3.1.2 : As temperature increases, thermal energy increases.

Thus, as a solid gets hotter, the vibrations of

the molecules become larger and large, to the point where they break out of their rigid lattice and are free to
move around randomly. As liquids are heated, more and more molecules have sufficient energy to
completely overcome the intermolecular forces between them, and break away. eventually all the molecules
are moving randomly with no significant forces between them. As a gas is heated, the electrons of the
molecule/atoms are excited by the increased energy, to the point where eventually the electrons are excited
enough to completely escape th molecule and move independently, thus creating a plasma ... In each case
the reverse is true, as thermal energy decreases, the forces between particles pull them back form gas ->
liquid -> solid.
3.2 Thermal concepts
3.2.1 : Temperature is considered to be the hotness or coldness of an object as measured by a thermometer
... If two objects are of the same temperature, then there will be no net energy transfer between the two ...
On a microscopic level, temperature is the average kinetic energy per molecule of the molecules in the
substance.
Heat is the energy transferred between objects when they change temperature, and moves from areas of
high temperature to areas of low temperature ... ie the lower temperature object is heated :)
Internal energy is the total energy related to the thermal motion of the molecules in a substance. This
includes both vibrational and translational motion, and comprised of both the kinetic and potentials energies
of the molecules.
3.3 Specific heat capacity, specific latent heat and 'heat transmission'
3.3.1 : Specific heat capacity is a property of a substance in general, while heat capacity is the property of a
particular body, otherwise they are identical. Their purpose is to relate internal energy change to
temperature change, as different amounts of energy will be required to cause a given change in temperature
in the same mass of different substances ... delta-Q = m x C x delta-T ( ie change in internal energy = mass
x heat capacity x change in temp ).
3.3.2 : A given mass of different substance may contain different numbers of molecules, of different masses
and types. If the same amount of energy is added to two different substances, it will be distributed among
the molecules, but the average E
k
of these molecules will be different. Thus, the change in temperature will
be different, and so different heat capacities are necessary.
3.3.3 : Determining heat capacities ... There are basically two ways to do this, either by adding a certain
amount of energy to a substance and measuring the temperature change, or by mixing two substances at
different temperatures, one of which has a known heat capacity, which will allow the other to be calculated.
1) Direct ... Energy is applied to the substance using an electrical current. For a liquid, this is in the form of a
heating element being placed in the liquid, and for a solid, holes are cut in the block for an electric heater
and thermometer. The total amount of energy supplied by such an electric heater is VIt, where V = the
potential difference across the heater, I = the current running through it and t = the time the heater is on
for (in seconds). Therefore, VIt = m x C x delta-T ... and the only unknown is C.
Mixtures ... Water has a heat capacity of 4800 (
J
/
kg deg-c
). If 250 g of water (250 ml) at 25c has placed into it
a metal block of unknown heat capacity at 30c, then the temperature of the resulting mixture can be
measured once it reaches equilibrium. Thus, the amount of heat gained by the water can be calculated, but
delta-Q = 0.250 x 4800 c delta-T. Since heat gained = heat lost, the delta-Q can then be subbed into the
equation for the block ( Nb, it, and delta-T must both be negated...though these cancel out and can be
ignored ). Thus, the C value for the block can be found.
3.3.4 : Describe transformations between states in macroscopic and microscopic terms ... sounds like 3.1.2
to me...
Melting/Freezing ... Transfer between solid and liquid ... Solids -> rigid shape and constant volume. Liquid -
> constant volume, shape determined by container. Solid -> liquid ... Molecules vibrate faster and faster
eventually reaching the point where they break away from their lattice structure and are able to move freely
through the substance, thus becoming a liquid. Liquid -> solid ... molecules are slowed by the removal of
energy, eventually the intermolecular forces are dominant enough to pull them into a lattice, creating a solid.
Vaporisation/Condensation ... Transfer between liquid and gas ... Liquids -> constant volume, shape
determined by container. Gas -> No constant volume, shape fills container. Liquid -> Gas ... molecules
require a certain E
k
to completely escape from the surface of the liquid, as temp increases, faster molecules
can escape, and eventually all do, forming a gas. Gas -> Liquid ... As energy is removed, molecules slow
down, eventually the intermolecular forces become dominant enough to hold the molecules together in a
liquid.
