pumps 3f1. Priming of rotodynamic pumps

Rotodynamic pumps can only operate satisfactorily if the pump passages, ie the flow passages of the impeller and volute casing, are completely filled with liquid, and therefore some means must be provided to fill these passages. For the filling of the casing of rotodynamic pumps with liquid to enable them to operate and deliver their rated output against their rated head, there are several possibilities, and reference should also be made to Section 2c, which deals with self-priming rotodynamic pumps.

Inherently· self-priming pumps

If the pump only depends for its self-priming action upon the special shape of its internal components, its casing must first be filled with liquid before the unit is started, but thereafter it should need no further separate priming action. The air handling capacity of such pumps is normally inferior to more positive means, and is a function of size of pump, speed and total head generated. Within this class come the pumps described in Section 2c4.

Self-priming pumps with combined priming device

If centrifugal pumping units include an auxiliary air exhausting pump, which can take many forms and requires a certain amount of attention and maintenance, its air evacuating action can either be permanent, or come into and out of engagement automatically, sometimes by means of a friction clutch, which, when the pump is not primed, is in engagement and drives the primer. It is disengaged usually by the developed pump pressure when the

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

65

pump is primed, acting either hydraulically, or by the operation of a pressure

switch, etc. . . .,

For some applications, especially for fire pumps etc, the auxiliary pnmmq

device can be brought in and out of action by hand.

In the case of liquid ring primers, it is usual to bring the primer out of action by either connecting the intake to t~e primer. to the atmosphere: or to transfer the water from the priming space tnto a SUItable receptacle. FIgs 45, 46 and 47 show some typical arrangements.

Friction Drive

Primer

(can be operated either

rnanuallv or automatically)

Centrifugal Pump

Fig 45

Discharge space of main pump connection for pipe leading to discharge space of priming stage by means of a cock discharge from priming stage can be exhausted to atmosphere.

Water-ring priming stage suction space connected via a non-return ball valve to suction space of main pump.

Fig 46

66


Interceptor valve

Priming

t-+---i:>'--- line

~

,

::-::-s

Fig 48 Diagrammatic layout of central priming system

Centrifugal pumps primed by independent evacuating apparatus Central Priming Systems

Fig 48 shows a typical schematic layout of several pumps connected to a central priming system, with the advantage that, by maintaining the vacuum tank, in a vacuum condition, a large void for air extraction from pipelines is always readily available.

The priming system consists usually of two liquid ring primers, one running and one standby, which operate between a maximum and minimum vacuum setting. The action is automatic, and governed by vacuum switches which automatically stop/start the vacuum pumps depending on the vacuum condition inside the vacuum tank. The individual pumps are each fitted with an interceptor whose function is to allow air to be drawn from the pipework system. When the liquid rises to the float, its buoyancy will cause it to rise and shut off the aperture leading to the vacuum tank, thus preventing the liquid being drawn into the tank.

