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What are the Consequences of Population Migration?

1. The consequences of migration are complex, affecting the economic and social systems of both areas of origin and
destination.
2. The economic consequences on the area of origin (involving the sending of remittances), are usually regarded as positive,
although they can produce negative features such as inflated land prices and increased consumer spending on imported
items.
3. Depopulation can be a serious consequence of migration in areas of origin, with young innovators often being the first to
leave.
4. The economic impact on areas of destination is seen on the whole to be positive, although there are costs involved, such as
the provision of housing and other services to migrants and their families.
5. The social consequences of migration on destination areas are debatable. The establishing of new cultural groups can
produce cultural tensions but can also enhance the host community.
6. The impact of movement on the migrant often depends on the existence of a supportive receiving population and the
ability of the migrant to adapt to the host community. Very often, however, migrants face prejudice and even violence.
Migration can have significant effects on population distribution, composition and growth. Areas of net emigration become
depleted of young adults whereas regions of net immigration show an increase in the proportion in that age group.
In the former, reduced growth generally results, owing to reduced birth rates; in the latter, growth is encouraged, owing to
an increase in birth rates.
Yet the consequences of migration are far wider ranging and more complex than just these population changes, for it
involves, in addition, the movement of culture, technology and way of life.
The movement of people undoubtedly leads to a flow of capital, which may give rise to economic expansion in areas of net
immigration and economic contraction in areas of net emigration.
The social problems that may be created by migration are not new. Wars in Canada during the 18th century and in South
Africa at the end of the 19th century resulted from the intermingling of diverse migrants.
Sometimes it can engender greater understanding between people and so help preserve peace. Certainly it could be argued
that the universality of the English tongue, English standards and English institutions has done much to provide a bond of
friendship between nations all over the globe.

Brief notes on the chief characteristics of Tropical Storms
The chief characteristics of these violent tropical storms are low central pressures and high wind velocities. A tropical
hurricane is a nearly circular vortex averating 500 to 600 km in diameter. It extends about 12,000 meters above the ocean
surface.
The hurricane lasts for many days and, in certain cases, for more than a week. The central pressure in a well- developed
hurricane may be 50 to 60 millibars lower than the pressure at its outer edge.
The lowest pressure ever recorded in the United States was 892.31 millibars, which was measured during a hurricane in
September, 1935.
According to Trewartha, there is a spiraling inflow of air at lower levels, a rapid upward movement at intermediate levels,
and a spiraling outward flow aloft. It is the steep pressure gradient which causes the rapid, spiraling winds of a tropical
storm.
From the central low pressure core of the cyclone, winds converging from all directions are of whirled upward. As a result of
the lifting of air, condensation starts producing cumulonimbus or clouds which give the inner structure of the storm a
peculiar shape. Spiraling bands of cumulonimbus clouds surround the core of the hurricane.
The top of the hurricane is marked by divergent air flow which carries the ascending air away from the storm centre. This
phenomenon is essential to maintain the inward flow at the surface.
What are the different types of tropical disturbances?
Tropical disturbances are classified into four categories: (1) easterly waves, (2) tropical depressions, (3) tropical storms, and
(4) hurricanes or typhoons.
(1) Easterly waves:
These are the migratory wavelike disturbances of the tropical easterlies. The easterly waves represent a pattern of wave
perturbations which move from east to west with the current, but with a slower speed.
The source of their occurrence lies between 5 to 30 latitudes in both the hemispheres. These waves form in the easterly
current particularly over the tropical oceans. They never form exactly over the equator.
They originate at a certain height from the earth's surface. Because of these waves, isobars on the weather charts develop
indentations. These atmospheric disturbances are quite unlike the depressions of the middle latitudes.
These are mild pressure troughs which generally slope eastward with height. These waves travel in a east- to-west direction
at the rate of 320-480 km per day. Ahead of the trough line there is divergence of air currents.
Since in this part of the disturbance there is subsidence, the weather tends to be dry and clear. On the contrary, behind the
waves, warm and moist air currents tend to ascend which leads to the development of cumulonimbus clouds and
thundershowers.
When such a type of transverse wave passes an observer, the following weather sequence is generally produced: There is a
ridge of high pressure ahead of the trough. This is invariably associated with fine weather.
There are scattered fine-weather cumulus clouds floating in the sky. The lower air may have some haze, but close to the
trough line there are well-developed cumulus clouds with occasional showers.
The visibility near the ground gradually improves. Behind the trough, veering of the wind is observed. Because of
convergence the heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds develop yielding moderate to heavy precipitation.
This part of the wave is I also associated with thunderstorms. There is a slight decrease in temperature.
Most of the easterly waves formed over the Atlantic Ocean make an inverted-V wave-form in the low-level wind field. These
disturbances in the easterlies have a cyclonic circulation at about 600 mb level.
In view of the paucity of observational data, it is rather difficult to throw much light on the origin and development of wave
disturbances over the tropical oceans and in continental areas.
But, broadly speaking, about 80 percent easterly waves develop between 5 and 20 north latitudes, poleward of the
equatorial trough, towards the western part of the oceans.
First of all, the easterly waves of the Caribbean Sea were studied and described. Since then investigations have been made
into the origin and growth of similar waves in the easterlies in other tropical regions.
It was found that these wave disturbances occur near the boundary of the trade winds and the doldrum belt. They travel
westward rather sluggishly and are always associated with extensive cloud areas and rain areas.
It is a common characteristic of all such wave perturbations that bad weather follows the waves, whereas good weather
precedes them. Sometimes acute instability develops in these waves and they intensify into hurricanes.
It may be pointed out that when easterly waves pass over the land areas the associated weather may largely be affected by the
configuration of landforms.
As regards the regional distribution of easterly waves, they tend to develop in the Caribbean, when during summer and
autumn the trade wind inversion happens to be weak or absent.
The winter and spring seasons do not favour the formation of easterly waves. Sometimes easterly waves originate in the
North Pacific as well. During summer, in the Caribbean and the Pacific easterly waves originate after every three and two
days respectively.
The easterly waves form in the equatorial troughs which are elongated in shape and extend up to hundreds of kilometers.
They extend in the north-south direction lying across the trade wind circulation. They travel long distances as distinct
entities. Near the surface of the earth these waves appear to be feeble, but they are fully developed at a height of, say, 4000
meters.
Their climatologically significance lies in the fact that such areas receive heavy rainfall by them as would have remained dry
in their absence.
(2) Tropical depressions:
Petterssen defines the tropical depressions as the centers of low pressure around which the wind velocity hardly exceeds 40
km per hour. These depressions are liable to occur anywhere in the warm humid air of the tropics, but they are quite
frequent in the vicinity of inter-tropical convergence zone.
However, they are very rare in the trade wind belt. Many of these weak depressions never grow into storms of hurricane
intensity; rather they die out as weak disturbances.
(3) Tropical storms:
These low pressures centers are surrounded by winds having their velocities in the range of 40 to 120 km per hour. Most
favourable atmospheric conditions for their occurrence exist during the summer season.
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea offer ideal conditions for the origin and growth of these storms. They are also present
in the West Indies and in the vicinity of the Philippines.
These storms produce heavy precipitation and bring about a change in the existing weather. Many storms of this type
develop into more violent and destructive type of tropical storms.
(4) Tropical-Cyclones (Hurricanes or Typhoons):
Hurricane is a severe tropical cyclone having a maximum wind speed in excess of 119 km per hour. The name 'hurricane' is
given to the tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic and the eastern North Pacific oceans.
The tropical cyclones of hurricane force in the western North Pacific are known as typhoons. In Australia this type of storm is
given the name willy-willy, whereas in the Indian Ocean they are called cyclones.
These storms are known as baguio in the Philippine Islands. In olden days the Japanese called these severe storms as
nowaki, but now they are called taifu. Elsewhere they are just called tropical cyclones.
Hurricanes represent the most violent, most awesome, and most feared of all the atmospheric disturbances.
Since these storms cause widespread damage over land areas, and are dangerous to shipping, the weather scientists have
given considerable attention to them.
Aircraft reconnaissance flights during the periods of maximum hurricanes, radar observations of cloud and precipitation,
and satellite photography have all been helpful in the investigation of such a very complicated and difficult weather
phenomenon.
According to Byers, the following are some of the most prominent distinguishing features which make the tropical cyclones
different from the middle latitude cyclones:
(1) Tropical cyclones are found at certain seasons in well-defined areas of the tropics.
(2) They form only over oceans having a high surface temperature (27C).
(3) They do not have fronts, nor are they associated with moving anticyclones.
(4) They are many times more intense than the extratropical cyclones.
(5) They do not form with any regularity, and they can exist only on oceans.
(6) They have a central core of calm or light winds. This is called the 'eye'.
(7) They derive their energy from the latent heat of condensation.
What are the differnt Types of Anticyclones?
On the basis of structure, storm tracks, and general characteristics, anticyclones are divided into the following four distinct
types:
(1) Subtropical highs:
These anticyclones develop in the subtropical regions. They are large in area, elongated in shape and very deep in vertical
extent. They are almost permanent high- pressure systems positioned in the subtropical high-pressure belts.
They are most often stagnant. Whenever they move, they move very sluggishly. These anticyclones are well developed over
the oceans, while there is low pressure over the continents.
(2) Polar Continental highs:
These cold anticyclones form over continental surfaces in winter. They are produced by radiational cooling of the earth's
surface. At about 2500 meters above sea- level they lose their identity. They are made up of a very shallow layer of cold air.
(3) Highs embedded between cyclones:
These anticyclones are merely the sluggish systems which are found between the more vigorous individual cyclones. These
wedges of high pressure are Inert, and produce clear and fine weather after the more turbulent cyclonic weather.
(4) Polar-outbreak highs:
Generally the last member of a cyclone family is followed by a great outbreak of cold and dense polar air, which may move
even into the tropical regions. Sometimes a well-developed depression in the middle latitudes draws on its rear rapidly
moving masses of cold polar air.
These anticyclones while moving equator-ward slow down. These cold and dry polar air masses pick up moisture from the
warm subtropical oceans and are transformed within a period of two or three days into subtropical warm anticyclones.
Brief notes on Travelling Anticyclones of Middle Latitudes
Origin and structure:
Anticyclones are high pressure systems around which the wind blows clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. There are various types of anticyclones such as the cold-core anticyclones of
the high latitudes and the warm-core anticyclones of lower latitudes.
According to some other meteorologists there is a third category of anticyclones which are described as the sluggish systems
filling the spaces between moving temperate cyclones.
Cold anticyclones of the middle latitudes are also called 'polar outbreak highs'. Sometimes the last member of a cyclone
family draws cold air masses from the sub-polar regions in its rear part. These rapidly moving anticyclones move southward
towards the lower latitudes.
This produces the cold waves so often experienced in the southern parts of the temperate regions. When they enter into the
subtropical regions, they undergo a gradual transformation and ultimately become warm anticyclones.
In North America they originate in northern Canada and, move southward and southeastward across the central eastern
United States. In Asia they originate in the eastern part of Siberia and move towards China and Japan.
The exact mechanism of the formation of anticyclones is still not clear. But the most probable cause of their formation seems
to be the radiational cooling of the layers of atmosphere lying close to the snow-covered surface.
According to Trewartha, the southward surge of extremely cold and dense polar air is caused by the combined effect of an
upper-air long wave and an expulsion of cold Arctic Basin air aloft.
Since there is subsidence within these anticyclones, there is subsidence inversion produced in the atmosphere which results
in atmospheric stability. Under certain conditions, an anticyclone may undergo distinct development and may become
intense.
These developments are invariably associated with intense cyclonic activity in the neighbouring areas. Even then the
anticyclones never develop such intensities as are acquired by well-developed cyclones.
However, it is to be remembered that the individual anticyclones are made up of different types of air masses at different
times. Therefore the weather associated with them always shows different characteristics.
But one characteristic is always shared by all the anticyclones, i.e. they are never affected by advection from extraneous
sources. The weather produced by any anticyclone is very much regional and diurnal in character.
Anticyclone circulation is characterized by subsidence and surface divergence. Anticyclone wind system is not so well
developed as is the case with a cyclonic circulation. In the eastern part of a moving anticyclone, there are north-westerly
winds, while on the westward side or on the rear the southeasterly winds prevail.
Pressure gradient is never so steep and the wind-velocities are never as high as in a cyclone. On the other hand, anticyclones
have always high winds. The front part of cold-core anticyclones is always marked by cold waves and blizzards in the middle
latitudes.
Unlike cyclones, the anticyclones are always associated with scanty rainfall. Subsidence and divergent wind system within an
anticyclone do not favour condensation and cloud formation.
But in case the southeasterly air is moist, there may be some precipitation on the rear of an anticyclone.
On occasions, the cold northwesterly winds may produce snowfall. Whatever uncertainty in weather is produced, it is
because the anticyclones are often capped by cyclonic circulation aloft.
The surface temperature conditions in an anticyclone depend upon temperature of the air masses involved, humidity of air,
and season of the year.
In winter, the cold anticyclones originating in the snow-covered sub-polar legions always bring with them very low
temperatures and blizzards which render the winter chill unbearable. The middle-latitude anticyclones always produce the
lowest temperatures of the season.
In summer, the stagnant type of warm anticyclones associated with the air of subtropical or tropical origin produce
extremely high temperatures, called 'heat waves'. Clear weather allows the maximum receipts of solar radiation during the
day. Tropical air masses carry heat to the north as the high pressure system moves into the sub-polar regions.
Since the anticyclone conditions favour clear weather, the diurnal range of temperature is bound to be large.
Distribution:
The regions of origin and paths of movement of the cold and warm anticyclones are different. Sub-polar regions give birth to
cold anticyclones which always move towards the south.
The warm anticyclones generally move from west to east. However, the source regions as well as the tracks followed by
anticyclones tend to shift towards the north in summer and south in winter.
In winter, there are two regions of high frequency of cold anticyclones: the extensive plateau of the Rocky Mountains in
northwestern Canada and east central Siberia. The states of Nevada, Utah, and Idaho have the largest number of
anticyclones.
The area extending from Alaska to the Great Plains has high frequency of high pressure systems. These anticyclones are cold
and shallow highs comprising the polar continental air (cP).
The cold Canadian anticyclones, which travel from their centers of origin to the Middle Atlantic States, bring with them cold
waves, blizzards or snow storms and lowest temperatures to the Mississippi Valley. Some of these anticyclones push their
way to the Gulf States where they are called 'norther', the most dreaded weather phenomenon.
Cold anticyclones originating in east central Siberia travel towards northern China and reach the mouth of the Yangtze River.
They sometimes cross over to Japan.
In Europe, there are only a few cold anticyclones moving southward from the Peninsula of Scandinavia.
In summer, as stated earlier, the storm paths and their centers of maximum frequency shift towards the north. The Great
Lake region has a maximum of anticyclone frequency in summer, whereas the cold anticyclones of the winter months avoid
this region because of intense cyclonic development there.
In eastern Asia too, the number of anticyclones is greatly reduced. Some of the feeble anticyclones move across China in
summer. Now, the subtropical anticyclones follow a more northerly route.
Their frequency over the eastern Pacific is high, and there are only a few high pressure systems in the western part.
This is so because in this part of the Pacific the summer monsoon dominates the weather drama. A number of warm
subtropical anticyclones pass over the Mediterranean Sea.
Characteristics:
It may be noted that in winter the anticyclones form with a great regularity in the higher latitudes of the continents. Since
these anticyclones result from radiational cooling of the earth's surface, they are also called thermal anticyclones.
In the upper troposphere they either disappear or shift towards the lower latitudes. On the contrary, the anticyclones that
form over the ocean surface have warm air in their upper parts. Such anticyclones are called dynamic anticyclones. These
anticyclones maintain their vigour up to considerable heights.
The warm season anticyclones are invariably associated with clear weather, but some of the winter highs produce cumulus or
cumulonimbus clouds. In winter, the anticyclonic conditions are conducive to the formation of radiation fogs during night.
On the rear of these anticyclones warm and moist air currents from over the oceans produce advection fogs. On certain
occasions, the day-time surface heating causes the dissipation of fog at the surface, but the remaining fog still persists at
higher levels.
When looked at from the surface of the earth, these upper-level fogs appear as low stratus clouds. These foggy layers do not
allow the light rays to reach the surface in toto.
In the middle-latitude regions this phenomenon of subdued day-light is termed the 'anticyclonic gloom'.
Brief notes on the Classification of Fronts
As a result of the observations of atmospheric conditions at the surface and aloft, the following types of fronts are identified:
(1) cold front, (2) warm front, (3) occluded front, and (4) stationary front.
The frontal symbols used on weather maps. Here the structure and some of the salient features of the various. Frontal
symbols used on weather maps, types of fronts have been discussed in detail.
It should be remembered that fronts are differentiated by determining whether the colder air mass is moving on the warmer
air mass or vice versa. However, it is the aggressor air mass that, to a large extent, determines the type of weather that will be
produced along a front.
(1) Cold front:
A cold front is defined as a front along which cold air is invading the warm- air zone. Since the colder air mass is denser, it
remains at the ground and forcibly uplifts the warmer and lighter air mass.
In fact, when pressure distribution is such as to force the cold air to advance and the warm air to retreat, the zone of
transition is called a cold front.
The vertical structure of warm air that is forced upward by an advancing wedge of cold air determines the type of weather
produced along the cold front.
The effect of friction retards the air motion near the ground, while the free air aloft has a higher velocity. This causes the cold
front to become much steeper than the warm front. The steepness of the front is closely related with its velocity.
Thus, higher velocity results in the steeper slope, while lower velocity makes the slope of the front rather gentle, sometimes
were approaching that of a warm front. The slope of a cold front varies from 1 : 50 to 1 : 100.
In other words, the wedge of cold air has a slope of 1 km of rise for 50 or 100 km of distance. When a cold front moves
rapidly, warm air can be forced to rise ahead of the front. Depending on the instability of the overrunning warm air,
convective clouds or even thunderstorms may occur along the leading edge of the cold front.
This type of front slopes backward instead of forward, so there is no warning far in advance of an approaching cold front and
no preceding cloudiness until the front is near. The cold front in general is associated with a narrow band of cloudiness and
precipitation.
The cold front passes more rapidly. The sky becomes clear soon after the passage of the front. However, the weather
produced along the cold front is more violent.
When the cold front moves over a rough terrain, the lower air is retarded by the effect of friction at the ground. This causes
the air aloft to run ahead of the surface air and a bulge or squall head is formed.
The lapse rate steepens and the convective overturning takes place resulting in heavy showers in a line ahead of the surface
position of the front.
In meteorology this is called the squall line. However, precipitation depends on the moisture and temperature conditions of
the warm air lying above.
With the approach of the cold front there is some increase of wind in the warm sector. Cirrus and cirrostratus clouds appear
in the sky. These cloud types are quickly followed by lower and denser altocumulus and altostratus clouds.
At the actual front, the clouds are of nimbostratus and cumulonimbus type which produce heavy showers. In certain cases
precipitation falls ahead of the front, while on occasions it is behind the same.
However, there are departures from this typical condition depending on the physical characteristics of both the air masses.
If the cold air moves over a warm water surface, the lower layers absorb heat and moisture which results in heavy rain or
snowfall. Such a precipitation occurs in the cold air.
This phenomenon is characteristic of late fall and early winter when there is a considerable difference between the
temperatures of air and water. On occasions, secondary cold fronts develop some distance behind the rapidly moving cold
front.
With the passage of a cold front, the sky becomes rapidly clear and the weather improves. There is a sudden drop in
temperature. A wind shift from south to west or northwest generally accompanies the frontal passage. There is a marked
decrease in the specific and relative humidity.
The weather after a cold front has passed is dominated by subsiding and relatively cold air mass. In winter, the passage of a
cold front is followed by a cold wave which further reduces the surface temperature.
(2) Warm front:
A warm front is defined as a gently sloping frontal surface in which there is active movement of warm air over cold air. As the
surface position of a warm front moves, the warm air occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air. Because of friction,
advance of the surface position of the front is slowed down so that the front has a small slope.
The average slope of a warm front is from 1 : 100 to 1 : 200. As the warm air gradually ascends the gently sloping surface of
the wedge of cold air lying ahead, it cools adiabatically. This cooling leads to the cloudy condensation and precipitation.
Unlike the cold front, the changes in temperature and wind direction are gradual.