Sublimation ... (direct) Transfer between from a Solid to a gas ... Solids -> rigid shape and constant volume.
Gas -> No constant volume, shape fills container. Solid -> Gas ... At low pressures, when the molecules in a
solid gain enough energy to escape the lattice, they already have sufficient energy to completely escape the
other molecules (because the low pressure dictates very few molecule - molecule interaction). As a result,
the solid changes directly to a gas. (This is why dry ice doesn't turn into a liquid)
3.3.5 : When substances change state, there is a period where energy is added, but no change in
temperature occurs (ie latent heat of fusion/vaporisation ). This is because, during this period, the energy
goes towards increasing the potential energies of the molecules as they move away from each other, and so
the kinetic energy does not change, and so the temperature remains constant.
3.3.6 : Solving problems with specific heat capacity and specific latent heat. This is normally done by
breaking the calculation up into a series of steps...if heat is being added, the solid (ice for example) is
heated up to 0c, then energy is required for the latent heat of fusion, then the resulting water is heated...the
heat of vaporisation, then water vapor is heated. In each case, different states of water (or anything else)
will have different specific heat capacities, so this must be accounted for.
3.3.7 : Conduction, convection and radiation...
Conduction ... Heat is transferred through solids, when heat is applied to one end of a metal bar, this heat
will slowly travel through it to reach the other end. On a molecular level, when the atoms at one end are
heated, they vibrate more. These vibrations cause the molecules next to them to vibrate more, and so the
increased vibrations, and so the heat and temperature are propagated through the material.
Convection ... This is where heat is transferred through a liquid (or a gas, but this example uses a liquid)
which is being heated at the bottom. The heated water at the bottom rises to the top and pushes cold water
down. This water is then heated while the water at the top cools. This sets up a continual revolving motion
while the water heats. On a molecular level, as the water at the bottom heats, the molecules move faster.
This creates more space between them, and thus lower density water. This hot, less dense water is thus
pushed to the top, and the colder, more dense water is heated at the bottom.
Radiation ... Radiation is the transfer of heat when there is no medium (molecules) for it to travel through. It
travels in the form of electromagnetic radiation (Infrared), and no molecule interactions are necessary.
3.3.8 : Heat transmission through a solid occurs by the following equation ...
delta-Q
/
delta-t
= -kA
delta-T
/
delta-x
.
Where
delta-Q
/
delta-t
is the rate of heat flow, -k is a constant (negative to represent flow from hot to cold)
related to the type of material. A is the cross sectional area, T is the temperature across the substance, and
x is the thickness. This equation is in the data book, but it's fairly obvious that is would be proportional to
area and temp diff, and inversely to thickness. If you need to calculate heat flowing through multiple media
(ie through insulation then brick) then the equation becomes
delta-Q
/
delta-t
=
A x delta-T
/(-x
1
/k
1
-x
2
/k
2
) ... ie, the
total value for
k
/
x
is the average for each material, weighted for relative thickness ... that's not really in the
course, but remembering it is easier than working it out. The first equation is in the data book.
3.3.9 : The different thermal conductivities of different substances result from, firstly the availability of
particles which are free to move. In metals, there are free moving electrons, able to flow, and thus carry
heat more quickly than vibrations alone. Also, more dense substances tend to conduct heat more quickly,
because the particles are closer and thus able to transfer kinetic energy between them.
3.4 Thermal properties of gases
3.4.1 : Experiments to find the relationship between pressure, volume and temp
Pressure and volume ... Temp must be kept constant. This can be done by measuring the displacement in a
movable tube manometer. The displacement adjusts the volume, and moves the mercury allowing the
pressure to be measured (in cm of Hg) and then added to the air pressure (measured with a barometer).
Thus allows values for both pressure and temperature to be found with no significant change in temperature.
This relationship can then be graphed... Pressure will be inversely proportional to volume ... so a graph of
pressure vs
1
/
volume
should be a straight line through the origin.