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

67

~~~~--2

..rJP'-"~.~ 3

4 5

Fig 47

Key

1. Drive motor

2. Vacuum breaker

3. Water ring air pump

4. Vacuum switch

5. Cooling coil

6. Fluid reservoir

7. Needle valve

8. Float gear cage

9. Separating chamber 1 O. Ball float

11. 'T' piece connected to suction branch of pump.

7 8 ~9 ~10

Liquid ring priming unit .

Self-contained liquid ring priming unit driven by ~/ectrtC mota,:

Unit is attached to suction branch of pump to be primed ', The f>0~/tion of the ball float can be varied to regulate the required tiouid

level.

To evacuating pump

Waterlevel

~:::....-;;:r-_...c.="I'C\l1§D'"W~ valve

\_ Reflux

Valve

Fig 49

68


Manual Operation

For manual operation the procedure (see Fig 49) is as follows:

With the main delivery sluice-valve closed, connect to the evacuating device, open the valve in the evacuating pipe, and watch the gaugeglass of the water-level gauge on the pump casing. When this shows tllat all air has been exhausted, shut the evacuating valve and at once start the main pump. In installations that have a reflux valve on the delivery side of the pump (Fig 49), the main delivery valve may be - and often should be - opened before the pump is started. Alternatively, if there is a bypass or charging valve set in parallel with the main valve, only the small valve need be kept open while the pump is running up to speed, and it should remain open until the entire delivery system is full of water. Then the main valve is fully open, and the charging valve closed.

Pump suction pipe has a foot valve

In this case the casing will require a priming funnel in which liquid can be poured by hand. A vent cock for releasing air is usually provided.

Rotodynamic pump with pump impeller set permanently below liquid level

In this case no priming arrangement is required.

A summary of priming arrangements, drawing attention to problems which might be encountered, is shown in Table V.

TABLE V

DESCRIPTION OF PRIMING METHOD

.1

, I

OPERATIONAL FEATURES

AUXILIARY PRIMING DEVICE

INHERENT PRIMING

A

o

Limited lir handling clPKity

Air handling c.pacity depending on he .... peed Of lize of mlin pump

Priming liquid heatl up; requires cooling

· ~
. ~
~ · ~
..
~ ; . ~ ~. ~ .
-s
. i
% ffi
.
i . ~ ~
• g ~
. ii
· ! ~
g ~
. ~ ~
0 E
~ · :l ~ ~ <
0 G Rubbing f ... may helt up

Mbimum 'IKUUm depending on priming fluid II'lPOUr pressure

.

. ~

R.quires initiel or regul. fluid supplV

Require. normll'v eley.~d main pump ...... ~

Ga/sbl.m must be of sufficient preuure/qu ... tity

In .... ceptor for pump fluid required

.:; .

~=r control, electric, hydraulic,

.. .

~

Relatiwlv IItP.mi'lll

• c •

A

SUCTION PERFORMANCE

69

3f2. How to prime positive displacement pumps

Although, normally, positive pumps do not need priming, if the suction lift is considerable, it may be wise to give the pump casing a preliminary charge of liquid before first setting it to work. In some positive-rotary pumps this initial charge of liquid is especially necessary when pumps have been stored for lengthy periods.

3f3. How to calculate priming times

It might be of interest (and indeed necessary, in some cases), to calculate the priming time and, where this time is of great importance, the size of the priming device might have to be determined. Fig 50 shows the method of the approximate calculation for typical layouts.

CLOSED DISCHAIllOoE ::;""--VALVE ON PUMP I

rr=======~~'~U:N;-r

H

LAY OUT II

L

'IOLUNI 'ACTOIt', 0

H

Approximate length of pipeline(feet) Average pipe diameter (inches)

Static level difference between

free liquid level and highest point

of pump (feetl

Volume factor (see graph) Pumping volume of priming device at average static lift (ft3/min) Priming time (minutes)

F x Lx D2 T = _:_;_:_;:__~-

F V

T

10 J.

STATIC LHIL D""RUICI 'H'

6400 x V

Example:

Layout I I F = 80 H = 12 feed

D = 5 inches

L = 200 feet

V = 35ft3/min

T

80 x 200 x 25 = 1.8 minutes 6400 x 35

Fig 50

70


3f4. Air handling and disposal of air during priming

In order to appreciate the difference between rotodynamic and positive displacement pumps, the following should be borne in mind.

The pressure developed by rotodynamic pumps depends on the specific gravity of the fluid being handled. Thus, if a pump develops a water head of 100feet (30metresl. this would represent a pressure of approximately 431b/in2 (3bar) but if the same pump is handling air, the pressure would be only about O.040lb/in2 (O.003bar) which means it could lift water only 1.2in (30mm) and thus be totally incapable of priming itself.

Rotodynamic pumps of the side channel type are different in this respect and can prime themselves (albeit relatively slowly) as compared, for example, with a liquid ring primer whose function is based on the positive displacement principle.

Positive displacement pumps, however, displace a volume of any fluid (either liquid or gas) against any pressure as long as the discharge space (high pressure) is suitably sealed within the inter-clearances against the suction space (low pressure). This sealing, especially in the case of rotary pumps, is provided by a liquid film which of course allows a certain amount of reo circulation of the mixture of fluid and gas (air, vapour) which varies with the pressure and the viscosity of the fluid content.

Because of the varying characteristics of performance for the handling of air, gas etc, it is important to bear in mind the possible methods and problems associated with the disposal of the evacuated air, as well as the flammability of vapours - if applicable.

Table VI summarizes these alternatives.

TABLE VI

Discharge into low Discharge into
Typ10f Pump (atmospheric) pressure discharge piping
against pressure
1. Inherently self Normally only into empty Only against very low
priming rotodynamic discharge Ii ne pressure
pump
2. Side channel Not normally necessarv Against moderate pressures
rotodynamic pump
3. Liquid ring primer Normally into Only in exceptional cases
especially as used atmosphere
for marine pumps
4. Air pumps of the Normally into If required
vane type atmosphere
5. Positive displacement Normally not necessary For elevated pressures,
pumps (rotary type) depending on characteristic
6. Reciprocating pumps Normally not necessary No pressure limitations
or primers h,


71

3g. Pumping from open sumps

When pumping from open sumps, the layout of the sump must be conducive to a favourable entry of the liquid into the pump suction passages and the impeller. One of the main problems is to avoid the liquid arriving at the impeller with pre-rotation, or carrying excessive quantities of air or gas. This is especially so when several pumps draw liquid from a common sump, and influence each other unfavourably. Avoid twisting a suction pipe in two pl-anes for this, if in the vicinity of the impeller, can result in pre-rotation. If such twists are necessary, they should be laid in such planes that any prerotation balances the natural pre-rotation created by the impeller. In the case of large plants, ie, land drainge, main circulating pumps in power stations, sewage schemes etc, or indeed, where a liquid such as lubricating oil has to be drawn from a sump of limited size as in the case of ships main diesel engine lubricating pumps it might be advisable to make a model of the sump to establish the most favourable conditions. Fig 51a shows favourable and unfavourable sump layouts, and indicates means for improvements under unavoidably unfavourable conditions.

3h. Vortex prevention

In order to reduce the likelihood of the formation of air entraining vortices, certain general precautions can be taken:

a) A sufficient immersion of the open end of the suction pipe below the liquid level. Fig 51c gives details of how to check this likelihood of vortex formation.

b) Additional devices in the mouth of the suction pipe. See Fig 51b.

It is difficult to lay down the general rules for sump design in detail. The main principle of good sump design is the provision of uniform and preferably symmetrical approach flow without initial swirl. Major and complex sump installations usually have to be treated on their merits and as

mentioned, the making of sump models is recommended. '

72

OPEN SUMP DESIGN AND VORTEX PREVENTION


A TYPICAL OPEN SUMP DESIGN

B VORTEX PREVENTION AIDS

'h-riTrTTT7'l....Tr.rll·

~

® SUCTION PIPE POSITION

Unfavourable lavout cen be Improved by making dimensions A and B a. large .. possible.

Walls are arranged in this layout in order to break up rotation round intake

Guide ribs are arranged to improve flow approach to intake

Distance 0 should be a minimum of four pipe diameters.

Expanded metal baffles can be inltalled to prevent lump rotation.

000 Box

Bo.

Plate

H·-

I

Twin Suction

C HOW TO ARRANGE SUCTION PIPE AND CALCULATE VORTEX FORMATION

PIPE SUBMERGENCE

1'1,·,.

e. In order to keep.,.ad low, make 'd' .. big .. POilible.

b. Dimension 'c' > (0.3--0.51 x d, but should preferably not exceed O.8d.

C, Mike d 1 • 1,5d (8PProx j. _"yl

VORTEX GRAPH

10~~~~~~--~~-4 9 ~>t-''''d'

1

" • .

'-

s

r

1 ! 4

! ~~~+-~'_-r,

i 2 ~P-+--+----!--t-+--+

'"

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Subm_.enc. ".ctor 'F'

The likelihood of vortex formation can be established approximatelv from this graph

8. Calculate submergence factor 'F'

u. By intersecting the values for F and suction pipe SPeed 'V' point 'X' is found, indicating whether the operation is in the Vortex Region. (In this example it is unlikely that a vortex will form.'

F -~x I":" +61

d d

Fig 51

73

4. HOW TO DEFINE THE TOTAL PUMP HEAD (PRESSURE)

Although normally the required capacity of the pump can be clearly specified, it is not quite so simple, and indeed straightforward, to establish the total head against which the pump should generate.

In a very general way, the head against which a pump works consists of (1) the static difference of the levels to which the liquid has to be lifted. (2) Furthermore the pump has also to overcome the various energy (head) losses in the piping system, (3) as well as, in many cases, to discharge the liquid against a pressure in the vessel or chamber in which the discharge pipe of the pump terminates. Often, liquid has to be discharged through a nozzle, (for instance, in the case of fire fighting pumps) in which case the pressure which the pump develops must be sufficient to be converted into the very high nozzle velocity required. Table V II is a summary of most alternatives of head conditions, and also gives formulae calculating the pump gauge pressures which would be read at the pump flanges - assuming that the centre line of the gauge lies at the same level.

The Table gives all the necessary conversions and the total head (pressure) is, in all cases: discharge gauge head (pressure) minus (algebraically) suction gauge head (pressure) to which has to be added (algebraically) the velocity head difference - if any - between outlet and inlet of the pump.

4a. Total head formulae for various systems of units

The following formulae show how gauge pressure readings P2 (discharge) and Pl (suction). With gauge readings corrected to the same level are converted to total head in metres or feet. Note that in the S.1. system any value of "g" can be used whilst in other systems values of "g" are normally as shown, namely 9.81 m/s2, (32.2 ft/s2) gravitational acceleration.

In order to arrive at the total pump head the velocity correction tN must be added to gauge pressure difference t:.p. Note that KG and 18 refer to mass whilst Kg and Ib, refers to a force.

In the case of rotodynamic pumps, it is usual to express the head in feet of liquid pumped, whilst in the case of positive displacement pumps, heads are expressed in pressures (lb/in? or bar).

74


FORMULAE FOR CONVERSION TO TOTAL HEAD

SYSTEM
Symbol Valu. 5.1. Metric Metric Imperial
Technical S ..
Gravitational acceleration m/sl 9.81 m/s2 9.81m/s2 32.2ft/s2
p Density (masslvolume) 51m3 ~/cm] kg/em] ~lft3
V, Velocitv at discharge mi. mi. mi. ttls
gouge
V, Velocity at suction gauge mi. mi. mi. hIs
P, Discharge gauge reading N/m2 kg/em' be, Ib/in2
p, Suction gauge reading n/m2 kg/em" be, Ibltn"
·Density of water 1000 0.001 0.001 62.3
Convenion of .!:!:.... ~'104 ~·1.02104 &'122
pressure difference
~ into head "H" pg P'106 P',06 P
Unit of "H" Metre Metre Metre Feet
1 m1 = 106cm3
, m2;. 104cm2
Total head H+~22_V12
2g Velocity Corr.:tion b.v

Pr..u,. Difference I

l¥>

Pl-PI

4b. Total head for vertically mounted pumps.

Misunderstandings sometimes occur regarding the head necessary or required at various positions for vertical pumps. Fig 52 shows various configurations and states conditions of head specifications, namely:

When the head generated by the pump (hydraulic unit) is specified; in which case it must be realized that the head at the discharge point is lower.

2. When the head required at the discharge point is specified; in which case the generated head by the pump (hydraulic unit) must be

1.

Fig 52

HOW TO DEFINE THE TOTAL PUMP HEAD OR PRESSURE

75

Electric Measurement

l

•

,

~-

Discharge Level

r

HS

I Supply I Cable to .J I ,

----I

Motor

Pump -

Strainer

---'"

Entry Level

Into Pump with Column Losses Start Here

1- ElectroSubmersible Pump

II-Submersible Pump

111- Tanktop Mounted Submersed Pump With Discharge Pipe

Head generated by pump hydraulic unit

Head available at position 'A' (gauge reading) Friction head loss in discharge column (pipe) Static level difference

Flow velocity at position 'A' V2

2g

Note therefore: The power consumption includes:I - Electric losses in cable to motor

II, III - Shaft mechanical losses and fluid friction losses due to shaft rotation

r'
I
76 PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK HOW TO DEFINE THE TOTAL PUMP HEAD OR PRESSURE 77
TABLE VII
HOW TO DETERMINE PUMP DUTY
TABLE VII [eontd)
HEADS AND CONVERSIONS

O-.cription Symbol .. HO Feet of liquid PSIA PSIG hI,. Ib/m1 F_
--
Atmospheric P,...". P, PIA .. 1.133x'IA '.AxO.4912 PI BxO.434xS
AbsoluM P,..ut. on P, 2.307xP2C P,C . '2C-'IC 'lSxO.434xS
Supply Liqutd
Absolute Pump SUelton P, 2.307xP)C P,C . P]SJdi.43"S
Pr ... ,.

Absolute Vapour P'enur. ", 2.307xP.C '.C .. '4SxG.u.txS
Gau .. Pr .... r. Supply P, 2.301·'50 'sO .. PsaxO.4MxS '18"",.
V_I
Gauge VKuum Supply P, P"A& 1.13311P6A '68.0.43 .. ' 'IB-P,8
V_I
Suetton Gauge p,..,,. P, 2.307111'10 P,D+P1C '706 '78·0.43 .. S '18".,.

SuC1ion Gauge Vacuum P, 'IIAA 1.l33.PaA 'IC-PsF 'sSxO.434xS 'IB-Pa.
G.u,. p' ...... ,. P" 2.307·'110 '1104
Ditch.,.-V ... '
Gaute PNllUr •• t POl 2.307·'120 PnO"
Point 'X'
r D_~rgll Gau .. PNaUta "" 2.307·'130 'IlO&
H2
t Static Suction Lift H, 1~.833xH.J.B.S ~H18 .. a.a..HI.xI
St.fK: Suet;"n He. H, H1B .. O.4:MxH2BxS
Static DilClwrge H_ H, HlB .& O.U4.H,Bd
Friction a Inlet Loa H, O.883ICHsBIC~. HSB .& OA:MxHspS
Suction Lint
",.;
Friction" Outlet Loa H, H6B ... O.IIMxH6pS
DilCM,..Li".
V.kH:ity .t Suctidn G .... VI VIE'"
V.kM:ity .t DiIChM". G ..... V, V:zE'"
V1:ZE-HIIB
V.Ioc;ty H .... , Sue'''" I Hit O·4:I4llHuaxS
G .... ..
, VekM:ity HMd .t DileN,.. HIl V:z:ZE O.IIMxHaaxS
PRESSURE GAUGE 0 .... ""iI-Ht:zB
V.tocity .. Point 'X' V, V,E'"
fi V~ocity Heed .. 'X' HIl V':ZE OA:MxHua.s
(/) VACUUM GAUGE ~-HI)B

... Indicates value measured S = Specific Gravity
® COMPOUND GAUGE Y = Gravitational Acceleration'" 32.2 Ft/sc (Average)
() VAPOUR PRES SURE Note: Point ·X· Is before a nozzle or similar device, ie at a point where the flow speed
is not exceeding say 50 Ft/second. 78 PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK THE STUFFING-BOX 79
5. THE STUFFING-BOX
f
= ~ ~ ... u, ... ... ... u,
~ ... N M
J: J: J: J: J: J: J: J: 5a. SOFT PACKED BOX
... I J: I I I I I I ,
& u, ... I u, ... ... u, ~ ... ... u, u, u,
.; ... .; .; ~ .; .; e
;& J: .; J: J: J: J: J:
e + J + + + I + I + + I + In order to prevent the entry of air into the pump and/or leakage of the
... + u, ... ... ... ... ... u,
t .; ~ u, ~ .; u, .; ...
J: J: J: J: J: e J: .; J: pumped liquid to the surrounding atmosphere, a device of great reliability has
+ + J: + + + + J: + + +
.<: Q ... t ~ Q Q + Q + Q Q + Q
. ~ ... ... ... to be used - a stuffing-box. I n many cases, under suitable conditions, and
Q ... J: ... ,;: ... .. J: ... e ... .. .; ..
f <; ... ... .. .. ... where a small leakage is permissible, stuffing-boxes with either a screwed
! .. ~ gland, or with glands having two or more adjusting devices (gland studs) are
+
... = ~ used. Fig 53 shows a composite drawing of a stuffing-box arrangement and
& . ':
i ~ J: I E ... various sealing (circulation) and quenching arrangements. Sealing is often
" s I =
. « u f = required for lubrication (cooling) of packing and/or to prevent the pumped
.2 !!
t; J: ... :
= !:! I :: ~ fluid penetrating to the atmosphere. Quenching is an extra safety measure to
., z
... I dilute leakage or to prevent fire .
i J: u, ... ...
p, , u, ... ... When necessary - and almost always in the case of vacuum operation -
u, J: J: J:
i I u, ... , , ... J: J: J:
cl: ... ... ... u, ... '; , , I lantern rings are used into which liquid is injected under a suitable pressure .
& I J: J: J: i J: J: ... u, ...
i J: J: J: ... , I I , , I i J: J: Normally, this liquid is, in the case of single-stage pumps, taken from the
I I , -£ u, ... u,
" u, '; u, ... e i ': ': , , I ...
i i + -£ J: J: J: ... ... ...
e u -£ -£ -£ pump discharge and, in the case of multi-staqe pumps, from the first or any
0 :; ,;: + I I , , I J:
e I .. I u, ... ... u, u, ... + + + ,
u, u, I ~ :£ :£ ~ -o :£ Q Q 0 ~ other suitable stage. Where, for some reason, the pumped liquid is unsuitable
= -£ -£ <; ... ... .. ~. c
., J: , , , , , , ,{ ..
1! ... for sealing (circulation) an outside supply - preferably from a central source
~ if several pumps are installed - must be provided. The sealant quantity
t, !
I; ~ 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 depends on size of shaft (horsepower); average requirement is O.02gal/min per
e- ~ ~ ,:
~ .. ... ... J: ... J: J: J: i
s .a_ , , , , I , , , J:
tl 01 01 01 ~ 01 01 01 01 ~ , I , horsepower per stuffing-box. Normally the pressure at the sealant connection
01 01 01 01
W .rr J: J: J: J: -£ J: J: :£ J: -£ -£ -£ ~ should be 5-30Ib/in2 above ths stuffing-box pressure, varying from vacuum
..J .~ , I I , + I , , , ...
+ + + I
III J:~ 01 ~ 01 01 01 ~ 01 01 01 ~OI 0101 0101 01
!:!~ -£ -£ ~ 01 ~ 01 ~ 01 to, say SOOlb/in2 .
c( J: J: ... ~ J: J: ... .. ... ~ .. ~ ~ .. ~ .. ,;:
z + + + , .. , , I .. I ... + ... t=f tT +
I- 01 01 01 01' 01 01 OIl OIl 01' '1'
,;: c ,;: .. ... ,;: ,;: ,;: ,;: ,;: .. - ... It is of course, necessary that during the assembly of stuffing-boxes, the
'81'"0 • position of the lantern ring is carefully checked so that it is in line with the
'or • • • passage supplying the injection liquid. For some applications, grease is
N
e 3!.Il1\td • • • It) supplied to the lantern ring, especially in the case of certain types of self-
0 •
"t1' Hi -SOWlV at
"sseJd ii: priming pumps such as fire pumps, where adequate initial stuffing-box seal-
.. ... noo • • • • • .: ing is essential. Where circulation is provided it is often desirable to install
~ c
· .... d • • • ~ (depending on conditions) one or several of the following auxiliary equip-
l~ olin.!) 0
.I: ment:
~.2' • • • ..
• oJ wnnoal\ • 1. Cooler
0> ..
s! III
· ..... eI • .. 2. Circulation inlet thermometer
Jnode" "CI
. ., III 3 . Control and/or shut off valves
to 3!JlKld • •
• • • • • .I:
-SOWIY a. 4. Pressure gauge
peZ! UO!PrIS • E 5. Strainer or filter
-" __ lei dWIId :I
a.
dwnd • • • • • ii 6. Fixed or adjustable orifice for flow control
0.., > _os .2 7. Visual flow indicator
-;-;1 1::
3:!a dlUnd • • • • • • • • III S. Cyclone (separated particles to drain or suction system of pump)
··ocw >
'u_ N ., .. III .. III '" ~ ;: ~ ::! ~ = In the case of hot liquids, it is often necessary to cool the stuffing-box in
-eIIu • .uy 0
Z order to prevent coking up or undue heating of the packings. This cooling is 80


THE SOFT PACKED STUFFING-BOX

TYPICAL COOLING JACKET

SEALING INJECTION CONNECTION

I"

f.leCKBUSH

SOFT MET AL OR OTHER NON SPARKING MATERIAL INSERT WHEN PUMPING INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

GLAND NUT

CONNECTION FOR OUTSIDE FLUSHING SUPPLY TO LANTERN NECKBUSH

SMOTHERING GLAND OFTEN

SPLIT FOR EASE OF SERVICING WATER PRESSURE 10 P.S.'. MINIMUM aUANTITY - '4 - ~ G.P.M. DEPENDING ON GLAND SIZE

This graph shows approximate sealing pressures required for various types of

impellers.

SEAl.NT PRESSURE ABOVE STUFFING BOX PRESSURE lP.S.I.)

DISCHARGE PRESSURE P.S.I.G.

,'.

Fig A

Fig A is a composite Illustration of a soft packed stuffing-box showing the most important design features, some of which may be required, depending on the duty.

Lantern neck bush: to flush away contamination and prevent it entering the packing area.

Lantern ring: to allow sealing fluid to be injected and to lubricate and cool packing.

Smothering gland: Used when pumping flammable fluids or if leakage must be

diluted. .

Shaft sleeve: To protect shaft against wear by packing.

Fig B-E show various sealing and/or lubricating methods by fluid. Fig F shows sealing/lubri:ation by grease.

Fig G-H show two quenching methods.

Fig 53 Icont'a}

THE STUFFING-BOX

GREASE LUBRICATOR

lL

r=

~

FigS

Fig C

Fig D

Fig E

Fig F

Fig G

FigH

Fig 53 (cont'd}

81

Fluid from a suitable pump discharge connection to lantern .ring. Return to pump suction via neck clearance.

("Dead end'?

Fluid from a suitable pump discharge connection to lantern ring. Return by external pipe to pump suction.

Fluid from an external source to lantern ring and return to pump suction via neck clearance. Only used if injection fluid is compatible with

oumpea fluid.

Fluid from an external source to lantern rIng with outlet flow to an external system.

Grease injection depending on type of duty and/or pump. Can vary from hand operated or spring loaded stuffing-boxes to mechanically operated

injection systems.

"Dead end" quenching either from an outside source or from a header tank. LeI!.' 1ge preventable by auxiliary seal incorporated into smothering

gland.

"Through" quenching, either from an outside source to drain or from header tank with thermosyphon. If leakage is not permissible (especially for permanent quenching), auxiliery seal can be installed.

82


achieved by a suitable cooling jacket around the stuffing-box. Furthermore, in many cases, in order to prevent undue wear of the shaft, it is protected by a sleeve in a suitable hard wearing material, which can be replaced when wear has taken place. The average number of packinqs is 3, 4 or 5, although for certain complex conditions in the process industry, it has been found that six or even more rings of packi ng are an acceptable solution.

A summary of stuffing-box arrangements is shown in Table V III.

TABLE VIII

I! i!' l;
DUTY ~ "0 · II
j ~ 'j -e .~
.. ~~ 's i
E g ._ :;. 'i'i
~ · ~ ~~ 81 .!! gi!' ,.
STUFFING BOX ." ~ · .&> )(
a! .~ ~ 11 l; · "':; 0 i
FEATURE -~ ~t.; .!!~ E U ~." ~
.s: a t~ :!~ i E .~ i.'~ ~
.!!' I! !! ~.&> i,g .2'
xa. xl iL IL': ...
'l , Large number of packing rings • • •
2. Shaft sleeve preferable hard faced • • •
3. Greaser at lantern ring especially
if pumped liquid unsuitable for • • •
sealing
4. Dead end sealing by pumped
liquid if suitable •
5. Dead end sealing by outside
supply liquid to lantern ring • • •
6. Through sealing • • • • •
7. Outside sealant to lantern neck
and bush •
8. Cooled stuffing box •
9. Pumped liquid to lantern
neckbush •
10. Smothering gland • • •
11. Leak off at lantern neckbush • •
12. Single mechanical seal • • • • •
13.' Single seal with flushing feature • •
14. Double .eal with positive
circulation • •
15. Single seal externally mounted • THE STUFFING-BOX

Great attention must be paid to ensure there is a slight leakage from the box, as the fluid film forming between the packing and rotating shaft ensures a certain amount of lubrication. Therefore, it is bad practice to tighten the gland to such an extent that insufficient, or no, leakage occurs. Furthermore, it is of great importance to insert packings very carefully, and to ensure clean joints between the ends of each individual ring. It is recommended that the instructions usually supplied with the pump, should be strictly observed.

5b. MECHANICAL SEALS

In the case of high pressures and temperatures, and of high vacuum, soft packings have not been found sufficiently leak-proof. It is also often necessary to ensure absolute prevention of leakage of toxic or dangerous fluids. In such cases, either single or various arrangements of double mechanical seals would be used. Fig 54 shows typical single and double mechanical seals, but there are many varying designs on the market. Detailed descriptions of these seals can be found in the trade literature.