The sequence of clouds precedes a warm front. The appearance of cirrus clouds heralds the approach of a warm front. These
high-altitude clouds form some 1000 kilometers or more ahead of the surface front indicating the ascent of overrunning
warm air over the retreating wedge of cold air.
The cirrostratus clouds that form ahead of the front produce halos around the sun and the moon. In case there is instability
in the overrunning warm air, mackerel sky is produced by cirrocumulus clouds.
As the front draws closer to the observer, the clouds become lower and thicker. About 300 kilometers in advance of the
surface position of the front thicker stratus and nimbostratus clouds appear and precipitation starts falling from them.
Thus, as the warm front approaches, the clouds show a sequence of cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, stratus and
nimbostratus, and finally nimbus. The thick cloud sheet overlying the surface position of the front gives steady precipitation
extending over a long distance ahead of the front.
Warm fronts usually yield moderate to gentle precipitation over a relatively larger area for several hours. This is in
conformity with the gentle slope of the front. Convective activity is generally absent along a warm front.
But there are occasions when cumulonimbus clouds and the associated thunderstorms are produced along the warm fronts.
But this is exception rather than the rule.
Sometimes the rains falling through the cold air mass below evaporate. This causes the air below the cloud base to become
saturated and stratus clouds form. These clouds make atmospheric visibility poor causing much hardship to pilots of the
small aeroplanes.
During the winter, an inversion of temperature is produced along the warm front which is situated near the surface. The
inversion layer may produce during the cold season freezing rain or sleet in the very cold air ahead of a warm front.
The passage of a warm front is marked by a rise in temperature and pressure. There is a small shift of about 45 in the
direction of wind.
The specific humidity rises, and there is usually a change in the weather. The weather in the warm sector, of course, depends
on physical properties of the air mass and the season.
(3) Occluded front:
An occluded front is defined as a front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front. The cold front moves more rapidly
than the warm front with the result that the warm sector is progressively reduced in size.
Ultimately the cold front overtakes the warm front and completely displaces the warm air at the ground. Ultimately the cold
and warm fronts combine into one. Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front comes into existence.
There are two types of occlusion: (a) cold front type occlusion and (b) warm front type occlusion.
(a) Cold front occlusion:
It occurs when the cold air which overtakes the warm air is colder than the retreating cold air. It is illustrated. In the initial
stages of the cold front type occlusion, the weather system of the warm front still persists.
Later on, when the warm front has been pushed further upward it has little effect on weather conditions. At the later stages
the weather conditions resemble those of the cold front. Cold front type occlusion is the common type.
(b) Warm front occlusion:
The warm front type occlusion occurs when the retreating cold air mass is colder than the advancing cold air mass. In this
case the advancing cold air being relatively less dense overrides the retreating cold air mass.
This type of occlusion generally takes place when the retreating cold air becomes progressively colder by radiation, and the
advancing cold air mass is of the maritime polar type.
Weather produced at an occluded front is usually very complex depending to a large extent on the nature of warm air being
forced aloft.
As a matter of fact, in either type of occlusion it is the uplifting of the warm air mass which results in cooling, condensation
and precipitation.
The weather that is produced along an occluded front is usually a combination of the cold front and the warm front weather.
(4) Stationary front:
There are situations in which the surface position of a front does not move. Therefore such a front is called a stationary front.
The wind motion on either side of such a boundary is nearly parallel to the position of the front. Whenever some
overrunning of warm air occurs along a stationary front, warm front type precipitation is likely to be produced.

Brief notes on Extra tropical Cyclones (Wave Cyclones)
Much of the highly variable and cloudy weather we come across in the temperate zone is the direct result of travelling
cyclones. The terms extra tropical cyclones, temperate cyclones, or depressions are interchangeably used to denote these
moving cyclones in the mid-latitude zone.
Since the middle latitudes are an area of convergence where contrasting air masses generally meet, it is there that the
cyclones and anticyclones travel with varying regularity along with the prevailing westerly winds.
As centers for converging and rising air these moving cyclones produce cloudiness and precipitation. They also bring about
changes in temperature and air- pressure.
Extra tropical cyclones develop in regions lying between 30 and 65 north and south latitudes in both the hemispheres. It is
in these latitude zones that the polar and tropical air masses meet and form what is known as the polar fronts.
Most of these cyclones form at a wavelike twist or perturbation on these fronts. Since a cyclone on a weather map is shown as
a low pressure area enclosed by a number of isobars circular or elliptical in shape, it is also referred to as a low or a
depression.
When the isobars take an elongated shape, the pressure system is called a trough. Depicts the general lay-out of cold and
warm fronts in an extra tropical cyclone as shown on a surface weather map.
Shape and size:
There is a great degree of variation in the shape and size of middle-latitude cyclonic storm. No temperate cyclone is ever
exactly like any other. Generally the isobars are almost circular or elliptical.
However, in certain depressions, the isobars take the shape of the letter V. Such storms are called a V- shaped depression. At
times, the cyclones become so broad and shallow that they are referred to as troughs of low pressure.
There are occasions when these storms become greatly elongated and lose some of the common characteristics of an
ordinary temperate cyclone.
The V-shaped depressions are generally oval-shaped with one part relatively wider than the other. The long axis of this type
of depression is aligned in the south-west to north-east direction with its wider part towards the north.
The short axis is arranged in the north-west to south-east direction. The long axis is often twice the short axis in length.
These storms vary in size, intensity and other characteristics such as speed, strength of winds, and amount and type of cloud
cover.
The diameter of the temperate cyclones may vary from 160 km to 3,200 km. But most of the cyclones have diameters
measuring 300 to 1500 km. The average length of extra tropical cyclones in the United States of America is about 1600 km.
The estimated area covered by an average cyclone is about 1.6 million sq. km. The vertical extent of an average-sized cyclone
is estimated to be 10 to 12 km.
The air pressure in a cyclone is lowest at the centre and increases towards its margins. The pressure at the centre varies from
one storm to another.
A strong cyclonic circulation may have as low as 940 to 930 mb pressure at its centre, while a moderate cyclonic storm may
have about 1000 mb pressure.
The pressure difference between the centre and the outer margin of a low may vary from 10 to 20 mb. In a very large and
intense cyclone, this pressure difference may be as much as 35 mb.

Free essay on Atmospheric Stability and Lapse Rate
Atmospheric stability is defined as that condition in the atmosphere in which vertical motions are absent or definitely
restricted; and, conversely, instability is defined as the state wherein vertical movement is prevalent."
According to Trewartha, air is said to be stable, and consequently antagonistic to precipitation, if it is non-buoyant and
resists vertical displacement.
Voluntary vertical motions are largely absent in stable air. On the other hand, if displacement results in buoyancy and a
tendency for further movement away from the original position, the air is unstable".
The stability of air is determined by the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere at various heights. This measure of
the change of temperature is called the lapse rate which is altogether different form the adiabatic lapse rates.
As we know, the lapse rates always vary with time and place. The dry-adiabatic lapse rate is always the same. By noting at
any level the difference in temperature between an air parcel moving upward and the surrounding atmosphere, stability or
instability can be ascertained.
In other words, the environmental lapse rate prevailing in the atmosphere makes it stable or unstable. If the lapse rate
exceeds the dry-adiabatic lapse rate, the air is bound to be in the state of unstable equilibrium, and it will tend to rise further.
On the other hand, if the lapse rate is lower than the dry-adiabatic lapse rate, there will be stability in the air. Such an air
parcel, even if pushed up strongly, tends to return to its original position. Such a state of equilibrium resists vertical motions
in the atmosphere.
The interrelationship between atmospheric stability and lapse rates has been illustrated ill Figure 32.2. In the left hand side
diagram the surface air is at a temperature of 35"C with a lapse rate of 6"C per kilometer.
Imagine that a parcel of air with 35C temperature at the ground is forced upward as shown in the Figure. After the air has
reached a height of 1 kilometer, its temperature has come down to 25C, while the temperature of the surrounding air is
about 29C.
Obviously the ascending air is colder than the environment at the same level and must sink downward. This parcel of air
would tend to come back to its original position unless some outside force is applied to it, because further ascent would cause
it to become colder and heavier than the surrounding air.
The relationship between the actual lapse rate and the dry-adiabatic lapse rate is such as to resist vertical movement. Such
air is said to be in stable equilibrium. It is to be noted that in this case the existing lapse rate is lower than the dry-adiabatic
rate of cooling.
The right hand side drawing is a diagrammatic representation of the state of unstable equilibrium. In this case the ascending
air parcel at the height of 1 kilometer has cooled down to 25C, while the temperature of the surrounding air at the same
level is only about 24 C.
The rising air is warmer and lighter than the surrounding air. In such a situation, the rising air will continue to rise and
expand.
Here the rate of cooling of the ascending air is lower than that of the surrounding air, because the lapse rate is higher than
the dry-adiabatic lapse rate. Such an air is considered to be unstable. This case illustrates the behaviour of the atmosphere
when unstable equilibrium conditions prevail.
Thus, to examine whether an air mass is stable or unstable a comparison should be made between its lapse rate and the dry-
adiabatic rate of cooling.
There are occasions when the lapse rate in a certain layer of the atmosphere is found to be about 4.6C per 1000 meters.
Under this situation, when the lapse rate is less than the wet adiabatic rate, even at the point of condensation no vertical
motions develop in the atmosphere. In this case the air is dead to be absolutely stable.
Temperature inversion is the typical example of absolute stability. The inversion layer present in the atmosphere acts as a lid
to the ascending currents of air. Just beneath the base of the inversion layer the upward rising smoke is forced to spread out
in horizontal plane.
In winter, it is a common sight at about sunset near human settlements where rising columns of smoke from domestic
chimneys are not allowed to move upward beyond a certain level. This level is provided by the base of the inversion layer.

What are the Characteristics of tropical atmosphere?
The tropical atmosphere should be considered as a heat sink of the radiant energy obtained through short-wave solar
radiation and terrestrial radiation. Vast expanse of the tropical oceans plays a significant role in the supply of atmospheric
heat.
Now, the data supplied by weather satellites indicate that our estimates of the depletion of solar radiation because of albedo
and cloud cover were far in excess of the actual amount.
The amount of insulation received in the tropics is more than what it was previously considered to be. The ocean currents
that originate in the oceans of the tropical region also contribute a lot to the transference of heat to the higher latitudes.
The rate of exchange of energy between the oceans and the atmosphere is greater in the tropics than in any other regions.
Transfer of sensible heat to the lower layers of the atmosphere lying close to the oceans and the latent heat obtained there
from are two such meteorological facts which more than compensate the loss of radiant energy in the atmosphere.
In the warm and humid atmosphere of this region the latent heat of condensation is an important source of energy for the
innumerable atmospheric disturbances and tropical cyclones of varying magnitudes.
Another very important characteristic of the tropical atmosphere is that there is no random precipitation; rather it is
concentrated in various atmospheric disturbances which are small in size.
Of various factors which produce an element of instability in the tropical weather the following are more important: thermal
convection; convergence; and orographic lifting of air.

Why the rainfall decreases from east to west in the
Northern plain while it increases in the
Peninsular India?
The rainfall decreases from east to west in the Northern plain while it increases in the Peninsular India
due to the following reasons:
Northern plains receive rains by South West Monsoons. These Monsoons being the branch of Bay of
Bengal Monsoon move westwards along the Himalayas.
These monsoon winds on moving away to western part of country gradually loose moisture causing less
rainfall. Hence rainfall decreases from east to west.
In the Peninsular India, the rain is received by the Arabian Sea branch of South West Monsoons. The
South West Monsoon winds cause heavy rainfall on the western slopes of Western Ghats as they pass
through the rain bearing area of the region.
The moment, these winds cross the Western Ghats towards east, they become dry owing to the rain
shadow area and therefore rainfall starts decreasing.

What are the functions of Oceans ?
The important functions performed by the oceans are given below :
The oceans regulate the temperature of land (of our globe).
The oceans act as reservoir of resources like fossil fuels, sea-foods, metals and salts.
The oceans dissolve out excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and hence prevent the excessive
heating of earth by decreasing the green-house effect.
The oceans acted as a cradle for the origin (birth) of primitive life.
The oceans act as a medium of transport by boats, ships, etc.
The oceans act as a dust-bin for throwing unwanted waste materials of the land.

What are the main ingredients of modern industries ?
Main ingredients of modern industries :
Raw material
Availability of skilled labour
Capital
Organisation and management by efficient hands
Means of transport and communication
Market for the products.
Let us discuss each of them in some detail:
Raw material. Availability of raw material is the first and the foremost pre-requisite of any industry. This is more true in
case of modem industries which is characterised by the production on a mass scale.
Skilled labour. Well qualified and efficient labour is a 'must' for processing raw material and transforming it into the
finished product.
Capital. Purchasing raw material, employing labour on a large scale and setting up huge power-driven machines for quick
and mass scale production, in turn, call for huge capital.
Organization and management. Efficient and enterprising organisation and management is yet another characteristic
of the successful modem industry.
Market. Production on a large scale presupposes a potentially big market or demand for the finished products.
Means of transport and communication. The collection of raw materials and the distribution of the finished products
demand an efficient network of the means of transport and communication, including facilities for financial transactions.
All these factors put together provide the necessary set-up for developing modem industry.
Indian Land Resources and Crop Pattern
India has a geographical area of about 329 million hectares but statistical information is available only for about 93 percent
of the area (viz., for 305 million hectares). More than half of the area (51 percent) is under cultivation compared to 11 percent
of world's average. Our farmer is very hard-working and raises two crops in a year instead of one being the normal practice
in the other countries.
According to state of forest Report, 2003, Forests cover about 20.6 percent of land area for which data is available. Another
30.3 percent of area is not available for cultivation because it either comprises fallow lands, residential or commercial areas
or is otherwise not fit for cultivation. Consequently, cultivation is done only on about 50 percent of the total reporting area in
the country.
Soil Types
Soil quality is an important factor in crop-yield. The soil provides nourishment and water to the plant life. It consists of
minerals, organic matter, water, air, etc., all of which determine its characteristics, fertility, depth, texture and structure and,
thus, govern the type and quality of plants and crops that can be grown in any region of the country. India, with its vast land
surface and diverse relief features, possesses a large variety of soils, which, according to the National Council of Agricultural
Research, are classified into the following eight categories.
(i) Alluvial Soil
Alluvial soil covers almost a quarter of India's land surface and provides the base for the largest share of country's
agricultural production. This type of soil is composed of sediments deposited by the mighty rivers in the interior parts of the
India and by the sea wave in the coastal areas of the country. The Great Plains of India running from Punjab to Assam
possess rich alluvial soil which is also found in Narmada and Tapti valleys in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Mahanadi Valley
in Chhattisgarh and Orissa, Godavari Valley in Andhra Pradesh and Cauvery Valley in Tamil Nadu. It also occurs in the
deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers. Alluvial soils are generally deficient in nitrogen and humus and
thus necessitate repeated fertilisation. Such soils are suitable for growing all types of cereals, pulses, sugarcane, vegetables,
oilseeds, etc.
(ii) Black Soil
Black soil is found largely in the Deccan Plateau. It is eminently suitable for cotton cultivation and is, therefore, also called
black cotton soil. In some areas, it is known as 'regur'. The black color of the soil is attributed to the presence of compound of
iron and aluminum. This soil is generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphates, and organic matter but is quite rich in potash,
lime, aluminum, calcium and magnesium. The black soil exists in many areas of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Cotton, cereals, some oilseeds and a variety of vegetables are grown in areas of
black soil.
(iii) Red Soil
The red soil occurs mostly in the southern peninsula and extends up to Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh) in the north, Kutch (Gujarat)
in the west and Rajmahal Hills in the east. This soil is made up of crystalline and metamorphic rocks and is rich in
ferromanganese minerals and soluble salts but is deficient in nitrogen and humus and thus needs fertilization. It has a light
texture and a porous structure. Red soil is most suited to the growth of rice, ragi, tobacco and vegetables.
(iv) Laterite Soil
This type of soil is found in areas of high rainfall and temperature with alternate dry and wet periods. The soil contains high
content of iron oxides. It is deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and magnesium. Such soil is found in the high reaches
of Sahyadris, Western Ghats, Rajmahal Hills and the hilly tracts of the eastern region. It is also found in parts of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal. This type of soil is suitable for rice, ragi and sugarcane cultivation.
(v) Forest Soil
Forest soil is rich in organic matter and humus. It is found in the Himalayas and other mountain regions of the north, higher
summits of the Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh. Crops like tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits are grown on this type of soil.
(vi) Arid and Desert Soils
The arid and semi-arid regions of north-west India have this type of soil which is generally deficient in nitrogen and humus.
It is largely found in the areas west of Arvalli Ranges and covers Rajasthan, parts of Haryana and Punjab and extends up to
the Rann of Kutch. Generally desert soil is infertile but its fertility improves with proper irrigation and fertilisation.
(vii) Saline and Alkaline Soils
Saline and alkaline soils are found in the arid and semi-arid parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
These soils, variously called 'reb', 'usar' or 'kallar' are largely infertile. However, they can be improved through proper
treatment and reclamation measures.
(viii) Peaty and other Organic Soils
Peaty soils contain large accumulations of humus, organic matter and soluble salts. These soils are highly saline and are
deficient in phosphorus and potash. Marshy soils occur in regions of Orissa, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. They are also
found in central and north Bihar and in Almora district of Uttarachal.
Crop Pattern
Crop Seasons
There are three major corp seasons in India, viz., Kharif, Rabi and Zaid. The Kharif crops are associated with the monsoons.
They are sown in the months of June and July and are harvested in autumn months, viz., in September and October.
Important among the Kharif corps are rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, sugarcane, cotton and jute.
The Rabi crops are sown in the period between October and December and harvested in April and May. Important among
the Rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, rabi pulses, linseed, rapeseed and mustard.
The Zaid is the summer season crop. Rice, maize, vegetables, sunflower and groundnut are grown during this season. Again,
areas, which are extensively irrigated, grow three to four crops per year and, thus, fall out of the purview of the distinction
between the Kharif and Rabi crops. Similarly, in southern half of the Peninsular India where temperatures are sufficiently
high and rainfall is extensive in winter months, rice, jowar, coffee, etc., are sown, thus again blurring this categorization
under Kharif and Rabi crops. However, for most of India, Kharif and Rabi remain the distinct crop seasons with the specific
variety of crops grown therein.
Major Crops
Agricultural crops can be broadly divided into two categories, viz., food crops and non-food crops. Food grains consist of
cereals and pulses. Among the cereals are included rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, maize, etc. Pulses include gram, moong, masur,
athar, etc. The non-food crops comprise a number of cash crops such as sugarcane, cotton, jute, tobacco, etc. Tea, coffee,
rubber are included among the plantation crops. Besides these, we have the horticulture crops like fruits, vegetables ,
coconut, cashew, etc.
India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world and accounts for around 27 percent of world production and
13 percent of world trade in tea. In coffee, India contributes 4 percent of the global production. Rubber is primarily produced
in the State of Kerala and adjoining Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu.
India is the third largest producer of fish and second largest producer of inland fist in the world. As per Economic survey,
fish production from marine and inland sources has been at 2.8 million tonnes and 3.5 million tonnes, respectively and
marine products worth Rs. 6188 Crore were exported in the last year.
Why Working Conditions in the Tropical Forests are Difficult?
Working conditions in the tropical forests are extremely difficult due to the following reasons:
(i) Numerous Species: Heterogeneous characters of forests and the occurrence many different species makes the extraction
and location of valuable trees difficult and expensive.
(ii) Hostile Environment: Unfavourable climatic conditions like high temperature and heavy rainfall greatly hindered
lumbering in the tropical forest areas.
(iii) Lack of steady demand for Hardwood: While demand for some of the tropical hardwood is great, they are little use in
pulp and papermaking. In contrast to tropical forest temperate hardwood forest are both more accessible and more easily
extracted, therefore, the timbers are more readily exploitable.
(iv) Non-replacement of species: In comparison to the coniferous trees, the tropical hardwood trees are not only large but
also take a long time to mature. Thus, many of the tropical forest areas are being replaced not with original species with
growing conifers. This process may make the forests less valuable.
(v) Transportation: The transportation imposes a great difficulty in most of the tropical forest regions because of the fact that
tropical forests are difficult to approach and the logs are too heavy to transport.