Pressure and temperature ... An enclosed glass 'bulb' of air should be connected to a manometer, and placed
into a beaker. as the water in the beaker is heated, readings of both temperature, and pressure (as read
from the manometer and a manometer. This allows a graph of temperature vs pressure...which should be a
straight line through the origin.
Volume and Temp ... A capillary tube, sealed at one end, and bent upwards at the other, with a movable
block of some kind (mercury) in the center. With the open end pointing up out of the water, dip the rest of
the tube in a bath of hot water. Measure the position of the block, then cool the water with cold water, and
then ice, measuring the temperature and volume at various points. This can then be graphed, giving a
directly proportional relationship between volume and temperature (straight line through the origin ...
intercept at -273c or 0 kelvin).
All these relationships fit PV = nRT if the appropriate variable is assumed to be constant.
3.4.2 : P
1
V
1
/T
1
= P
2
V
2
/T
2
... This relationship, PV/T is constant for a given number of molecules of gas, and
for an ideal gas ... it is obviously related to PV = nRT.
3.4.3 : As can be seen in the pressure vs Temp, and Volume vs temp graphs, the intercept on the temp axis
is -273c. An ideal gas has no forces between the molecules, and that they have no volume. This means that
the gas is compressible down to a point where pressure, or volume is zero. This point, obviously, is the
absolute zero for temperature...which is -273c, or 0 kelvin.
3.4.4 : PV = nRT ... Pressure (Pa) x Volume (m
3
) = number of molecules (mols) x R (a constant...8.31, in
data book) x Temperature (in kelvin). Sub in numbers and solve for unknowns...
3.4.5 : The definition of an ideal gas in microscopic terms ... A large number of point masses moving in
random translational motion with no forces between them (and all collisions are completely elastic, and take
no time). Temperature is defined as the the average kinetic energy of the molecules. Pressure is a result of
the molecules colliding with the sides of the container, and 'bouncing' thus producing a force outward on the
sides of the container.
3.4.6 : The microscopic model of ideal gases can explain the macroscopic relationship between Temperature,
Pressure and Volume. When temperature is increased, the molecules move faster. As a result, the rate of
collision of the molecules with the sides of the container, and since the pressure is caused by the collisions,
the pressure increases. If the volume is decreased (by pushing one side of the container in) the number of
molecules per unit area increases. as a result, the rate of collisions increases, and so the pressure. Also,
temp increases because, as the side is being pushed in, molecules are being given additional kinetic energy
as they 'bounce off', because the speed they leave at is the speed they came in at + speed the side was
moving...so many molecules gain a little bit of speed, increasing temp.

10.1 Thermal concepts and intermolecular interactions
10.1.1 : The speed (or energy, since the two are effectively the same thing) distribution curve, with speed
on the x-axis, and number of molecules on y, for a gas goes from the origin up to a peak, and then down
exponentially (as if the x-axis were an asymptote). Higher temperatures are 'flatter' with a lower peak, but a
slower decrease beyond it...Anyone want to draw diagrams ? :)
10.1.2 : You really need diagrams to do this bit...I'll come back an write it up later.
10.2 Evaporation and thermal expansion
10.2.1 : Evaporation is the process by which individual molecules escape from a liquid. This occurs with any
liquid, and, unless the liquid is in an enclosed system, eventually all the liquid will evaporate. As the liquid
evaporates, it's temperature is reduced. This results from the fact that it is the fast moving molecules which
escape, and not the slow ones. This means that the average speed of the molecules is reduced, and thus the
temperature of the liquid is reduced. This is the principle behind evaporative cooling.
10.2.2 : The coefficient of linear expansion is called a, and defines how much the length of an object (say a
wire) changes for a give change in temperature. It is used in the equation delta-L = a x L
0
x delta-T, where
L
0
is the initial length, and delta-L is the change. It is (apparently) important to understand that L
0
should
appear in this equation...the expansion is a result of molecules moving faster, and thus further apart as they
vibrate. As a result, the more molecules there are, the greater the expansion of a given change in them will
be, because the space between all the molecules expands.
10.2.3 : Thermal expansion of a solid results from increased amplitude of vibrations of the component
particles. As the temperature is increased (ie heat is added) the particles gain more energy, which becomes
E
k
(though not translational), resulting in bigger vibrations. Due to this, there is greater space between the
molecules, and so the overall solid becomes larger.