Fundamentally, the principle of seals consists of two rings of different materials, one of which is stationary and sealed in a stationary part of the pump, whilst the other is rotating in as close contact as possible with the face of the stationary ring.

It is usual, in order to keep the seal chambers clean and to remove heat from the faces of the two rings, for liquid to be circulated through the seal chamber. This liquid can be either taken from the pump discharge or from a separate source and if necessary, it should be filtered and cooled.

For filtering, mesh filters or cyclones can be arranged. Double mechanical seals are often recommended when 'difficult' liquids are being handled. The space between the two seals is usually filled with a 'neutral' liquid often at a pressure in excess of the pressure acting on the inner seal. It is normally of advantage to circulate and cool this liquid.

Fig 55 shows the most frequent single and double seal installations including various methods to provide circulation and/or where necessary pressurization of double seal interface space. If these methods are not adequate (du.e to circulation quantity or pressure requirement) separate pumping systems as described in Fig 56 may have to be provided.

Fig 56a shows an "open system" which can normally be used for relatively low and fairly constant seal chamber pressures. A centrifugal pump is often preferred if the frictional resistance of the circulation plus the required seal chamber is not excessive. If a positive displacement pump is used a relief valve must be incorporated. (Shawn dotted).

For elevated seal chamber pressures a "closed system" as per Fig 56b has to be used which usually incorporates a centrifugal pump. The seal chamber

83

I 1

II

I

84

!, j I

t

J

!

Fig 54 Some seal types •.


1. Unbalanced inside seal. Stuffing box pressure exerts closing force over the area of the outer diameter of stationary face to shaft diameter. Opening force is smaller due to pressure drop over seal

faces.

2. Balanced inside seai.

Similar to unbalanced seal but as the outer diameter of sta~ tionary seal is closer to the shaft diameter, due to a step in the shaft, the closing force is smaller. The degree of balancing depends on the ratio of shaft, diameter to o.d. of

stationary seat.

3. Balanced outside seal.

The balancing of the outside seal is achieved by the area of the rotating seat exposed to the full stuffing box pressure. The direction of leakage flow is identical to the direction of centrifugal force and, for this reason, as well as due to the difficulty of cooling and removing accumulation of contamination, outside seals should, in the main, be used for clean liquids with no

contamination.

4. Double tandem inside bal-

anced seals.

Used if a back-up seal is required to come into action during a temporary or complete failure of the main seal, thus providing time for remedial action. Normally it is not necessary to pressurize the interseal space, although it is advisable to provide circula-

tion of the interseal space.

THE STUFFING-BOX

TYPICAL SEAL FEATURES

1. Stationary seat.

2. Rotating seat.

3.Dynamic flexible. element.

4. Stationary flexible element.

5. Locating pin for stationary seat. S. Shaft step for balancing.

7. Seal plate to be free of distortion.

8.Collar with set screw to transmit torque and 10ljate axially.

9. Springs to provide closing force. 10.0pposing forces at seal faces.

11. Shaft sleeve serving as a main assembly item for unit seals.

Fig 54 Icomd)

85

5. Double face-to-face unbalanced seal.

Interseal space pressure to be at least 1 bar above stuffingbox pressure.

6. Balanced unit seal, with special features (typical

only).

This seal can be installed as a complete unit and is preset. The position of the stationary

seat, relative to the rotating seat, is fixed by the setting gauge so that after the location of the stationary seat and removal of the setting gauge, the correct operating position of the seal is assured. The drawing also shows other features which may be required for satisfactory seal operations. Such features can be incorporated into other

types of seals as required.

12.1 nter doub Ie sea I space.

13. Pumping device for circulation. 14.Scraper ring for heavily contam-

inated flu ids.

15. Heated stationary seat.". 1S.Helix to keep contamination from seal faces.

17. Hydrodynam ic grooves in seal face to provide lubrication.

18. Circlip for stationary seat

location.

*The film between seal faces should be stable, ie either liquid or gas. To ensure a gas phase seat is heated.

~

z w

:::E

w CI

if ~

a: a:

'"

;1 ~ , j:

'"

I,I ~

:::l (J

a:

(j

..J

'" W

en

86


I ~ 111111111111

i 1] ~1J 1]

.4.'o •. $.li.'.4

THE STUFFING-BOX

r------,

I

I

~

• I

I

87

Open system

(a)

.Reference pressure

-----------,

Closed system pressurized by diaphragm vessel

(b)

Open system with standby pump

e Pump I
(t1J Sealchamber I
I
~ Cooler I
" Pressure gauge
" Thermometer
![] Charge pump
~ Relief valve
~ Shut off valve
d Strainer
""*- N/R valve
..:r:... Flow controller
...--.. Fig 56

88


pressure is created by a suitable pressurization source as shown. The pump is used for circulation and if required for a necessary further boost of the seal chamber pressure.

The interseal face fluid has to be compatible with the duty and the pumped fluid, especially it has to be suitable for the expected temperature range. Typical sealing fluids are the following:

Water Temperature range 5 - 80°C
Methanol -80 - 40
Hydraulic Oil -30 - 80
''I Glycerine 100 -250
Ethylene Glycol 0-170
Light Mineral Oils -10 - 200
Kerosene -30 - 160 All types of seals rely for their satisfactory functioning on cleanliness both during their assembly into the pump and operation. Attention must be paid in particular to their flexible elements such as "0" rings, bellows, etc., which must be in the correct material and preferably protected from mechanical damage or deposit formation. The surfaces against which they seal must be of the correct finish which must not deteriorate in operation, eg rust. These requirements apply especially to the "dynamic" flexible elements whose slight movement is essential for the correct seal performance.

As the correct application of mechanical seals is an important contribution to the satisfactory pump operation, final seal arrangements should be discussed with the pump maker and, if necessary, with the supplier of the seals.

5c. LEAKLESS (GLANDLESS) PUMPS

In some cases, when neither stuffing-boxes nor mechanical seals are permissible, but where an absolute seal of the liquid space is required, pumps are supplied in either a 'canned' version or with what is called a 'wet stator' ie glandless pumps. In the case of canned pumps,the squirrel-cage electric rotor and bearings are running in the pumped liquid, whilst in the case of a wet stator pump the whole inside of the motor, ie including the suitably-protected rotor windings, is exposed to the pumped liquid. For certain applications, a compromise solution exists as the motor is filled with clean liquid, which is sealed by a mechanical seal against the pumped liquid - see Appendix II, Fig 25.

A further type of leak less pump is based on the magnetic drive principles in which version the magnetic flux of a rotating magnet is transmitted via a can or disc to the pump shaft. A pump of this description is shown in Appendix II, Fig 14.

THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS FOR PUMPS

6. THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS FOR PUMPS

Depending on the liquid pumped, its temperature and any possible content of solid material, as well as on the operating conditions of the units, expected life of the pump, reliability, etc, the materials of which pumps are constructed - and their price - varies considerably. Furthermore, properties such as hardness, anti-seizure quality etc, can mean variations of materials, so that within the context of this book, it is not possible to give more than an 'indication of possibilities'. Appendix III shows recommended materials for construction of pumps for various liquids, and is based on the following consideration:

Those basic construction grades indicated thus. are sufficiently corrosion resisting for normal conditions. In general they are also easily obtainable, and refer to the cheapest construction. Depending on conditions, higher grades of corrosion resistant materials can be used, resulting in a longer service life of the unit. Such improved grades - usually groups of grades having, within the group, an increased amount of alloying elements - are indicated thus o. For intermittent and/or relatively unimportant duties, the cheapest grade can be selected, whilst, in the case of important and vital units, the higher grades of a group should be chosen.

Where applicable, additional materials are indicated thus. at the right of the table. Whilst, for example, monel provides a satisfactory alternative, usually in addition to all-bronze or stainless steel; silicon cast iron and nickel will invariably give complete corrosion resistance, although, in the former case, pump designs do not normally lend themselves to the application of this material. The use of pure nickel, which is very expensive, should only be considered in rare circumstances.

In general, the price of materials increases with their corrosion resistance, as shown in the following table of complete pump prices. The variation in the factors is due to the complexity of the pump. A simple pump, where the material content has a significant influence on the total cost, will be considerably more expensive if made in expensive materials, whilst the difference will be less in the case of a very complex unit.

Material of construction Cast iron

All bronze

Stainless steel

All iron

High grade stainless steel High nickel alloys Chromium steel

Monel

Silicon iron

Price factor 1.0 4.0-2.0 4.0-3.0 1.2 5.0-4.0

10.0-4.0 3.0-2.0 6.0-2.5

Special construction

89

90


HOW TO ENQUIRE FOR, SELECT AND ORDER PUMPS

TABLE IX
Pump F .. ture ! Remarks
and lor Fecility ! g u- o B i
§ ";;. ~ ~ c .. I
'OH ~ ..
e H~ E c
:. R 8 0 ~f I ~ 'g
1 &:~I ee i i • ~ • "
• >- 'Oo'lL o ... :i!~ il H
0.1 fti~ = '8 E
EtA :'t.i. ~ il := i I
... .,,0 w 91

General pump design strength effect of heat/cold, etc.

•

•

•

Refers in the main to
• mechanical design and
quality.
• Available rules to be
strictly observed
Especially important if
• • changes in requirements
or physical properties of
pumped fluid expected.
Consider method of starting.
Consider adverse properties
of leakage
•
Glands, packing seals. wear
rings shafts, sleeves. bearings
•
• •

•

•

•

•

Installation

Performance reserve of pump andlor prime

•

[Corrosion 1

Abrasion

Erosion Cavitation Temperature

Other factors affecting the choice of materials are their mechanical and/or temperature shock resistance, a change in their physical properties due to extreme heat or cold, their resistance to abrasion, erosion, cavitation and intercrystalline properties, etc.

Whilst the major pump users normally have complete material specifications to meet the great variety of duties, the accumulated experience of many pump makers is a valuable guide to the correct choice.

It is of course in everybody's interest to restrict the variety of materials to an absolute minimum and a compromise of the property, availability, and cost of material often leads to the optimum choice.

7. HOW TO SELECT AND ORDER THE CORRECT PUMP

When enquiring and, indeed, ordering pumps, it is most important that the user or buyer should give all the relevant information to the pump maker. Avoid either giving too much information, part of which might be irrelevant, or too little. Data Chart 16 shows the information required for various pumping conditions, and is a composite of the most frequent types of charts prescribed by makers and users. It will enable the manufacturer to put forward the most suitable and economical solution. Even if it is not always possible to fill in every column, those which are shown in colour are the basic items of information which are required.

It is of the utmost importance that the user very carefully appraises the environmental conditions under which the pump will have to work, eg ambient temperatures, dust, sand etc.

Table I X is a guide to the appraisal of various situations to avoid the mistake of choosing a relatively cheap or unsuitable pump for arduous and vital duties, or, on the other hand, an expensive pump, which only has to run for short periods, possibly under light load.

When evaluating the suitability of a pump for a duty - and within the context of a whole plant of which it is a vital part - careful consideration must be given to its functioning, reliability and possible failure, at the same time, checking facilities yvhich may be required to minimize, if necessary, the effects of any failures, or to prevent them happening.

In order to assist in this evaluation, the table sets out operational conditions, tabulates pump features which might prevent failures, and lists features of pump design and/or selection, having a direct influence on the satisfactory functioning and maintenance of the pumps. Thus, for example, if the duty of the pump is such that wear of pump components have to be expected - and the selected units have no reserve performance, or indeed, driving power reserve - measures might be put in hand to provide a stand-by unit, and to check repair facilities, including the availability of spares etc.

t-

ea: Material ~ Quality

•

•

•

Ease of replacement of wearing parts

•

Noise level

Baari"g design strength quality against contamination lubrication

•

•
• •
• •
•
• • • • Consider method for bringing
onstr .. m ~L ~~ __ L_ __ ~ __ L- __ ~ __ ~~~-------

Suitability of characteristic

Skilled manpower for operation/repair

Spares availability [At user

1:3 and lor At

~ delivery maker

:;

~ Repair workshop facilities ..

Standby pump

92


93

ELECTRIC PUMP DRIVES

8. ELECTRIC PUMP DRIVES

1. SYMBOLS

v NET VOLTAGE IVOLTS)

VpH PHASE VOLTAGE IVOLTS)

1 CURRENT IAhlr~pE.::.)

Nm "'OTOR POWER IBHP)

rym hlOTOR EFFICIENCY 1".)

COS ~ POWER FACTOR If)

8a. A.C. ELECTRIC DATA

In most cases pumps are driven by various types of electric motors, and some basic information regarding electrical constants, wiring schemes, etc, is shown in Fig 57.

For example, motor name-plates usually state voltage as follows: 220/380V, which means, in the case of 220 volt supply, that the motor must be connected in delta, whilst for 380 supply voltage, the motor must be used in star connection. If, for instance, a motor should operate with star delta starting from a supply of 380 volts, the motor must be wound for 380/660 volts.

Further data on the name-plate refers to the frequency, which in Europe is usually 50Hz (cycles/sec), whilst in the United States a frequency of 60Hz is used.

Depending on the application or location of the units, a suitable enclosure for the electric motor should be chosen. Normally, the following types are available:

Totally enclosed

Totally enclosed, fan cooled. Screen protected

Drip proof

Flame proof and/or explosion proof, and certain combinations of the above features.

Where required, electric motor manufacturers should be consulted in order to ensure the correct selection of the enclosure.

2.STARTER WIRING SCHEMES

[.E~ !1 ~~~ [!

TERhllNAL TER"'INAL

A.C.MOTOR SYNCHRONOUS SPEEDS

3. OUTPUT OF ELECTRIC MOTOR

TYPE OF CURRENT OUTPUT IN kW
DIRECT N _ V.I rym
m_ 1000
SINGLE PHASE Nm= V.I 2m COS f
A.C. 1000
THREE PHASE Nm='Il1V.I rym CO~
A.C 11100 FORhlULA.E

SV NCHRONOUS FREQUENCY x 120 SPEED ""'m .• , = No. OF POLES

4.AMPS, VOLTS, KILOWATTS

100

0
•
I
•
, /
• )-9' /
s:.1)
, V<:»I VlI
• ",'I.
• ~
,
• ~
•
, / /
• / ~ 17
,I)
, V V(~ V
V
1 ~
I
, ,l.
•
• 7 .,~
, /
· /V 1/
'VV V
I 8b. STARTING TORQUE AND STARTING

Unnecessary operational difficulties can be avoided by paying attention to the torque characteristics of the pump for known starting conditions, bearing in mind the torque characteristic of the prime mover during its start - especially in the case of electric motors.

100

'" I&J

a:

I&J 11. ~ «

:8b. 1 A.C. Motor starting torque characteristics

In the case of 'Direct on' starting the starting current is approximately 4~-6 times the full load current requirement of the pump. This requires no particular further consideration if the net is capable of accommodating such a current without excessive voltage drop.

If, however, such a voltage drop is not permissible, other starting methods must be considered, namely:

Fig 57

1 J .. '1'"10 2 J" IUII100 2 I '"'"'000 kW

94


a) Star/Delta ()../1'1) Starting. At least 90% of full speed should be

reached in A position as otherwise the 1'1 current may be too high.

b) Auto Transformer.

c) Slipring (Resistance) Starting.

All these methods are designed to limit the magnitude of the starting current .. By doing so the starting moment of the motor is also reduced which, in the case of positive displacement pumps, may lead to complications which must be carefully weighed up, especially as local laws may not allow direct on starting for larger horsepowers.

Fig 58A and B show Star/Delta and Slipring Starting torque and current.

In the case of A/t:. starting, the motor runs in the A connection to point B' where the A torque curve intersects the pump torque curve. The changeover to t:. connection results in torque B" after which full torque B is reached.

In Fig B the pump torque for closed valve refers to a fiarly low to medium specific speed centrifugal pump. In the case of high specific speed (propeller) pumps, the closing or throttling of the discharge valve during starting is of doubtful value as the horsepower at shut valve is greater than at duty point.

,8b.2 The pump torque

Fig 58C 'shows the starting torque for a medium specific speed centrifugal pump for various starting conditions. Point C corresponds to the duty head.

A-B: Shut off torque

A-C: Starting with open valve for a system whose total head consists only of friction.

A-B'-C: For a system whose total head consists only of static level difference. Start is with open discharge valve and non-return valve. The N/R valve opens at B', ie when the generated pump head reaches the static head requirements.

A-B"-C'-C: For a system consisting of static and friction head.

It should be noted that the black shaded portion of the torque curve in Fig C is drawn arbitrarily as in the case of centrifugal pumps, it is of no particular significance. This is not the case for positive displacement pumps, which often deal with viscous liquids. In the case of such pumps this portion of the starting torque curve can be very significant indeed depending on the magnitude of the 'break away torque' TB, which varies with the viscosity of the pumped fluid.

Figs D-J show starting torque curves for positive displacement pumps for various systems. Attention is drawn to the difference between high viscosity start Figs D, F, H and low viscosity start Figs E, G, J.

ELECTRIC PUMP DRIVES

95

..,. ",M,MOIS!POWI:It (e"' I

"lED Ifn/_in J

r, "UN" TORQUI 1111/1.,. ~

T.· ' •• EAIC AWAY' TOIQUI IYAIt'ES WIT" VISCOSITY) H,· 'UN' 'NTE.""L FIUCTION HCMtSl'OWEIt 'IH'" T'· TO.QUI CO •• I$'ONDI NG TO NF

00· DIS'LACEMENT OF .. U .... ' •• II",ira)

'.15S ..... f I./i,.! J Q

... ",ORAULIC "0.511"0_1. '8H' J .m-

r... ACCELEIATINO TO"QUE AT A GI.IN "lID

TAY AYEI .. Ge ACCILllltAr"l. fOItQue-STdTItIG "IIOG

.2 MOM EM' or 'Mel'IA Of ALL M.SSES WHICH

HAVE TO 81 ACCELEIATID

VALUES .. AIIKEO •• "u MAI"L~~7l~!:::, I'UM"

"10

CUHf NT AND rOllOut OF ELICTRIC MOTOit STAU'MG

...

~ ...

:

: JOO ~

;!-2oo

SLI'ltING U.IIENT

, ..

S.-Ero .,_ so

FIG A

.. " e

" o

~ 200

"

e

o :t

;! 100

SO·/. 100',.

SPEED -I. OF SYNC"R. SPEED FIG B

CE NTIII"UGAL PU" STARTING TORQUE

, ..
..
"
0
"
e
,.
"
0
..
0
i-
..
"
0
"
e I• STARr AGAINST CLOSED VALVE

B'. TORQUE CQItlltESII'ONDS TO A STATIC HEAD

so 'I. 100'/.

SPEED '1"" Of fULL S,.EEO)

FIG.C

5 TAR' UfG TORQutS OF POSITIVE DlSPLACE .. E,.T ItOrAilY PUN.-s

HIGH VISCOSITY

lOW VISCOSITY

..on: HYDRAULIC HOI:SI..-owM AT DUTY ftO'''' (too',. S",EDJ ASSUMeD TO H IIX .. TrCAL

DfrlL Y SU,TlC 'RESSURE.

FIG.D

FIG. E

ONLY FRICTION P'"ESSURE

FIG.F

FIG. G

srATIC & FRICTION PRESSUltE

'"10

SPEED ~ ,',. Of fUI.I. S'IIO I FIG. H FIG.J

Fig 58

"0"10

96


It is sometimes necessary to calculate the starting time, mainly to ensure that starter protection devices are not overloaded. One can either do this by graphical integration or, on the other hand, it is very often sufficiently accurate to calculate the starting time:-

Using the averat' acceleration torque T AV (ft-Ibs) WR2 x n Starting time (seconds) = ----

307 x TAV

W = weight of masses to be accelerated (Ibs) R = radius of gyration (ft)

The area between the motor torque and the pump torque curves shown shaded - as an example, in Fig G of Fig 58 - is the available 'acceleration torque'. For graphical integration the speed range is dividedinto steps of, say, 100rev/min. By integration and using the average acceleration torque for each increment a time increment is calculated from the formula. The sum of these time increments is the starting time over the speed range.

Where the starting torque of the motor is insufficient to accelerate the unit, especially in the case of star-delta start, the star torque being low, suitable clutches can be used, allowing the motor to gain speed without transmitting the full pump torque. When a sufficient speed and motor torque is reached, the clutch engages the pumping unit.

'I Such clutches are, in the main, of the centrifugal or hydraulic type.

97

9. PIPELINE SYSTEMS AND VALVES

As the initial cost of the pipes in a large installation may be very high in relation to the cost of the pump itself, the choice of pipe diameters is an important one. All the time the pump is running it must continually deliver to the liquid an additional amount of energy to overcome frictional and other resistances in the pipe system. This energy must be paid for. If the pipes are of relatively large diameter their first cost will be high, but the running cost they impose may be low. Conversely, small pipes involve low capital cost but relatively high running costs. For each particular installation, then, there should be a compromise that best meets the local conditions.

Methods of assessing friction losses in pipes and fittings are given in Technical Data Charts No.4 and No.5

It may often be misleading to accept the diameter of the pump flanges or connections as a guide to the required pipe diameter. More often than not, the diameter of a long pipe - especially the suction pipe - will have to be greater than that of the pump branches, which means that suitable taper reducing and enlarging pieces must be used (Fig 59). In any event several units working in parallel may feed into a single delivery main, whose diameter would then be greater than the pump branch diameter (Fig 60).

Fig 59

Delivery manifold

Fig 60

98


The pipes should be so mounted that thermal expansion or contraction etc, cannot impose excessive forces upon the pump flanges, which might distort or fracture the casing or throw the shaft out of line.

9a.THEINLETSYSTEM

9a.1 Inlet sump or chamber (see also Chapter 3)

If the pump draws from a chamber having a free water surface, the walls of the chamber should be carefully shaped so that eddies are not created which might penetrate into the suction pipe and disturb the working of the pump.

9a.2 Screens, strainers and filters

Depending upon the type of pump and its conditions of service, various devices may be needed to exclude floating or suspended material which might damage the pump or impair its operation. In large installations of suction pumps, bar screens or even self-cleaning rotary screens might protect the entrance. A combined foot-valve and strainer is often provided for protecting the suction pipe inlet of relatively small pumps. Strainers or filters may be necessary in the suction pipes of positive displacement pumps to prevent grit or hard abrasive material from entering the casing. This protection is also sometimes advisable for multi-stage centrifugal pumps. If, on the other hand, the pump is expressly designed to deal with heavy concentrations of suspended solids (eg crude sewage) then the pump must be shaped so that all materials tend to gravitate into the suction pipe inlet.