(vi) Shifting Cultivation: the activity of shifting cultivation restrict exploitation of tropical forest by degenerating forests in
terms of species and also initiates soil erosion by wantion destruction of forests.
(vii) Soil erosion: In most of the tropical areas where the rainfall is usually high and the unscientific exploitation of trees for
timber leads to very rapid soil erosion which, in turn, native species.
In spite of the difficulties associated with the lumbering in tropical forests, the tropical woods are gaining importance as an
export item of international trade; this is because of poor and incompetent substitution by the timber of coniferous forests.
What are the differences between a galaxy and a constellation
?
Difference between a Galaxy and a Constellation are :
We know that a galaxy consists of stars and a constellation also consists of stars. So, let us find out the difference between the
two.
(i) The first difference is that a galaxy is a collection of billions of stars whereas a constellation is a collection of only a very
few stars.
(ii) The second difference is that a galaxy does not form a definite pattern which resembles the shape of an animal or a
human being but a constellation appears to resemble an animal or human being in its shape.
(iii) The third difference is that the billions of galaxies in this universe but only about 88 constellations are known at
present.

What are the difference between folding and faulting ?
The difference between folding and faulting are discussed bellow:
Folding
The horizontal movement of the earths crust results in folding.
In shallow seas and lakes, deposited sediments (sedimentary rocks) generally get so compressed that they take the form of
folds at many places resulting in complex structure. Called fold mountains. The process is known as folding.
Examples. Himalayas in Asia and Rockeys in North America.
Faulting
The vertical movement of the earths crust involves uplift or subsidence of crust along the lines of weakness and is called
faulting.
The process of uplift and subsidence along the line of weakness is called faulting. The uplifted position may become Block
Mountain and the subsided area may form deep Rift Valleys.
Examples: Rift Valleys in East Africa. In India Narmada Valley is a Rift Valley.

Essay on Migration in the World
i. Ancient migrations encompassed relatively small numbers, but they were extremely important in the development and
spread of civilisation. Greek colonisation resulted in the gradual extension of their people and their culture throughout the
Mediterranean basin and the Near East;
ii. During the early Middle Ages (A.D. 200 to 800) the Germanic people of northern Europe began a series of great
migrations that took them to almost all parts of western Europe as well as a portion of North Africa.
Wave after wave of Asiatic people entered Europe from the east during the first fifteen centuries of the Christian (A.D.) era.
This great movement of Asians displaced large numbers of earlier European cultures, causing the relocation of people in a
kind of chain-reaction series of migrations.
iii. In the process, noConly people but also cultural concepts and practices diffused throughout what later Europeans
referred to as the "known world."
iv. Regardless of the importance of the cultural impact that resulted from these smaller, early movements, the migration of
great number of people is a more recent phenomenon.
This great transfer of humanity from one portion of the globe to another intensified with time; between 1820 and 1980. More
than 50 million migrants entered the United States alone.
In addition, some 6 million migrants entered Brazil, 4 million became permanent residents of Argentina, and over 1.5
million came to Cuba and nearly a million to Uruguay during the same time period.
While the cases mentioned are predominantly associated with the colonization of new agricultural areas or the supply of
labour to the (then) emerging industrial states.
Countless millions of other Europeans and Asians have migrated within or between the countries of those continents
because of changes in political borders or governments and the destruction wrought by civil and international wars.
What is the difference between Igneous Rocks and
Metamorphic Rocks ?
The difference between Igneous Rocks and Metamorphic Rocks:
Igneous Rocks
These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten magma flowing from the interior of earth during volcanic
eruption.
These rocks often contain crystals of different minerals.
Granite and basalt are examples of Igneous Rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed out of Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks under extreme heat and pressure conditions.
Thus, the Metamorphic Rocks are the altered forms of Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks.
Granite for example changes into Gneiss and Coal into Diamond.
What are the Characteristics of the Monsoon Climate?
The word monsoon has been derived from an Arabic word 'mausim' which means season. It denotes a season in which the
winds are completely reversed. In short, reversal of winds is called monsoon.
Characteristics of the monsoon climate of India are
Monsoons are not certain. Their onset is sometimes very early and sometimes very late.
Secondly, there is great variation in the amount of rainfall from year to year.
Monsoons do not reach in equal amount all around the country. They vary from region to region.
Continuous heavy spell of rainfall is sometimes followed by dry spell.
What is Soil-forming Processes by Translocation?
Also called Transfer processes it involves internal reorganisation of matter and redistribution of energy, but involving
movement, e.g., translocation of iron, clay, humus, and hydrated ions, diffusion of gases, ion exchange, and mass-movement
and through flow, capillary rise, mixing by soil fauna, cryoturbation.
The various types of translocation processes are
Leaching
The process by which water is percolating downwards through a soil, removes humus in solution, soluble bases and
sesquioxides from the upper horizon or A-horizon. The upper layer of a leached soil becomes increasingly acidic and mineral
deficient. It is most prounced in humid areas than in dry areas.
Podzolization
The formation in organic acids of soluble chelates (organic-metallic complexes of Fe, Al), and the dissociation of clay humus
colloids, susceptible to leaching
The Process of Pedogenesis
Laterization
(Now called Ferralization) It occurs in the humid tropics where heavy rain and uninterrupted warmth give rise to a deeply
weathered layer.
Dense forests produce a heavy leaf fall, but bacteria break this down at one: the circulation or mineral nutrients are
particularly rapid.
Leaching is heavy, but silica is removed rather than iron or aluminium, which accumulate at the surface. The removal of the
silica leaves a porous and firm soil, rather than a soft and sticky one.
In regions of more marked dry season, the alternation of wet and dry conditions gives rise to increased movement in to soil,
and the formation of iron crusts.
Calcification
Used by some to refer to the processes of calcium carbonate accumulation. This term is not specific. It leads to the formation
of pedocals, e.g., chernozem chestnut soil slightly alkaline (basic). Pedocals have:
i. A Horizon: humus-rich. Bases abundant and brought to soil surface by grasses
ii. B Horizon: nodules and slabs of calcium brought up from parent rock by capillary action and evaporated out.
iii. Climatic Types: temperate continental; tropical wet-dry.
iv. Climate: dry enough (600 mm) to inhibit leaching. Dry season necessary warm enough in summer (20C) for evaporation
to act
Gleyisation
The reduction of iron in an anaerobic or water logged environment leading to the formation of grey or blue colours. Not a
very good term because it includes a very large number of individual processes.
Salinization
It involves the accumulation of highly soluble sodium, magnesium and potassium salts in a soil. Salinisation usually occurs
in arid and semi-arid areas where evaporation rates exceed those of precipitation, especially in coastal regions and areas with
underlying evaporate deposits.
High air and ground temperatures cause evaporation and the deposition of salts from the groundwater. Salinisation can also
result from the excessive and wrongly timed application of irrigation water.
Irrigation followed by a lengthy hot, dry phase can result in a substantial upward movement of salts, which accumulate as a
salt pan.
One example of salinisation is found in northwestjndia particularly in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh where
surface irrigation has led to a rise in the water table.
The process of salinization causes the formation of Solonchak soils, i.e., the accumulation of soluble salts in the soil
(sulphates and chlorides of sodium and calcium).
What are the uses of Manganese?
It is used as a ferro-alloy. The purpose of the input is to neutralize the negative effects of sulphur on the high temperature
strength of steel and to act as a cleanser in the manufacture of steel.
Percentage of manganese up to 14% give steel a hard surface but tough core, needed in rock crushers and railroad switches.
Manganese is also used in the manufacture of bricks, glazed pottery, plastics, floor tile, glass, varnish and dry- cell batteries.
Manganese compounds are used in making disinfecting liquids; as a decolorize in glass making; and for the manufacture of
bleaching powder, used in the textile industry.
Mangnese is mixed with copper to produce manganese-bronze, and with nickel to produce 'manganin' which is highly
resistant to corrosion.
Brazil-Near Mecapa in Amapa, Minas Gerais, and Urucum near Corumba in western Mato Grosso
Others-Deposits as nodules especially in the Pacific Ocean
Essay on Inland Waterways of Europe and North America
Inland waterways are best developed in two continents, Europe and North America.
Europe
A number of countries in Europe, e.g. France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands and the erstwhile USSR, have very extensive
inland waterways including both rivers and canals.
France
i. The second largest country in Europe after the CIS has 5600 km (3,500 miles) of navigable rivers and another 4800 km
(3,000 miles) of canals.
ii. The major French rivers, e.g. Loire, Garonne, Seine, Rhone, Meuse and Moselle have been modified and improved and are
linked by canal systems such as the Canal du Midi, Canal du Centre, Burgundy Canal, Maine and Rhine Canal and Rhone
Rhine Canal.
iii. Though France has a great length of waterways the traffic is not as great as in Germany or the Netherlands because many
of the older canals are only capable of taking small barges with a low carrying capacity.
iv. Germany and other central European countries have many canals.
(a) The Rhine Waterways.
i. The Rhine flows through Switzerland, West Germany and the Netherlands and forms the eastern border of France.
ii. It is navigable as far as Basel and is the most important waterway in Europe.
iii. It is linked to the River Rhone and the Mediterranean by the Rhone-Rhine Canal and is joined by many tributaries, some
of which, including the Main and Moselle, have been canalized.
iv. The river has been dredged, straightened and improved over much of its navigable length; it suffers little seasonal
fluctuation, seldom floods and is rarely frozen.
v. The Rhine and the Rhone, to which it is linked by a large modern canal, are so important for transport that they have
become the axis on which trade hinges in the whole of the Common Market.
(b) Waterways of the Germanic-Baltic Lowlands
i. An extensive network of waterways consisting of east-west canals joining the north-south flowing rivers crosses the North
German Plain.
ii. The Mittelland Canal, joins the three major rivers of Ems, Weser and Elbe, and continues eastwards to Berlin and into
Poland.
iii. Near Hamburg another canal the Kiel Canal, 96 km (60 miles) long and 14 metres (45 ft) deep, links the Elbe estuary to
the Baltic Sea, improving access to the Scandinavian countries.
iv. The Dortmund-Ems Canal runs north-south and links the Rhine with the ports of Bremen and Emden.
(c) Waterways of Southern Germany
i. The region is served mainly by the Danube which flows through seven different countries- Germany, Austria,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria-before draining into the Black Sea.
ii. The Ludwig Canal links the Main, a tributary of the Rhine, to the Danube and allows waterborne traffic from the Black Sea
to reach the Mediterranean Sea through the Rhone- Rhine Canal or the Atlantic via the Rhine.
Waterways in Netherland
The low-lying Netherlands, at the mouth of the Rhine, is criss-crossed by its distributaries and also has extensive man-made
waterways.
The densest network is at the Rhine delta, where the Lek and Waal distributaries meet the Maas (or Meuse).
Inland
Rotterdam, linked to the North Sea by the deep New Waterway, serves a vast hinterland stretching up the Rhine to Germany,
Switzerland, France and Belgium.
Amsterdam is joined by the North Sea Canal to the port of Ijmuiden.
CIS
i. The CIS has immense systems of navigable waterways the most important of which are in European Russia.
ii. More outstanding canals are the Baltic and White Sea Canal, the Moscow-Volga Canal and the Volga-Don Shipping Canal.
iii. The vast Volga system links five seas: the Baltic, White, Caspian, Black and the Sea of Azov, Inland Waterways North
America
Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Waterways
i. In North America, the most important waterways is the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Waterways shared by Canada and the
U.S.A.
ii. It stretches from Duluth on Lake Superior to the estuary of the St. Lawrence below Quebec.
iii. Its natural barriers such as rapids, waterfalls, gradient differences and shallow stretches of rivers have been overcome by
the construction of locks and canals and by constant dredging to maintain a depth of over 7.5 metres the U.S. and Canadian
governments constructed the St. Lawrence Seaway which (27 ft), has many locks and dams which, apart from improving
navigation, generate H.E.P.
iv. Below Montreal the St. Lawrence is sufficiently deep for navigation all the way to the Atlantic.
v. Silting is tackled by constant dredging, but in winter from December to March the St. Lawrence is frozen and navigation
comes to a standstill.
vi. The main traffic on the waterways includes trade in iron ore, coal, grains (in particular whet from the Prairies), timber,
furs, dairy products, metallic ores (nickel, copper, gold) and a whole range of manufactured goods.
vii. Important cities linked to the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways by smaller canals are-Carillion and Grenville Canals
from Montreal to Ottawa.
viii. By the Rideau Canal to Kingston; and
ix. By the Erie Canal from Buffalo via the Mohawk Gap and the Hudson River to New York.
x. Despite the fact that the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Waterway is ice-bound for three to four months in a year, the amount
of traffic it handless is greater than any other commercial waterway.
This is partly because of the brisk trade on the waterway an the large number of vessels engaged, and partly because the
ships are large and can carry huge quantities of goods.
xi. In Canada, many of the north-bound rivers are navigable in summer, Examples
(a) The River Mackenzie from the Great Slave Lake to the Arctic,
(b) The Yukon from Whitehorse in
(c) The Yukon Territory through Alaska to the Bering Sea
(d) The Nelson and Albany rivers.
These rivers have little commercial importance, however, because of their northerly position. U.S.A.
The most important inland waterway is formed by the Mississippi and its many tributaries.
Why in India the long distance routes are connected by
railways whereas shorter distances are connected by road?
In India the long distance routes are connected by railways whereas shorter distances are connected by road due to the
following advantages and dis-advantages:
I. Two advantages of railways for long distance routes:
Railway is a cheap and convenient mode of transport for long distance journeys.
It carries in bulk non-perishable goods like machines, raw material like iron-ore, coal etc and other heavy goods.
Two disadvantages of railways for long distance routes :
It is highly expensive to construct and maintain railway tracks. It requires huge investment
Railways are not fit to transport perishable and valuable goods for long distance.
II. Two advantages of road transport:
Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains. They can be made to pass through forests,
deserts and difficult terrain.
Roads provide 'door stop' service to the people. They are the only means to connect the vast rural areas of our country with
towns and cities.
Two disadvantages of road transport:
They are unsuitable for transporting heavy goods and raw material.
The long distance journey by road transport is tiring and inconvenient.
Distribution and Characteristics of Brown Soils
Distribution
Arid margin of chernozem belt
Characteristics
(a) Less humus content in comparison to chernozem.
(b) Formation of CaCo3 nodule in B. horizon.
(c) Lighter colour than chernozem
(d) It has prismatic and cloddy structure
(e) It is less fertile than black-Earth
(f) It is productive if proper irrigation is available
What are the Major Fishing Grounds of the World?
(a) There are five major fishing grounds of world. These are: (a) The North West Pacific Region.
i. Extends southward from the outer Aleutian Islands in the north to the central Pacific, north of the Philippine Islands.
ii. Salmon, King crab, Herring, Halibut, Alaskan pollock and Cod are the most important catch.
iii. Japan: Commercial fishing is best developed because of highly organised industry with modern fishing methods.
(b)The North East Atlantic and adjacent waters of the Arctic
i. Extending from Iceland to Mediterranean shores including the European countries especially Norway, Denmark, Spain
Iceland and the United Kingdom.
ii. Shallow waters of the North Sea especially the most exploited Dogger bank are important areas where fishing is carried
out all round the year.
(c) The North West Atlantic includes
i. It includes Grand Bank and the Georges Bank area of the Northwest Atlantic.
ii. The convergence of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current in that region enhances productivity. The major fish is the
cod but halibut, squid, flounder and redfish are also important and herring andMtiackerel are caught on the surface water.
(d) The North - East Pacific
i. Extending from Alaska to California along the western shores of North America form the fourth large fishing area of the
world.
ii. Salmon is the most valuabfe fish of this region but tuna, halibut and sardines also important.
iii. This fishing ground comprises the world's best cod fishing ground along with herring and haddock.
(e) The South East Pacific
i. Lying off the coast of South America is known for the anchovy harvest off the coast of Peru.
ii. The northward flowing Peru Current provides an ideal environment for the anchovy culture because it is associated with a
coastal upwelling of nutrient rich colder water laden with plankton on which the anchovy feeds.
(f) The West Central Pacific
i. Extends from the Philippines and Indonesia southward to the Australian coast.
ii. A wide variety of fish flourish in this extensive region including redfish, bass, mullet, mackeral, oyster, crabs and tuna.
iii. This area, together with the Indian Ocean, comprises a major marine environment not being fished at a maximum level.
Facts on Indian Geography
Facts on Indian Geography
Indian Geography : Learn the most important facts and factors about Indian Geography. This article includes significant
information on various Geographical terms and projects. Waiting for some more information on Indian Geography from
your side. Please share your comments below.
Geographical Terms :
Irrigation : Water is very important for the survival of all forms of life plants as well as animal. India, by virtue of its
peculiar placement in the foothills of the Himalayas and having the ranges of the Satpura, Arvalli and the Deccan Plateau
running through it, has vast water resource which have been very meagerly tapped. Conventional and recognized means of
irrigation are tanks, wells and canals.

Wells : Well irrigation is an important type of irrigation in India. Wells are particularly suitable for small farms. The
important well-irrigated States are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. In these States water-table is high,
soil is soft and, therefore, wells are easily sunk. Tubewells are an important development in India. They are worked by
electricity or diesel oil and thus, they relieve our cattle of much of the strain. They are being quickly developed in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab. This is because these have ample sub-soil water.
Tanks : Tanks are also important and ancient source of irrigation. They are of considerable importance in central and
southern India, specially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. About 8 percent of the total irrigated area is irrigated by tanks.
Canals : Canals are the most important means of irrigation in the country. Some canals were constructed by the early Hindi
and Mohammedan kings. Most of the canals, however, are the product of the British rule. At present, canals irrigated about
39 percent of total irrigated area of India. Most of the canals of the country are found in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Storage
canals have been constructed in Deccan and Madhya Pradesh.
Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Projects : The methods of irrigation used in India can be broadly classified into
major, medium and minor irrigation schemes. Irrigation project having Culturable Command Area (CCA) of more than
10,000 hectares each are classified as major projects. Those having a CCA between 2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares fall
under the category of medium irrigation projects. And the projects which have a CCA of less than 2,000 hectares are
classified as minor irrigation schemes. For the purpose of analysis the major and the medium irrigation projects are
generally grouped together. These projects comprise a network of dams, buns, canals and other such schemes. Such projects
require substantial financial outlay and are, therefore, constructed by the government or any other agency which may draw
financial assistance from the government and financial institutions. The minor irrigation projects, on the other hand,
comprise all ground water development schemes such as dug wells, private shallow tubewells, deep public tubewells, boring
and deepening of dugwells, and small surface water development works such as stroage tanks, lift irrigation projects, etc.
Minor irrigation projects or the groundwater development schemes are essentially people's programmes implemented
primarily through individual and co-operative efforts with finances obtained mainly through institutional sources.
Before 1951, the total irrigated area in India was only 22.6 million hectares of which 9.7 million hectare land was irrigated
through major and medium irrigation projects and 12.9 million hectares through minor irrigation schemes. This has now
gone up to 94.37 million hectares at the end of 1999-2000.
Some Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects In India
Bargi Project : (Madhya Pradesh) : It is a multipurpose project consisting of masonry dam across Bargi river in the
Jabalpur district and a left bank canal.
Beas Project : (Joint venture of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan) : It consists of Beas-Sutlej Link and Beas Dam at Pong.
Bhadra Project : (Karnataka) : A multi-purpose project across the river Bhadra.
Bhakra Nangal Project : ( Joint project of Haryana, Punjab and Rajashtan : India's biggest, multipurpose river valley
project comprises a straight gravity dam across the Sutlej river at Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal hydel channel, two
power houses at Bhakra dam and two power stations at Ganguwal and Kotla.
Bhima Project (Maharashtra) : Comprises two dams, one on the Pawana river near Phagne in Pune district and the other
across the Krishna river near Ujjaini in Sholapur district.
Chambal Project : (Joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan ) : The project comprises Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana
Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam.
Damodar Valley Project ( West bengal and bihar) : A multipurpose project for the unified development of irrigation,
flood control and power generation in West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon
and Panchet; hydro power stations at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur; and thermal power houses
at Bokaro, Chandrapura and Durgapur. The project is administrated by the Damodar valley Corporation.