10.2.4 : The linear expansion equation can be applied in any direction (in most substances), and so it is
possible to use it to find expansion in both area and volume...for area just find the expansion in two opposite
directions, then find the change in area. For volume, find the expansion in 3 directions, and find the change
in volume.
10.2.5 : Uses of thermal expansion...
Good ones...Bimetallic strips (where to different strips, with different values of a are bonded in the middle).,
when heated or cooled, bend over (because the metal on one side is expanding/contracting faster than the
other. this can be used to complete circuits, and is often used in thermostats (ie, things which turn a heater
on if the temp falls below, or off it is's above a certain temp). When a ring or metal expands, both the
outside edge and the hole in the middle expand (which might not be obvious, but it's true). Thus, the 'hole'
can be expanded to make a ring fit over something, which then locks tight when it cools. This technique is
used in fitting bands around wagon wheels (which is done really often these days). Also, volume expansion
of liquids is the basis for both mercury and alcohol thermometers...as the temp increases, the volume of the
mercury increases, pushing it up the tube.
Bad ones...Bridges are constructed of concrete blocks which will expand into one another and shatter if the
temp is increased. To combat this, gaps are left between the blocks, for them to expand into...this is why
there are gaps in bridges, and results in that 'thunk, thunk' sound as you drive over them. The same goes
for railway tracks. Steam pipes must be allowed to expand, because they have large variations in temp (ie,
when there is vs isn't steam in them). To allow for this, the pipes are connected to 'corner' junctions...sort of
an L shape, so the vertical pipe can expand up or down in the junctions, and the horizontal one left and right
without distorting the shape on the pipe (it also creates a bunch of short sections where expansion occurs,
rather than one big one, which would be harder to deal with).
10.3 : Thermodynamics
10.3.1 : Thermodynamics is used to describe the relationship between heat and work, and the transfer of
both in and out of systems...
10.3.2 : Heat and work are both forms of energy, and thus, heating or working is a transfer of energy. A
doing work on B, increases B's internal energy, while decreasing A's and so on.
10.3.3 : A system in thermodynamics is something which has a certain amount of internal energy. A block of
metal could, for example, be a metal block...heat can be put into or taken out of it...the concept of work
being done on or by it is a bit fuzzy, but possible to imagine...A fixed mass of gas could also be a
system...heat can go in or out, if you compress it, you are doing work (and thus increasing the internal
energy), if the gas does work (ie is allowed to expand but pushing a piston back or something) then it's
internal energy decreases. A thermodynamic process is and process in which heat is taken out of, or put into
a system, or where work is done on or by it.
10.3.4 : If a gas is quickly compressed, then it's temperature is increased...work has been done by
compressing the gas, which has been converted into internal energy. If the gas is then allowed to cool, heat
equal to the amount of energy supplied by the work will be released into the surroundings. The reverse
happens if the gas is allowed to expand...temp (and internal energy) is decreased, and the system absorbs
heat from the surroundings, so work (to expand) is done by the system, results in a loss of internal
energy...but heat will then be absorbed back in if the system is left do so. Thus, work is converted to heat
(in the first case) and heat is converted to work in the second.
10.3.5 : Some special processes...
Isothermal...These are processes in which there is no change in internal energy ( or temperature...so iso
(the same) thermal (temperature) ), An example of such a process could be expanding or compressing a gas
very slowly, so as work is done on or by the system, heat is absorbed from/released to the surroundings.
Thus the temperature remains constant, even though work is being done, and heat is being transferred. (and
both must occur, though in opposing directions in an isothermal process.
Adiabatic...These processes are those in which delta-Q is zero...ie no heat leaves or enters the system. The
most common example of this is compressing or expanding a gas very quickly, so there is no time for heat
to be transferred. In such a process, internal energy (ie temp) changes as work is done.
10.3.6 : Illustrating these thermodynamic processes on P-V diagrams (ie pressure vs volume)...When work
is done on or by, or heat is transferred into or out of one, both volume and pressure will normally change.
Lines of equal temperature on a P vs V graph curves, with asymptotes to both the x axis and the y axis.