9a.3 Suction pipe

In order to reduce, as far as possible, the manometric suction lift, it is advantageous to make the diameter of the suction pipe larger than that of the delivery pipe; in any event it should be as short and straight as possible, rising continuously all the way to the pump suction flange, without loops or pockets that might form air traps. When laying the pipe, particular care should be taken to make all joints completely airtight. Bends immediately ahead of a rotodynamic pump inlet branch may disturb the flow of the incoming liquid so adversely that the pump's efficiency is reduced. It must be pointed out that centrifugal pumps of high specific speed are more sensitive to adverse suction conditions, and particular care is needed in such installations.

9b. THE DELIVERY SYSTEM 9b.1 Piping and discharges

When the pump forces liquid through a long delivery pipe against a gravitational head, it is better to let the pipe rise steadily and continuously. The reason is that pronounced upward loops or change of gradient may intensify the danger of harmful water-hammer effects. (See Chapter 10).

PIPELINE SYSTEMS AND VALVES

99

In large, low-head systems, the overall efficiency can be improved by correct design of the delivery pipe outlet. If the liquid is allowed to fall freely from the end of the pipe (Fig 61a) the whole of the energy represented by the velocity head and the height of fall, is wasted; but a conical tapered outlet, carried beneath the liquid surface, will save the greater part of this loss (Fig 61b)

If a number of pumps discharge into a manifold leading to a common delivery main, judicious shaping of the manifold piece will reduce energy loss (Fig 60).

In---------

-~- --------

(a)

(b)

Fig 61

9b.2 Control valves, reflux valves etc

When the pump handles clean water or similar liquids, the flow in the pipes can best be controlled by sluice-valves or full-way valves because, when fully open, they create the minimum energy loss. They usually serve as isolating valves (closing off the pump from the rest of the system when they are shut). For certain types of pump only, viz: centrifugal pumps and, perhaps, direct-acting reciprocating steam pumps, they are also very useful as regulating valves, permitting the head or the discharge to be adjusted to any desired value. However, unless special provision is made, no attempt should be made to regulate the discharge of propeller pumps, or positive displacement pumps in this way, due to the shape of their head and power characteristics (overloading).

Quite a different type of valve may be required if the liquid is corrosive, or carries a heavy suspended load of solids; while for very large high head water-pumping plants, elaborate servo-operated valves, either hand-operated or automatic, permit liquid to be returned from the delivery to the suction side of the system (Fig 62a). When hand-operated, such a valve is useful for starting a positive displacement pump, while the automatic spring-loaded

100


type serves as relief valve (Fig 62b). Reflux or non-return valves, which automatically prevent return flow of liquid back through the system after the pump has been stopped, are usually required for rotodynamic pumps, but are often unnecessary for positive displacement pumps. They may be set either in the delivery pipe or the suction pipe (Fig 62c).

A reflux valve in combination with a relief valve or 'surge-suppressor' is shown in Fig 65. In addition to these various main valves, a pumping system may include smaller valves or cocks for such purposes as draining the pump casing, venting air, charging a long water-main and so on.

-t------

• (a)

(b)

Fig 62

PRESSURE SURGES IN PIPELINES - AND THEIR CONTROL

101

10. PRESSURE SURGES IN PIPELINESAND THEIR CONTROL

Origin of pressure-surges. Whenever the liquid column in a pipe or passage is accelerated or retarded, the pressure in the system is momentarily changed - it rises above or falls below the value corresponding to steady flow. For instance, in the simple gravitational system shown in Fig 62 the rate of flow from one reservoir to another will remain unchanged so long as the setting of the valve at A is undisturbed. At any point in the pipe, too, the pressure will remain constant. Now suppose that the valve is gradually closed so as to impart a retardation a to the liquid column. The result will be that the pressure head just upstream of the valve will rise by an amount hi, while smaller pressure rises will be generated at other points, (Fig 63). This inertia head

hi, can be computed approximately from the expression

I . a hi =- 9

where I is the pipe length and 9 is the acceleration of gravity.

8 _ .. -··-----,t

.-::::::=---=- _. i ~-

---.--".--.~.b==:-==:=:I

A I' t---- - _:_

---_.-

-------.1

Valve IL--

------

1

Fig 63 Illustration of inertia pressure in a pipe.

OA is the pressure-line before valve closure. 08 is the pressure-line during closure.

The reason why the formula can rarely be accepted as it stands is that it disregards two important characteristics of the system. These are 0) the elasticity or compressibility of the liquid in the pipe and (ii) the elastic yield of the pipe walls under change of pressure. Their effect is to 'cushion' the shock if the valve in Fig 63 is closed very rapidly, and also to encourage high-frequency pressure disturbances that travel to and fro along the pipe. If, that is to say, a pressure change is initiated at anyone point in the pipe, a corresponding pressure-wave will instantly begin to move along the pipe. As the wave travels in either direction past a given point in the pipe, the pressure at that point will fluctuate up and down. If the pipe is short - say not more than four metres - the fluctuations will be correspondingly rapid,

102


in fact far too rapid to be detected by a normal type of pressure gauge. But, in a water main several miles long, each fluctuation may occupy severai seconds.

The time occupied by one complete pressure fluctuation may be estimated by means of the expression

41

t =_

va

Here, va represents the speed with which pressure disturbances travel along the pipe. Its value depends chiefly upon the nature of the liquid and the size and wall thickness of the pipe, but for water in a reasonably rigid pipe it is usually in the region of 4000ft/sec (1 200m/sec).

Descriptive terms for all such phenomena are inertia pressure, inertia head, water-hammer pressure, or pressure-surges. Such effects must inevitably be present every time a pump feeding into a pipe system is started or stopped. Often they are not serious enough to call for particular precautions. It is chiefly in large systems where the pipe may be thousands of metres long, that they might reach a dangerous intensity and that they must be guarded against with all possible care.

-I

10a. ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS 10a.1 Starting a centrifugal pump

In normal circumstances there is no risk of excessive pressure when a centrifugal pump is started from rest, because the maximum pressure in the pipe cannot exceed the value dictated by the pump's head-discharge characteristic (2a.4). Exceptional conditions that may involve some risk are mentioned in Section 1 Oa.7.

10a.2. Starting a propeller pump

Unlike a centrifugal or screw pump, an axial-flow pump cannot always be run up to speed without special precautions. Such precautions are particularly necessary if the pump motor has a direct-on-line type of starting gear, or if the delivery pipe is more than perhaps a few metres long. As the liquid column in a pipe of appreciable length takes some little time before it can be accelerated up to working velocity, the effect on the pump at the moment of starting is virtually the same as if it were started against closed throttle. In other words, both the head on the pump and the power input are excessively high (Fig 8 Section 2a.4b).

Suitable safeguards are:

(i) To ensure that the pump motor can only be brought up to speed gradually by using a special type of step-by-step starter.


103

[ii) To install a type of by-pass connected to the delivery pipe, on the lines of Fig 62 which, when open, will allow excess water to escape and so prevent any abnormal pressure in the system. Sometimes an open-ended vent-pipe will serve.

10a.3 Effects of stopping rotodynamic pumps

In the event of the sudden stoppage of the prime mover a sequence of rapid changes in the pump and piping system would ensue, on the general pattern indicated in Fig 64. Having lost its energy supply, the motor - and with it the pump rotor - instantly begins to slow down, and comes to rest often within a few seconds. Simultaneously, the pressure at the pump delivery flange drops, the relation between speed and pressure being dictated by the normal pump characteristics.

rr+

II)Q. •

.--t--~ .. --- -::;J.'------;J-l--- -4 .............. ......"

T T_ A\: --------- .. _"..,.-~.

~ 11)1:: A1C--_----'-

~I:: L~_._

Pump

(a)

Time after trippin!!out motor

(b)

Fig 64 Pressure changes in a system when a centrifugal pump discharging into a long pipe-line is stopped.

104


But, at other points in the pipe, the pressure does not drop simultaneously_ There is a time lag between events at the pump delivery flange, and events some distance away_ This is a consequence of the elasticity of the liquid column and of the pipe walls, which together impose a fixed value to the speed with which pressure fluctuations can be transmitted along the pipe - a value which is usually in the neighbourhood of 1200 metres per second, The effect on the pressure-head gradient in the delivery pipe is to be seen in Fig 64a. Originally, when the pumping set is working steadily, this pressurehead line will be sensibly horizontal (apart from pipe friction). Within a very short time - say half a second - after the tripping out of the motor, the pressure head at the pump has fallen to A, but the head at 8 is still unaffected. After another short interval, the pressure-head line has moved to A '8', and so on.

When the pressure-wave has reached the open end of the delivery pipe, it reverses its direction and travels back again towards the pump, and thereafter a sequence of pressure disturbances travels to and fro, from end to end of the pipe, until finally the whole system falls quiescent.

As for the corresponding variations at the pump delivery flange, these would have the form shown in Fig 64b. After first falling far below the normal manometric delivery head Hmd the pressure head then rises above the normal value, so that when pressure head is plotted against time, a rhythmical curve results.

" , .' ,

10a.4 Negative and positive surge pressures

Numerous factors influence the precise shape of the time-pressure Fig 64a, eg the length and dimensions of the pipe, the nature of the liquid, the effective head on the pump, the rate of deceleration of the rotating parts of the pumping set, and the disposition of control valves in the circuit. But there are usually two distinctive points on the curve, viz point N, which shows the first negative surge, and point S, showing the first positive surge.

In a particular system, the negative surge pressure head Sn has a fixed and invariable value; but the ensuing positive surge Sp can to some extent be controlled. It will have its maximum value if there is any kind of reflux or non-return valve in the piping, in which event the positive surge will be numerically equal to the negative surge. The effects upon the whole installation will be exceptionally severe if the automatic non-return device takes the form of a foot-valve, at the bottom of the suction pipe. While, during steady running of the set, the suction pipe only has to resist a slight vacuum head, yet at the moment of the maximum positive surge, the suction pipe is exposed to the heaviest positive pressure in the entire system, viz the full static pressure plus the positive surge pressure.

In a system that lacks any automatic reflux valve, then nothing will prevent liquid running back through the pump and piping when the pump stops.


105

Immediately afterwards, the pump itself begins to run in the reverse direction and to behave in effect as though it were a hydraulic turbine. These reverse movements can eventually be brought under control by the methods described in 10a.5; and, in any event, the maximum surge pressure is likely to be substantially less than the closure of a reflux valve.

Graphical methods are available for estimating, in any given installation, the intensity of surge pressures.

10a.5 Control of pressure-surges

Although surges in long delivery mains cannot altogether be eliminated when a rotodynamic pumping set suddenly stops working, there are various ways of bringing them within safe limits. These methods include:

Flywheel on pump or motor shaft. A flywheel mounted on the motor shaft will help to maintain the speed of the rotating parts after power has been cut off.

A precaution that may be necessary, on account of the additional inertia of the rotating parts, is to modify the motor starting gear so that the set can be started from rest more slowly.

Surge-suppressor. This is the name given to a positively-operated relief valve or by-pass valve mounted in a branch of the delivery main just upstream of the normal reflux valve (Fig 65a).

Air vessel. A capacious closed air vessel or air chamber connected to the delivery pipe upstream of the reflux valve (Fig 65b) will often reduce the intensity of surge pressures, although at the cost of propagating lowfrequency disturbances that depend upon the expansion and contraction of the compressed air in the chamber.

Surge tank or surge chamber. In low-head installations, the chamber may take the form of an open-topped cylindrical tower in which the water-surface can freely oscillate (Fig 65c). Reserve of water stored in the tank permits the pressure and velocity changes in the pipe to lag behind those in the pump branch, and in this way surge pressures are reduced.

Power-operated control valves. In very large and important medium-head and high-head installations, no type of reflux valve could be made safe. Instead, a single main control valve is interposed in the delivery pipe, which acts either as an isolating valve or as a surge-suppressor. Operated by servo-motor, this valve begins to close automatically as soon as the electric supply to the pump motor fails.

106



107

10a.6 Slam pressure

In addition to the transient pressures generated by the normal slowing down of the pump, there may be violent water-hammer effects created by the closure of the reflux valve.

(a)

One difference between the surge and slam pressure is that whereas true surge pressures can only reach high values when the delivery pipe is relatively long - say, one hundred metres - dangerous slam pressures may be attained in quite short systems if conditions are unfavourable. Examples are illustrated in Fig 66. At (a) the pump delivers into a reservoir through a vertical pipe; at (b) several pumps in parallel communicate with some sort of vessel or container under air or stream pressure. If the driving-motor of anyone of these pumps should suddenly cut out, the liquid column in the respective piping system will reverse its direction with extreme rapidity and will therefore 'slam' the reflux valve shut very harshly.

To meet these conditions, special types of reflux valves have been developed which will close quietly and without undue shock.

Container under pressure.--.,.

(b)

(a)

(b)

Fig 65 Methods of controlling or reducing pressure-surges in pumping system.

Fig 66 Installations in which dangerous 'slam' pressures may develop.

10a.7 Some exceptional surge conditions

Separation of liquid column. Although only the state of affairs close to the pump branches has been considered in Section 10a.4-6, yet it has to be remembered that surge pressures are propagated throughout the whole length of the system (Fig 64), and therefore the question remains to be answered; Can these pressure disturbances threaten the piping at points remote from the pump? In regard to severe positive pressures, the answer is that they have been known to fracture pipes several miles away from the pump itself.

As for negative surges, these may in themselves bring an element of risk if the delivery pipe has the profile shown in Fig 67. If, that is, it rises steeply from the pump in the initial part of its length. The sudden lowering of the

108


pressure line that accompanies the negative surge (A '8' in Fig 64) may momentarily create a vacuum or negative pressure head bn at points near C in Fig 67. Two consequences may follow:

Fig 67 Profile of delivery pipe favourable to separation of the liquid column.

(i) the pipe walls may collapse inwards because they lack the strength to resist the external atmospheric pressure; (ii) the liquid column may itself break into two in the region of low pressure, or at least it may behave as though it had separated - that is, an empty vacuous space will form within the pipe. When this space is filled again immediately afterwards, the resulting inertia shock will be particularly violent and correspondingly dangerous.

If it is impracticable to modify the profile of the pipe-line, this risk of separation of the liquid column can be averted by methods Flywheel, Air Vessel or Surge Tank of Section 10a.5. Manifestly, the use of a surgesuppressor would only accentuate the difficulty.

Starting conditions. Although, as stated in Section 10a.1, it is unlikely that the starting of centrifugal pumps will create troublesome pressure disturbances, there is one possibility that should not be overlooked. It may occur in a system such as that shown in Fig 62c. Suppose that the set is quickly run up to speed against open delivery valve, with an empty delivery pipe. The water from the pump will immediately push open the reflux valve, advance rapidly along the pipe, sweeping the displaced air before it, and if this fast moving water column should strike an obstruction further along the pipe - say, a partly opened valve - then the inertia shock might be most serious.

There need be no apprehension, though, if the main valve is kept closed at first, allowing the pump to force water only through the auxiliary or by-pass charging valve, until the entire system is filled with liquid.


109

10b. POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

10b.1 Cyclical pressure fluctuations in reciprocating pumps

In a system that includes a simple type of reciprocating pump such as the one illustrated in Fig 68 (but without an air vessel), it is clear that the liquid velocity in the pipes cannot be uniform. During the delivery stroke the liquid in the delivery pipe must rapidly be accelerated from rest to maximum speed, and then allowed to lose speed again. Similar cyclic changes will occur in the suction pipe. Inevitably, therefore, pressure changes will be generated in accordance with the laws explained in Section 10.

I!

1. Air vessel

2. Connecting rod

3. Cran kshaft

4. Cylinder or ram case

5. Delivery branch

6. Delivery valve

7 .Delivery valve seat

8 .Ram or plunger

9 • Suction valve 10.Suction valve seat

Fig 68 Typical vertical sinlie-cyllndar ram or plunger pump.

110


Inertia pressures, if left uncontrolled, might not only subject the pump parts to excessive loads but may reduce the permissible suction lift. That is why the pump construction (or operation) is nearly always modified, as explained below, to reduce the intensity of inertia effects.

10b.2 Control of pressure fluctuations

Air vessel. The simplest expedient is to install a closed chamber or ai r vessel which communicates with the delivery pipe near its junction with the reciprocating pump (Fig 68). During normal working of the pump, the upper part of the vessel is charged with compressed air which forms an elastic cushion. Although it has no effect upon the velocity of the liquid flowing past the delivery valve at any instant, it greatly damps down velocity fluctuations in the delivery pipe; the liquid issues from the pipe in an almost continuous stream, and inertia effects are therefore harmless. A similar vessel on the suction side of the pump is equally efficacious and is sometimes termed a vacuum vessel.

In large installations, an air compressor is permanently available for forcing into the air vessel the initial charge of compressed air and for maintaining the "supply; in small pumps, an automatic air valve or snifting valve on the pump cylinder will serve.

For special purposes, the air vessel may incorporate a floating piston or a flexible diaphragm; or it may contain not air but an inert gas such as nitrogen.

Multiple pump cylinders. If the pump has more than one cylinder, or its equivalent, working in parallel (eg if the machine is double-acting or is of the three-throw or triplex type) then inertia pressures are greatly reduced. This construction in itself ensures a more uniform flow along the suction and delivery pipes; and, if air vessels are provided in addition, virtual freedom from pressure pulsations can be ensured even in the largest plant. A further advantage is that the torque or turning moment required at the crankshaft is much more uniform.

The direct acting steam pump. This has no revolving parts which, by forcibly imposing a uniform rotational speed, are themselves the source of the pressure changes in a rotative pump (Section 10b. 1). On the contrary, the maximum pressure in the delivery pipe depends entirely upon the stream pressure in the steam cylinder, and the acceleration of the liquid column responds accordingly. Apart from the velocity changes that occur during the working strokes, however, it has to be remembered that between strokes there is "a short pause during which the pump rods are at rest, before beginning the next stroke. On this account it is found convenient to fit an air vessel when the delivery pipe is relatively long, or to use a duplex pump having two sets of parts working in parallel.


111

10b.3 Positive rotary pumps

In general, it is safe to assume that these machines deliver liquid in a uniform stream, and that therefore no appreciable cyclic effects may be foreseen in the delivery system.

10b.4 Starting and stopping positive pumps

Quite apart from the cyclic pressure changes which may arise in a system fed by a positive-displacement pump, there will certainly be transitory pressure-surges whenever the pump is started or stopped. But their nature will be widely different from those arising in rotodyanmic systems. Because of the positive action of the pump itself, the acceleration of the liquid columns in the pipes must conform exactly with the rate of acceleration at which the pump is run up to speed; and in a long delivery pipe the resultinq inertia head, as computed by the equation of Section 10, may be far too high to be tolerated. Some remedial measures are:

Hand-controlled or automatic by-pass. By means of a valve, described in Section 9b2 and illustrated in Fig 62, the pressure rise in the delivery pipe can be kept down to any desired figure. It is just a matter of closing the bvpass valve sufficiently slowly. A positive-rotary pump may sometimes have an automatic spring-loaded by-pass or relief valve built into its casing.

Air chamber. The air chamber that is effective in a rotodynamic pumping system (Fig 65b), may be equally effective when a positive pump is in question. Indeed, the air vessel that forms part of the normal equipment of a reciprocating pump may itself be capacious enough to moderate the pressure rise when the pump is started.

Special electrical starting gear. In an electrically-driven positive pump the starting gear for the motor can be so arranged that the. pump can only be brought up to speed gradually.

Direct-acting steam pump. In principle, at any rate, such a pump is by its nature incapable of imposing excessive pressure in the piping system.

In regard to the negative and positive surges induced by stopping the pump (Section 10a.3) these are rarely of sufficient intensity to require special precautions. The reason is that the size or scale of installations that include positive pumps - viz the length and diameter of the piping - are usually much smaller than is to be expected when centrifugal pumps are involved. Perhaps a large air chamber mentioned above is the most effective form of insurance.

112


11. HOW TO TEST PUMPS