Dulhasti Power Project ( Jammu & Kashmir ) : It is a 390 MW power project in Kishtwar region of Jammu & Kashmir on
Chenab river. Work for this project started in 1981. The foundation stone was laid on April 15,, 1983 by the ten Prime
Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi. work on this project was suspended due to threats of kidnapping and killings by Kashmiri
militants resulting in long delay in completion of project.
Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) : Nepal also dervies irrigation and power benefits from this
project.
Hirakuad (Orissa) : World's longest dam, is located on the Mahanadi River.
Jayakwadi Project (Maharashtra) : A masonry spillway across the river Godavari.
Kahalgaon Project (Bihar) : The 840 - MW Kahalgaon Super Thermal Power Project, a joint venture between National
Thermal Power Corporation and the Russian State Enterprise Foreign Economic Association, was on August 12, 1996
commissioned and put into commercial operation.
Kakrapara Project (Gujarat) : On the Tapti river near Kakrapara, in Surat district.
Kangsabati Project (West Bengal) : The project, put in operation in 1965, is located on the Kangsabati and Kumari rivers.
Karjan Project (Gujarat) : A masonry dam across Karjan river enar Jitgarh village in Nandoo Taluka of Bharuch district.
Kosi Project (Bihar) : A multipurpose project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.
Koyna Project (Maharashtra) : It is built on a tributary of river Krishna with a capacity of 880 MW. It feeds power to
Mumbai-Pune industrial belt.
Krishna Project (Maharashtra) : Dhom dam near Dhom village on Krishna and Kanbar dam near Kanbar village on Varna
river in Satan district.
Kukadi Project (Maharashtra) : Five independent storage dam, i.e. Yodgaon, Manikdohi, Dimbha, Wadaj and Pimpalgaon
Jog, The canal system compries (i) Kukadi left bank canal, (ii) Dimbha left bank canal, (iii) Dimbha righ bank canal, (iv)
Meena feeder and (v) Meena branch.
Kundoh Project (Tamil Nadu) : It is in Tmil Nadu whose initial capacity of 425 MW has since been expanded to 535 MW.
Left Bank Ghaghra Canal ( Uttar Pradesh : A link channel taking off from the left bank of Ghaghra river of Girja barrage
and joining with Sarju river. Also a barrage acroos Sarju.
Madhya Ganga Canal (Uttar Pradesh) : A barrage across Ganga in Bijore district.
Mahanadi Delta Scheme (Orissa) : The irrigation scheme will utilize releases from the Hirakud reservoir.
Mahi Project (Gujarat) : A two-phase project, one across the Mahi river near Wanakbore village and the other across Mahi
river near Kadana.
Malaprabha Project (Karnataka) : A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum district.
Mayurakshi Project (West bengal) : An irrigation and hydro-electric projectj comprises the Canada dam.
Minimato Bango Hasdeo Project (Madhya Pradesh) : This project is located at Hasdeo Bango river in Korba district and
envisages construction of a masonry dam. A hydro power plant of 120 MW capacity has been commissioned on the Bango
dam.
Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh) : On the Krishna river near Nandikona village (about 44 km from Hyderabad).
Panamj Project (Gujarat): A gravity masonry dam across Panam river near Keldezar village in Panchmahal district.
Parambijulam Aliyar (Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala) : The integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six in the
Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Pochampad ( Andhra Pradesh) :Across Godavari river.
Pong Dam (Punjab) : It is an important bydro-electric project located on Beas river.
Rjasthan Canal (Indria Gandhi Canal - Rajasthan ) : The project uses water released from Pong dam and provides
irrigation facilitiesto the north-western region of Rajasthan, i.e., a part of the Thar desrt. It consists of Rajasthan feeder canal
(with the first 167 km in Punjab and Haryna and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and 445 km Rajasthan main canal
entirely in Rajasthan.
Ramganga ( Uttaranchal) : A dam across Ramganga, a tributary of the Ganga river located in Garhwal district. The project
has, besides reducing the intensity of floods in central and western Uttar Pradesh, provided water for the Delhi wate supply
scheme.
Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam) (Punjab) : A multi-purpose highest dam in the counrty, built on the Ravi river for the
benefit of Punjab, Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir.
Rihand Project (Utttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh ) : It is the largest man-made lake in India on the borders of Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh with a capacity of 300 MW annually.
Sabarmati (Gujarat) : A storage dam across Sabarmati river near Dhari village in Mehsana district and Wasba barrage near
Ahmedabad.
Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir) : With the successful completion of the 2.5 km long tailrace tunnel, the 690-MW Salal
(State 1 and II0 project, in Jammu and Kashmir became fully opertional on August 6, 1996.
Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh) : A barrage across the River Ghaghra, a link channel, a barrage across River Sarda and a
feeder channel of two major aqueducts over river Gomti and Sai.
Shravathy Project (Karnataka) : It is located at the Jog Falls with a capacity of 891 MW. It primarily feeds Bangalore
industrial region and also Goa and Tamil Nadu.
Sone High Level Canal (Bihar) : An extension on Sone barrage project.
Tawa Project (Madhya Prdesh) : A project across the Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district.
Tehri Dam Project (Uttaranchal) : Earth and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi river in Tehri district.
Tungabhadra Project (Joint Project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) : On the Tungabhdra river.
Ukai Project (Gujarat) : A multipurpose project across Tapti river near Ukai village.
Upper Penganga Project (Maharashtra) : Two reservoirs on Penganga ricer at isapur in avatmal district and the other on
Rayadhu river at Sapil in Parbhani district.
Uri Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir) : It is located on the river Jhelum in the Uri Tehsil of baramulla district in Jammu
& Kashmir. It is a 480-MW hydroclectric project which was dedicated to the nation on February 13, 1997.
Note : Waiting for some more information on Indian Geography from your side. Please share your comments below.

What are the characteristics of coal deposits in India ?
Four characteristics of coal deposits in India :
Coal deposits of India are of inferior quality.
The coal deposits in India are mainly concentrated in Chhota Nagpur area. It is a part of ancient Gondwana land considered
to be rich in minerals.
Coal deposits are found near the iron-ore fields.
Coal is an important raw material for the Iron and Steel industries, therefore many steel plants have been set up in these
areas. Damodar Valley area is rich in coal deposits.
Coal deposits are found in layers and lie near the earth surface. It is commercially economical to obtain coal from the open
pit mines.
A Brief Note on Ecological Pyramids of Ecosystem
An ecological pyramid is a sort of graphical representation showing the relationship between the various tropic levels of a
community. In food web energy flow is often represented by a diagram of quantitative relationship among various tropic
levels.
Large amounts of energy and biomass are dissipated at every tropic level, .with each level retaining a much smaller amount
than the proceeding level, and diagrams looks like a triangular pyramids. These are 03 types of ecological pyramids.
(i) Pyramids of Numbers:
In most of the food chains, the number of organism's decreases in each tropic level, a large number of small animals occur at
the base, a few large ones at the top.
The pyramid may be upright or inverted depending upon the size of producers in the community.
The base of the pyramid always represents the numbers of primary producers and the subsequent structure on the base are
represented by the number of consumers of successive levels, the top representing the number of top carnivores in the
ecosystem e.g. Ponds ecosystem.
(ii) Pyramid of Biomass:
Biomass means total dry weight of dry matter or caloric value present in the ecosystem at any one time. The pyramid of
biomass means weight of organisms at different tropic level e.g. terrestrial, pond ecosystem.
(iii) Pyramid of energy:
The total amount of energy utilized by different tropic level organisms of an ecosystem in unit area over a set period of time.
The pyramid of energy depicts the amount of energy flow to each successive tropic level in community. Greater amount of
energy is available at the producer level then the consumer level.
Energy pyramids are always slopping because less energy is transferred from each level than was paid into it. Energy
pyramid indicates amount of energy flow at each level and also actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of
energy.
Productivity: The relationship between the amount of energy accumulated and the amount of energy utilized within one
tropic level of food chain clarify how much energy one tropic level passes to next tropic level.
The ratio of output of energy to input of energy is referred to as ecological efficiency. Different kinds of efficiencies can be
measured by the following parameters (a) Ingestion (b) Assimilation (c) Respiration.
The portion of fixed energy a tropic level passes on to the next tropic level is called production. Green plants fix solar energy
and accumulate it in organic forms as chemical energy. Since it is first and basic form of energy storage, the rate at which the
energy accumulates in the green plants or producers is known as primary productivity.
The amount of organic matter present at a given time per unit area is called standing crop or biomass. The amount of energy
based organic matter created per unit area and time is left after respiration of these plants is net primary production (NPP)
or plant growth.
Short Essay on the Economic Geography of North America
(a) Pacific coast of North America
The areas extending from Alaska to California afong the coastal mountain ranges of Pacific coast are now the leading source
of supply of tim|*fer fo'Canada and the USA.
The Pacific North West or the western region is the leading timber producing region of the USA which contain Douglas firs,
hemlocks, Sitka spruces, cedars, etc. and in some areas enormous sequoias or redwoods in girth.
Washington and Oregon is the two largest producer of Sawnwood and Douglas tlr is the leading timber.
(b) Southern USA
i. Ranks next to Pacific coast with regard to lumbering the Pine is the most important species'
ii. Lumbering industry declined due to depletion of forests caused by the'greater demand of agricultural land and higher
density and nearness to ports and consuming centres.
(c) Appalachian Hardwoods
Deciduous trees like Oak, Walnut, Chestnut, elm and poplar of this region supply useful timber.
(d) New England State
i. Highly industrialised and densely populated regions adversely affect the distribution pattern offorests.
i. Forest of this region supplies timber and pulp for paper. White pine, hemlock, spruce, fir and maple constitute the main
species of this region.
(e) Canadian and Alaskan Taiga
A large extending from the Rockies to eastern Newfoundland and Nova Scotia is an important source of timber supply.
British Columbia is the most important centre, which constitutes Douglas fir, hemlock, spruce and cedar as the dominant
species.
Quebec and Ontario province of eastern Canada rank first as paper and pulp producer and white spruce and white cedar are
the dominant species.
What are the Characteristics of Tillage?
i. The high density of population of these areas has necessitated greater intensity in the tillage of land.
The term intensive implies that farmers in this region must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the
maximum feasible yield from a given parcel of land. Subsistence means that the crops grown are consumed by the farmer
and his family.
ii. There are two types of Intensive Subsistence Tillage-one dominated by wet paddy and the other dominated by crops other
than paddy.
iii. The islands of Pacific Ocean islands. Distribution
Asia: Practically, confined to the monsoon lands of Asia (East, South and Southeast Asia); China, Japan, India, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, etc.
What are the Characteristics of Plantation Agriculture?
i. Plantation crops are generally raised on large estates of more than 40 hectares.
ii. It refers to the large scale, capitalised and often highly centralised cultivation in the plantations of cash crops for export.
It is, therefore, one of the best examples of an export-oriented system. Among the most important crops found on
plantations are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and tobacco.
iii. Estate farming is an outstanding feature of plantation agriculture. Most estates have foreign ownership but the labour
employed is local. The largest estates are owned by the Europeans.
iv. The Malaysian rubber plantations are owned by Europeans while the tapping and processing of the rubber is done
entirely by local people or by immigrant labourers from southern India.
v. The British established large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka and banana and sugarcane plantations in West Indies.
vi. The French have established cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa, e.g., in Cameroon and Ivory Coast.
vii. The Dutch once monopolised the sugarcane plantations in Indonesia, especially in Java; Spanish and American
capitalists invested in coconut, abaca and sugar plantations in the Philippines; the Portuguese still own fazendas in Brazil,
although most of them now belong to the wealthy Brazilians.
viii. Farming in estates is scientifically managed. Work in estates is executed with specialised skills. Farming is mechanised
wherever possible. Emphasis is on raising the productivity and quality of the produce.
ix. Plantation farming is capital intensive. To initiate and maintain tropical plantation, a large sum of capital is required.
Distribution
Plantation is a form of commercial agriculture found in the tropics and the subtropics of America, Africa and Asia.
Latin American plantations are most likely to grow coffee, sugarcane and bananas white ki plantations may provide rubber
and palm oil.
What are the Types of Soil Erosion?
Geologic erosion:
The surface of the Earth is subject to decay and deterioration due to geological pressures and frictions though they occur
steadily and slowly.
This natural erosion of soil is accompanied by formation of new soils, as the nature always maintains the universal
equilibrium and harmony. It is, thus, not a load, in true sense of the term, but a process of replacement.
Water erosion:
Erosion caused by incessant rainfall is the result of the application of energy from two different sources, viz., heavy
downpour and surface flow.
When showers fall heavily upon the Earth with high velocity, they disintegrate and detach soil particles and subsequently the
surface flow of rainwater transports them into the high areas.
The high infiltration:
Of downpour into the upper crust of soil makes the major contribution to the transportation of fertile soils particularly on
unprotected slopes during the period of storms.
Four forms of water erosion are described below:
1. Sheet erosion. This signifies an elimination of thin fertile film of soil from the large area. It usually occurs on the
landscapes of gentle slopes.
The top fertile soil is ripped off every year and the loss is quite excessive yet it is imperceptible.
2. Rill erosion. Subsequent stage of sheet erosion is known as rill erosion in which fungi like rills begin to appear on the
landscape.
The rills are usually smoothened out by the working of the farm implements.
But year after year, the rills slowly increase not only in numbers but also in their shape and size.
The growth of rills hampers the movement of farm implements, reduces the actual areas under cultivation and results in
minimising the crop yields.
3. Gully erosion. It is the developed stage of rill erosion.
When rill erosion is overlooked, the rills get deepened and widened every year and begin to form gullies.
The tiny grooves develop into wider and deeper channels and grow in huge size.
They further get deepened and widened in every rainfall and if they are not controlled they destroy soils to a considerable
extent.
4. Slip erosion. This is usually caused by hydraulic pressure exerted by moisture penetrating into the soils during the heavy
rains.
Due to low permeability of soil they could percolate below the impermeable strata. Thus, a great mass of overlying soil on
steep land comes down bodily. This cuts down the arable soils to a great extent.
Salinity of Ocean Water
It is another factor which leads to diversity in the amount of salinity.
In equatorial regions, inspite of high temperature, the salinity is less because there are zones of heavy rainfall, which reduces
the salinity.
North and south of equatorial regions, there is an Intra Tropical Convergence Zone of high temperature and zone of strong
north-west and south-east Trade winds. Hence, there is an increase in evaporation resulting in an increase in salinity.
Again, in polar and sub-polar regions there is an excessive amount of precipitation in the form of snow. This accumulates on
the land and solidifies in the form of ice.
When this ice passes into the sea as glaciers and icebergs and melts in the temperate latitudes, it adds fresh water to the sea
and hence reduces salinity.
In the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, during northern summers the surface water is more salty in regions where
evaporation is greatest (probably the sub-tropical belt) and less salty in regions where fresh water is added dilution by
snowfall or rainfall (greatest in equatorial and westerly belts).
Around the poles there is a belt of low salinity, which is due to the melting of vast fields of ice. River Water
The amount of salinity in sea water also varies due to the influx of fresh water by river. Hence, near the mouths of rivers
Amazon, Congo, Niger, Ganges and St. Lawrence, comparatively lower salinity is found.
This effect is also marked along the coasts in the closed seas. In the Baltic Sea, many rivers from the land pour down fresh
water in the Gulf of Bothnia and reduce the salinity. Similarly, many big rivers, such as Danube, Dneister and Dneiper, fall
into the Black Sea and the salinity is found to be 18%o only.
On the other hand, salinity is as high as 40%o in the Mediterranean where evaporation is more than the influx of fresh river
water.
Further, in the enclosed dependent seas, during periods of maximum runoff from the land, salinity of surface waters will be
less than usual, while during periods of minimum runoff it will be greater.
Essay on Linking of Rivers in India
India is a country where a lot depends upon the moods of monsoons. This is truer in for the agriculture sector. A large part of
the arable land in India is rain fed. If monsoon fails the budget goes haywire. There are a lot of plans which try to decrease
this dependency on monsoon. One such project is river water linking or National Water Grid. Lot of talks has been going
about this project. Many view that the linking of water-surplus of Himalayan Rivers will solve the water-scarcity of India.
A task force was set up most of whose current members are advocates of large-scale technologies to harness water and
power.
Inter-basin transfer of water is quite common. It has been done in the US, Canada and China. Even within India, the Beas
and Sutlej River have been linked and the Indira Gandhi Canal has brought water from the Sutlej (in Punjab) in the Bhakra
canal to Rajasthan.
However, when the Soviet Union diverted rivers, it devastated the Aral Sea.
The positive aspect of this project is that it would increase irrigation and generate power to solve the countrys major
problems. There was a time when India went with a begging bowl to seek food aid. The fact that India has a population which
is growing by leaps and bounds and every year we have cores of new mouths to feed, nobody wants to go back to those days.
This project of linking rivers could be the cornerstone of the dream of a developed and prosperous India.
But this project is not without its pitfalls. Arresting the natural flow of rivers on this gigantic scale could destroy the
mangroves in the delta region of West Bengal and Bangladesh. Mangroves require the steady rise and fall of the sea level so
that their roots can breathe. Once this process is disrupted, the richest fishing grounds in South Asia could become a part of
history and folklore. Due to the disturbance of the delicate water balance of the area salinity would also make increase and in
the process destroy thousands of hectares of arable land.
The disturbance in the economic balance of the area will also have to be accounted for. Planners will have to consider
alternative employment opportunities and compensation plans of millions of fisher folk in the catchments area of the rivers.
Critics of rivers linking scheme advocate of increasing the productivity of exiting arable land rather than bringing new areas
under cultivation. China produces as much 4.6 tones of cereal per hectare, while India produces only 2.1 tones. And that
China has less arable land per head that India does.
Efficient use of exiting irrigational opportunities must also be considered. In India, due to the political clout exerted by rich
farmers, irrigation- which accounts for 70 to 80 per cent of the total water consumed-is often wasteful, since there is no
metering of usage and farmers simply flood their fields. The country could increase food availability by greater efficiency
without increasing irrigation.
The neighboring countries which share the catchment area of the rivers like Bangladesh and Nepal will have to be consulted
because due to the diversion of river these countries, along with China, would be affected by the project.
India has a large coastline and desalination of the sea water and using it for irrigation purposes is also one of the alternatives
which must be seriously considered. A Bangalore company is providing desalinated water about Rs (US 9 cents) per liter, as
against an international price of $1-$1.25 per kilolitre, which works out to be roughly similar. He said this could, in time,
prove a boon to those living in coastal areas.
Summing up the setting up o a national water grid by linking the major rivers of India is a costly and huge project which has
both positive and negative implications. This project which requires a huge political, economic and social discipline will also
have a tremendous impact over the neighboring countries. Alternative schemes are also being discussed which seem
promising at present but have to be extensively tested before they can appear as a viable solution.
Short Essay for Geography Students on Acid Rain
Rainfall is normally somewhat acidic with a pH of 5.6 to 6.0. However, as a result of air pollution effects much stronger
acidities are often observed in polluted air. Some of the major atmospheric pollutant by industrial emission are sulphur
dioxide (S02) and nitrogen oxides (NO and N02).
When particles of these substances form condensation nuclei, a dilute solution of sulphuric or nitric acid is produced as the
acid get dissolved in water.
The primary pollutant S02 undergoes further reaction in sunlight to form S03 (sulphur trioxide).
S03 which is produced from S02 in the presence of sunlight and oxygen is called secondary pollutant. Subsequently, S03 reacts
with moisture to form sulphuric acid
S03 + H20 - H2SO4
Nitrogen oxide (NO) reacts with the oxygen in the ambient air to form N02. N02 gets converted to nitric acid in presence of
water.
4N02 + 2H20 + 02 NO 4HNO,
The biological effects of these acidification changes on the flora and fauna of lakes air severe. Overall, the damage becomes
noticeable below pH 6.6 and only few resistant species survive below pH6.
The effect of acid rain on terrestrial and aquatic environments is determined by
1. The acidity of the precipitation and
2. The geology of the soils and rocks in the area.
i. The ecosystem of a stream or lake may be severely affected when its pH falls below 5.
ii. Total biomass in such systems is reduced from two to ten times because few organisms can tolerate acid and because the
acid may liberate toxic forms of trace metals.
iii. The diversity of species also decreases.
iv. Acidic conditions affect the reproductive capabilities of nearly all fish, resulting in slow decline-of fish populations over
time periods as long as ten years.
What are the Causes of Ocean Currents?
Currents are movement of oceanic water in a fairly defined direction under the influence of various forces.