Higher temperature curves are further away from the origin. Thus, an Isothermal process will exactly follow
one of these temperature curves, since internal energy is constant. With an adiabatic process, it work is
being done on the system, temperature will increase, and so the point on the graph will move 'up' to a
higher temp curve. If work is being done by the system, then the point will move 'down' to a lower
temperature curve. Other than that, the resulting curve one a P vs V graph will usually be determine by the
nature of the process...Sometimes only Pressure will change (more gas could be added, or temp could
change) and sometimes only volume will change, (ie temp could decrease as the volume is reduced, keeping
the pressure constant.). Also worth noting (though I don't know if it's necessary) is that the area under the
curve is equal to work done by the system (which gets confusing in the next section)...which can be used for
engines and stuff.
10.3.7 : delta-U = delta-Q + delta-W ... This equation relates changes in heat and work to changes in
internal energy. The actual signs are a bit of a tricky issue, but can be remembered if we know that a
positive delta-U value will result in an increased temperature. Based on this, we then know that temperature
will be increased by adding heat to the system, so delta-Q is positive when heat is added to the system.
Similarly, if work is done on the system, temp will be increased, so delta-W is positive for work done on the
system. From this, obviously, delta-Q is negative when heat is released to the surroundings, and delta-W is
negative when work is done by the system. This equation can be applied by subbing in 2 values, and finding
the third. (but it's simplified in isothermal since delta-U is zero, and in adiabatic since delta-Q is zero).
10.3.8 : A thermodynamic cycle is where a series of thermodynamic processes eventually result in the initial
state once again, and so the process can be repeated. This idea is used by heat engines, which use a
repeated series of thermodynamic processes to produce mechanical energy from heat energy. There are two
main types of heat engines (internal and external combustion) which are described below.
External combustion engines...These are the old sort of engines which are used in steam trains. Heat is used
to boil water, which turns to steam, increasing the pressure in the pipes above. This increased pressure
forces a piston down (the piston being connected to whatever, as appropriate for what the engine is doing).
Once it is forced all the way down, a valve is released, and the steam is allowed to escape into another set of
pipes which eventually return it to the boiler (via a condenser). This reduces the pressure, and the piston is
pushed back up, either by other pistons in a cam shaft, or by springs. When it reaches the top again, more
steam is allowed in, forcing the piston down again (it is also possible to use a turbine where the steam is
used to spin a turbine, resulting in rotational motion (this is often used in power generation). I think that's
all we really need to know...internal combustion is the more important one.
Internal combustion engines...These are they type commonly used in cars today, where the petrol is actually
ignited in the cylinder. They are known as 4 stroke, because the process occurs in two cycles (two up
strokes, and two down strokes). The piston begins at the top of the cylinder, moving down. The intake valve
is opened, and so a mixture of fuel and oxygen is sucked into the cylinder. When the piston reaches the
bottom, the valve is closed, and the piston moves up, compressing the mixture until the piston reaches the
top. When the piston is at the top, the spark plug fires, igniting the mixture, producing high downward
pressure on the piston. This pressure pushes the piston down (this is where the actual work is done by the
engine). When the piston reaches the bottom, the exhaust valve is opened and as the piston moves up the
exhaust is pushed out. After reaching the top, the exhaust valve is closed, and the intake valve opened
(bringing us back to the start). All this can be expressed on a P-V diagram (anyone want to draw it). There'll
be one in most physics text books.
10.3.9 : Entropy (symbol S) is a measure of the disorder in a system. There's a big complicated explanation
relating to probability, meta-states and information theory, but I don't think it's necessary...Basically,
entropy always increases. It can be decreased in a system, but it will increase in the surroundings as a
result...This is the second law of thermodynamics, 'natural systems tend to move towards a state of greater
disorder'. In energy terms, increased disorder in energy being evenly distributed. If there is a point of high
energy, and a point of low energy, it is possible to use this difference to do work, entropy tends to decrease
this difference...thus, energy tends to spread out evenly rather than concentrating at one point.