11a. TYPES OF TEST

These usually include:

Acceptance tests at maker's works, Acceptance tests on site,

Routine performance checks or test on site

By means of acceptance tests, makers and purchasers can satisfy themselves that the pump gives its specified performance as defined in Section 4; that it runs smoothly and quietly, and so on. Routine tests after the pump has been installed show whether or not it is holding its performance after prolonged service, and whether repairs or renewals are desirable. By detecting a decline in efficiency which implies an unnecessarily high power consumption, such periodical checks may be quite rewarding in large installations.

11b. TYPES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS

Those likely to be most generally useful are:

Instrument, device or method for -
Quantity to be Acceptance tests Observations on site
measured
Measuring tank Flow-meter
Discharge or rate Flow-meter (venturi, orifice, Integrating and record-
of flow rotary) ing flow-meter
Measuring weir Current meter
Pitot tube
Dial·type pressure or Dial·type pressure or
Heed or pressure vacuum gauge vacuum gauge
Mercury column Mercury or water
Open water column column
Revolution-counter and
Speed stop·watch
Tachometer Tachometer
Stroboscope
Torsion dynamometer Electrical readi figs of
Electric motor with swinging· electrical motor (am·
Power input yoke meter, voltmeter, etc)
Electrical readings of electric
motor or fuel or steam con·
sumption of other prime
movers In addition, special techniques can be applied in exceptional circumstances especially to determine flow rates for large installations.

HOW TO TEST PUMPS

113

11c. TESTING ROUTINE

When conducting a works test, the specified effective head can usually be simulated by the resistance of a partly-closed valve in the delivery pipe. With the pump running at its rated speed, the valve can be carefully regulated until the delivery pressure gauge shows just the desired head or pressure. This system is highly convenient when characteristic curves for a rotodynamic pump are to be plotted, for it permits a number of points on the curve to be established within a few minutes.

If a valve is used for regUlating the absolute pressure at the inlet to the pump in order to carry out a suction performance (NPSH) test, it should be set some distance from the pump suction flange, otherwise there is a risk that flow disturbances generated by the valve, may penetrate into the pump and falsify its performance. This uncertainty can be avoided by letting the pump draw against a static lift. Furthermore, if a valve is used, the danger exists that cavitation may occur at the valve, if the desired absolute pressure at the pump flange is low, or in other words, if the vacuum to be created is high. Therefore, if an artificial high friction loss is required, it is preferable to obtain this by a narrow suction pipe, rather than by a throttle valve, ie to obtain the main frictional resistance in the pipe itself.

Throughout the test, all readings and observations should be recorded on suitable log sheets, which are usually contained in relevant National Standards applicable to pump tests; An example of such a log sheet which can be used for both rotodynamic as well as for positive displacement pumps of the rotary type, is shown as Table 10.

In the case of vertical pumps especially those equipped with open suction branch like tank top mounted pumps, sump pumps, electrosubmersibles etc the total head needs to be clearly defined and the attention is directed to Fig 52.

11d. INTERNATIONAL TEST CODE

In general pumps - unless of latge size or otherwise agreed between user and maker - are tested to the new "ISO Class C Test Code". (Technical Data Chart 14). A short extract is shown as a guide to users and makers.

114


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115

12. HINTS FOR USERS

To some extent the contents of this chapter repeats details which appear in other sections. These hints are intended to assist the users of pumps to avoid pumping difficulties or failures which experience shows often arise unnecessarily. By taking elementary precautions and observing described principles of pump technology. time and money can be saved.

1. Materials

Apart from chemical corrosion it is also sometimes necessary to consider electrolytic corrosion, especially when materials are used which have a high electric potential against each other. The use of general stainless steels is not always a guarantee against corrosion. Higher grade materials should be considered, especially if the pump is to be operating continuously.

2. Contamination

The effects of what is perhaps avoidable contamination can be costly. If in possession of full details the pump maker is usually able to suggest useful steps which can be taken. The following effects of contamination (and precautions) should be considered:-

a) damage to rotating parts and stationary parts in their vicinity. Material grade, flushing arrangements, clearances.

b) the type of impeller or rotor required to deal with contamination.

Choice of correct speed.

c) the effect of contamination on horsepower requirements.

d) performance reserve or size of pump to deal with drop in output.

3. Type of coupling

The choice of a good type of coupling is a good investment from every point of view. It facilitates ease of alignment and dismantling. Consider the use of space - type depending on the design of the pump. A coupling allowing a fair degree of misalignment is often desirable for installations where a certain amount of distortion is unavoidable, eg duties at elevated temperatures, long heavy pipelines etc. A good coupling also contributes to low noise levels.

4. Baseplate

An unsuitable, too light or badly installed baseplate can be expensive as it can lead to misalignment, bearinq failure, vibration and noise. This is especially so in the case of high speed pumps or for duties where (for one reason or another) adverse operating conditions may be expected.

, I

I

116


5. Pipestrain

Pipestrain is often the cause of mechanical pump failure, and indeed excessive leakage, especially in the case of mechanical seals. Although some pumps are designed to take a certain amount of pipe strain, it is always better to anchor pipes properly, especially in the vicinity of the pump itself. Consider the possibility of incorporating properly designed bellow-pieces or similar devices to allow for unrestricted pipe movement at a distance from the pump. It is a sensible precaution to loosen the connections to the pump from time to time to check for any excessive pipe movement.

6. Clearances

The choice of correct clearances is important. Too close clearances in centrifugal pumps can lead to seizure and if liquid is contaminated it cannot be held for long periods. A small sacrifice in efficiency, especially in cases when reliability is ali-important, is often advisable. In the case of positive displacement pumps, the viscosity of the pumped liquid is of decisive importance for the choice of clearance. Relatively small pumps with close clearances when new, can soon lose their performances and so an adequate reserve in performance is recommended.

7. Contamination of anti-friction bearings

For a relatively small additional expenditure on correct sealing devices, damage due to the ingress of water, sand, or indeed pumped fluid can be avoided. This is especially recommended for pump installations in the open.

8. Stable centrifugal pump characteristic

Carefully consider whether a stable characteristic is really necessary. A pump with a stable characteristic is often somewhat larger and more expensive than a pump with an unstable characteristic. Usually the higher the specific speed, the more stable the characteristic.

9. The head of vertical pumps

Carefully consider the head required from vertical pumps, especially those which have a submerged 'open suction entry'. Give full data to the pump maker and don't forget to include in the total head the static head from the water level to a point above ground level, together with friction losses in the rising column.

10. Reserve in prime mover power

A proper reserve of prime mover power is necessary as an insurance against a slight drop in the efficiency of the pump. The pump itself must have some reserve to allow for fitting a larger impeller if required and also for unforeseen changes in its duty. A 'non-overloading characteristic' is not always possible to achieve, especially as it can sometimes mean a higher pump price. In this respect consideration should be given to the effect of likely suction-pressure which may restrict excessive flow in relatively low specific speed pumps. In

HINTS FOR USERS

117

the case of positive displacement pumps allow for the necessary power reserve when the pump has to bypass its whole output via a safety valve.

11. Priming and suction performance

Remember that these two present entirely different problems. A selfpriming pump need not necessarily have a good suction performance and vice versa. Indeed, centrifugal pumps with a good suction performance are seldom self-priming. When choosing self-priming pumps carefully check data on their air handling capacity and also the space they have to evacuate. This is especially important when a frequent loss of suction can be expected. Do not be misled by statements (particularly in the case of positive displacement pumps) which claim that the pump is capable of operating under very high vacuum. Such statements must be checked as to what output can be expected under high vacuum. It can mean that under extreme vacuum only a fraction ofthe desired capacity can be expected.

12. Air in suction

In order to reduce the noise in centrifugal pumps due to the onset of cavitation, it is sometimes permissible - if the pressure at the suction is below atmospheric - to admit small quantities of air.

13. Starting

Care must be taken when selecting the correct motor size and its starting characteristic and methods. This is especially important for positive displacement pumps which sometimes have to start with high viscosity fluids. It is sometimes advisable to employ a suitable clutch or some other device suitable for the motor/pump torque characteristics. The pump makers can provide the necessary data to avoid unnecessary starting difficulties.

14. Mechanical seals

When choosing mechanical seals, consider the importance of leakage prevention; expected running hours between overhauls; the need for auxiliary seal services - especially in the case of double seals. It is often advisable to install relatively expensive reliable seals when expecting long running hours between overhauls. Don't forget that if seals fail they usually do so relatively early, when they may be expected to be exposed to adverse conditions such as contamination, misalignment, poor installation, frequent start ups etc. It is therefore advisable to watch seal behaviour for some time after start up - say, during the first 24 hours continuous operation. Care should be taken when selecting seals for high viscosity fluids, as damage during starting can occur to unsuitable seal faces with such fluids.

15. Instrumentation

Trouble can be avoided by equipping the pump and its auxiliary services with instruments facilitating proper supervision or that give warning of imminent failure. A gauge showing the suction pressure of the pump is a 'must',

118


as its readings are often a good guide to the correct pump performance or, indeed, to the cause of failure. Instruments showing bearing or gearbox temperatures, cooling flow indicators or seal circulation control instruments are expected to be provided. Pressure gauges should preferably not be fitted at positions of high flow velocity.

16. Heating and cooling arrangements

Do not forget the need for suitable jackets etc, to cool pump casings, stuffing-boxes or bearing housings for hot pumped fluids. For highly viscous fluids in contact with rotating parts (especially during the restarting of pumps) suitable heating devices are absolutely necessary. Under these conditions it is also necessary to provide heating arrangements for any safety valves which may be fitted. On the other hand avoid overcooling the bearing housings as this may lead to bearing failure. Pump makers can normally suggest and supply equipment for a multitude of auxiliary services which can prevent expensive pump failures.

17. Unbalance of rotating parts

The balance, including (if applicable) the dynamic balance of rotating parts and complete elements, must be ensured, especially in the case of high speed pumps. This can be done during routine overhaul.

18. Operation, maintenance etc

Spend some time studying the operating instructions supplied by the maker and also the specification sheets and performance data. Ensure the proper training of the operators and see that they are in possession of the operating instructions and are familiar with the contents. Although regular maintenance is of great importance, the operation of the pump should be checked from time to time. For example, check:-

bearing temperature vibrations,

suction pressure

leakage from gland or seal leakage from joints leakage from casing etc

casing bolts and holding down bolts leakage collection on base plate etc lubricating oil level

for grease lubrication, follow instructions check control instruments for accuracy

19. At the enquiry stage

If possible use a proper enquiry form. This will give all relevant data. to the pump maker and enable him to put forward the most suitable and economic pump. Avoid giving irrelevant data or specifications as fulfilling these may

! I •.

I

HINTS FOR USERS

119

lead to unnecessary cost. If the pump has to operate for more than one application, full details of all duties must be given. Included in such alternatives must be a possible change in viscosity which may affect the size, speed and power requirements of the driver. The enquiry stage is the time to consider the advantages (or disadvantages) of a centrifugal versus positive displacement pump. Such considerations not only apply to the actual pump duty, but also to possible control problems.

20. Performance reserve

Depending on the importance, the type and accuracy of the exact requirements on the one hand, and the gradual drop of the pump performance due to wear of components (which also depends on the cleanliness of the pumped fluid and is bound to be more significant with decreasing size) it is often advisable to provide a performance reserve.

In the case of centrifugal pumps with a normally high volumetric efficiency, it is sufficient to provide an impeller of slightly larger diameter than is necessary for the stated duty, or to provide a pump casing into which such a larger impeller can be fitted. In the case of positive displacement pumps, the effect of wear, especially for initially low volumetric efficiency, small pumps and high pressure can be critical. It is advisable to check the approximate volumetric efficiency of a pump which has no performance reserve and (depending on the efficiency and capacity) select from the graph a reserve factor which gives a final desirable displacement.

In the example shown the capacity will be 84gal/min instead of 60gal/min ie a reserve of 24gal/min. In all such cases a decision must be made as to the disposal of the excess capacity, eg bypass etc. Naturally any reserve means an increased power requirement and the cost of this must be weighed against the cost of a gradual loss of output, spare parts or, in due course, a new pump.

RESERVE I I II
.:::;:_ I v OLUMETi,C £Fl,cle!cJ l'
..... l-,
- ...
'" '" -
'"
""
II II
zc a Duty capacity 0- 60 gal/min* Displacement a = 83 gal/min* Volumetric efficPency 60/83 -72%* F rom above graph the reserve factor is 1.70.

Displacement 001= 1.70 • 60 = 102 Final capacity 01 = 84 gal/min Reserve capacity 24gal/min

300 SOD 700 1000

"UMPC ... P .... CITY,~'''''nl

C,,"P .. CITV9AH ... ,n

IT

*Refer to a pump without capacity reserve

120


I ,~ I

13. HEALTH AND SAFETY

In view of the ever-increasing importance of health and safety at work, the new legislation of the subject, and the increasing hazards during modern pumping operations, we give below a short resume on this subject, which we hope will be of help to pump users.

A. SAF ETY NOTES

1. General

The risks and hazards to health and safety from the use of pumps are generally due to the actual duty, application, environment, design, manufacture, operation or maintenance of the pump. It is, therefore, important that when ordering, the user gives the maker full information on the proposed application and environment of the pump; that the maker designs and manufactures the pump satisfactorily, and the user operates and maintains the pump correctly.

2. Application and environment

The user should provide the maker with all necessary information on the fluid to be pumped, especially when the fluid is - or can become - contaminated, corrosive, toxic, poisonous, flammable, explosive, etc, or has other dangerous or damaging properties. He should also provide relevant information on the operation of the pumping plant, with regard to any unusual conditions such as fluctuations of the pressure, temperature or characteristics of the fluid pumped, the need to operate under diverse conditions, running dry, by remote control etc. The user should also notify the maker of special environmental conditions such as dust, sand, flooding, temperature, humidity, contamination or vibration from adjacent plant, or undue forces - which should be avoided - on the pump from system pipework etc, or limitations on noise, installation, access etc.

3. Notes on design and manufacture

a) Pump casing

The casing and its fasteners are designed and tested to withstand an appropriate and stated pressure test. Facilities for venting or draining the casing should be provided.

b) Rotating element

Running clearances should not be so small as to lead to seizure.

Pumping elements eg impellers, etc must be adequately fixed to the shaft. The rotating element should be balanced as necessary.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

121

Shaft sealing .

Shaft seals should be suitable for their duty, for the ~umped fluid.

Sufficient space should be provided for adjustment and maintenance ~nd provision made for the quenching and removal of any harmful leakmg

fluid.

d)

c)

Materials

Particular attention should be given to conditions of corrosion,

abrasion or erosion, as well as extremes of temperature or temperature

ShOCKS.

e) Lifting facilities . .

In accordance with the relevant standards and appropriate legisla-

tion, facilities should be provided for lifting the pump~ an~ such s~parate parts of the pump as may be required to be moved dunng installation and

maintenance.

f) Guards

Moving, rotat:ng or high temperature parts must be adequately

guarded to reasonably prevent any risk to the health. or safet~ ofpe?ple nearby. In certain cases it may be necessary to provide warning notices.

4. Installation and operation

a) Qualified staff

The user should ensure that his staff are qualified for t~e tasks they

are given, in relation to the installation, operation and mamtenance of the pump. This work should be adequately supervised.

Instruction .

The user must be in possession of suitable instructions reqardinq the

installation, operation and maintenance of the pump .. The user I~ normally responsible for the training of his staff. The instruction should Include any necessary warning on the use or operation th~t is considered relevant, ie regarding the support of pipelines, foundations, non-return valves,

control gear etc.

b)

Drivers

Drivers, including transmissions and couplings, must conform to

any relevant safety regulations.

d) Installation

Depending on the terms of the contract between the m~ker an? user,

the responsibility for the installation of the pump may be either with .the maker or the user. The actual installer may be a third party, responsible to either maker or user. Special tools or lifting devices required for the assembly or dismantling of the pump must be available. Care .should ~e taken to ensure that the pump is safe during all stages of erection or dis-

c)

mantling.

122


HEALTH AND SAFETY

123

e) Operation

The user should ensure that the pump is operated in accordance with good practice, the maker's instructions, and within the operational limits (if any) specified by the maker.

f) Maintenance

The user should inspect and maintain the pump in accordance with good practice and the instructions or recommendations of the maker. He must ensure that all members of the staff engaged on this work are adequately equipped with tools and protective clothing (if necessary). Only spares of the correct quality should be fitted. The user should maintain to the same high standard, any driver, ancillary equipment or controls and other items of plant affecting the safety of the pumps.

g) Changes of duty

The user should not install or operate the pump for a duty or an application for which it was not supplied, without the prior approval of the maker.

B. 'DANGER' AREAS ON PUMPS

Fig 69 shows a typical centrifugal pump indicating potential hazards. All the above information is summarized in Table II.

TABLE II

Huards

Pump Construction Details or Quality of Pump Which Influenc. the Effects of H.z .. ds

I I I I I I

Extreme cold i • I • r • i • ~ • : • i • I • • I •

r--------4-4-+-+-+~--~-r-t-+'_+-+-+--~

Extreme heat r • I • I • I • ! : i • ': •

r-------~-r-,~-4-T,-+,~~~,-+i-~-~---

:;'9::ei~s~7e ~ I •• r.1 1-:-:.: ' ••

Ii:. i. ,

• 1.1

• Fracture can cause leakage 0 Rotating parts area needs
and mechanical damage to protection and care
personnel
~ Leakage and possibility of .@ Lifting
collection of leakage Facility
(vaporizing) drain facility
o Seizure of parts other @ Electric protection and or
or sparks possibility
mechanical failure
Fig 69 Toxic fluid

High pressure

Flammable fluid I : I. I • I • ~

I r I ! ! I

Abrasive content

• • J

•

Pipe strain

• i

• •

•

Temperature shock

•

Insufficient flow

• •

•

•

• •

•

•

Heavy component

Large horsepower .'

• • •

•

• •

•

•

•

High speed

124


APPENDIX I

INSTALLATION, STARTING AND OPERATING FAULT FINDING

AND MAINTAINING '

When we talk of installing a pump, what we should really have in mind is the complete installation; this is especially true of rotodynamic machines, whose performance may be directly influenced by the system of which they form a part. These items, in addition to the pump itself, may include:

. The motive unit, viz the engine, electric motor, or whatever it is that drives the pump and gives it energy.

!he pipin.g or conduits that convey liquid to the pump and carry it away agam at a higher level of pressure. The system may include valves or other control elements, as well as accessories or auxiliary equipment of various kinds. Certain details regarding installation of pipes and conduits are already dealt with in Chapter 9, Installation.

A. INSTALLATION

1. Location of unit

The pump should be placed as near the liquid supply as practical so that t~e static suc~ion lift will be low. The pump should be accessible for inspectron a~d repair work, and headroom provided for crane, hoist or tackle if the pump IS heavy. Refer to the certified installation drawing.

2. Piping

Both the suction and discharge lines should be independently supported near the pump so that no strain will be thrown on the casing.

Suction p~ping .. ~he suction line should be as short and straight as possible and cont.~m a rrururnurn number of bends. Any bends necessary should have large radii ', Generally the suction pipe is made one or two sizes larger than the pump suction branch. For pumps operating with suction lift, no valves other than a foot valve should be placed in the suction line, which should slope g.radually upwards to the pump from the source of supply. All these precautions ensure the maximum available suction head on the pump. Reducers must be eccentric if installed in a horizontal position.

It is very important to have the suction line airtight and to avoid undulations in which air may collect and destroy the vacuum.

Where adverse suction conditions may cause the pump to lose its prime, the use of an external automatic priming device, such as a vacuum pump, is recommended.

Ensure that the system is free from foreign matter such as pipe scale welding beads, dirt, etc. It is advisable to flush the whole system before