The origin and nature of movement of currents are related to various factors:
1. Gravitational forces cause vertical movement of ocean waters. Greater values of gravitational forces cause the sinking and
subsidence of water at the poles.
2. Coriolis forces cause the ocean currents to be deflected right in the Northern Hemisphere, e.g., Gulf Stream and Kuroshio
Current; and left in the Southern Hemispheres.
3. Differences-^in atmospheric pressure. High pressure causes lowering of the sea level artd low pressure causes the sea level
to rise. Water moves from low pressure to high pressure area.
4. Winds and frictional forces. A steady blowing wind, through friction, brings about the surface flow in the direction of the
wind, which in turn, exerts certain amount of friction and drags the lower layer with it thus, the entire water after sometime
moves horizontally in the direction of the wind.
Trade winds, for example, cause the flow of Equatorial Currents from east to west and Westerlies from west to east cause
Gulf Stream and Kuroshio Currents.
i. Winds cause divergence and convergence and upwelling and downwelling of the ocean waters.
ii. The most important downwelling area is east of Greenland and Weddell Sea.
iii. Upwelling areas are those where the cold water from below comes on to the surface because the surface water has been
blown away by offshore winds.
iv. Examples of currents generated by upwelling are California Current, Humboldt Current, Canary Currents, Benguela
Current and Western Australian Current all on the western side of the continents.
v. The only upwelling area toward the eastern side of the continent is off Somali-forming cool Somali Current.
5. Winds lead to piling of water. Piling is caused by wind blowing constantly in one direction along a land barrier or partially
enclosed seas the piling of water under the stress of N'. Equatorial Current in the Gulf of Mexico has led to evolution of
Equatorial Counter Currents.
6. Density differences are caused by evaporation, precipitation, melting of snow and meeting of river. Evaporation causes an
increase in salinity and density and causes the water to sink inviting less dense water to take its place. Example includes
movement of water from the Atlantic Ocean to Mediterranean Sea.
i. Currents can also be generated where the river meets the sea.
ii. Melting of snow feed the Labrador Current.
7. Ocean current once generated get modified by direction and shape of the coastline.
For example, the Equatorial Current is bifurcated by the obstruction of Brazilian coast and one branch flow as Gulf Stream
while the second branch as Brazilian current.
How did the migration of different people into India help in
the enrichment of Indian culture ?
Migration of different people into India help in enrichment of Indian Culture:
The people of India have been formed as a result of migration over thousands of years. The ethnic groups, which finally
settled in India, include Indo-European speaking people (Aryans), Persians, the Greeks, the Kushanas, the Shakas, the Huns,
the Arabs, the Turks etc.
These racial and ethnic groups have intermingled with one another. They have all contributed to the making of Indian
History and culture.
The people from other countries brought with them their own culture and traditions which got intermixed and integrated
with the preexisting traditions of our country making it more enriched.
Our monuments, various art forms, paintings, literature, language, architecture and religious beliefs are examples of
enriched culture of India due to the migration of people here.
What are Intensive and Extensive Method of Agriculture?
(a) Intensive method of agriculture:
i. Agricultural practices refer to high inputs (either labour or capital) and usually high yields.
ii. Characteristics features of those areas where population density is much higher compared to the proper from of arable
lands, e.g., market gardening and dairying.
iii. Areas of cultivation
Japan and countries of Western Europe (advanced type) Southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh, China, and Vietnam etc.
(b) Extensive method of agriculture.
i. Characterised by low inputs of labour, low yields and large farm units, e.g. Austrial cattle ranching, and commercial grain
farming.
ii. Characteristics features of those areas where there is abundant supply of land and relatively sparse population or low
population density.
iii. Countries like USA and Canada (Prairies), Australia (Down), and Argentina (Pampa).
1. Monoculture: Monoculture means cultivation of single crop over years, e.g., Tea in India, Coffee in Brazil, and Banana in
PuertoRico.
2. Duoculture: Rising of two crops in a year, e.g., Kharif crops (depending on monsoonal rainfall) and Rabi crops (winter
crops).
3. Oligoculture: Involves cultivation of a number of crops from a land this type of agricultural practices. Greatly developed in
tropical and sub-tropical countries like Japan, India, and Vietnam etc
4. Commercial agriculture: Agricultural practices run wholly for financial returns.
5. Mixed Farming: A type of agriculture, which involves both crops and livestock. This is different from mixed cultivation,
which implies merely a series of different crops.
Essay on Railway Patterns of the World
Although it is impossible to describe al the world's railway systems in detail, a brief review on a continental basis is of
interest.
Europe
Britain
It was the home of the first railways and the new form of transport soon spread to continental Europe.
i. The great rate of economic and industrial development and the efficiency of railways when compared with other available
forms of transport at the time led to the development of a very dense network often linking quite small settlements.
ii. There are approximately 440 000 km (275,000 miles) of railways, most of which are double- tracked or multiple-tracked
and on the standard gauge.
iii. The trains usually run at high speed and services are frequent.
iv. The railways radiate from the main cities, e.g., Paris, Berlin, London, Brussels, Milan, Warsaw and Moscow.
v. The greatest railway densities are found in the industrial regions of Western Europe.
vi. Belgium has the greatest density with one kilometre of railway for every 6.5 sq. km of the country.
North America
i. The first railway in North America was built at Baltimore in 1830.
ii. The continent of North America has at present the most extensive railway network in the world.
iii. The densest railway network is found in the east-central U.S.A. and southern Canada, south of the Great Lakes, and on
the Atlantic seaboard where most of the main cities are linked by rail. The main transcontinental lines follow an east-west
direction linking the main centres of settlement in the east and on the west coast.
Trans-Continental Railways
i. Railway routes which join two ends of the continent, e.g., Canada Pacific Railway, Trans-Siberian Railway and the
Australian Trans-Continental Railway
ii. Runs from Vancouver (British Columbia) on the Pacific coast to St. John's (New Brunswick) on the Atlantic coast.
iii. Calgary, Regina, Winnipeg, Fort William, Port Aurthur, Sudbury, Ottawa and Montreal are the main stations of this
route.
iv. Extensively used for freight transport and unpopular for passenger transport.
v. Joins Quebec-Montreal industrial region with soft wood forest region and wheat region of Prairies.
The Canada National Railway (CNR)
i. Runs from Halifax in Nova Scotia to Vancouver via Montreal, Ottawa, Winnipeg and Edmonton.
ii. Churchill on Hudson Bay is linked to the main route by an important branchline.
Three important lines diverge from Edmonton. One runs to Mo Murray on the Athabasca, another serves the settlements of
the Peace River district and third crosses the Rockies to Vancouver.
Asia
Trans-Siberian Railway (Eurasia)
i. Double Track rail routes starting from St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east.
ii. World's longest continuous rail route, crosses-seven time zones and cover more than 9,300 km (5,779 miles).
iii. Moscow, Ryazon, Ufa, Kurgan, Petropavalsk, Omsk, Novisibirsik, Krasnoyarsk, Toyshet, Irkutsk, Ullan Ude, Chita and
Khaborovsk, are the main stations of this route.
iv. Some of the major
Japan
i. Railways are best developed in the coastal lowlands between the major industrial cities.
ii. Japanese railways are mainly electrified and are noted for their speed and efficiency.
iii. The Tokyo-Osaka or 'Tokaido' express is world famous.
China
i. Before the Communist revolution, China had few major railways. There are now more than35B km all on the standard
gauge, except in Yunnan.
ii. Many lines have been converted from single to double tracks to cope with increased traffic inI freight and passengers.
iii. The main trunk lines run from Beijing (Peking) south to Guangzhou (Canton) north-west toll Bator in Mongolia and
north-east to Harbin in Manchuria.
iv. The main east-west routes include lines from Tianjin (Tientsin), through Beijing (Peking), Daw (Tatung), Baotou
(Paotow) to Urumqi (Urumchi) in Xinjiang (Sinkiang); to Xuzhou (Suchov;) Lanzhou (Lanchow) and from Shanghai to the
North Vietnamese border at Pingxiang (Pingsiarc
South America
Railways in South-America are concentrated mainly in the meat-and-wheat areas of the Argent! Pampas and the coffee-
growing region of south-east Brazil
The Chile-Argentine Railway
i. There is only one trans-continental railway in South America linking Buenos Aires wi Valparaiso through the Uspallata
Pass across the Andes at a height of 3 960 metres (13 000 above mean sea-level.
ii. Of the remaining countries only Chile has a considerable length of railway lines about running from Africa south to Puerto
Montt, with branch-lines that link coastal ports with mining sites in the interior.
Australasia
The Australian Trans Continental Railway
i. Start from Fremantle (Perth) to Sydney, via Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie, Port Augusta, Broken Hill and Canberra
ii. Alice springs in the north and Adelaide in the south are linked to the main line.
Africa
i. Some of the more important routes of Africa include
ii. The Benguela Railway through Angola to the Katanga-Zambia copper belt.
iii. The Tanzara Railway from the Zambian copper belt to the sea at Dar es Salaam and the railway through Botswana and
Zimbabwe linking the landlocked central African states to the South African system.
iv. Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, and lines run from coastal ports to inland centres but do not
form a good network or link with lines in other countries.
What are the Characteristics of Subsistence Crop and
Livestock Farming?
i. In this type of farming, farmers produce crops and raise livestock mainly for their own subsistence and sell nothing in the
local market. Since they earn no cash income, they cannot afford to buy modern machinery and good breeding stock.
ii. The methods employed to grow subsistence crops and to raise the low-grade animals are primitive.
iii. Seeds are of poor quality and animals are poorly husbanded.
iv. Labour is intensively applied to the land under cultivation, but little attention is paid to the land meanl for grazing.
v. The farming is generally subsistence in nature and the bulk of the farm produce is consumed directly by farmers and their
families.
vi. The most important crops grown are barley and wheat in cereals. Rye and maize are the chief food grains for the people,
and potatoes and barley are other staples.
Distribution
Parts of south Mexico, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, etc. but the agricultural activities is increasingly becoming' more commercial in
organisation and practice in these countries.
What are the Characteristics of Farming who Practice Shifting
Cultivation?
i. People who practice shifting cultivation generally live in a small village and grow food in the surrounding land which the
village controls.
ii. Each year, the villagers designate an area around the village settlement for planting.
iii. The trees at the selected site are cut down with axes sparing only those are economically useful. The cleared area is known
by a variety of names throughout the world including swidden, milpa and kaingin.
At places the forests are burnt to clear the land of vegetation and therefore this type of farming is also called slash-and-burn
agriculture.
iv. The cultivated patches are usually very small, about 0.5-1 hectare, scattered in their distribution and separated from one
another by dense forests or bush.
v. Before planting, fields are prepared by hand, with the help of simple implements such as hoes and sticks, or crude wooden
ploughs are used to till the soils.
vi. A number of different crops are simultaneously grown in the same plot, such as cereals, roots and shrubs. Most of the
cultivated land is devoted to subsistence crops, such as manioc (sweet cassava), yams, taros, peanuts, cucumbers, tomatoes,
pimentos, beans, peas and bananas.
vii. The land is used to grow crops for only a short time, usually three years or less. When the cleared area (Sweden) is no
longer fertile, the villagers identify a new site and begin the process of clearing the field.
The old site is left uncropped for many years and is allowed to be overrun again by natural vegetation.
viii. Traditionally, land is owned by the village as a whole rather than each resident.
Climatic Conditions, Plant Life, Animal Life in Tropical
Savanna
Climatic Conditions
Long dry warm season and short rainy season; water is the limiting factor.
Plant Life
1. Dominated by grasses.
2. Water availability determines tree growth. Trees represent compromise between reducing the maintenance costs of
unnecessary height of the requirement of being tall enough and reduce mammalia browsing.
3. Trees 6-\2m height strongly rooted with flattened crowns
4. Trees exhibit various drought resistant features:
i. consist of spines (Acacia)
ii. Baobab is bottle-shaped
5. Vegetation shows many adaptations to fire.
i. Most trees are fire resistant; therefore, species diversity is low.
ii. Some seeds are covered with hard shell, which breaks at 80C only.
iii. Most of the trees reproduce themselves by throwing up suckers not many by seed germination.
iv. Possess thick bark and thick bud-scales.
Animal Life
1. High productivity and abundance of easily digestible food has led to large number of 1SI order consumers encourages large
numbers of herds of growing mammals - lions, big cats, hunting dogs, jackals and hyenas.
2. Large mammals provide living for scavengers so characterised by vultures.
3. Dominated by hoofed mammals adapted to running on flat plain: wild beast Zebra, Giraffe.
4. The largest animals are conspicuous related to size mammals - elephants, giraffe, rhinoceros (living fossil); related to
mobility-gazelles, ostriches, other flightless birds, such as enus; related to gregarious habits of many resulting in vast herds
or flocks.
5. Despite large number, competition for food is not as fierce because of elaborate specialisation.
Short Essay on Ozone Depletion and Ozone Hole?
It is tri atomic oxygen (03) and is a gas found in the troposphere as well as in the stratosphere. Tropospheric ozone is
undesirable since it is a pollutant these, causing photochemical smog and greenhouse effect. In the stratosphere, it acts as a
protectant since,
(i) It absorbs the dangerous UV-radiations
(ii) It helps to trap the weather pattern within the troposphere, by generating a temperative inversion in the stratosphere.
Tropospheric ozone is increasing due to human activities, while stratospheric Or, is decreasing. This decrease is called Ozone
Depletion
Ozone depletion deals with the steady decline in the concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere due to its faster destruction
by chemicals released by man into the environment.
Depletion is mainly caused by chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs), halons, methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. There
substances contain chlorine or, bromine which, can reach the stratosphere. These elements are capable of catalytically
breaking down ozone into oxygen.
Ozone depletion can also be caused by supersonic jet exhausts. They liberate NO which reacts with 03 to form N02 and 02
The area on the earth falling under the ozone hole is unprotected from the destructive UV-radiations, during the ozone whole
period. Even with 03 depletion, the global rates of UV-flux is on the increase as we are receiving more UV-radiations on the
earth's surface now than before.
These radiations can cause damage to human health, ecosystems and to the global climate. They can cause skin cancers and
catatracts of the eye, as well as decrease the immune reactions, making humans vulnerable to infections, diseases.
They can also kill plankton, thereby destroying the marine ecosystems. Many plants are also unable to tolerate an increase of
whole ecosystems, threat to the food security of the world, are some of the other effects. Ozone depletion can also result in a
stratospheric cooling and greenhouse effect in the lower layer.
Essay on Carrying Capacity Concept of Population
i. The concept of a population ceiling, first suggested by Malthus, is of a saturation level where the population equals the
carrying capacity of the local environment.
Three models portray what might happen as a population, growing exponentially, approaches the carrying capacity of the
land.
ii. The rate of increase may be unchanged until the ceiling is reached, at which point the increase drops to zero. This highly
unlikely situation is unsupported by evidence from either human or animal populations.
iii. Here, more realistically, the population increase begins to taper off as the carrying capacity is approached, and then to
level off when the ceiling is reached.
It is claimed that populations which are large in size, have long lives and low fertility rates conform to this 'S' curve pattern.
iv. In this instance, the rapid rise in population overshoots the carrying capacity, resulting in a sudaen check e.g., famine and
reduced birth rates-which causes a dramatic fall in the total population.
After this, the population recovers and fluctuates around, eventually settling down at, the carrying capacity. This 'J' curve
appears more applicable to populations, which ar^ small in number, have short lives and high fertility levels.
v. The carrying capacity is the largest population of humans/animals/plants that a particular area/environment/ecosystem
can carry or support.
Short Essay on Currents of the Atlantic
In the equatorial belt of the Atlantic Ocean, the Trade wind drives two streams of surface water westwards. One stream flows
north of equator and other south of equator. They are known as the North Equatorial Current and South Equatorial Current
respectively.
Between these two equatorial currents is the Equatorial Counter Current, which flows from west to east. This counter current
replaces the water removed from the eastern side of the ocean.
The South Equatorial Current bifurcates into two branches near the Cape De Sao Roque in Brazil.
Its northern branch joins the North Equatorial Current. This combined current enters the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico, while the remaining current passes along the eastern side of the West Indies as the Antilles Current.
The part of the current, which enters the Gulf of Mexico, comes out from the Florida Strait and joins the Antilles Current.
This combined current moves along the southeastern coast of the United States as Florida Current upto the Cape Hatteras.
Beyond the Cape Hatteras, upto the Grand Banks, off New Foundland, it is called the Gulf Stream.
From the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream is deflected eastwards under the combined influence of the Westerlies and the
rotation of the Earth. It crosses the Atlantic Ocean as North Atlantic Drift.
The North Atlantic Drift bifurcates into two branches on reaching the eastern part of the ocean. The northern branch
continues as North Atlantic Drift; reaches the British Isles from where it flows along the coast of Norway as the Norwegian
Current and enters the Arctic Ocean.
The southern branch flows between Spain and Azores Island as the cold Canaries Current.
Thie Canaries Current finally joins the North Equatorial Current and completes the circuit in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Within this circuit lies the Sargasso Sea, which is full of large quantities of seaweeds called sargassum-a brown algae.
Apart from the clockwise circulation of the currents in the North Atlantic Ocean, there are also two cold currents-the East
Greenland Current and the Labrador Current which flow from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic Ocean.
The confluence of Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream-one cold and the other hot, produces fog around Newfoundland
and makes it the most important fishing ground of the world.
East Greenland current flows between Iceland and Greenland and cools the North Atlantic Drift at the point of confluence.
At about 35 S latitude, the influence of the Westerlies and the rotation of the Earth propel the Brazilian current eastward to
merge with the West Wind Drift.
Near the Cape of Good Hope, the South Atlantic Current is diverted northward as the cold Benguela Current. It finally joins
the South Equatorial Current, thus completing the circuit.
Another cold current, known as the Falkland current, flows along the southeastern coast of South America from south to
north.
What are the Advantages of Ocean Waterways for Shipping?
Advantages of Ocean Waterways
(1) Ocean transport facilitates foreign trade.
(2) It is also the cheapest mode of transport, as there are no roads or railways to be built or maintained
(3) The ocean offers a free route to all the countries of the world.
(4) It is traversible in all directions.
(5) It is possible to increase almost indefinitely the size of vessels.
(6) The operational cost is less than on any other mode of transport.
(7) Ships can carry more freight than trains or trucks, because of their large size.
What are the Characteristics of Collective Farming?
i. The land of a collective farm (Kolkhozi) is the State property but it is leased to the association of till farm workers (the
Cartel) and is worked in the direction of a committee selected by the members' of Kolkhozi. On small plots farmers keep
cows, pigs, poultry, and birds and can also grow some olericultural and horticultural crops.
ii. The size of the farm is large.
iii. The Kolkhozis are highly mechanised. There used to be machine tractor stations (MTS) for the repair of machinery.
iv. The State taxation charged from the artel is in absolute terms and not in proportion to production. Therefore, it provides
an incentive to the farm workers to accelerate production.
The sharing (produce is based on labour-days (mandays) put in by a farm worker. The work done, the time spent and the
skill required are taken into account for the determination and payment of wages.
v. This system came to be applied to a greater or lesser extent in other countries-erstwhile East Germany (now, Germany),
Hungary, Romania, Poland, Bulgaria, Albania, Cuba and North Korea.
vi. Collective farms are not only confined to erstwhile communist countries but are common in many parts of the world.
vii. The Israeli Kibbutz is notable examples of such collective systems of the non-communist countries. In Kibbutz, the
farmers are free to determine and follow their own programmes and there is minimum government intervention.
What is the main cause of rapid population growth in India?
What are the harmful effects of growing population ?
Causes of population growth:
High growth rate, decline in death rate, improved medical facilities and public health services are the primary causes of rapid
population growth.
Rapid means of transport and communication have facilitated rapid movement of food-grains from surplus areas to deficit
areas. People now don't die due to epidemics, drought or famine.
Decrease in infant mortality is also one of the causes.
Harmful effects of rapid population growth:
Food problems. It is not always possible to increase the output of food to feed new mouths. Land is limited, hence increase in
population decreases per capita land area for agricultural operations.
Increase in unemployment. It has become difficult to provide employment opportunities to the vast army of unemployed.
Difficulty in capital formation. Increase in population has resulted in decrease of savings and capital formation.