10.3.10 : The second law of thermodynamics...'Natural systems tend to move towards a state of greater
disorder'...Basically, what this means is that you can't build an engine which will convert 100% of the energy
put into it into work...ie no engine can be 100% efficient. For example, the first law suggests that a block of
wood sitting on the table could convert some of it's heat energy into work and jump off the table...but the
second law says it ain't gunna happen (not that it couldn't, just that it's really, really unlikely...you've
probably got a better chance of the infinite monkey thing with just one monkey).
Also, since it doesn't fit in anywhere else, but is in the data book, the equation delta-S = delta-Q/delta-T
allows the change in entropy to be found (where Q = heat, and T = temp)...it's actually a calculus equation,
but for small changes in T, it's a good enough approximation to use average temperature.
10.3.11 : How a bunch of heat related stuff works...
Refrigerators...The basic idea is to do work to over come entropy, producing an area of lower temperature
inside, and higher outside. This process occurs basically with a set of pipes running along the outer wall, and
the inner wall of the system. Low pressure (and so cold) gas runs through the inner pipes, and so absorbs
heat from the inside of the refrigerator. This gas is then pressurized using a condenser (a piston) and
pumped through the outside pipes...because this gas has had work done on it, heat escapes from it to the
outside of the refrigerator. The gas is then slowly allowed through a valve connected to the low pressure
pipes to be recirculated...in this way, heat is transferred from the inside to the outside, even though the
temp inside is lower...this may seem to violate the second law, but the overall entropy of the universe is
being increased, because energy is required to make it happen (to drive the condenser). The efficiency of
such a system is defined by Efficiency = (Q
H
-Q
L
) / Q
L
... where efficiency is the efficiency of the refrigerator
(and 1 is perfect, or 100% efficient) and Q
L
is the low (inside) temp, and Q
H
is the high (outside temp).
Heat Pump...what most people would call a heater...This works by doing work to move heat from the cold
outside to the hotter inside...I really don't quite know how it works (anyone want to enlighten me) but I
assume it's just the reverse of the refrigerator described above. The efficiency of such a pump will be
Efficiency = (Q
H
-Q
L
) / Q
H
... working as above. Note that in each case, this equation is like the one in the
data book, where as the other would have a Q
2
on the bottom line (because heat is going the other way).
10.3.12 : The importance of the second law ... If we feel like getting all philosophical about things, entropy
can be thought of as what defines 'forward' and 'backward' for time... as time progresses, entropy increases
and so it lets us think about time as going forward when entropy is increasing. As above, heat pumps and
refrigerators are capable of lowering entropy in a system, but increase it for the whole system. When ice (or
something else) melts it is absorbing heat, and thus entropy is increasing...the movement from solid ->
liquid -> gas also marks an increase in entropy, as particles are moving more and more randomly...If
anyone has any interesting examples send them to me...otherwise, that should do.
Bob Trower has some objections to the inclusion of time here : Seems to me that there is no necessity for
time as such (not here, anyway). Things have states which differ in their probability of 'being'. If a system is
in a very low probability state, it is likely that any change you see (either 'forward' or 'backward' in time) will
be to a more probable state. Highly ordered (like all molecules of the gas in one region) is very improbable.
Disordered is more probable. Relative probabilities of various states neither require, nor explain 'time'.
*** Then I argued a bit and he said
The reason that I was a bit circumspect about this was that I am very rusty with special relativity and 'time-
dilation'. Last I looked at it, I was still assuming there was such a thing as 'time' per se. I have not gone
back to see if my hunch that there is in fact no such thing allows for a different interpretation than the one I
understood at the (gulp) time.
None of what you say here, and none of what is in the text (quoted below) is related to some
[quantity/essence/dimension/concept?] of time. From my point of view, time is always an unnecessary 'a
priori' assumption. Pretend for a moment that the notion of time had not been invented. Is there anything to
your knowledge that *requires* its invention? I am not aware of anything. In terms of thermodynamic
entropy, we essentially *define* time in terms of a procession from orderliness to dis-orderliness. However,
this phenomenon does not at all require a *directional arrow* of time. Assuming for a moment that there
actually is some external dimension of time and it has a direction, it is still perfectly allowable for a system to
go from a state of dis-orderliness to a state of orderliness. It's just not very probable. That probability simply
does not require a directional arrow of time. All it requires is the ability of the universe to undergo a single
directionless change. The concept of time is utterly superfluous. Hence (again, at least in this context) I
invoke the principal of parsimony ('Occams razor') and I object to the inclusion of time. The math of
thermodynamic entropy is such that if you posit a series of changes you come to the conclusion that virtually
any series of changes will ultimately lead to disorderliness. This is just because there are so many more
pathways to a dis-orderly state than an orderly state. Note also that as far as the math is concerned, there is
really nothing special about one state or another. Any single specific state is equally improbable. Whatever
state you start in, the probability of going back to that state is inversely proportional to the number of
possible states.