APPENDIX I

125

going into operation. If possible, use a temporary suction screen for removal of material in the pipe system.

The strainer should have a nett area at least three times the area of the suction pipe. When the liquid to be handled contains a large amount of foreign matter, provide a separate sump equipped with screens and baffles. Never install a horizontal elbow next to the suction of a double-suction pump. Gate valves should never be necessary on pumps operating under suction lift. However, when used they should be installed with the valve stem in the horizontal or bottom position to prevent air pockets. To prevent eddies and vortex action, the end of the suction pipe should be at least 3ft (0.91m) below the pumping level for suction line up to 18in (0.45m) diameter, and two pipe diameters below the pumping level for suction lines over 18in (0.45m) diameter. The suction pipe should also be at least two pipe diameters from any wall or obstruction. (Consult pump maker re vortex formation).

Discharge piping. The discharge line should be short and direct, with the least number of bends and fittings, thus minimizing the head lost by friction. A non-return valve and discharge valve are usually placed in the discharge line. The non-return valve is to protect the pump from excessive back pressure and reverse rotation of the unit, and to prevent back-flow into the pump in case of stoppage or failure of the driver. The discharge valve is used to regulate the flow. The non-return valve is placed between the discharge valve and the pump, so that the pump may be inspected or repaired without emptying the

discharge line.

3. Foot valve

(Only to be used if operationally necessary. Normally not used for positive displacement pumps). Foot valves should have a free area of at least 150% of the suction pi pe area.

An efficient strainer should be provided to prevent foreign matter from being drawn into the pump or choking the foot valve. When there is any refuse such as sticks, twigs, leaves, etc, in the water, a large wire screen or a large basket strainer should be placed around the suction inlet to prevent choking the strainer. This screen should have sufficient openings to keep the flow velocity through it below two feet per second, (0.6 metres per second).

4. Foundation

The foundation should be substantial, to reduce vibrations, and rigid enough to avoid any twisting or misalignment. The most satisfactory foundations are concrete. The foundation bolts should be secured in the foundation as shown in Fig 1, and a large washer with lugs placed on the bottom of the bolt to prevent turning.

126


Stuff waste around bolt while pouring concrete

Leave surface of fou ndation rough to afford good hold for grC\.Jt

.~:; Pipe or conduit three times .... : diameter of bolt

0:'

~ . .'; Do not extend pipe above

.•. , rough surface of foundation

Fig 1 Arrangement of foundation bolt in foundation.

Make the top surface of the foundation 'Y..-1 Y:zin (19-38mm) below the level at which the bed plate is to be set, to allow for grout. Hang the foundation bolts in their correct position with a template as shown in Fig 2.

A certified drawing showing location of bolt holes is furnished with each pump.

When pouring the foundation leave the top surface rough to afford a good hold for grout. Allow the foundation to set firmly and harden before placing unit.

Allow bolts to project for

grouting under bed-plate. \

Make this distance equal to lug on bed-Plate./

Pipe

Fig 2 Template for hanging foundation bolts while pouring foundation.

5. Grouting

A space of approximately 1in (25mm) should be left between the baseplate and top of the foundation, to be filled with grouting. After the grouting has dried, the baseplate should be drawn down evenly and the pump alignment re-checked.

Build a dam around the foundation with boards, and pour the grout, marking the location of the wedges if it is desired to remove them after the grout has set. Holes are provided in the bedplate for pouring grout and stirring to prevent air pockets. Fill under bedplate completely. When the grout has thoroughly hardened remove the dam and wedges if desired. Fill in the holes left by wedges and trim the edges.

APPENDIX I

127

6. Alignment and dowelling

A pump with driver is correctly aligned on its baseplate at the factory. A certain amount of deformation of the baseplate is possible during transit, and it is therefore essential to check alignment before going into operation. The pump shaft should be aligned both radially and axially with the driver. A flexible coupling will not compensate for misalignment. Inaccurate alignment results in vibration and excessive wear on the bearings, packing and wear rings. It is often preferable not to dowel either driver or pump until a final check is made under actual operating conditions.

Flexible couplings. Successful operation of the pump depends on accurate alignment. As stated already, a flexible coupling will not compensate for misalignment of the pump and drive shafts.

Figs 3 to 6 inclusive, show the various steps in checking the alignment of the pump and driver.

The coupling faces must be parallel (Figs 3 and 4). The coupling rims must be in horizontal alignment, (Fig 5) and the difference, if any, in vertical alignment, (Fig 6) equal to that indicated on the installation drawing (in the case of hot pump). Final check on alignment must be made after the unit has been in service a few hours under normal operating conditions. Fig 7 shows alignment check for a gear coupling.

Fig 3 Measuring vertical angular misalignment

Fig 4 Measuring horizontal angular misalignment

Fig 5 Measuring horizontal alignment

Fig 6 Measuring vertical alignment

12B


B

Bracket % in

at fl at stock. i'F===;;r~~=

Fig 7 Method of taking aligQment measurement on gear-type couplings.

Fig 8 Method of aligning a floating coupling.

S~acer type co~plings. Where a spacer coupling is used, it is not possible to align ~he couplings, as shown in Figs 3 to 6. To align units with spacer type couplings, remov~ th~ spacer between the pump and driver. Make up a ~racket as shown In Fig 8, which can be fastened to one half coupling and IS lon.g enough to reach the other half coupling. Fasten this bracket to one coup.llng and a dial type indicator to the bracket arm so it is in contact with the nrn of the other half coupling.

Revolve the co~pling by hand so that the indicator moves around the rim of the other .coupllng as at 'A', Fig 8. Alignment should be within O.003in ~i·07mm) With the pump and ~river at operating temperature. Use inside

cromete.rs to check parallel alignment of coupling faces as at 'B' Fig 8.

The coupling faces should be parallel. Final check on alignment should be made after unit has been in operation under normal service conditions for

a few hours. '

For misalignment average tolerances, note Table I.

TABLE I

Diameter of coupling
Type of
Coupling -4in 4in-8in 8in-12in 12in +
Tolerance (Thous.1
Flexible 3 4 5
5
Solid 1% 2 2
2
Automatic clutch 5 5-10 10-12 12 APPENDIX I

129

SPECIAL METHOD FOR SPACER TYPE AND AUTOMATIC

CLUTCH COUPLINGS

Spacer type (Fig 9). Bracket 'A' is clamped to the motor half coupling; bracket 'B' is clamped to the pump half coupling. Two clock gauges are attached to bracket 'B' and they are both brought to bear on the tip of bracket 'A', as indicated in Fig 9. The gauges are zeroed and the whole assembly is rotated so that both angular and parallel misalignment can be read. Adjust accordingly so that there is no movement on the dials when the coupling assembly is rotated. Then the coupling will be in both angular and

parallel alignment.

Note: A method of rotating the coupling is to remove the motor fan guard and use the fan as a lever for rotating.

Automatic clutch coupling angular alignment. Fig 10. A bracket is clamped to the driving shaft and the indicator of the clock gauge is brought into contact with the driven face. The driving face is rotated and the pump or motor is adjusted until there is no angular misalignment.

Fig 9

Fig 10

B. PREPARING FOR OPERATION AND RUNNING

1. Driver and rotation

Prepare driver for operation in accordance with instructions furnished by the driver manufacturer.

Check the driver rotation before bolting up the coupling. Driver rotation must agree with direction arrow on the pump.

Install a starter with overload protection to prevent the motor being damaged by overload when the pump has to deal with impurities; when the manometric head is lower/higher for high specific speed pumps than expected, or in case of other faults. It is advisable to fit the starter with an ammeter to read the motor current, especially when sophisticated protection

devices cannot be installed.

130


Internal combustion engine drive. The instructions sent with the engine to be strictly followed, and the following points should also be observed:

a) If the engine is water-cooled care should be taken to see that the water entering the cooling jacket is clean. If muddy water is being pumped, either radiator cooling or filtered water should be used with tank cooling.

b) With tank or through cooling, care should be taken to see that the water going through the jacket is at the correct temperature, ie generally about 2000F (900CI. (If the engine is supplied by the pump makers with through cooling, it is generally provided for a portion of the cooling water to be drawn from the cooling water tank and recirculated to obtain an increase in temperature). In some instances, particularly when working with a high head, it will be necessary to partially close the valve in the cooling piping.

2. Stuffing-box

Stuffing-box arrangements vary with the service. Note the directions with the packings and proceed as follows (if the unit has been stored for long periods): Remove the glands; pull out the seal cages, if used, and clean out the stuffing-boxes. If seal cages are used, measure the location of the sealing passage so that when the box is packed, the cage will line up with the seal hole. Dip each ring in heavy cylinder oil, and put one ring in the box at a time, making sure it is properly seated. Stagger the joints of succeeding rings. When the last ring is in place, assemble the gland and pull up the nuts evenly, until snug. Then back off the nuts and re-tighten finger tight. The gland should be kept as loose as possible to prevent excessive sleeve and packing wear.

If pumps are equipped with mechanical seals, refer to the instructions supplied separately.

3. Priming (centrifugal pumps)

Note: In the case of submerged pumps or inherently self priming pumps, this paragraph does not apply.

Before the pump will operate, the suction line and pump impeller eye must be filled with liquid. The pump should never be run unless the impeller is filled with liquid as there is danger of damaging parts of the pump which depend upon liquid for lubrication.

The general systems of priming are:

al Fill pump and suction line with liquid from an external source.

b] Exhaust air from suction line and pump so that liquid is forced into pump by atmospheric pressure. This may be done by hand or by mechanical means (vacuum pump - avoid liquid entering vacuum pump, ejector, etc), and the discharge valve must be closed.

APPENDIX I

131

4. Starting

a) Check lubrication of bearings.

b) Close the discharge valve and ensure that pump is primed.

c) Make sure that all rotating parts are free, by turning by hand.

d) Start unit, and when pressure is reached, gradually open discharge valve.

e) Turn on circulation to mechanical seal and, if required, cooling water to bearings, and cooled stuffing·box, if incorporated in unit.

Do not operate for prolonged period against closed discharge valve, other· wise overheating will occur.

Check the driver and pump bearings for overheating and vibration. If vibration is present, shut down and check alignment. If the stuffing·box overheats, start and stop the unit a few times until lubricating leakage breaks throu~h the packing. Do not relieve the gland nuts as this will merely allow t~e entire set of packing to move away from the bottom of the box as a cylinder. If the packing does not respond to this treatment, the box has been packed too

tightly and must be repacked. . .

Any heat of bearings, failure of lubrication, vibration or undue noise, IS cause for alarm, and the unit should be immediately shut down and an investigation made of the cause.

Before shipment, the bearings are thoroughly cleaned an~ sprayed with rust inhibitor. When installation is completed, the bearmgs. should ?e inspected to prevent damage from condensation, grit or other fo~elgn ~aterlal which may have entered the bearings or lubricating system dUrln~ shlpmen~, storage, or in the field. Before filling with lubricating oil, all bearlng~ and 011 reservoirs should be thoroughly washed with kerosene. When bearings a.re pressure lubricated, the entire lubricating system, includi~g the oil reservoir. pump, cooler and piping, should be thoroughly washed With kerosene. Then,

after drying, the system is filled.

When filling a pressure lubricating system the first time, or refilling after draining oil, it is important that the system be filled completely.

Starting of positive displacement pumps. Positive displacement pumps are. self'priming - providing the pumping elements have been wetted, the pump will exhaust the air from the suction line.

Before it will operate, the pump must be filled with liquid. It s~ould never be run unless it is filled with liquid as there is a danger of damaging parts of the pump which depend upon liquid for lubrication.

When starting against elevated pressure - the pump having .to exhau~t a suction system - it is advisable to fit an air release cock at the d~scharg~ ~Ide, which must be closed as soon as fluid emerges from it. For certain conditions

automatic de-aeration devices can be used.

132


5. Operation (Running)

While the pump is running, a periodic inspection should be made. Keep the stuffing-box adjusted so that there is sufficient leakage to lubricate the packing. To cut down excessive leakage, tighten the gland nuts, one flat at a time, allowing sufficient time for gland pressure to become evenly distributed through the packing. Check the bearings for oil level and circulation.

Air in liquid. It sometimes happens that there is a considerable amount of air or gas in the pumped liquid. If there is much of this, there may be a tendency for the gases to separate in the passages of the pump. The presence of these gases will impair the efficiency. For this reason, priming funnel or air cocks placed on top of the pump should be opened occasionally to allow the air to escape (if operationally permissible).

6. Shutting down

Note: This paragraph refers only to centrifugal pumps.

Before stopping the pump, close discharge valve. This will prevent waterhammer in the line ..

Freezing. When the pump is exposed to freezing temperatures and is not in operation, care should be taken to prevent liquid from freezing within the pump. The pump casing should be drained by removing the pipe plugs in the bottom of the casing.

C. BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION

The ideal lubricant is a refined straight neutral mineral oil, preferably of the turbine type. It should not contain free acid, chlorine, sulphur, or not more than a trace of free alkali. It must be clean, high quality oil, free from grit. The use of poor oil may result in corrosion, sludge or loss of oil through excessive evaporation.

Correct viscosity is important. If the viscosity is too low, the lubricating film may be dangerously thin, and if too high, the friction may be needlessly high.

In the case of oil lubricated bearings or gears, oil reservoirs are normally drained before despatch and should be filled to correct level (indicated by mark on dipstick) prior to starting.

Grease lubricated bearings are given an initial filling of grease. The mixing of greases should be avoided.

Bearings requiring grease lubrication are normally provided with nipples for application by grease gun or screw cup greasers.

Care should be taken to avoid overfilling the oil reservoir or packing bearings with grease too tightly for normal running, as damage may occur, due to overheating.

APPENDIX I

133

If pumps are to operate in extreme temperatures, manufacturers should be consulted as to the correct grades of lubricants to be used.

SOME RECOMMENDED OILS AND GREASES FOR NORMAL OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS ARE:

Maker Oil Grease
B.P. BP Energol OE 175 Energrease LS3
Castro I Perfecto TT Spheerol AP3
Esso Esstic 65 Beacon 3
Gulf Service 64 Crown GR. No 3
Mobil Die Extra Heavy Mobilplex 48
Petrofina F ina Solco 51 Marson HTL 2
Shell Talpa 30 Alvania 3
Texaco Ursa P 30 Regal AFB2 Some slightly different grades are used for certain manne applications

D. STUFFING-BOXES (Refer also to Section B2, and Chapter 5)

1. Soft packed box

If the pump is shipped without packing in the stuffing-boxes, a complete set of packing is usually shipped in a separate box attached to the pump crate. Preserve any wrapper on the packing so that replacements can be ordered accordingly. The stuffing-box arrangement varies with the liquid, temperature and pressure, eg when there is positive pressure on the suction, the stuffing-boxes can be packed solid and adjusted so that a slight spray leakage cools and lubricates the packing (see Fig 11).

Fig 11 Stuitinq-box packed solid without seal.

When a pump is working under suction lift, it is important to prevent air leakage into the stuffing-box . To prevent ai r leakage and also to lubricate the packing, sealing liquid may be injected at a seal ring which is usually located at approximately the centre of the stuffing-box. When the sealing medium is the liquid pumped, the arrangement is known as an internal seal (see Fig 12).

When the sealing medium comes from an outside source, it is known as an external seal (see Fig 13).

134

Stuffing-bo~x~ •• """

gland

Liquid seal cage In-line with passage in

casing when packing is compressed

Fig 12 Stuffing-box with internal seal


Liquid seal cage In-line with passage in casing when packing is compressed

Fig 13 Stuffing-box with external seal system.

2. Mechanical Seals

Avoid running mechanical seals dry. Liquid should be circulated around the seal faces to disperse any heat generated. In some instances a short period of operation is required to clear up any slight leakage.

The sealing surfaces of mechanical seals are highly polished and optically flat. The utmost care must therefore be taken to keep these surfaces perfectly clean and free from dust and gritty substances that would scratch or mar them. The working area around the seal assembly should be clean and free from obstructions. On no account must seal faces be dropped or adjusted with undue force. If seal faces have already been in use it is often advisable to relap them or, if necessary, replace them.

When fitting the seal, check that shaft and housing bores are free from burrs and sharp edges.

The following should be observed as a guide for surface finish of metallic parts in contact with flexible elements:

Stationary flexible elements O.8J.lm

Dynamic flexible elements up to 7bar pressure

above 7bar pressure

O.4J.lm O.2um

APPENDIX I

135

Care must be taken when handling or fitting the flexible seal elements.

This applies especially when sliding them over shafts or into bores. In order to minimize the possibility of such damage, changes in diameter in way of seal should be used with suitable chamfers.

2%mm Minimum

CHAMFER

Special care should also be taken when sliding flexible element over key ways, holes, threads etc. Sliding of the flexible element along the shaft or into a bore is facilitated by applying a little light oil or a mild washing up fluid to the flexible element and its surrounding area. On no account should grease be used for this purpose.

Before final location of the seal ensure that the shaft is positively located in its bearings and in the correct running position.

Deflection at the seal faces due to shaft movement or eccentricity should not exceed O.004in (O.1mm).

3_ Relief Valves

Remove valve and examine valve and seat. If required, they should be lightly ground, care being taken to avoid forming a 'step' in the valve.

Pilot valve plunger should be examined to ensure a correct sliding fit.

If a reduction in set pressure is observed, the spring should be checked against specification and replaced if necessary.

Clean and flush through all liquid passages.

When reassembling ensure all parts are clean and apply a thin film of good quality oil.

E. MAINTENANCE

The instructions of the pump maker should be strictly adhered to and the personnel entrusted with maintenance should be familiar with and in possession of, these instructions. In general, maintenance should be observed in accordance with Table II.

136

(


TABLE II

Examine a •• n or ReplllCl
Description
Fortnightly 3000 6000 10000 10000 Only if
hours hours hours hours n_rv
Lubrication
Lubricating, oil: bear- X
ings, gears X
Grease packed bags X X
Stuffing.flox/seals
Packing X X
Seal faces X X
Elastic components
of seals X X
Shaft sleeves X X
W.., paris
Wear rings/platesl
clearances X X
Impeller/rotor keys X X
Impeller/rotor X X
F I ow passages X
Bearings X X
G __ I
Alignment X
Joints. O .... ings, oil seals X X
Gauges X
Safety valves X X
Flexible parts of
couplings X X . It is useful to keep a stock of wearing parts (the quantity depending on the vanety of pumps, their running periods etc). Most pump makers will supply recommended spare parts, on request.

Bearings

Packings or mechanical seal faces, flexible elements or complete

seals.

Shaft sleeves

Wear rings and other wear parts, eg bushes Impeller or rotors

Flexible elements of couplings

APPENDIX I

Ball bearings

Ball bearings normally have a light tap fit on the shaft. The fit in the housing is a push fit. The bearing should be pulled with a puller where size permits. Never press or-hit against the outer face, balls or ball cage.

When reassembling, flush out the housings thoroughly with kerosene or carbon tetrachloride. Fill the reservoir to the proper level, as described below. If the pump is fitted with a constant-level oiler, check to see that the oil will be maintained at the proper level. The level may be adjusted by changing the height of the reservoir.

Inspect the oil in the bearings periodically. Remember that oil requires frequent replenishment at normal temperatures, and very frequent replenishment at high temperatures. Oil is always subject to gradual deterioration from use and contamination from dirt and moisture. In time, the accumulated sludge will be harmful to the bearing and will cause premature wear. For this reason, draining and flushing are necessary at regular intervals.

In the case of journal bearings, check the correct clearance and ensure the oil grooves (if any) are free from foreign matter. Any burrs should be carefully removed and worn areas can be scraped smooth.

F. FAILURE, PREVENTION AND REMEDIES

Routine inspection

When operators are on constant duty an hourly check can prevent costly shut-downs. Any change in a smooth running pump should be investigated immediately. An hourly routine check should include:-

. a) Bearing temperatures - the bearings will operate at a constant temperature which will be influenced somewhat by the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. If there is any indication of overheating, check the oil level and the cooling system to see if it is functioning properly. If the oil temperature exceeds say 1S00F (SOoC) the pump should be examined .

Packing - see if leakage is sufficient for lubricating the packing, but not excessive. If there is no leakage or the box overheats, the packing is too tight. Do not back off gland nuts while pump is running as this will allow the entire set of rings to move away from the bottom of the box, without relieving the pressure of the packing on the shaft sleeve. The best procedure is to shut the pump down; allow the packing to cool, and then restart the pump. It may be

necessary to repeat this several times before the proper amount of liquid comes through to provide the lubrication necessary to prevent heating. If leakage is excessive, do not tighten the gland nuts more than one flat at a time. Tightening the gland nuts usually compresses only the two or three outside packing rings, and excessive tightening of these rings will interrupt the leakage and cause the rings to