Bleak future of Five-Year Plans. Rapid growth in population is associated with drought, famine or war or political
disturbances. As a result, Plans are never successful. Set targets are never achieved. The national, as well as per capita
income does not increase by the same rate as planned and envisaged.
Climatic Conditions, Plant Life and Animal Life in Tropical
Rainforest
Climatic Conditions
Unchanging climate of high temperatures and very heavy rainfall
Plant life
1. Luxuriant growth, evergreen variety (synchronous shedding).
2. Staggering richness and diversity
3. Stability of the biome.
4. Light is the limiting factor, not nutrients.
5. Trees consist of several layers.
6. Little undergrowth.
7. Herbaceous plants in more illuminated areas, saprophytes in areas of great darkness with the help of certain fungi which
grow without photosynthesis.
8. Contain a large number of epiphytes (stranglers).
9. Climbers including lianas are numerous.
10. Trees have leathery dark green leaves.
11. Trees may have drip trips devices that have evolved for shedding heavy rains.
12. Trees have buttress roots or stilt roots.
13. Trunks of many rainforest trees bear flowers and fruits-a habit called cauliflory.
14. Have conspicuous flowers and use animals for pollination. So the fruits are large, succulent and showy.
Animal Life
1. Since food production occurs many metres above the ground heavy browsing animals of the ground are thus numerous
and are replaced by browsers that can climb, principally primates.
2. Abundance of detrivorous particularly ants and termites.
3. Insects are very large; moths have wingspan of 30 cm, spiders are large enough to eat small birds.
4. Dominated by snakes (anaconda) and reptiles.
What causes the reversal of N.E. Monsoon winds?
The causes of reversal of N.E. Monsoon winds and its effect on South East coast of India are:
Due to the northward movement the sun, the temperature stalls rising and hence reversal of N.E. Monsoon takes place due
to seasonal change from winter to summer.
An intense low pressure area is development which extends from Thar Desert in north west to Patna and Chottanagpur
plateau in the east south east. The southern area is comparatively high pressure area.
The moisture laden winds are attracted towards the periphery of the trough.
Since Indian ocean surrounds India from three sides, the winds pick up moisture from the high pressure area lying in this
ocean and travel towards land.
The influence of reversal of north east monsoon on south east coast of India is that (i) it remains dry during this period or
receives scanty rainfall and (ii) rise in temperature is experienced.
What are the Characteristics of Livestock Ranching?
i. Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area which is associate with a very large land
requirement and modest input of capital and human resources (labour a management) per unit area of land.
ii. The ranches are very large; for example, the average size of sheep stations in Australia; hectares and the cattle ranches are
even larger.
iii. The ranches have a continuous vegetative cover. The green pastures are either of the native grasses is renowned with
selected grasses or legumes such as alfalfa, lucerne and clovers.
iv. The major types of livestock are sheep, cattle, goats and horses. They were mostly introduced from! European stock, and
at the same time are greatly improved by the adoption of scientific methods breeding.
v. The choice of the animals is done very judiciously. The rancher operator chooses the best quality animal suited to the
region. Each region tends to specialise in one particular type of animal and4 livestock products for which it is best suited.
vi. The size of herds and flocks is very large. Ode of the reasons for this is that there is a fear of large stock losses, which often
occur due to summer droughts and winter blizzards. The ranchers, therefore, adopt the policy of nomadic herders, i.e., the
larger the herd, the greater the chance of survival.
vii. There is little continual movement from one area of pasture to another.
viii. Ranches are managed and run on scientific lines. Cattle and sheep are guarded by from various diseases by their regular
vaccination. Veterinary surgeons regularly attend to the animals.
ix. The animals in the ranches are raised for highly organised markets. The most numerous animals, from commercial
viewpoint, are the sheep, which is kept for both mutton and wool. Cattle are even more valuable and are reared for beef,
hides and dairy products.
x. Livestock grazing has led to the development of towns, which act as slaughtering, processing and packing centres, and also
a moderate or dense network of roads and railways which link the ranching areas with stich towns, and carry the cattle or
sheep to the areas where they are fattened before being slaughtered.
Towns like Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, Montevideo and Rosario grew into major cities in South America and St. Louis,
Kansas and Omaha in North America.
What is Equatorial Tides?
This is observed when the moon's ray falls vertical on the equator every month.
Equinoctical spring Tides: Observed at an interval of every 6 anonths due to earth's revolution around the sun.
Tropical Tides: Observed when moon's rays fall vertically on the Tropic Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Such tides receive
twice every month.
Daily Tides: Tides are observed at the intervals of 24 hours 52 minutes while the tides recurring at the intervals of 12 hours
26 minutes are semidiurnal tides.
Spring Tides: Very high tide is observed when the sun, the moon and the earth are almost in the straight and this
arrangement is called syzygy.
The position of the sun and the moon in one side of the earth is called conjunction and this is possible during solar eclipse.
But when position of the sun, the earth and the moon are in right angle, this position is called quadrature. When the earth is
present between the sun and moon then the position is called opposition.
Distribution and Characteristics of Podsols
Distribution
North America and Eurasia: Humid mid-latitude having Forest vegetation and temperate region having moderate to low
rainfall in Coniferous vegetation.
Characteristics
1. Well-developed A and B horizon of soil. Reason: Eluviation and Illuviation.
2. Pronounced leaching. Reason: Sfriowmelt due to water release; high acidity.
3. A Hoi lzon eluviated -bleached grey appearance (silica accumulation).
4. B Horizon illuviated - hard clayey Pan, sesquioxide rich, nodules and concertion of brown colour.
5. Soil reaction - acidic. Reason: Slow organic matter decomposition.
6. Fertility - low.
7. Productivity - low, may be increased by addition of lime and fertilizer.
Distribution and Characteristics of Prairie Earths
Distribution
'Parkland' areas of temperate grassland region; 'Moister margin of chernozem soils; mid latitude, temperate humid climate.
Characteristics
Transitional between pedocals and pedalfars
1. A-horizon is darker than B, but there is no clear differentiation.
2. Calcium layer absent. Reason: high rainfall and resultant leaching (moderate).
3. Not very poor in bases.
4. Structure- Granular and nutty.
5. Reaction- neutral, fertility and productivity very high.
6. Hiah humus content.
Short notes on Eluviations and Illuviation
There are two processes important in the evolution of the soil profile - eluviation and illuviation Eluviation: The downward
transport process is called eluviation. It produces a distinct soil horizon from which matter has been removed. This is the A-
horizon.
Illuviation: Reverse of eluviation, in which matter accumulate in the underlying zone.
Water flowing down through the soil from the surface tenas to remove material from the upper part 0eluviation) and re-
deposit it in the lower part {illuviation) of the soil. This action leads to the development of distinct layers of horizons.
Details of the number of soil horizons are given below are distinctive horizontal layers identified in terms of physical and
chemical composition, organic content or structure or combination properties.
i. Most horizons are visibly set apart on the basis of horizons.
ii. The soil column consists of the A and B horizons of the soil profile; these are the dynamic and distinctive layers of the
profile.
iii. An Organic horizon designated by the letter Aoo lies on the A-horizon.
iv. The C-horizon by contrast, is the parent matter.
Essay on the Woollen Textile Industry Location
Wool, as a raw material, is impure in nature. So, the industry should be located, at least in theory, near raw material source.
Though, the general distribution of woollen industry all over the world suggests that market exerts maximum influence on
the location pattern, for example, most of the highly productive woollen manufacturing units are located within the markets
of Western Europe.
On the other hand, the principal wool producing areas of Southern Hemisphere are not very developed in the manufacturing
of woollen goods.
Raw wool is prepared in the temperate and sub-tropical areas. Though sheep rearing is a popular occupation in the sub-
tropical countries, especially by nomadic herders, most of the woollen product is generally consumed by higher latitude
people.
Most of the raw wools are produced in the regions of:
1. The Oceania region, comprising New Zealand and Australia.
2. The Latin American region, comprising Peru, Argentina, Uruguay, Colombia and Bolivia.
3. The South African region.
These three regions together contribute more than half of the raw wool requirement of the world. Though sheep rearing and
wool production is highly developed in this region, woollen industry as such is not very developed in the region.
The major reasons for the poor development of woollen industry are:
(i) The countries like New Zealand, Australia, and Argentina is situated in the sub-tropical region. The winter is not too
harsh. The local consumption is, therefore, not very high.
(ii) These countries are industrially ill-developed. The necessary infrastructure for woollen industry is absent.
(iii) These are sparsely populated countries and cannot provide large market.
(iv) The manual labour is expensive and inadequate in these countries. ->>
Important Centres CIS
1. Its early centres developed around Volga basin and around Moscow.
2. The leading woollen goods manufacturing centres are Moscow-Tula, Leningrad, Central Region, Kazakhstan and
Caucasus.
Japan
The major factors that encouraged the all-round progress of woollen industry in its early period of development are:
1. Availability of cheap power resources, particularly hydel power.
2. High productivity rate per worker.
3. Low cost of production.
4. Low consumption with the country.
The major wool producing centres are located within Tokyo-Yokohama, Nagoya, Kobe, Hemaji, Osaka, Nagasaki, etc.
United States of America
The early centres of woollen production are near New England region. Massachusetts and Rhode Island are the reputed
centres. The other renowned centres are Pennsylvania, New York, Wisconsin, Georgia and New Jersey.
The factors responsible for early localisation of woollen industries are:
1. Large-scale sheep rearing in northern grasslands.
2. Favourable cooler climate.
3. Easy availability of hydel power.
4. Steady market and available skilled workers, particularly, the people migrated from Lancashire, UK.
Like cotton textile industry, woollen industry in the USA had also experienced a massive migration from New England to
Southern states particularly to Carolina, Georgia and Florida.
United Kingdom in America
The early localization factors were:
1. The climate of Yorkshire was ideal. The soft-water supply was an added advantage.
2. The abundant power supply from Penine coal and hydel power.
3. Steady market, not only in Britain but also abroad.
Unlike cotton textile, which declined rapidly, woollen goods production in Britain survived and produced consistently,
though its relative dominance has gone down considerably. The rise of demand in home market helped immensely for the
survival of woollen industry in the United Kingdom.
At present, important producing centres are Leeds and Bradford. The UK is now not self-sufficient in raw wool production.
What causes increase in wasteland in India ? How the area
under wasteland can be decreased?.
Causes responsible for increase in wasteland in India are
Large scale deforestation and grazing,
Spread of desertification, especially in areas deficit in rainfall and around Rajasthan.
Soil and water erosion,
Water-logging due to excessive irrigation. (Any three)
Suggestions to improve and reduce wasteland :
Afforestation on large scale,
Soil and water conservation through contour ploughing, growing grass in hilly areas and prohibiting grazing.
Deep irrigation for conserving moisture,
Streamlining management and river water control. (Any three).
What are the Different Location Pattern of Iron-Steel
Industries
The iron and steel industry is an excellent example of an industry where changing technology has a ' strong effect on
location.
(a) At the source of iron ore: Lorraine (France), Duluth (USA), Corby (UK), Bhadravati and Vishakapatnam (India).
(b) At the sources of fuel, e.g., coal, hydel power, thermal: Coal based locations are Ruhr Valley (Germany). Pittsburgh
(USA), Donetz Basin (CIS), Bokaro, Durgapur and Jamshedpur (India)
(c) At or near the market: Those countries where coal and iron ore deposits are rare, e.g., Tokyo- Yokahama and Osaka-
Kobe-Hemeji Iron and Steel region.
(d) At the point in between market, raw material and fuel source (coal): This region offers maximum advantage from
locational point of view - The iron and steel industries of Alabama (USA) have all the advantages.
(e) At the places where coal-iron ore, coal-market, iron ore-inarket, or coal-market-iron ore coincide. The iron-steel industry
having iron ore and market facilities evolved in Adirondacks (USA) and Nova Scot'ia (Canada).
Industrial Centres CIS
The major iron and steel producing centres are:
1. The South District
i. One of the oldest iron-steel centres in the CIS.
ii. Favourable factors: Existence of Krivoy Rog iron ore deposits, Donbas coalfields, Nickopol manganese, and Kirch iron ore.
iii. Krivoy Rog and Donbas are the iron steel districts of the region.
2. The Ural - Kuznetsk Region
The iron-ore based plants of Magnitogorsk in Ural and coal based plants of Novokuznetsk in Kuznetsk are major iron and
steel centres of this region
3. The Central district
i. Only market based iron and steel region in the CIS, which is located around the capital city of Moscow.
ii. Moscow-Tula region is the prominent iron-steel centre. United States
The major iron and steel regions in the USA are:
1. Youngstown - Wheeling - Johnstown iron and steel region
i. It was once regarded as the world's iron-steel capital.
ii. Favourable conditions: The nearby Pittsburgh coal, and Lake Superior iron-ore, wonderful transportation network and
excellent marketing facilities.
iii. Pittsburgh - 'the iron - steel capital of the world', the other iron-steel industrial centres are around in the wheeling and
Steubenville district around Ohio-district.
2. Lower Great Lakes region
i. Favourable factors: Lies within the route of Lake Superior and Mesabi iron ore deposits and Appalachian deposits.
ii. Buffalo, Erie, Cleveland, Detroit, and Loraine are major iron-steel centres of this region.
iii. Chicago-Gary district and Duluth are massive steel-plants to serve the western and southern markets.
3. Atlantic Coastal region
i. Maryland, Sparrow Point and Pennsylvania are most important iron and steel centres.
ii. Entire steel industry collects coal from Pennsylvania, and Virginia mines and iron ore from Lake Superior, Adirondacks
and Cornwall areas.
4. The South-Eastern region
i. This region extends from the Virginia on the east to Alabama on the south.
ii. Alabama - Birmingham concentrations are important centres of this region.
5. The Western region
i. Extends from Colorado in the interior to California on the west.
ii. Fontana in California and Provo in Utah are important iron-steel centres. Japan
The major steel-producing centres of Japan are -
1. Tokyo - Yokohama area
i. Tokyo- Chiba region are major iron-steel centre.
ii. Hitachi, north of Tokyo is also the largest agglomeration of iron and steel industry.
2. Osaka - Kobe Region
Osaka-Kobe is another large agglomeration of iron and steel industry.
3. Nagoya Region
Popularly known as the Detroit of Japan.
4. Oka - Yamaha Region
Oka - Yamaha steel centre is one of the newest steel centres in Japan, situated in between Osaka - Kobe and Hiroshima.
5. Hokkaido Region
Not very famous for industrial developments except the iron-steel producing centres near Muroran.
China
The iron steel centres in China are located in three separate regions-
1. Southern Manchuria
i. Oldest steel producing area with Anshan, the oldest steel plant of this area.
2. Northern China
i. Stretches from Paotow to Shantung.
ii. Shantung, Beijing and Shensi are large steel plants of this region.
3. Yangtze Valley
i. Undisputed leader of iron and steel production which stretches from Sanghai to Chungking.
ii. Favourable factors: Availability of coal in the south of Nanchang and Chungking, hydroelectricity plants for energy,
extensive deposits of iron ore in southern Yangtze.
iii. Chungking, Wuhan and Shanghai are major iron-steel plants of this region.
What are the Essential Factors that Influence the Location of
Paper industiries?
In general, two types of location are visible throughout the world:
(a) Raw material based paper industry.
(b) Market based paper industry.
Basic Factors influencing the location of the industry
Raw Materials: The major raw materials necessary for paper industry are soft woods like Spruce, Cedar, Hemlock, Deodar,
Eucalyptus, etc. Several pulp manufacturing units are located near the forest to get abundant supply of woods.
Transport is one of the most important determinants of paper plant location.
Energy requirement in paper plant is very high. Paper plants show an affinity in location towards cheap hydel power source.
Industrial Centres United States of America
The paper mills are more or less distributed over four principal regions. These are:
1. The North-Eastern Forest Region: This was the first centre in the United States where paper and pulp industry developed.
2. The Great Lakes Region: After the decline of New England paper industry. Great Lakes regions emerged as a leading paper
producing region in the USA.
3. The Western Region: The north-western states like Washington, Oregon. Idaho, Montana and North Dakota contain a
large number of mills.
4. The Southern Districts: The states engaged in paper production in this region are North and South Carolina, Georgia,
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas and Texas.
Canada
The major newsprint mills are located at places like Quebec, Ontario and British Colombia. CIS
The larger concentrations of paper plants occur at Leningrad, Ivanovo, Oblast, Ural, Moscow and Ukraine.
China
Most of the paper mills in China are raw material oriented and located in the places of North Chin Important among these
are Hankow in Yiangtze lowland, Chekiang-Kiangsi and Tientsin.
Finland
Finland is one of the largest surplus paper-producing nations in the world. The major reason behind i phenomenal growth of
Finland paper industry is the vast amount of forest resource within the country.
Other Countries
The other paper producing countries in the world are India, Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Thailand in Austria,
Czechoslovakia. Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, UK and Yugoslavia in Europe; Mexico ii North America and Australia
What are the Essential Factors that Influence the Location of
Chemical industiries?
The chemical industry is considered as 'knowledge intensive high technology industry'. Therefore, conventional factors like
raw material availability, cheap labour and market facilities are not enough fort development of this industry. The
technological advancement and attainment of know-how is a requisite for this type of industrial development.
1. Raw materials: used for the manufacture of chemicals are bulky and weight losing. So, some ofthe plants develop within
raw material source.
2. Power Supply: Abundant and regular good quality power supply is necessary for the manufacture of chemical products.
3. Capital: Chemical industry is the capital-intensive industry.
4. Land: Market and raw material sources exert pull on the location of chemical industry. Availability of| land is also a
significant factor, which sometimes influences the location.
5. Transport and Communication: Most of the raw materials used in chemical plants are bulky andI weight loosing. It is
desirable to have a good transportation network.
Distribution of Chemical Industry
The major producing countries are United States, CIS, Germany, France, Italy, Britain, Belgium, Japan, India, China, Israel,
Brazil, Australia, etc.
United States of America
Several reasons are responsible for the supremacy of US chemical industries. These are:
1. High degree of industrial development and stable economy.
2. The development of science and technology.
3. Abundant raw material reserve.
4. Steady demand of the products. Distribution
The largest agglomeration of chemicai industries is visible, in the northern states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana,
Tennessee, Alabama, Virginia, etc.
Apart from these states, almost all other states have at least few chemicals producing units the Atlantic coastal tracts ranging
from New York New Jersey. Maryland to the south-eastern state of Florida contributes more than 70 per cent of the chemical
output.
CIS
i. Leading chemical producing centres are Ukraine, Volga, and Siberia. Urals, Armenia. Kazakhstan and Central Asia
ii. The industries using coke and non-ferrous materials to produce nitrogen and potash fertilisers developed near Ukraine,
West Siberia and Urals. The industries producing sulphuric acid were concentrated around Ukraine. Caucasia and Moscow-
Gorky area
iii. The largest concentration of heavy chemical industry, however, occurred near petroleum producing areas. This type of
industry has developed near Volga, Ukraine, Caucasus, Baku and Ural regions. The larger plants are located around
Chernigov, Shchokino, Sumgait, Balkovo, Nevinnamysk, etc.
Japan
i. Japan is inefficient in raw materials. More than 80 per cent of its factories are entirely dependent on imported raw
materials. The only raw materials abundant in Japan in sulphur, deposited extensively by volcanic eruptions
ii. Most of the chemical plants in Japan are located within the industrial agglomerations of 'Osaka- Kobe', Tokyo-Yokohoma,
Nagoya, Hemagi and Kyushu.
United Kingdom
i. The chemical industry in Britain is widely diffused.
ii. The leading producing centres are Lancashire, Glasgow, Manchester, Birmingham, Yorkshire, etc.
Italy: Italy is now considered as a leading producer of both light and heavy chemical products.
Germany: The major chemical industries are concentrated in Ruhr industrial agglomeration, Bavaria and Elbe area. Larger
concentration occurs in Munich. Frankfurt, Strassfurt, etc
France: The industry is well-developed in regions of Lorraine, Marsai, Bordo, etc.
China: The major chemical-producing centres in China are located in its northern part. The urban centres of Nanking,
Shanghai and Shantung contributes maximum of the chemical output. The other noted chemical factories are located at
Manchuria, Fushun, Penki. Dairen and Anshan The largest of the Plants are located at Manchuria.
India: India is now one of the leading manufacturers of chemical products. The urban centres .of Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Kanpur, Ahmedabad are leading producing centres.