3.2 Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermal capacity (c): the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a
substance by 1C. Unit: JC
-1
. Given by: C = Q/T
Specific heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1C. Unit: JC
-1
.
When matters change state, the energy used enables the molecules to move more
freely (KE is the same), so temperature does not change.
Boiling takes place throughout the liquid, at the same temperature.
Evaporation takes place at the surface only, at all temperatures. Faster molecules
escape, average KE decreases, temperature decreases.
Specific latent heat (L): the amount of heat needed to change the state of 1kg of the
material without a change in temperature. Unit: JKg
-1
. L = Q/m.
Solid to liquid: latent heat of fusion.
Liquid to gas: latent heat of vaporisation.
3.3 Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas
- Molecules are perfectly elastic
-Molecules are perfect, tiny spheres
-Molecules are identical
-There are no forces between the molecules, except when they collide, so they move
with constant velocity
-The molecules are very small; their total value is much smaller than the volume of
the gas

The temperature is a measure of the average KE of the molecules of an ideal gas.
Increase in temperature and decrease in volume always increases pressure. Pressure
= force/area.
Doing work on a gas = increase in KE = increase in temperature and pressure.
3.4 Thermodynamics
Absolute zero: the temperature of the gas when the pressure is zero. The point at
which the molecules stop moving. -273C, 0K.
A fixed point used to define the temperature scale is something observable. The one
used to define the absolute temperature scale is the triple point water - the
temperature at which it exists as a solid, liquid and gas at equilibrium (0.01C).
Equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = nRT. (R = 8.31). Isobaric: constant
pressure. Isochoric: constant volume. Isothermal: constant temperature.
Adiabatic: no heat exchanged (Q = 0).
A real gas: forces between molecules as the pressure/volume decreases. This makes
them change to a liquid, unless the temperature is very high.
3.5 Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamic system is a collection of bodies that can do work on each other
and transfer heat. In IB we only use the gas piston example.
Work done = P x V.
Gas does work = pushes piston out = positive.
Work done on gas = piston drops down = negative.
Area under a pressure-volume graph = the work done.
First law of thermodynamics: if a gas expands and gets hot, heat must have been
added. This is a statement of the principle of energy conservation.
Q = U + W. (U is internal energy, Q is amount of heat added). Isobaric:
temperature, internal energy and work done decrease. Q is negative. Isochoric:
volume stays the same, temperature and internal energy increase. Q is positive.

Adiabatic contraction: volume is reduced, work done is negative,
temperature/internal energy increase.
A-B: isochoric temperature rise (gas gets hot, heat added).
B-C: isobaric expansion (heat added = increase in internal energy and volume).
C-D: isochoric temperature drop (gas gets cold and loses work to surroundings).
D-A: isobaric compression (heat lost = work done on the gas, volume decrease).
Net work done = difference between work done on gas and work done by gas. Equal
to enclosed area on the diagram.


A-B: isothermal (work done by gas = heat gained).
B-C: adiabatic (gas does work and cools down). C-D: isothermal (work done so it
cools down).
D-A: adiabatic (work done on gas, gas gets hotter.
3.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second law: it is not possible to convert heat completely into work.
This implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a region of low
temperature to a region of high temperature. Heat flows from hot to cold. Particles
fly in random directions. Molecules start ordered, but start to collide and become
disordered.
Rewritten: in any thermodynamic process, the total entropy always increases (e.g.
a fridge: food gets colder, more ordered. Room is given heat, less ordered).
Entropy of a system = the amount of disorder in the system/the spreading out of
energy. Change in entropy, S = Q/T (JK
-1
)