b)

\

137

138


APPENDIX I

139

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140


c)

burn and score the shaft sleeve. Adjusting the gland pressure slowly, one flat at a time, permits the increased pressure to be distributed throughout the entire set of rings, without danger of overheating the packing.

Check the cooling water system, if supplied, to make sure the proper amount of cooling water is circulating through the bearing and stuffing-box jackets, etc.

Check suction and discharge pressure gauges to see if they correspond to the operating conditions.

If at any time, when pumping volatile fluids, the discharge or suction pressure suddenly drops significantly, the pump may have lost suction, and the liquid inside the pump is vaporizing. The cause for the suction failure, or the cause for the continued vaporization, must be found and eliminated.

See Fault Finding Chart for further information.

d)

e)


APPENDIX"

Sectional Pump Drawings

The chosen drawings refer, in the main, to Special Pumps which show design features which the pump users (especially if they wish to judge the suitability of pumps for their purpose) may consider pertinent for the duty requirements.

Some of the design features can be applied in combinations thus creating an easy reference for composite pump types.

Only the most important components and/or assemblies are described in order not to confuse the issue and a short description of the purpose and design of the pumps accompanies each drawing. Due to the vast variety and often great complexity of pumps, only a limited number of drawings could be selected.

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Description of Pump Centrifugal pump with inducer Chemical centrifugal pump Process centrifugal pump Sewage pump

Slurry pump

Multistage pump

Split casing multistage pump Monoblock centrifugal pump Centrifugal pump in plastic material Portable contractors pump Contractors pump ejector primed Vertical marine centrifugal pump High speed centrifugal pump Centrifugal pump driven by Magnets Tank top mounted centrifugal pump Glandless vertical chemical pump Vertical barrel pump

Arch imedean screw pump

Stainless food rotary pump

Rotary pump

Rotary lobe pump

External bearing screw pump Internal bearing screw pump Helical rotor pump with conveyor Electrosubmersible pump

Vertical wet motor driven glandless circulating pump Glandless two stage canned motor pump

Vertical process pump for liquified gases and petrochemicals Electrosubmersible sewage pump

Vertical multistage barrel pump

Canned motor pump unit

Air operated double diaphragm pump.

141

142

APPENDIX II


II

I

I

I

I

I

L.

143

2

Key

1. Electric motor 2.Coupling 3.Split ring

4. Support head

5. Pump shaft

6. Gland plate

7. Stuffing-box cover

8. Seal cage

9. Impeller

10. Wear plate

11. Casing

Key

1. Casing

2. Impeller

3. Inducer

4. Thrust bearing

5. Mechanical seal

4

3

No.1 Centrifugal pump with inducer. (Stothert & Pi ttl

Single stage pump fitted with an inducer to provide a higher suction oressure at the entry into the centrifugal impeller. The NPSHreq of the inducer is considerably less than of the impeller. In order to ensure a good service life of the inducer it must be designed for required flow. If the flow delivered by the pump varies substantially from the design capacity of the inducer early destruction of the

Inducer may be expected.

No.2 Vertical in-line branches Chemical pumlJ (Ingersoll I

The pump has an open impeller with back vanes. The drive is by electric motor which is coupled to the pump shaft to ensure true running and ease of dismantling of pump without. removal of motor. The motor bearings must be suitable to take all radial and

axial thru.u Including the weight of rotating pam.

144

APPENDIX II

Key

1. Stuffing-box sleeve

2. Injection to soft packing

3. Stuffing-box

4. Split gland with smothering device

5. Radial bearing

6. Constant oil level and reservoir

7. Thrust bearing

8. Pump casing

9. Impeller nut

10. Drain plugs

No. '3. Heavy process pump

This type of pump is mainly used in refineries and other process plant for the pumping of hot and sometimes flammable fluids, often at high (suction) pressure. It is therefore of heavy construction with the emphasis on suitable stuffing-box design which in most cases must be suitable for mechanical seals. The illustration shows a soft packed box which is often of considerable length and suitable for the injection of cooling and/or lubricating fluid to the packing. The design is suitable for back pull out with suction and discharge branches located on the pump casing. Often the suction branch is vertical in order to provide a direct connection to the suction system. For hot duties the casing feet are arranged in the centre line in order to retain shaft alignment Cooled bearing bracket and stuffing-box and large oil reservoir are normally essential features.

PUMP USERS' HAN DBOOK

5

Key

1. Large bearing bracket

2. Stuffing-box

3. Recessed impeller nut without obstruction at impeller entry

4. Single channel impeller

5. Inspection cover

6. Suction cover

No.4 Sewage pump

Heavy pump capable of dealing with sewage including relatively large solids, and other contaminated liquids. Impeller often of special construction with wide passages of a size suitable for the largest solids to be expected which depends on the size of screen arranged before the intake to the pump. The illustration shows a single channel impeller, but other specially developed shapes to suit a particular duty are available. For some applications pumps are equipped with wear plates. Casing is often of large cross section to provide low flow speeds. Inspection covers allow access to casing (impetter) and cover in order to inspect and, if necessary, removal of

obstruc tions.

145

iii

146

APPENDIX II


147

",

-r ,

»,

148

APPENDIX II

Key

1. End bearing

2, Coole stuffing-box

3. Transfer pipes

4. Top casing halve 5, Shaft

6. Bottom casing halve

7. Transfer pipe 8, Wear rings

9, First stage impeller 10. Split gland

No.7 Multistage split casing pump

Mainly used for pipeline duties where the split casing facilitates easy maintenance. In order to balance axial thrust impellers are mounted in opposite positions which require transfer pipes between stages. Discharge and suction branches are arranged in the bottom half of the pump casing so that pipe connections need not be disturbed during maintenance and inspection of the working parts of the pump. Sufficient heavy bolting and carefully machined flat joint faces in the centre line are necessary to prevent leakage. Some

pumps are equipped with diffusers.


Key

1. Motor end cover

2. Motor fan

3. Electric rotor

4. Stator with windings

5. Cooling air outlet

6. Combined shaft

7. Pump casing

No.8 Centrifugal pump in monobloc construction

A combination of pump and electric motor with the impeller fitted on the extended motor shaft extension. As no coupling is used align· ment problems are on the whole eliminated and normally no base· plate is required which results in a relatively cheap unit. As the motor and pumpshaft are in one piece the shaft material has to be suitable for the pumped fluid. In the case of shaft damage its replacement is often dearer than in the case of standard construction. Motor housing and lantern are in one piece. Some versions, especially for chemical duties, have a separate lantern.

149

11,11,1,1

II: :11

II

IIII

1 , I

150

APPENDIX II


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0) E II>
c:i II> E Ie
<!Qo "
<! ~ Key

1. Carrying handle

2. Engine with SAE shaft extension

3. Discharge

4. Casing

5. Suction cover

6. Clack valve

7. Impeller

8. Mechanical seal

9. Distance piece

No. 10 Portable contractors pump. (Lee Howl)

Portable centrifugal pump close-coupled to engine. Self-priming action by recirculation and air separation from pumped fluid. Priming fluid must be retained in casing. Check valve prevents loss

of fluid when pump is stopped.

151

152

APPENDIX II


153

1

4 5

---f-----+

I

Key

1. Primer pulley

2. Primer shaft

3. Grease seals

4. Primer impeller

5. Whirlpool chamber

6. Fluid reservoir

7 _ Float and control gear

8. Primer mounting tee piece

9. Air pipe to primer

10. Electric motor

11. Primer drive pulley 12_ Spacer coupling

13. Motor support stool

14. Bearing bracket

15. Air collecting space

16. Mechanical seal

17. Cover

18. Impeller

19. Pump casing with feet

Key

1_ NRV casing

2. NRV ball

3. NRV seat

4. Greaser

5. Grease housing

6. Shaft clamp

7. Mechanical seal

8. Casing

9. Air jet

10. Venturi

11_ Ejector NRV 12. Bowl strainer

13_ Air separation chamber 14. Wear plates

15_ Impeller/shaft.

No. 12 Vertical marine pump with primer (Stothert & Pi ttl

The most frequent type of self-priming pump for marine- bilge-, ballast, and general duties. A separate liquid ring air pump of relatively large air handling capr_ity (for pumps up to say 3000 gal/min handling air up to 40ft /min at a vacuum of ~O" Hg). is belt driven from the main pumpshaft. A float mechamsm avoIds entry of primed water into the air pump and connects the inlet of air pump to atmosphere in order to reduce the power required from primer. The rotating element of the pump should be removable

without dismantling of motor.

No.11 Fully automatic ejector priming pump (Godwin)

Used for heavy duty contractors sites, capable of pumping large solids, slurries etc_ The pump can deal with large amounts of air content. Priming is by air ejector controlled by liquid level in pump. Such pumps are often diesel driven and the air supply is

obtained from separate auxiliary compressor.

-154

APPENDIX II

Key

1. Bearing housing

2. Lubricator

3. Drive end bearing

4. Pump shaft

5. Pump end bearing

6. Labyrinth seal

7. Relief valve

8. Diffuser

9. Adaptor

10. Casing

11. Impeller

12. Mechanical H.S. seal

13. Seal seat

14. Mechanical seal housing

No.13 High speed single stage centrifugal pump (Godwin)

The pump hes diffuser type recovery and is for general purpose duties for relatively high pressure. A double seal is fitted in a special

seal housing.


155

'I'

; I

I

7

Key

1. Drive shaft

2. Outer magnet carrier

3. Can

4. Inner magnet carrier

5. Journal bearing

6. Axial bearing

7. Impeller drive shaft

No.14 Centrifugal pump with magnetic drive (Klaus Union)

If leakage from the stuffing-box must be avoided under all circumstances as in the case when pumping extremely poisonous fluids or fluids which may present other safety hazards, the magnetic drive pump is a suitable solution. An electric motor or other prime mover transmits the torque through a permanent magnet via a suitable "can" which completely isoletes the pumped fluid from the atmosphere to the inner msgnet mounted on the impeller shaft carrier in internal bearings which are lubricated depending on the property of the pumped fluid: (a) by the pumped fluid, (b) by the pumped fluid after passing through a filter. (c) by an injected lubricant which can

mix with the pumped fluid.

156

Key

1. Tanktop

2. Discharge pipe

3. Motor

4. Flexible coupling

5. Shaft adjusting nut

6. Thrust bearing assembly

7. Grease packed double lip seals

8. Li neshaft

9. Shaft coupling

10. Intermediate bearing

11. Support column

12. Bearing lubrication

13. Pump bottom bearing

14. Pump bottom bearing

15. Pump

16. Strainer

APPENDIX"

No. 15 Tank Top Mounted Centrifugal Pump (Stothert & Pitt) For general or special duties and chemical applications, the shaft is supported in radial bearings at relatively short distences depending on speed and total length varying from 4-6 feet. Bearings are either lubricated by the pumped liquids or by grease etc, supplied in some cases by automatic grease pumps. Lengths of shafting are connected by couplings which act as bearing journals. Top seal depending on duty lip seals, for bearing grease retention. For high speed applications oil lubricated bearings are often used

requiring suitable seals etc.

The pumped fluid is discharged by separate pipe. Compare this arrangement with tank top mounted pumps with column discharge.


157

5~~~~~~--~

6

18

Key

1. Motor

2. Shaft extension

3. Mounting bracket

4. Adjusting shim

5. Thrower

6. Overflow

7. Leakage

8. Upper rotor casing

9. Lower rotor casing

10. Clamp ring

11. Vapour seal

12. Vapour seal cover plate

13. Shaft clamp stud

14. Clamp stud 1 5. Upper body

16. impeller

17. Delivery

18. Suction

19. Loose coupling flange shown chaindotted

No.16 Special vertical chemical pump in plastic materials or metals

(Kestner

The pump can only be mounted in the vertical position. No stuffingbox or mechanical seal is used. The relatively small leakage controlled by annular clearance is allowed to overflow to the suction vessel. There is no rubbing or contact of the impeller on the pump casings. Suitable for handling corrosive, erosive and abrasive fluids,

acids, alkalies and other chemicals.

158

APPENDIX II

(II)


159

A. Integral drum design

Key

1. Outer drum integral with screws

2. Archemedean screw

3. Support rollers

4. Motor drive

5. Belt or chain drive

6. Bottom bearing

7. Drive coupling and top bearing

B. Open trough design

No.18 Archimedean screw pump (Sigmund Pulsometer}, Archimedean screw lift pumps are mainly applied for moderate lifts depending on size up to 10 metres for single stage. For higher lifts several stages can be applied in series. Relatively large quantities of water including applications in sewage works, drainage and irrigation from rivers etr:. Two basic designs, (a) screws integral with outer casing often in non-metallic anti-corrosion construction. The drum is supported on rollers and drive is by means of a chain or belt round the drum. (b) screws run in a trough (concrete) and are driven from top by means of a coupling. This construction requires immersed bottom bearing. Pumps are clnclined at an angle approxi-

mately30.

160

APPENDIX"

1

Schematic view of pump head with rotor case cover removed.

Key

1 . Drive shaft

2. Timing gears

3. Mechanical seals

4. Lobe rotors

5. Clearance between moving parts

6. Rotors mounted on 'zero' clearance splines

7. Ports in rotorcase

8. Rotorcase cover retained by wing nuts

9. Space separating pump head from gear box

10. Rolling element bearings

11. Cast iron gearcase

No. 19 Stainless food rotary pump. (Stai nl ess Steel Pumps Ltd) Lobe pump for the pumping of foodstuffs with all parts in contact with the pumped fluid in inert material such as various grades of stainless steel. The lobes are driven via timing gears and cannot touch. Gears and bearings are located in a gearbox which is separated from the pump by a large gap sealed by lip seals on the gaarbox side and mechanical seals on the pump side. For cleaning and inspection the pump cover is held by studs and wingnuts. Passages in pump are designed for easy cleaning and discourage

deposits of pumped fluid.


161

'.

162

_j

APPENDIX II


163

164

APPENDIX II


165

..

N

Key

1. Drive spi ndl e

2. Auxil iary screws

3. Relief valve

4. Ha ndwheel for rei i ef val ve

operation

5. Screw housing

6. Balanci ng device

7. Thrust bearing

8. Suction space

9. Discharge space

No.23 Internal bearing screw pump.

Positive displacement axial flow pump usually of the single entry (flow) type. Relatively high speed through pump. The drive from the main spindle to auxiliary spindle is normally transmitted by hydraulic pressure, although in some designs this is done by the flanks of the screws. Main applications are for fuel, lubricating and hydraulic oils. Pressures are normally in excess of those of the

external bearing screw pumps.

'I

,I 'I' I!l

I

I

166

.;:

I

APPENDIX"

Key

1. Non-retu rn valve

2. Pumpshaft upper bearing

3. Impeller

4. Diffuser

5. Mechanical seal

6. Pump shaft lower bearing

7. Splined drive coupling

8. Motor shaft upper bearing

9. Stator

10. Rotor

11. Motor shaft lower bearing

12. Thrust bearing

13. Pressure balance diaphragm

No.25 Electrosubmersible pump (Stothert & Pitt - Garvens)

Most pumps of this type are for clean water although some versions are supplied for contaminated liquids. Normally such pumps and their drive motor are of relatively small diameter in order to suspend the unit (the motor is below the pump) from the discharge pipe in relatively narrow boreholes etc. If the pumps are provided with a suitable suction vessel they can also be installed in horizontal pioelines and used as booster or pipeline pumps. The stator of the motor is normally wound with waterproof windings and can, if necessary, be separated from the rotor by a thin antimagnetic sheath. The rotor space of the motor containing also journal and thrust bearings is normally filled with clean water separated from the pumped fluid by a mechanical seal. In order to maintain the correct fluid pressure in the motor and prevent ingress of possibly contaminated well water into the motor and bearings a rubber diaphragm is usually

fitted.

PUMPUSERS'HANDBOOK

167

4

14

i I

I I

16

'+-------17

Key

1. Suction branch

2. Impeller nut

3. Impeller

4. Pump casing

5. Plain bearing

6. Shaft

8. Plain bearing

9. Bearing housing

10. Thrust plate

11. Discharge branch

12. Casing wear ring

13. Thermal barrier

15. Stud

16. Rotor laminations

17. Motor casi ng

18. Terminal box

19. Motor cover casing

20. Thrust pads

21. Thrust assembly housing

7. Stator laminations 14. Bearing sleeve

No. 26 Vertical wet motor driven glandless circulating pump.

(KSB)

Vertical single·stage glandless hot water circulating pump with wet stator electric motor drive. Mainly used for boiler circulation and similar forced circulation duties, main coolant circulation and other miscellaneous nuclear reactor operating services. All bearings in this design are lubricated by the pumped fluid and (where required) a thermal barrier is provided to separate the main flow of the pump from the motor windings and bearings. The windings of the motor

are made in a material compatible with the fluid pumped.

168

Key

1. Suction cover

2. Impeller

3. Diffuser

4. Volute casing

5. Pumping device

6. Bearing bracket

APPENDIX II

2

3 _-

12--

(~i8:~ifffi

L..Y"'""' .... ~~-J.tt .nr-r

~~ III

~-4--....J11 '---.--r-------.-.i:lI/1

rl

I

I

I

I

I

I )

--~-~~_/

18·

7. Bearing bush

8. Shaft sleeve

9. Shaft

10. Motor lantern

11. Stator can

12. Motor casing

13. Bearing bush

14. Thrust bearing disc

15. Thrust bearing seat

16. Terminal box

17. Motor casing cover

18. Rotor position indicator

No.27 Glandless two~tage canned motor pump. (KSB)

Glandless vertical two-stage pump with canned electric motor drive, for highly volatile toxic and explosive liquids not containing solids. One of the main design features is the lubrication of a/l bearings by the pumped liquid. A sufficient flow of fluid at the correct temperature is provided by a pumping device ensuring the flow through bearings and cooler. The exchange of fluid is partly by thermo-

syphonic action.


Key

1. Shaft with keyway

2. Wear ring

3. Constant level oiler

4. Bearing housing

5. Shaft sleeve

6. Rotary seal

7. Bearing bracket

8. Locking ring

9. Volute casing

10. Drain plug

11. Bearing bush

12. Venting plug

13. Bearing cover

14. Angular contact ball bearing

15. End cover

16. Rotary seal

17. End cover

18. Shaft seal

19. Bearing housing

20. Impeller

21. Case wear ring

22. Impeller lock screw

No.2B Vertical process pump. (KSB)

Vertical single stage process pump meeting specifications according to API 610 for hydrocarbons, liquified gases, cryogenics and various applications in the petrochemical field. A feature of this design is the provtsion of a barrier space sealed at both ends by rnech;jflical seals. The space between the seals is normally filled with a suitable liquid which can, if necessary, be circulated, cooled and pressurized. The journal bearing near the impeller is lubricated by the pumped fluid which can be circulated by being returned to the suction side of the pump. Note the heavy thrust bearing partly due to

unbalanced impeller.

169

170

APPENDIX II

2

Key

1. Motor casing cover

2. Cylindrical roller bearing

3. Motor casing

4. Rotor, complete

5. Submersible motor

6. Bearing housing

7. Deep groove ball bearing

8. Mechanical seal motor side

9. Mechanical seal pump side

10. Shaft protection sleeve

11. Discharge cover

12. Pump casing

13. Impeller screw

14. Impeller

15. Casing wear ring

16. Holding

17. Guide wire

18. Claw

4_
~.
j 6.
8
9
10
11·
12
13
14 16

No.29 Electro-submersible sewage pump. (KSB)

Electro-submersible unit for handling crude untreated sewage, raw sludges, activated sludges and pre-screened sewage. In order to protect the electric motor against the ingress of contaminated fluid double mechanical seals are provided with the space between the seals filled with suitable fluid. Normally grease packed anti-friction bearings carry radial and axial loads. A quick release connection without bolts is provided to connect the pump outlet to the

discharge line.


9

Key

1. Electric motor

2. Motor stool

3. Spacer drive coupling

4. Mechanical seal assembly

5. Suction branch

6. Pump cover barrel

7. Suction passage

8. Tie bolt

9. Shaft

10. Discharge branch

11. Journal bearing

12. Transfer passage

13. First stage impeller

14. Diffuser

13

-14

171

No. 30 Vertical multi-stage barrel type pump (J & S Pumps Ltd) This type of pump is particularly suitable for high and low temperature applications since temperature transmission along the shaft, resulting at high/low tempereture at the bearings is avoided. Bearings axial loadings are reduced by the beck-to-beck Impeller arrangement. The axial load is supported by a motor bearing. Furthermore the stuffing-box (mechanical seat) is only subjected to approximately half the generated plus suction pressure. The spacer coupling is of sufficient length to facilitate the servicing and

removal of the mechanical seal.

o

172

APPENDIX II


173

2

6

9

10

Key

1. Discharge manifold

2. Valve seat

3. Valve ball

4. Diaphragm

5. Air chamber

6. Suction/discharge chamber

7. Shaft

8. Piston

9. Air valve assembly

10. Suction manifold

14

5~.

16

18

Key

1. Motor cooling flow connection (pumped liquid).

2. Flow control orifice

3. Over temperature protection terminals

4. Journal bearing - motor end

5. Motor case

6. Bearing housing - pump end

7. Discharge branch

8. Impeller

9. Bearing housing - motor end

10. Motor terminals

11. Cable entry

12. Stator liner can

13. Stator - electric motor

14. Rotor - electric motor

15. Tilting pad - Thrust bearing

16. Shaft

17. Journal bearing - pump end

18. Suction branch

No. 31 Canned motor pump unit (J & S Pumps Ltd)

The pump operates with zero leakage. It is used for the pumping of acids, general chemicals, liquified gases, heat transfer medias etc. Units of this type can operate under high pressure or at ultra low temperature. The bearings are lubricated by the pumped fluid.

No. 32 Air operated double diaphragm pump

Pumps of this type possess no stuffing-box and are therefore often used for slurries, chemicals and other fluids presenting difficulties to other pumps. The motive power is air-pressure and quantity depending on the pump duty. An air-control mechanism directs the air alternately to the two air-chembers with the air being exhausted at

the end of each stroke.

Air pressure is between 30 and 100 Iblin2, varying with pump pressure and pump capacity. The free air requirement is approximately three times the pump capacity for low pressure pump duty,

and nine times the pump capacity for high pressure.

The duty envelope is an approximate triangle extending from maximum pressure to maximum pump capacity.

174

APPENDIX III

APPENDIX III - FLUIDS AND MATERIALS
MATERIALS FOIl PUWS
G_ CorrDlion R.ilting
-, M •• rieI G_
L .... d ~of C_ 1 1 1
Ucooid Sy_ I .. .. I
1 ., :! ~
f .. i t :I 1
I J !
! 1 .lI i j
.. J c c z I I
S ! i i l
~ i % % z
Acetllldlhydt C2H.O ·
Acet ... $01 ... ,"u ·
Ace, ... C,HsO
Acid. Acetic Cone. Cold C,H102
Acid,Acetic Oil. Cold
Acid. Acetic Cone. Boiling
Acid, Acetic Oil. Boiling
I Acid, Benzoic C,H.O,
t Acid, Boric Aqueous Sol. H]SO,
.. Acid, Butyric Cone. C.H,O,
Acid. Carbolic Con. (M.P."·C' e.H,O 0
Acid, Clrbolic (500 .... noI' 0
Add. Corbonl< Aqueous Sot. CO, +H,O
Acid, ChromiC Aqueous So .. c"O, + H2O
Acid. Citric Aqueous Sol. e,H,c, + H2O
Acido. Fotty (Oleic.
Pllmitic. 511aric. etc)
Acid. Formic CH,O 2