Other Countries
In the present era, several other countries have developed their own chemical industry. They are:
Spain, Belgium, Poland, Canada, Australia, etc most of these countries concentrated on the production of fertilisers, caustic
soda, soda ash and different petro-chemical products.
Germany
(a) Ruhr-Westaphila Region
i. Largest industrial region of Germany.
ii. Essen and Dortmund - Important for iron and steel centre.
iii. Wuppertal and Krefeld - Textiles making centre (b) The Middle Rhine Industrial Area
iv. Frankfurt - Railway engineering centre with electrical, engineering, automobile and che" industries
v. Mainz - Leather, brewing and engineering industries. Other Industries of Germany
vi. Hamburg - Major port, with important shipbuilding and marine engineering works.
vii. Munich - Manufactures beer, musical instrument, and photographic equipment.
viii. Stuttgart - Known for automobiles, optical and surgical equipment, car components and water,
ix. Hanover - Metal and chemicals industries.
x. Aachen and Saarbrucken - Iron and steel, engineering and textile industries.
xi. Leipzig - Famous for its optical instrument.
xii. Jena - Photographic equipment.
xiii. Karl Marx Stadt - One of the major textile centres of Germany.
xiv. Dresden - China clay and porcelain.
Belgium
i. Liege - Iron and steel centre. .
ii. Mons - Textiles and brewery industries.
iii. Namur - Agricultural engineering.
iv Antwerp - Known for its ancient specialisation in diamond cutting.
Poland
i. Lodz - Manchester of Poland
ii. Other important industrial towns include Wroclaw, Czestochwa Bytom, Krakow, Warsaw Gdansk.
Netherlands
i. Rotterdam - Marine engineering, shipbuilding and oil refining are important.
ii. Eindhoven - Electrical engineering and linen textiles.
iii. Amsterdam - Centre for diamond cutting.
iv. Arnhem - Important centre for tin smelting and rayon textiles.
Scandinavian Countries Sweden
i. Most industrialised country of Scandinavia.
ii. Richest iron ore resources of Europe, Eskilstona - 'The Sheffield of Sweden', produces excellent cutlery and ornamental
goods.
Norway
i. Odda and Ardal - Aluminium smelting plants are important.
i. Stavanger - Port serving the North Sea oil and gas fields and fishing industry.
iii. Mo-i-Rana - Iron and steel Industry.
Denmark: Dairying and agricultural industries are important.
iv. Copenhagen: Dairying and agricultural industries and also chemicals, textiles, fishing Vessels, beer, silverware,
machinery, electrical equipment and diesel engines.
Switzerland
i. Watch making, engineering, chemicals and textiles.
ii. Swiss plateau has the greatest concentration of industrial plants based on cheap H.E.P. from the Alps.
iii. Zurich, Basel, Baden, St. Gallen, Jura Towns and Appenzell are important industrial towns.
Italy
i. Milan - Known as ' Manchester of Italy', having textiles (silk in particular) and engineering works.
ii. Turin - Known as 'Detroit of Italy', having automobiles, rail coaches and aircraft industries.
iii. Genoa - Shipbuilding and repairing industries.
iv. Venice - Long established craft industries.
v. Naples - The most important town with wine making and food processing.
vi. Taranto, Bari, Naples - Iron and Steel and petrochemicals.
vii. Catania- (Sicily) - iron and steel and petrochemicals.
North America
The USA
World's leading industrial nations its main industrial regions may be divided into- (a) Southern New England
Boston: One of the earliest industrial centres. It is known for shipbilding.
(b) The Mid-Atlantic States
i. Most densely populated part of the United States.
ii. This region is known for Iron and steel, engineering, printing, electrical goods, we and consumer goods.
iii. Important cities are Baltimore, New York, Philadelphia.
(c) Pittsburg - Lake Erie Region
i. Pittsburgh: 'iron and steel' capital of the world.
ii. Akron: world's largest synthetic rubber and the making centre.
iii. Cleveland: specialises in wearing approach.
iv. Buffalo: Have chemicals, metal goods and flour mills. The Detroit Industrial Regions
v. Detroit: Have greatest automobile manufacturing region of the USA The Lake Michigan Region
vi. Chicago (Southern shores of Lake Michigan) - Known for iron and steel plants, me grain-milling, agricultural machinery
and transport equipment.
vii. Milwaukee (North on the Western shores of lake Michigan)
viii. Gary: iron.and steel production. The Southern Appalachian Region
ix. Birmingham: Cotton textiles, chemicals, metal works and machinery. Eastern Texas
x. Fort Worth: Aircraft and aerospace industries.
xi. Dallas: consumer goods industry, cotton textiles and fashion industries.
xii. Houston: oil refineries, chemical plants, synthetic rubber factories, steel milling. Other Industrial Cities of the USA
xiii. St. Louis: meat packing, flour-milling, footwear and agricultural machinery industries.
xiv. Kansas City: Similar manufactures as St. Louis and aircraft and oil refining.
xv. San Diego and Los Angeles: Oil refining, steel, aircraft engineering, food processing a making.
xvi. Seattle: Lumbering, fish canning, aluminium smelting, aircraft and electrical engineering. Canada
xvii. Main industrial region stretching from the Lake Peninsula to Montreal.
xviii. Good accessibility, cheap HEP. And the investment of American Capital has encouraged growth.
xix. Toronto: Engineering, automobiles, chemicals, textiles, saw-milling and pulping.
xx. Hamilton: Also called 'Birmingham of Canada', it manufacturing iron and steel, cars, Poland agricultural machinery.
xxi. Windsor: Automobiles and tyre-making industries.
xxii. Sarnia: World's largest oil refineries.
xxiii. Kingston: Locomotive manufacture.
xxiv. Guleph: Electrical engineering units.
xxv. Montreal: It is famous for ship-building, oil refining, railway engineering, chemicals, paper and pulp.
xxvi. Quebec: Known for marine engineering and shipbuilding.
xxvii. Ottawa: Saw milling, paper, pulp making industries and also food processing.
xxviii. Winnipeg: Wheat milling, brewing, textiles, fur dressing and tanning.
xxix. Edmonton: Local extraction of oil, natural gas, potash and coal are important.
xxx. Vancouver: Centre for lumbering.
CIS
(a) The Moscow - Gorki Region: Oldest and the greatest of Soviet industrial regions.
i. Moscow: Textiles, machines, chemicals and light industries.
ii. Gorki, Tula: Have heavy engineering steel mills, railway equipments, automobiles, aircraft and food processing.
iii. Ivanovo: Manchester of CIS.
(b) The Ukraine Industrial Region
i. Donetsk, Dnepropetrovsk, Krivoi Rog, Rostov are important industrial centres.
ii. Iron and steel, machinery and chemicals as well as smelting are important.
(c) The Urals Industrial Region
i. Magnitogorsk, Perm, Chelabinsk, Nizhnytagil. And Sverdlovsk are important industrial centres.
ii. Heavy engineering and metallurgical industries, chemicals, steel mills are important industries in the region.
(d) The Kuzbas Region - Important coal region and also has thermal and HEP plants.
i. Novosibirsk - HEP engineering units.
ii. Novokuznetsk - Iron and Steel.
iii. Barnaul - Textiles.
What are the differences between Himalayas and Central
Highlands ?
Five points of difference in the layout and characteristics of Himalayas and Central Highlands are the following
The Himalayas
The Himalayas are fold mountains which have been formed recently.
These mountains are formed at the edge of the plateau.
In these mountains sedimentary rocks are crossed by huge rivers.
There are several gorges in these mountains
These mountains have three ranges that run parallel to one another.
Central Highlands
Central Highlands are old folds and fault mountains.
They are formed at the edge of plains
It is made of hard igneous and metamorphic rocks.
There are low hills in these highlands.
Central Highlands have several branches which run up to the north east.
Essay on Earthquake
When the rocks at the joint of two plates of lithosphere are sufficiently slippery, then the convection currents just cause the
plates to glide gently past one another thereby releasing the internal pressure. In some cases, however, the rocks at the joint
of two plates of the lithosphere interlock into one another strongly. They do not move at all and resist pressure from within
the earth's mantle. These internal pressures go on building over hundreds of years. Ultimately the internal pressure becomes
so much that it exerts an intolerable strain on the joint of the two plates of the lithosphere and breaks them apart.
A tremendous amount of energy is released which produces shock waves through the lithosphere. The lithosphere at that
place starts shaking with the intensity of these waves and we say that an earthquake has occurred. Thus, whenever there is a
sudden displacement of a part of the lithosphere crust due to internal forces, it causes tremors or waves which travel in all
directions from the centre of disturbance. These sudden tremors are called earthquakes.
The centre from which the earthquake waves originate is called seismic focus. The seismic focus lies within the crust of earth.
The point on earth's surface, vertically above the focus is called epicentre. Most of the earthquakes have a seismic focus at
depths of less than 60 kilometres from the surface of earth. The intensity of earthquake tremors is maximum near the
epicentre and decreases with distance from the epicentre. The intensity of earthquake waves and its time of occurrence is
recorded by an instrument called seismograph. Earthquakes occur in unstable portions of the earth's crust.
Earth movements along lines of weakness and volcanic eruptions cause tremors on the earth's surface. While hundreds of
mild earthquakes occur daily, strong earthquakes which cause large scale damage to life and property are less frequent.
Passage of earthquake waves may cause vertical and horizontal displacement of the earth's surface. Cracks or fissures may
appear in the earth's surface over long distances. Due to earthquakes, river courses may be altered leading to sudden floods:
Land slides may also occur due to earthquakes which may block the rivers to form lakes. Roads, railway lines, and buildings
are damaged causing extensive damage to human life and property. In cities, water pipe lines and gas pipelines may get
disrupted.
When an earthquake occurs, a tremendous amount of energy is released which sends shock waves all around. The intensity
of earthquake is indicated by the amount of energy released when the plates of lithosphere give way (break) due to pressures
from within the earth. The intensify of an earthquake is measured on Richter Scale. The earthquakes which measure upto 3
on the Richter scale are said to be very mild and do not cause any damage to life and property. The shocks of such
earthquakes are so weak that sometimes they are not even noticed by the people.
An earthquake which measures 8 or more on Richter scale is very severe. In this case the affected part of the earth's surface
shakes violently. Such earthquakes which measure 8 or more on Richter scale can destroy entire cities and villages causing a
great loss to life and property. The Richter scale for measuring the intensity of earthquakes was invented by a scientist called
C.F. Richter.
How oceans regulate the temperature of Land ?
The oceans regulate the temperature of land (of our globe) in two ways :
through oceanic currents which flow in them due to blowing of winds and rotation of earth.
through convection currents which flow in deep sea due to difference in temperature.
Let us discuss it in detail. When wind blows over the surface of an ocean, it causes the water to flow from one place to
another. Similarly, when the earth rotates, it also causes the sea-water to flow along a particular path. This flow of water in
the ocean from one place to another is called oceanic current. Also, at the greater depth in the oceans, the temperature
difference between different points causes the water to flow. This flow of water due to oceanic currents and convection
currents carries heat from lower latitudes to higher latitudes and regulates the temperature of land. It is because of this
regulation that the temperature difference between any two points in the ocean is never more than 10C.
Essay on Components of the Ecosystem
Biotic Component
Energy
Radiant energy is received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics energy flows one way through an ecosystem it is degraded to heat and
passes into the environment and eventually back into space.
Physical factors
i. Temperature, light, winds, humidity, ocean currents, rainfall that are created when solar energy interacts with the organic
and inorganic chemicals in the ecosystem.
ii. Chemicals^Inorganic substances (water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, C02, essential minerals).
iii. Organic substances (Protein, carbohydrate, lipids, vitamins and other complex chemicals).
Biotic Component Producers (Plants or autotrophs)
These are plants ranging in size from tiny floating phytoplankton (algae, diatoms) to big trees.
Macroconsumers (Animals or heterotrophs)
Include those organisms who do not manufacture their own food.
These include Herbivores (Plant eaters), Carnivores (meat eaters), Omnivores (generalists), and pigs, rats, humans,
decomposers (Micro consumers Saptrotorphs).
Tiny organisms: bacteria, fungi and some protozoa that break down the bodies and complex compounds in the dead animals
and plants into simpler substances. This process releases these chemicals in a simple form for reuse.
Arctic Ocean Circulation
Since much of the Arctic Ocean is permanently covered with solid ice or by broken ice-drifts, Arctic surface currents may be
traced directly by the drift of ice-flows.
There appear to be three major circulation systems. One system originates in the Bering Strait and moves across the North
Pole. One of its minor branches reaches Ellesmere Island, then the main current flows towards the Greenland Sea and into
the North Atlantic via the East Greenland Current.
A second circulation is centred in the Beaufort Sea, forming a zone of stagnation (like an Arctic Sargasso Sea) in which the
ice-flows slowly gyrate in a continuous closed clockwise circulation.
The third circulation divides into a number of diversionary circulations adjacent to the Siberian coastline: one branch moves
towards the Greenland Sea and joins the current moving from the direction of the Bering Strait.
Distribution and Characteristics of Tundra Soils
Distribution
Along Polar margins in Tundra region
Characteristics
1. Little profile differentiation. Reason: Soil moisture remains frozen for a greater part of the year and frost heaving occurs.
2. Chemical and organic changes are slow. Reason: low temperature condition.
3. Soil reaction is acidic. Reason: Slow decomposition of organic matter.
4. Soil texture: Sandy clay, along with raw humus or peat. Reason: Slow decomposition of organic matter, incomplete
weathering.
5. Soil Structure: Angular blocky.
6. Fertility Status: Low. Reason: Inherent climatic and parental limitations.
7. A region of permafrost and frost heaving. Reason: low temperature.
8. Water logging during summer. Reason: release ground melt-water.
Why are most of the steel plants located in the Damodar
valley?
Iron and Steel Industry is located in Damodar valley because of:
1. The raw material required for Iron and Steel Industry such as coal, limestone and manganese are readily available in the
neighbouring areas of Orissa, M.P., Biharand Damodar Valley itself.
2. This area is well connected with the means of transport like roads and railways. In fact it the transport nerve centre in
East India.
3. Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) is a very good source of power. The Iron and Steel industry is able to meet all its
power requirement from DVC.
4. Labour and other facilities are available from surrounding States.
5. Iron mid Steel industry requires water in plenty. Damodar Valley through its rivers, dams and canals fulfils this
requirement also.
What are the Characteristics of Nomadic Herding?
i. An ancient activity and aboriginal form of livestock rising.
ii. Simplest form of pastoralism in which herds and flocks graze chiefly on natural vegetation.
iii. Subsistence form of exploiting dry regions, in which the use of land is extensive.
iv. In contrast with other subsistence farmers pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather than crops for their
survival. They take milk from the animals for food and skins and hairs for clothing and tent.
v. Nomads select the type and number of animals for the herd according to local cultural and physical characteristics. The
camel is the most desired animal in North Africa and the Middle East followed by sheep and goats. Horses, yaks, reindeers
and Llamas are other important animals.
vi. Conditions of extreme drought and severe cold sometimes cause a heavy loss of herds. Emphasis is always laid on those
breeds of animals that can withstand drought, cold and journey.
vii. Nomadic herders are constantly or intermittently on the move.
viii. The pattern of movement can be of three types:
(a) Constant pattern of movements from one area of pasture to another;
(b) Movement in the desert from one water hole to another;
(c) Seasonal pattern of livestock movement between mountains and lowland pastures (transhumance). Sheep or other
animals may graze in alpine meadows in the summer and be heralded back down into valleys for the winter.
ix. The life of the nomadic herders is traditionally very dependent upon their animals, which provided food, clothing (from
their wool, hair or skins), transport and for materials from which their houses can be made.
The nomads travel very light, have few personal possessions and live in temporary homes such as yurts or tents.
The extra requirement was obtained by trading with caravan merchants while some nomads who stayed for long periods in
one place grew a few basic foodcrops.
Distribution
Large belt of arid and semi-arid land that includes North Africa, the Middle East and parts of central Asia Nomadic Herders
(i) In Africa Fulani of the west African Savannas, the Masai in east Africa, the Nuba in Ethiopia and Sudan, the Bantu and
Hottentots of southern Africa in Botswana, the Tuareg of the Sahara
(ii) The Bedouins of Saudi Arabia in the Middle East.
(iii) Central Asia (from the Caspian Sea to Mongolia and northern China): Kirghiz, Kazakhs and Kalmuks. At places the
forests are burnt to clear the land of vegetation and therefore this type of farming is also called slash and-burn agriculture.
(iv) Groups such as Kirghiz, Kazakhs and Kalmuks were the main nomadic herders.
(v) In the tundra lands of Siberia, Yakuts, Samoyecls and Koriaks and Lapps in Scandinavia have all been nomadic herders
but they are tending to settle down or have already settled.
What are the two important measures taken by the
Government to improve the agricultural productivity in India
?
Steps taken by Government to improve agricultural productivity :
Institutional Measures:
Zamindari system was abolished
Tenancy reforms were introduce
Ceiling on landholding was introduced
Technological Measures":
Irrigational facilities were expanded.
Use of chemical fertilisers and improved seeds was popularised.
6 main conventional types of renewable resources
The different conventional type resources are as follows:
1. Water:
Water is essential for domestic use, generation of electricity, irrigation, navigation and also for living organisms.
Currently, a lot of underground water is being used mainly for agricultural purposes, creating enormous load on the eco-
system. Sufficient care needs to be taken to manage water efficiently.
Water is a renewable resource and has a life-cycle (the hydrologic cycle) which should be properly maintained. However, due
to large-scale deforestation the water cycle gets disturbed.
2. Forests as a Renewable Resource:
Forests constitute 90 per cent of the global biomass. They are important as they regulate climatic conditions, such as rainfall,
humidity, temperature and protect soil from erosion.
Forests provide timber, fruits, medicine (medicinal plants); protect public health by absorbing contaminants of the
environment and provide suitable habitats for a number of plant as well as animal species. But due to improper
management, vast stretches of forests are lost every year.
To compensate the loss of forest cover due to its diversion, afforestation should be done so that the net area under the forest
cover remains the same. Only then forests act as a renewable resource.
3. Wildlife as a Renewable Resource:
Wild animals provide us meat for food, skin for leather goods and are used for research as well as recreational purposes.
Human beings have killed millions of wild animals only to show their supremacy.
The indiscriminate cutting of woods too has resulted in the extinction of at least one mammal and bird species every year.
In order to make wildlife a renewable resource, proper management and awareness among people is very important.
4. Livestock as a Renewable Resource:
The livestock such as cattle, goats, buffaloes, sheep, horses, camels, as well as fowls, ducks and turkeys, provide meat, milk,
eggs, skin, wool and also dung, which can be utilized as biogas and manure. Livestock can be utilized as renewable source
only through proper management of their health, breeding and diet.
5. Aqua Culture as a Renewable Resource:
Fish, crabs, prawns, molluscs, etc., are very important sources of animal protein for human beings. The food protein of
marine animals is generally obtained from fish.
Marine resources are: the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, numerous gulfs, rivers, lagoons, water lakes and other
inland water resources.
Fish is cultured in ponds, artificial enclosures and net pens by providing fertilizers 'like cow dung, domestic and agricultural
waste and also animal excreta.
The aqua culture production can be increased by using composite fish culture, i.e., using the surface, middle and bottom for
feeding fish in the same pond, avoiding competition among them for food.
6. Energy:
Although fossil fuels are non-renewable, they still form very slowly as compared to their consumption. Biomass although
non-renewable can be made renewable by fuel-wood plantations. However, due to indiscriminate felling of trees, forests
have depleted and fuel-wood has become scarce.
What are the Characteristics of Commercial Livestock and
Crop Farming?
i. The characteristics of the commercial livestock and crop farming are the result of the combination numerous factors, such
as physical, economic, political and social.
The combination of physical fad and human circumstances varies considerably and as a result there are large varieties of
enterprises in the commercial livestock and crop farming regions of the world.
ii. Holdings are of variable size. The farms have individual and family ownership and are operated family labour.
iii. The most distinctive characteristic of mixed farming is the integration of crops and livestock, can also be called as mixed
farming.