Acid, Fruit
Acid. Hydrochloric Cornl. Cone. HCI
Acid. Hydrochloric Oil. Cold
Acid, Hydrochloric Oil. Hot
Acid, HydrOCYlnic HCN
Acid. Hydrofluoric AnhydrOUS, with HF + H,C,
Carbon
Acid, Hydrofluoric AquiOUS Sol. HF ·
Add. Lactic: C,H,O, •
Acid, Mine W_,
Acid, Mixed Sulphurk; + Nitric
Acid. Muri.tic (SH Acid, Hydrochloric)
Add, NlPhthinic
Acid, Nitric Cone. Boiling HNO,
Acid. Nitric Oilu ..
Acid.Oulic Cold C,H,O,.2H2O
_.0.011< Hot C2H2O •. 2H2O
Add, Orth~PhoIphoric H,PO.
_.Plcric: C.H,N,O,
_.,._1< C,H.O, 0
_.Sulphuric >7'" Cold H2SO4
_.SUI ..... ric .....->WC •
_.SUI ....... _<n"C •
_ ._1< 10- _ •
_Sulphuric < 1,", •
_. SuIpIIuric (OIlton, Fuming H2SO. +502
_ .SuI __ H2SO, 0
_.T ... 1c CIlH,.O, • 0
_.T_I< _Sol. e.H.O.,H2O • 0
- •
AI .................... _Sol. A1:I(50.),
-- NH40H •
A_' __ _Sol. NH,HCO, •
- ..... ~ _Sol. NH,C' • 0
_ ..... - _Sol. NH,NO, •
_ ..... SuIpIIoIt _Sol. (NH,',so. •
_m_ W ........... rlclCid • 0
- CoH,N • •
-, Hot • PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK

175

MATERIALS FOR PUMPS
Graup Com:.ion ""'-
..... n ... _ .... 0.-
Liquid Condition of Chemic"
Liquid Symbol
! 1 ~ !
i ..
1 II .~ ~ ~
.. I i !
j ~ E :I II
! .a ~ .lI J J
~ c z I I
S .. I i i
:ii ~ 6 .. % % ill z
Barium Chloride Aqueous Sol. BICI, ·
BlriumNitrlte Aqueous Sol. BI(NO,h · 0
... r · 0
Beer Wort · 0
Beet Juice · 0
Beet Pulp · · 0
Benzene C,Hs
Benzine (See Petroleum Etherl ·
Benzol (See Benanel ·
Bleck liquor (See liquor, Pulp Mill'
Bttach Solutions (See Typel
Blood · ·
Brine, Cllcium Chloride pH>B CaCI2 ·
Brine, Calcium Chloride pH<8 · 0 · ·
Brine, Calcium ... d · 0 · ·
Mlgrlesium ChIOfides Aqueous Sol.
Brine, C"cium ... d · 0 · ·
Sodium OIloride Aqueous Sot.
Brine, Sodium OIloride Under 3% SIlt, Cold NaCl · •
Over 3% Salt, Cold · 0 · ·
Brine, Sodium Chloride 0 0 · ·
Brine, Sodium Chloride Over 3% SIlt, Hot
Brine, Sol Wlttr • · ·
Bu_ C.H1o · ·
• 0 ·
Cllcium Chlorite Aqueous Sot. Ca(CI01)22H20 · 0
Calcium Hypochlorite Ca(OClh
· · ·
Cene Juice
C.,bonate of SodI (5ooS_Aoh, · •
C.bon Tetrachloride Anhydrous CCI,
Carbon Tetrachloride Plus Water · ·
C ... ticPotelh (See Potlaium Hydroxide)
Caustic SodI (See Sodium Hydroxide) • 0
Cellula. AClute
Ollar .. of lime (See CIIcium Chlorate)
Chloride of lime (See Cllcium H'{POChlorite) • 0 ·
Chlorine WatJr (0_"11 on cone.' · · 0
Chlorobenzene C,H.CI
CHCI, • 0
Chloroform
CondtMltl (See W"r, OtstilledJ • ·
Copper Chloride (CupriC) Aqueous Sol, Cuel, • 0
Copper Nitrite Cu(NO,h
c-SUlph .... A_Sol. c.so. • 0
Blue Vitriol
C_ (500 011. C-,
E ..... " (SooAI ...... ' · 0 •
Ethylene OIloridi Cold C,H.CI,
(dI .... Ioridt' _Sol. FoCI, •
F.rric Odoridt 0
_Sol. Fe, ISO.), ·
ForricSulph_ •
FImIUI OIloride CoId. _ FoCI, • 0
Forrou. $utphd A_Sol. FoSO.
(G_C- .. , CH:lO • 0
F"-ydo • 0
F ..... _ e.H.Os • • 0
F_ • •
-
Gl-..SoI' (Soo_m ....... ' • •
-
GIla Hot • •
01 ....... •
G_(~n, e.H,c, • • •
_L_ (Soo L_ ...... MIlt, 176 APPENDIX III PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK 177
MATE RIALS FOR PUMPS
APPENDIX III lcontd.1 Group CorrOlion R_sting
M_,ial. •• rial G,_
MATERIALS FOR PUMFS liquid Condition of Chemtc81
liquid Symbol
Group Corrosion Resisting ! ! ~
"'.rials M •• rial Gras g ~
j .~ ·8 a S
liquid Condition of Chemic.t 1 .. .. j ~ ~
~ ~ J .~
liquid Symbol e !
.~ .. Z j 8
! ! i .. ! i i 1 ! ! J
f ! " a Ii :z: :z: :I .. z
! 1 ~ :;;:
..
= E J I SaltWater (See Bnnes!
~ ~ J SeaWater (See Brines)
Z ~ I Sew ...
S .. ! io io
a a Shellac
..J i i :I Z Silv,rNitrate Aqueous Sol AgNC)
Slop, Brewery
HYdrogen Peroxide Aqueous Sol. H201 Slop. Distillers
HYdrogen Sulphide Aqueous Sol H,S SoaP Liquor
HydrOlUlphi*of Sod. (See Sodium Thiosulphlte) Soda Ash Cold Na2CO)
HYJ*Ulphite of SodI (See Sodium Hydrosulphi1lt' Soda Ash Hot .
Keolin SUp Suspension in W,.r Sodium Bicarbonate Aqueous Sol NaHCO) 0
KlOIinSlip Suspensi on in Acid Sodium Bisulphate Aqueous Sol NaHSO"
K'rmene ISee Oil, Kerosene) Sodium Carbonate (See Sod. Ash)
Lon! Hot Sodium Chlorate Aqueous Sol NaCIOl
Load_ Aqueous Sol. Pb(CaH,Ozh· Sodium Chloride (See Brinesl
(Sup, of Load) 3H,O Sodium Cyanide Aqueous Sol NaCN ·
Lin. W •• r (Milk of Lime) C.IOHh Sodium Hydroxide Aqueous Sc» NaOH ·
Liquor - Pulp Mill :Black · Sodium Hypochlorite NaOCI
Liquor - Pulp Mill :Gr .. n · Sodium Hyposulptllte (See Sodium
LiQuor - Pulp Mill :White Thiosulphatel
Uquor - Pulp Mill :Pink Sodium Meta Silicate
Liquor - Pulp Mill: Sodium Nitrate Aqueous Sol NaNDI
Sulphi. Sodium Sulphate Aqueous Sol NalSO.
Lye, CatHie (SH Pot_tum .,d Sodium Sulphide Aqueous Sol NalS
Sodium HydrOKide) Sodium Sulphite Aqueous Sol. Na]SO)
Magnesium Chl;.t Aqueous Sol. MgClJ Sodium Thiosulphate Aqueous Sol Na]SlO)
M ..... iumSui Aqueous Sol. MgSO. SH]O
(E_Sltu) Stannic Chloride Aqueous Sol. s-ci,
Merc:uric Sulph_ In Sulphuric Acid HgSO. + HI SO. Stannous Chloride Aqueous Sol. SnCI]
Methyl Olloride CH1CI Stlrch (C.H1oOsIX
Methylene OIloride CHaCla Strontium Nitrate Aqueous Sol SrINO]I]
Milk SUgir Aqueous Sol
MiHtof Lime (See Lime ·W .. r) Sulphite liquor (See liquor. Pulp MilO
MineW .... (See Acid. Mine Wiler) Sulphar In Water
MoI_ Sulphur Molten
Nephthl Sulphur O1loride Cold SlCI]
_ •• Crudo Syrup (See Sugar)
Oil. eo.! T. Tallow Hot
Oil, Coconut Tanning liquo1"5
Oil.C_ Ta< Hot ·
Oil. Crude Cold Tar .,d Ammonia In Water ·
Oil.CnIdo Hot Tetraethyllead PbIC]H5).
Oil. F", Toluene (TeluoO C7H]
OH, KtrCIIIM Trichlorethylene C]HCI]
OiI.L_ · • · Urine
Oil, Lubricadng • • Varnish
OIt.MI ..... VegatableJuices
OII.OIift · · Vinegllr
Oil.l'llm • • Vitriol, Blue (See Copper Sulphite)
OiI.R_.t ViViol, Green ISee Ferrous Sulphate I
OII.Saot._ • • Vitriol,White ISee Zinc Sulphate
OII.T..._.. .. · · Wlter, Boiler Feed Not ."aporated pH>B.5
_In Hot • • Wlter, High MMeup Not e"lPCN"ated pH < B.5
"_E_ • Wa.r, Low Mlkeup E"aporlwd any pH
- C.H,O Wl1er,DistiUed High ,,"ity
Water, Distilled CondenSite ·
"' __ leDewI_' Wa.r, Freth •
PI __ (Conou" Pump Mfto.) Water, Mine ISee Acid, Mine Wlter)
- PI,,'L_ W ..... , Salt .,d Sea (See Brinn)
-~ _Sol. K,oo, Whisky
..... umChI .... _Sol. KCI02 White Liquor (See Uquor. Pulp Mill)
_01_ _Sol. KCI • WhiteW.ter P_rMiII ·
_mHy_ .... _Sol. KOH • \ w'" • • •
_N_ _Sol. KNO, • _~(Stock)
_SuI""" _Sol. K,S04 • Wood V_ (See Acid Pyroligneous)
,,_ C,H, • • Won (SH Bee, Wort)
Py ....... C.H.N • Xylol (Xylenel C,H1o ·
Py' ...... SuI"" .. V •• t • •
Rhlclolene • Zinc OIloridt _Sol. ZnCl2 •
Zinc Sulphite Aqueous Sol. zsso, 188

TECHNICAL DATA

TECHNICAL DATA CHART NO.5

METRIC UNITS IN THE PUMP INDUSTRY SI UNITS AND SOME PREFERRED UNITS

Explanatory Notes: The SI is a coherent system of units, and this term should be explained. A system is coherent if the product or quotient of any two unit quantities in the system is the unit of the resultant quantity. For example in any coherent system unit area results when unit length is multiplied by unit length, unit velocity when unit length is divided by unit time and unit force when unit mass is multiplied by unit acceleration. The International System of units is based on the following - in the Pump Industry - applicable units:

metre (m) kilogramme (Kg) second (s)

Degree Celsius (oC)

length (L)

Mass (M)

time (T) Temperature (1)

Some of the derived units frequently used in the Industry are:

Newton (unit of force): "N" = 1 Kg/ms-2 (ML r2)

Radian/Second (angular velocity) : "R/s" (T-1) 1 R/s = 9.52 rev/min Watt (unit of power): "W" = 1 Joule/s = 1 Nm/s (ML2r3)

Pascal (unit of pressure): "Pa" = 1 N/m2 (M L-1 T-2)

The SI being a coherent system of units provides naturally for a coherent unit of force, namely the Newton, and for the derivatives of that unit for quantities such as pressure, stress, work and power. In practical work it has been a common practice to use weight units as force units; in other words the unit of force which applied to unit mass produces an acceleration g.

Units of Pressure and Stress

The SI unit of pressure and stress is the Newton per square metre, the bar and some of its decimal multiples are used or adopted on an interim basis for the expression of metric values of stress or pressure (eg 1 bar = 105 N/m2).

The following Table shows the Pump Industry's relevant units within the SI system and also certain recommended preferred terms for the use in this industry which facilitates day to day communications.


189

Oetcription PURE SI UNITS PUMP INDUSTRY PREFERRED ulms
.nd Unit Symbol DirMnlion Unit Symbol DImoIllion -.
Symbol
Length
Dimension metre m IL) mm if neceISIry
L
Are. Square metre m' IL') mm' if neceulrv
A
Velocity Metre/Second ml, IL· T"')
v
--_- --
Volume Cubic metre m' IL') Litre I IL') Litre
V optional
-----
Flow Rate Cubic metrel mJ/s IV ·rl) Cubic metre/hour m'th IL' • 1"') lIs if necessary
Q second Litre/minute Wn
Pressure Pascal p. (MoL"I·r1)
p Newton/square metre
Head Metre m IL)
H
Net Positive
Suction Head Metre m IL)
NPSH
Specific RAD/s • ,rmrrs- - IL·%·TlI) rev/min' ..;mrJh 11) IL*.T"'I,) -Seen01e
5peed ns 11) . Ig. H)14 H14
Fon:. Newton N IM'L'P)
P
Powe' Witt W IM·L'·P) Kilowatt kW IM·L'·T") I BHP- o.746kW
p
DYMmic Newton'
VilCOIity Second/m1 Ns/mJ IM·T"·L·') Centipoise cP (M'T" ·L·') 1 cP - 10" NoIm'
"
Kinerutic Squire
VilCOIity metre/sec mils IL"r' ) Centistoke es (L"T") 1cS. 1U e , m' 'il
·
Vocuum Pneal (N/m' ) p. (M·L·'·T') Millibar mbor (M'L"·r') 1 be, - 750 mlm HO
1 mb-l00N/m'
Density Kilogram/m' KoIm' (M'L")
·
T...",.,. ... re D_CoIsiu. ·c (1)
It
Efficiency _. • (1)
•
Spood Rodi"""-'d rodI. (T') i.R_ti""" rw/min (T') lrr4/s-Ulrw/rrtln
• minu. (1) N_: In tho Imperio! _ ... - ",/m: .,Jfi It

multiply 51 unit by 2500 to""" otlmporiol unit_

Multiply pure 51 unit by 3175 to..,... •• "PIPU" unit .o!ue

190

TECHNICAL DATA


I DESCRIPTION I
FRICTION LOSS IN PIPES (FEET!
THE FRICTION LOSSES SHOWN INCLUDE A SAFETY FACTOR re CATER FOR NOT ENTIRELY NEW PIPES.
FOR FAIRLY OLD ROUGH PIPES MULTIPLY BY 1.26 -1.30.
INTERMEDIATE VALUES CAN BE INTERPOLATED.
PIPE v-_~ FLOW tpl'min)
IIZE SRI
10 20 .. .. 100 200 300 500 750 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
311 1.3 5 ".5 35
Ill" 3110 •. 7 ".0 35 58
3IlOO
311 0." I." 5.1 10.0 25
2 3110 3.3 •. e 13.5 21.0 33
3IlOO :M 71
311 0." I." ... 11.0 43
211 3110 1.8 3.3 ... 10.0 23 7e
3IlOO 17.5 311 83
311 0.86 1.50 3.50 13.0 3" .,
3 3110 0.' 1.50 2.8 '.e 7.0 14.0 58
3IlOO 7.' 15.0 33 .. 71
311 0." 1.0 '.1 7 .• 21
• 3110 0.5 1.0 1.50 2.5 7.0 14.0
3IlOO 2.5 5.0 10.0 16.0 25 51 71
30 2.5 s, e 10.0
• 3110 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.50 e.o 10.0 23.0
3IlOO 1.311 2.0 3.0 5.1 10 15.0 25
311 0.86 1.50 2.5 5.3 10 20
• 3110 0.5 0." 2.' 5.1 7.' 20
3IlOO 1.50 3.0 '.' 7.' 13.0 '8.0 25
311 0.25 0.110 0.' 1.10 3.0 1.1 11.10 11.0
10 3110 0.21 0.50 1.0 1.4 3.0 8.0 13.0 18.0 31
3IlOO 0.86 1.311 2.0 3.0 5.1 ... 1.7 13.1 21.0 25
311 1.0 1.30 3.0 5.1 7.'
12 - 0.1 o.a G.I 2.1 1.1 10.0 13.0
- 1.1 2.1 3.3 5.1 ... 10.0 13.1 11.0 PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK


REF.

\ RESISTANCE OF FITTINGS EXPRESSED IN I

EOUIVALENT LENGTHS OF STRAIGHT STANDARD PIPE IN FEET

PIPE SIZE GATE GLOBE ANGLE CLOSE LONG SWEEP MEDIUM STANDARD TEE
fiNCHES) VALVE VALVE VALVE ME TURN ELBOW SWEEP ELBOW THROUGH
BEND OR ON RUN ELaow OR ON RUN SIDE
OF OR ON RUN OF TEE OUTLET
STANDARD OF TEE REDUCED
TEE REOUCEO IN SIZE
~ 8 ~ IN SIZE BY "'l
@~ BY It,
~ ~ 1f!]'
'1
@ @ @
'h 0.31 2.50 1.12 1.25 0.41 0.52 0.84 1.86
14 0.44 3.50 1.57 1.75 0.57 0.73 1.17 2.33
0.57 4.68 2.11 2.34 0.77 0.98 1.57 3.11
1'4 0.82 6.54 2.94 3.27 1.07 1.37 2.19 4.35
1'h 0.98 7.64 3.52 3.92 1.29 1.84 2.63 5.20
2 1.32 10.60 4.77 5.30 1.74 2.23 3.55 7.05
2'h 1.64 13.12 5.91 6.56 2.16 2.75 4.39 8.71
3 2.13 17.06 7.69 8.54 2.81 3.59 5.72 11.40
3'h 2.53 20.26 9.10 10.13 3.34 4.26 6.80 13.50
4 2.96 23.68 10.65 11.84 3.90 4.97 7.04 15.75
4'h 3.27 27.00 12.14 13.50 4.45 5.66 9.05 17.96
5 3.86 31.02 13.95 15.51 5.11 6.52 10.40 20.80
6 4.81 38.54 17.35 19.27 6.35 8.09 12.90 25.80
7 5.75 46.08 20.70 23.02 7.59 9.86 15.40 30.60
8 6.70 53.60 24.10 26.80 8.85 11.20 17.90 35.60
10 8.75 70.00 31.50 35.00 11.54 14.70 23.40 46.60
12 10.90 87.40 39.30 43.70 14.40 19.35 29.30 58.10 191

192

TECHNICAL DATA


I DESCfllPTION I STANDARD
FRICTION LOSS CALCULATION FORM
REF.
THIS FORM IS INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE
SI_LE AND REASONABL V RELIABLE CALCU·
LATION OF FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPELINES.
THE VALUES OF SIZE CORRECTION AND SIZE
FACTORS APPLY TO AVERAGE CONDITIONS.
FOR RELATIVELY HIGH FLOW SPEEDS IT IS
ADVISABLE TO CHECK FACTORS FOR
THE ACTUAL FITTINGS USED.
EXAMPLE SHOWN. SKETCH OF PIPELINE
• WATER ;r PIPELINE 0 E SIZE
VISCOSITY A B C CORRECTION
FACTOR FOR
2 BASIC NOMINAL SIZE 6" • 3" • PIPE FITTINGS
DATA Nomin" eo._
• FLOW RATE 50Qgal/mine 250gal/min. .... F_
- 11 0.31
5 TYPE IFlewr No Value ~~ Value ~ V.lue No V .. u. NO v_ " 0."
Off Off Off
I .......... 1.0 • 0.51
7 GlobevllVtl B.I 2. 16.2. '. 8.,. .% 0.12
3.6 .11 0.98
• AngI.vaive
1---
• CtoMretumbem 3.6 2 '.32
• 0 i long sw.p etbow '.3 211 ....
n ~ Run~'T' 1.3 3 2..3
'2 .. Medium IWIiIP elbow '.7 •• 6.B • • 2.98
z
::;
.3 Ie Run" reduClld 'T' 1.7 5 3."
i:
.- i!! _oIbow 2.7 • 4.81
.S ~ Run }!. NduC«l 'T' 2.7 7 5.75
.1 ~ 'T' through side outtet 5.3 2. '0.6. '. 5.3. 8 1.70
17 .... Non retum v.ve 2.7 '. 2.7 • '0 8.75
!.!
II If Fitter stniner '2 10.10
II
I FROM
20 THIS
2. TOTALS 38.3. '3._. J TABLE
22 SIZE CORRECTION FACTOR 4.81. 2.'3.
23 Toteh x Ii. carr. fIctor is 1.75. 28.5.
.... iYlMnt pipe"'"
2< _tP;,._ .2 • '0 •
26 ~ .... " ..... ,.- 237 • 38.5.
23+20
21 Friction ....... 100 t.t piping 3' • 23' • TOTAL
tot flow"" 3· FRICTION LOSS
27 COL A·Em
FRICTION LOSS FOR SECTION 7.2 8.1 11.7 •
21 • Figur •• tc marked thus • are an example of a calculation



OIL VISCOSITIES

Note: This chart gives average values only, If required oil suppliers should be consulted for exact data

120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
M
M A. 8unker 'C' fuel oil 8. '3500' sec'. fuel oi I

C. '400 sec'. fuel oil

D. Heavy diesel fuel oil

E. Light diesel fuel oil

F. Coal tar fuel 2001-250

G. Coal tar fuel 501100

H. Lubricating oil SAE 50

J. Lubricating oil SAE 30

K. Lubricating oil SAE 20

L. Lubricating oil SAE 10

193

194

TECHNICAL DATA VISCOSITY AND BRIX, BEAUME, For general information on viscosity see para 2b3a

Viscosity Conversions
Redwood No. Engler Centistokes SSU
Standard (100 centistokes Saybolt
Seconds Seconds equal 1 Stoke' Seconds
Universal
91300 144000 21000 100000
82100 130000 18900 90000
73000 120000 16800 80000
64000 100000 14700 70000
54900 86500 12600 60000
45700 72000 10500 50000
41100 64500 9450 45000
36500 60000 8500 40000
32000 50000 7350 35000
27400 45000 6300 30000
22800 36000 5250 25000
18400 30000 4250 20000
13700 21500 3150 15000
9000 15000 2200 10000
8000 13000 1950 9000
7100 12000 1700 8000
6200 10500 1500 7000
5400 9000 1300 6000
4300 7500 1050 5000
3600 5500 850 4000
2600 4500 630 3000
1800 3000 420 2000
900 1500 220 1000
800 1300 195 900
710 1200 170 800
620 1050 150 700
540 900 130 600
430 750 105 500
340 550 85 400
260 450 63 300
195 300 42 200
90 150 22 100
80 130 19 90
70 120 17 80
62 100 14 70
54 90 10 60
43 75 7 50
36 55 4 40 CHART NO.l0

API CONVERSION CHART

Intermediate values can be interpolated from the tables.

195

Beaume - Spec. Gravity Brix values
Specific Gravity - Beaume
API Liquid
or Heavier Lighter Brix Specific Beaume
Beaume than than Gravity
water water
Specific Gravity
0 1.000 - 0 1.00 0
2 1.014 - 2 1.01 1.13
4 1.028 - 4 1.02 2.24
6 1.043 - 6 1.02 3.37
8 1.058 - 10 1.04 5.60
10 1.074 1.000 12 1.046 6.71
12 1.090 0.986 14 1.057 7.81
15 1.115 0.966 18 1.074 10.04
18 1.141 0.946 20 1.083 11.15
20 1.160 0.934 22 1.092 13.30
22 1.178 0.921 26 1.110 14.45
24 1.198 0.910 28 1.120 15.54
26 1.218 0.898 30 1.130 16.63
28 1.239 0.887 36 1.160 19.90
30 1.260 0.876 40 1.180 22.10
35 1.318 0.850 46 1.210 25.26
40 1.381 0.825 . 50 1.230 27.88
45 1.450 0.802 55 1.261 30.00
50 1.526 0.780 60 1.290 32.60
55 1.611 0.7897 66 1.326 35.66
60 1.705 0.7398 70 1.351 37.66
65 1.812 0.7209 75 1.383 40.15
70 1.933 0.7020 80 1.403 42.60
75 - 0.6959 86 1.460 45.44
80 - 0.6696 90 1.480 47.20
85 - 0.6541 96 1.520 50.00
90 - 0.6393 100 1.560 52.00
95 - 0.625
100 - 0.611 196

TECHNICAL DATA TECHNICAL DATA CHART NO. 11

VAPOUR PRESSURES

o

o Q

8

to

o •

N

010011 :J.:I 3l1nSSl1l1d IInOd'l"


TECHNICAL DATA CHART NO. 12 SPECIFIC SPEED DIAGRAM FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

I

197

Note: The diagram is valid for single entry impellers in the case of double entry impeller the pump capacity must be halved. Specific speed refers to the design point of the pump.

J100000 ~~~O

'" 50000 60

r;: 40

~

LJ

.~ I;~

] 20

fi-10000

] ~ 10

g 5000 ;r

~ ~8.0

- Capacity per impeller' 60

: eye is 2000gal/min t 5'0

~OOO .._ 4:0 ~~

, -

~ 1000

~

-:; 500

r

:~ 200 ~ j-100

j

:f1.0 ~ 0.8

-: 0.6 ";: 0.5

! 0.4

0.3

':: 50

c'

'E i

"01: ., 0

., ._,

0. ... en ::l

~g

._ .,

u ... ., ... 0.., (1)0.

Example:

What is the specific speed of a two stage double entry pump designed for a capacity of 4000gal/min. Total head 160ft at 1750rev/min.

ns = 1.70 x 1 750 = ~

5

10

20

Specific speed

2.0 per rev/min = 1.70

25 30 35 40

0.2

50 60 70

Head per / 80 impeller = 80 feet 90

100 120 140 160 180 200

0.1

250 ; j300

~~350

~ 400 ~ 450

"" ./
120 "","" ~
",'" ~ ....
110 /'
./- l<~. ....... V ... ....
100 - - ...-
.--:< k:: ~ ~V ..... I
90
80 /<: ~ ~ rJ~ N-~d{r,Y/minl :.
t"">~ ~ ~ ~ r----- K .. Pump power [kWI
n .. Number of 11 •• M
70
.. ~ ~ ~ ~ POliti ... DitPl.cement Pumps
60
~ I I (N'K)
I 1010910: ~ 198

TECHNICAL DATA

TECHNICAL DATA CHART NO. 13

A GUIDE TO THE NOISE LEVEL OF PUMPS

Graph 'A' is a guide to the approximate noise level of pumps. It refers to the common origins of noise levels, the stray band being due to factors arising from favourable or unfavourable conditions as the case may be like quality of design, manufacture, type of bearings, unbalance etc.

It is pointed out that the graph also refers to site installations in accordance with best practice regarding pipework, valve types, location of valves, type of bedplates, couplings, etc.

Poor installations can adversely and sign ificantly affect the noise level of pumps. The pump maker's advice should be sought in cases where the predicted noise level is near the permissible noise level on site.

The graph also refers to pumping conditions without onset of cavitation and - in the case of centrifugal pumps - to operation within the vicinity of the point of best efficiency.

In the case of positive displacement pumps a correction factor (depending on operating pressure) should be applied to the predicted noise level shown in graph 'A'.

30

40

50

60

70

60

A. NOISE LEVEL OF PUMPS

Z 1.2 -
0
~x ,...
~~ 1.0 V
"~
"" /
8~ 0.8 II' PrllllUr.llb/in1J
_j I I
100 200 JOO 400 500 B. CORRECTION FACTOR POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Loose copies of these charts are available from TTP.


199


An extract of ISO Class C acceptance test code (ISO 2548/88 5316)

Note: In this extract the numbers of paragraphs of the Class C Test Code are retained for ease of reference.

The code contains the following information:

a) Definitions of terms and symbols.

b) Total head developed by pumps and how to measure it.

c) How to measure capacity and power

d) Methods to establish NPSHreq.

e) Test Installation layout to ensure accurate results.

fI The required degree of accuracy of test instruments.

g) How to ensure correct instrument readings.

h) The permissible tolerances of performance.

j) Tolerances for performance of 'mass produced pumps'.

k] Literature and related standards and rules which are applicable to the various sections

of the Test Code.

It is the maker's responsibility to ensure the observance of rules governing the test installation to ensure accuracy of measurements. The user's inspection authority and the test personnel of the pump maker must be expected to be familiar with the methods referring to the establishment of the total head developed and to measure the capacity correctly.

When necessary, reference must be made to gl. All parties to the test must observe f) and h), and direct reference to these parts of the test code can be made during test .

9.4. Verification of the guarantee 9.4.1 Curves Q/H and OITJ

Guarantee points QG HG and QGTJG are plotted on a graph and a continuous curve is drawn through the measured points Q/H and Q/TJ. For the latter curve Q is measured and TJ is calculated.

If the test is made at a speed that is different from that specified as relevant to the guaranteed values, the test points must be corrected to the specified speed in accordance with paragraph 9.2. Similarly, test results must be corrected to the specified frequency.

Tolerances ±xQ and ±XH are applied to the guaranteed duty point Q/H. In the absence of a specific agreement as to the values to be used, the following values should be used:

xQ = 0.07 xH = 0.04

If the guarantee point lies at a vertical distance ±~ and a horizontal distance ~ from the test curve (see Fig 10) the following should be evaluated

198

TECHNICAL DATA


A GUIDE TO THE NOISE LEVEL OF PUMPS

Graph 'A' is a guide to the approximate noise level of pumps. It refers to the common origins of noise levels, the stray band being due to factors arising from favourable or unfavourable conditions as the case may be like quality of design, manufacture, type of bearings, unbalance etc.

It is pointed out that the graph also refers to site installations in accordance with best practice regarding pipework, valve types, location of valves, type of bedplates, couplings, etc.

Poor installations can adversely and sign ificantly affect the noise level of pumps. The pump maker's advice should be sought in cases where the predicted noise level is near the permissible noise level on site.

The graph also refers to pumping conditions without onset of cavitation and - in the case of centrifugal pumps - to operation within the vicinity of the poi nt of best efficiency.

In the case of positive displacement pumps a correction factor (depending on operating pressure) should 00 applied to the predicted noise level shown in graph 'A'.

100

N - $pHd [rev/minI

K • Pump power (kW! n· Number of stage,

(N'K)

101og10: ~

3.

4.

5.

60

7.

60

A. NOISE LEVEL OF PUMPS

z 1.2
0
~ I .o
.
.
8 ... J.,...-

V
L
I' Prnsur. IIb/in1J
I L I
- 100

200

300

400

500

B. CORRECTION FACTOR POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Loose copies of these charts are available from TIP.


199


An extract of ISO Class C acceptance test code (ISO 2548/BS 5316)

Note: In this extract the numbers of paragraphs of the Class C Test Code are retained for ease of reference.

The code contains the following information:

a) Definitions of terms and symbols.

b) Total head developed by pumps and how to measure it.

c) How to measure capacity and power

d) Methods to establish NPSHreq.

e) Test Installation layout to ensure accurate results.

f) The required degree of accuracy of test instruments.

g) How to ensure correct instrument readings.

h) The permissible tolerances of performance.

iI Tolerances for performance of 'mass produced pumps'.

k] Literature and related standards and rules which are applicable to the various sections

of the Test Code.

It is the maker's responsibility to ensure the observance of rules governing the test installation to ensure accuracy of measurements. The user's inspection authority and the test personnel of the pump maker must be expected to be familiar with the methods referring to the establishment of the total head developed and to measure the capacity correctly.

When necessary, reference must be made to g). All parties to the test must observe f) and h), and direct reference to these parts of the test code can be made during test.

9.4. Verification of the guarantee 9.4.1 Curves Q/H and 0/11

Guarantee points 0G HG and OG11G are plotted on a graph and a continuous curve is drawn through the measured points O/H and 0111. For the latter curve 0 is measured and 11 is calculated.

If the test is made at a speed that is different from that specified as relevant to the guaranteed values, the test points must be corrected to the specified speed in accordance with paragraph 9.2. Similarly, test results must be corrected to the specified frequency.

Tolerances ±XO and ±XH are applied to the guaranteed duty point a/H. In the absence of a specific agreement as to the values to be used, the following values should be used:

xo = 0.07 xH = 0.04

If the guarantee point lies at a vertical distance ±~ and a horizontal distance too from the test curve (see Fig 10) the following should be evaluated

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