The ratio of cropland to total agricultural land is undoubted very high but at the same time the intensity of livestock
production is much higher. Most of thee grown on a mixed commercial farm are fed to the animals rather than consumed
directly by humans
iv. Mixed farms are characterised by high expenditure on machinery and farm buildings, extensive use manures and
fertilisers and also by the input of technical skill by the farmers who need to knowa all aspects of farming to grow and market
their range of products successfully.
v. A variety of crops are grown in the mixed farming region. Cereals dominate the crop land use; I leading grain vary with
climate and soil.
vi. In mixed crop and livestock farming, the farmers' workload is distributed throughout the year.
vii. The livestock farmer maintains soil fertility by using a system of crop rotation in which differentc is planted in successive
years.
viii. The return in commercial mixed farming is relatively high because of the intensiveness of applicali of labour and capital
to land.
ix. Extensive nature of cultivation: Extensive cultivation implies farming on large holdmgs empl Se labour and a greater use
of farm machinery, such that the yield per man is high. High de mechanisation reduces labour requirement and requires a
large size of farming unit.
x. The output per unit of land is always low as compared to regions where intensive cultivation common practice. Despite
low yields per unit of land, the farming is commercial because ofa surplus (the per capita production is high).
xi. Extensive commercialised grain farming is subject to climatic vagaries like drought, hail and Dlant diseases and attack by
pests and insects. Commercial wheat farmers are at the mer unpredictable rainfall.
Droughts in the Prairies or the Ukraine may last for several yearsj farming difficult. Severe winter frosts or summer heat
waves reduce yields drastically. The netei fluctuation in productivity and crop failures
Distribution
i. Large scale commercial grain cultivation is found in only five countries-the United States, W CIS, Argentina and Australia.
ii. Best developed in the Eurasian Steppes in region of chernozem soil, east of the Volga Riv northern Kazakastan and the
southern part of western Siberia; the Canadian and American Prai the Pampas of Argentina; the Veldt of South Africa; the
Australian Downs; and the Canter' Plain of New Zealand.
What are the Characteristics of Horticulture and Floriculture?
i. The market gardens are located just outside the city in suburban areas or in areas where climatic and soil conditions are
particularly favourable.
ii. Farmers in these regions specialise either in particular fruits or vegetables: in certain plat combinations of both
predominant.
iii. The scale of farming is small and intensive.
iv. The methods employed to grow crops are generally traditional and since most of the work is done hands the fanning is
labour intensive.
v. The farming is capital intensive and scientifically managed.
vi. A common feature of market gardens and truck farms is the high degree of commercialisation forj types of horticultural
and olericultural products.
vii. In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of western Europeai North America is
factory farming. Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle are raised entirely urn one cover.
Distribution
i. North-western Europe: Market gardening is well developed in the densely populated industtil districts in Britain,
Denmark, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands
ii. USA: North-eastern U.S. A, where the demands are very high. In the Southeast U.S. A, this type I farming is called truck
farming because trucks are used to transport the fruits and vegetables fromtl| farm to the buyers.
What are the different sources of power in India ?
Different Sources of Power :
Coal. Coal is a conventional source of power. It is a prime source of industrial energy. It is also an indispensable input in
steel and chemical industries. In the beginning of 20th century, coal used to account for over 90 per cent of world's power
requirement, but now it is around 30 per cent, Power generated by coal is used to energise locomotives, steam ships, boilers
and steam engines. It also generates electricity.
Hydro-electricity. Of all the power resources, hydro-electricity is the cleanest. Hydro-power uses a renewable source i.e.
water. Electricity is generated by rotating turbines at a very high speed coupled with generators. India has number of
Multipurpose valley projects such as Damodar Valley Project, Bhakhra Nangal Dam, Nagarjun Sagar Dam, which produce
hydro-electricity.
Mineral Oil. It is also a very important source of thermal electricity. Oil is an exhaustible resource and is not pollution free as
hydro-electricity is. Mineral oil as a source of energy is used in mining, storage and transportation. It is found in India in
Assam, Gujarat, the Thai- Desert, the Coastal strip and around Andaman. Bombay High is a recent find of geologists and is
considered as the richest oil field.
Nuclear Power. It is obtained by splitting nuclear substances .under controlled conditions. India is rich in certain atomic or
nuclear minerals. Bihar and Rajasthan have rich uranium deposits. Our four atomic power plants at Tarapur, Kola,
Kalpakkam and Narora are functioning.
What are the functions of Lithosphere ?
Though the destructive activities like earthquakes and volcanoes take place in the Lithosphere, but it also performs many
useful functions. Some of the important functions of Lithosphere are given below :
Lithosphere supports all the life which exists on earth, whether on land or in oceans.
Lithosphere is a large reservoir of useful resources. For example, Lithosphere gives us minerals from which metals are
extracted. These metals are then used to make various types of tools, instruments and other such items of daily use. The
Lithosphere is also a store-house of fossil fuels. Thus, Lithosphere gives us fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and petroleum.
Lithosphere is used to grow crops which produce food for our survival.
Lithosphere contains large reservoirs of water like lakes, rivers and oceans which are essential for the existence and survival
of life.
What are the functional constituents of the biosphere ?
The structure and functioning of biosphere is similar to that of an ecosystem. The biosphere consists of a non-living
environment and a living biological community. So, a biosphere has two main components:
1. The non-living components (or abiotic components).
2. The living components (or biotic components).
The non-living components of biosphere consist of matter such as air, water, soil and minerals. The living components of
biosphere consist of organisms like plants and animals, which can be further categorized into producers, consumers and
decomposers.
Functioning of biosphere :
The producer organisms absorb carbon dioxide and water from abiotic environment like air, water, etc. and prepare food by
utilizing sunlight energy. The producers are eaten by consumer organisms during which food and energy are transferred to
consumers. When consumers and producers die, then the decomposer organisms decompose the dead plant and animal
remains to form carbon-dioxide, water, etc. which are returned to abiotic environment. This is repeated again and again.
What are the three physiographic divisions of India and
describe the formation and general characteristics of the
Himalayas?
The three physiographic divisions of India are
(i) Himalayas
(ii) Plains of North' India
(iii) Peninsular India.
Formation of Himalayas. According to the geologists, the area, where the Himalayas stand today, was occupied by a sea,
called Tethys. It was an elongated and shallow sea sandwiched between the Angaraland in the North and the 'Gondwanaland'
in the South. For millions of years denudation of these two land masses resulted in deposition of silt into Tethys. In the
course of time these two land masses split up and moved apart from each other. In this process the basin of the Tethys
compressed and buckled up. Thus, the Himalayas came into existence.
Characteristics. The Himalayas have three ranges that run almost parallel to one another.
These are :
(i) The Great Himalayas or the 'Himadri' is the highest of all. These run from Indus to Brahmaputra. The highest snowy
peaks of the Himalayas occur in this range e.g. Mt. Everest (8848 meters), Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, Mt. Godwin
Austin, Nanda Devi.
(ii) Middle or Lesser Himalayas. These are also called the Himachal. All the important hill station such as Dalhousie,
Dharamsala, Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital and Daijeeling belong to this range.
(iii) Outer Himalaya or Shiwalik. These are made of unconsolidated river deposits and are formed from earthquakes and
land-slides. Soil erosion is at worst in these areas.
Purvanchal. It contains the hills of Garo, Kliasi, Jaintia, etc.
Western off-shoots. It contains Sulaimau Range etc.
What are the Characteristics of Mediterranean Agriculture?
i. Mediterranean agriculture is the most popular of all types of agriculture. It derives its name from the Mediterranean region
of Europe where the agriculture characteristics are representative.
ii. The Mediterranean environment and the integrated use of the contrasting microenvironments have fostered the
development of four distinct, yet interrelated, agricultural systems of crop production and livestock husbandry.
These are the: growing of cereals and vegetables with the aid of seasonal precipitation; cultivation of planted crops of olives,
figs, dates and grapes which ripen in autumn (fall) without artificial watering; raising of widely distributed summer crops of
fruits, vegetables and forage plants by irrigation; and livestock farming, mainly small animals which graze on highlands in
winter and on lowlands in summer.
iii. The most common feature of Mediterranean agriculture is that both subsistence and cash crops figure in the economy of
each of its regions.
iv. The relative emphasis on the production of several agricultural commodities both the commercial and subsistence
farming, varies with rainfall. The nature of cultivation is both intensive and extensive.
v. A combination of local physical and cultural characteristics determines which crops will be grown in which Mediterranean
farming areas.
vi. In the bordering areas of Mediterranean Sea, the two most important cash crops are olives and grapes.
Two-thirds of the world's wine is produced in countries that border the Mediterranean Sea especially Italy, France and Spain
Greece specialize in producing raisins and wine and Spain in oranges, olive oil and wine. Mediterranean regions elsewhere
produce the remaining one-third.
vii. Olives and grapes are the most important sources of income of commercial farms bordering the Mediterranean Sea;
approximately half of the land is devoted to growing cereals, especially wheat.
viii. In acreage, cereal crops are the most important in Mediterranean agriculture. Wheat, especially hard winter wheat is the
principal food grain, and barley is grown in the poorer areas.
ix. The nature of cultivation is both intensive and extensive.
x. Livestock production is hindered by the lack of water and good grazing land during the summer. Some farmers living
along the Mediterranean Sea traditionally used transhumance to raise animals, although the practice is now less common.
Distribution
i. Mediterranean agriculture exists primarily in the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea in southern Europe, northern
Africa and western Asia.
ii. Farmers in California, Central Chile and the southwestern part of South Africa and Australia practice Mediterranean
agriculture as well.
Few Facts about Human Impact on Nature
Human impact on nature is because human being possess many advantages over other organisms.
1. Ecologically dominant:
i. Compete more successfully
ii. Exert greater influence on the habitat.
2. Tool making animals
3. Robber animals: (Most exploitative animal)
i. Over cropping and overgrazing
ii. Non-consumptive uses
4. Agents of evolution
i. altered the course of evolution
ii. Increased the speed of evolution by
iii. Domestication
iv. Man-made habitats
v. Effects on distribution
5. Dirty animals:
i. Produce organic and synthetic wastes
6. The only animal with a sustained rate of Population Growth.
Notes on the Distribution of Hydel-Power through out the
World
North America
i. The United States of America and Canada are the largest producers of hydro electricity in the world.
ii. Conditions favourable for hydel power generation: Conditions for Hydel power generation:
(a) Abundant natural hydel power sight Example: Fall line of Appalachian, along the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence waterway,
Niagara Falls and St. Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Rocky Mountains and the Laurentian shield are important.
(b) Advanced technology in hydrological engineering.
(c) Scarcity of coal and oil fields in the Pacific region and the Rocky Mountain States. Moret fifths of the USA's hydro-electric
power now comes from these states in which are located well-known dams. Examples: The Grand Coulee Dam and the
Bouneviile along the Coin River, The Hoover Dam project on the Colorado River.
(d) Some gigantic multipurpose river valley projects backed by the government to harness their of the river for more useful
purposes. Examples: Tennessee Valley Scheme (TNA) Lawrence seaway.
(e) Large demand for H.E.P. especially by the industries such as pulp and paper, aluminium si chemical and metallurgical.
On the west coast of Canada, the Kitimat scheme on the J Nechako is an important station to supply electricity to the
neighbouring states.
Europe
i. Majority of the European countries has considerable reserves of coal, so hydropower developmeili secondary importance in
many countries.
ii. The bulk of the European output of hydro electricity comes from only six countries namely: France, Norway, Sweden,
Germany and Switzerland - Lack of fossil fuels in most of these coi have greatly favoured the development of hydro power.
iii. Norway leads the world in per capita output of waterpower since nearly 99% of her requirements are met by hydropower
installations.
iv. Trollhattan falls on the River Gota in Sweden is the most important for hydel power.
v. Major Hydel power stations for Germany are located at Grevenbroich (outside Dusseldorf), Inm (mainly for aluminium
smelting) and Bitterfield in East Germany.
CIS
The Caucasus accounts for more than half of total hydro-power resources of the European part of com
Several important plants have been built in recent years and 80 per cent potential HEP lies in Asiatic
Russia.
i. Dnieper Combine Scheme comprising a series of dams is one of the most outstanding schei Russia and the other two huge
dams.
ii. Volgograd and Kuybyshell on the River Volga are also important.
iii. Other large hydro power plants are Irkutsk, Bratsk, (World's largest single HEP Plant) Krasnoyarsk in Siberia; and
Beloyarsk on the shores of Caspian Sea.
Japan
i. Only Asian country which has developed hydel-power.
ii. The factors that have led to high development of hydel-power include well distributed abui precipitation, mountainous
topography, lack of coal, and the need for industrial power.
iii. Most of the large power sites are located on the eastern and southern slopes of the mountains of Honshu.
China
About 70 per cent of potential resources is located at south - western China and cities such as Shanghai and Guangzhow
(canson) are most important.
South East Asia
i. This region has huge potential but little is developed.
ii. Abut Bakar Dam of the Cameroon Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia is important for hydel-power.
Countries in the Southern Continents South America
Brazil is the leading hydel power producer in South America. Paulo-Alfonso plant on the Sao- Francisco River is famous far
hydro-electric generation.
Australia
i. South-eastern Australia is the main region for the largest H.E.P. project.
ii. Snowy River Scheme provides water to those areas where rainfall is both low and unreliable. Other dams are Tuly Falls in
northern Queensland, and Shannon in Tasmania is also important.
Africa
i. Despite the fact that Africa possesses the greatest potential hydro-power generating capacity, the 'continent's hydropower
is least.
ii. Although a number of gigantic power projects have been installed. These are
Aswan Dam - Egypt; Akosombo Dam - Ghana; Sennar Dam - Sudan; Kariba Dam - Zambia; Owen Falls- Uganda; Volia Dam
- Ghana; Kainji Dam - Nigeria; Kafue River - Zambia; Cabora Bassa - Zambezi River Mozambique.
What is the difference between Western Ghats and the Eastern
Ghats with regard to their potential for hydel power
development?
Comparison of Western Ghats with the Eastern Ghats with regard to their potential for hydel power development.
Western Ghats
Western Ghats are the mountain ranges that run along north to south are higher and continuous
Western Ghats receive more rain from south west monsoon in summer
There are many rivers originating from Eastern Ghats which are smaller and slow. They have little water hence of little use
for generating hydel power.
Rivers like Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri flow from east and fall into Bay of Bengal
Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats are situated in the east coast of India and are low and broken.
Eastern Ghats get rain in winter by north east monsoon
River Narmada, Tapti from Central High Land and other rivers originating in Western Ghats flow into Arabian Sea
The Eastern Ghat are mostly broken at intervals.
What is the difference between an estuary and delta ?
The difference between an estuary and delta :
Estuary
When there are no distributaries of a river and it meets an ocean or a sea in a single line, then the lower course of the river is
called an estuary.
An estuary is formed in coastal areas of high tides an rift valleys.
The coastal areas near estuaries are suitable for natural harbours.
Delta
When a river meets an ocean or a sea with so many distributaries, they are forming a triangular shape due to silt deposits, is
called a delta.
A delta is formed in coastal areas having plains and visiting by low tides.
Coastal areas having delta formations are good for agriculture and have artificial harbours.
List of Manufacturing Industries and Their Location in India
Aircraft Industries-Bangalore, Kanpur, Nasik and Hyderabad.
Aluminium Industry-Alwaye (Kerala), Asansol (West Bengal), Katni (M.P.) and Bihar.
Automobile Industry-Mumbai, Kolkata, Poona, Chennai and Jamshedpur (Jharkhand).
Blankets Industry-Amritsar, Agra, Bangalore, Mirzapur and Kanpur.
Cement Industry-Khetrt (Rajasthan), Katni, Gwalior (M.P.), Dalmianagar, Bhadravati, Surajpur (Haryana) and Okha.
Cycle Industry-Ludhiana, Kolkata, Sonepat, Mumbai.
Chemical Industry-Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Kanpur, Amritsar, Chennai and Bangalore.
Cotton Industry-Mumbai, Surat, Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Sholapur, Coimbatore, Nagpur, Madurai, Delhi, Kanpur,
Ludhiana, Bangalore, Kolkata and Indore.
Fertilizer Industry-Nangal (Punjab), Sindri, Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Alwaye (Kerala), Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh),
Trombay (Maharashtra), Rourkela (Orissa), Panki, Kanpur (U.P.).
Glass Industry-Ferozabad (U.P.), Mumbai, West Bengal, Amritsar (Punjab), Bihar, M.P. and Tamil Nadu.
Hosiery Industry-Ludhiana, Mumbai, Delhi and Mysore.
Iron and Steel Industry-Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Hirapur and Burhanpur (West Bengal), Bhadravati (Karnataka),
Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela (Orissa), Durgapur, Kulti (West Bengal) and Bokaro (Jharkhand).
Jute Industry-90% in West Bengal, Bihar, T.N., U.P.
Locomotive Industry-Chittaranjan, Varanasi (U.P.)
Leather Industry-Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Agra, Kolkata, Mumbai and Kanpur.
Machine Tools Industry-Bangalore (Karnataka), Pinjor (Haryana), Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh).
Match Industry-Kolkata, Chennai, Bareilly (U.P).
Oil Industry-Trombay, Vishakhapatnam and Digboi, Noormati (Assam), Barauni (Bihar), Koyali (Gujarat), Cochin, Madras
and Haldia.
Paper Industry-Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Pune, Saharanpur and Jagadhari.
Shipping Industry-Vishakhapatnam.
Silk Industry-Karnataka, Bihar, West Bengal, Kashmir and Assam.
Sugar Industry-Bareilly, Gorakhpur, Kanpur, Saharanpur, Lucknow (U.P), Bhagalpur, Champaran, Dalmianagar and
Muzaffarpur (Bihar), Amritsar, Phagwara, Punjab, Panipat, Jagadhari (Haryana).
Woollen Industry-Kanpur (U.P.), Dhariwal, Ludhiana (Punjab), Mumbai, Bangalore (Karnataka), Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh.
What are the Characteristics of Grain Farming?
i. Farms are very large, ranging from 240 to 16,000 hectares (600 to 40,000 acres), though the average in the USA is about
400 hectares (1000 acres).
ii. The tenant system or absentee- farmer practice is not prevalent.
iii. Settlements are small and often scattered but in Russian Steppes, where the land is farmed on a collective basis,
settlements are more compact and the .farmers living on these farms live together in quite large planned communities.
iv. Monoculture of wheat. The most important crop grown is wheat. In some places it occupies as much as half of the total
farmland. Two types of wheat is grown-spring wheat and the winter wheat.
v. Cultivation is highly mechanised. Farmers invest heavily in labour saving devices such as tractors, ploughs, drills, and
combine harvesters.
Additionally, farmers also erect large barns and storage elevators in which machinery can be kept and grain stored, as well as
other farm buildings. Therefore, huge capital investments are made on the purchase, maintenance and replacement of
machines.
vi. Extensive nature of cultivation. Extensive cultivation implies farming on large holdings, little labour and a greater use of
farm machinery, such that the yield per man is high. High degi mechanisation reduces labour requirement and requires a
large size of farming unit.
vii. The output per unit of land is always low as compared to regions where intensive cultivation ii common practice. Despite
low yields per unit of land, the farming is commercial because ofalj surplus (the per capita production is high).
viii. Extensive commercialised grain farming is subject to climatic vagaries like drought, hail and plant diseases and attack by
pests and insects. Commercial wheat farmers are at the mercy unpredictable rainfall.
Droughts in the Prairies or the Ukraine may last for several years mid farming difficult. Severe winter frosts or summer heat
waves reduce yields drastically. The neteff fluctuation in productivity and crop failures
Distribution
i. Large scale commercial grain cultivation is found in only five countries-the United States, Car CIS, Argentina and
Australia.
ii. Best developed in the Eurasian Steppes in region of chernozem soil, east of the Volga River northern Kazakastan and the
southern part of western Siberia; the Canadian and American Praiii the Pampas of Argentina; the Veldt of South Africa; the
Australian Downs; and the Canterbi Plain of New Zealand.
What are the Characteristics of Commercial Dairy Farming?
i. An activity of the temperate latitude based on the utilisation of permanent pastures.
ii. A most advanced efficient and capital-intensive type of farming.
iii. The business of keeping animals is labour intensive and offers great scope for intensive employment of labour than any
other agricultural systems.
iv. The productivity is very high in dairy farming regions..
v. High degree of commercialisation is the rule in all regions of dairy farming. A scientifically run dairy farm yields high
returns. A greater emphasis is placed on the improvement of herds.
vi. Dairy farms produce milk and milk related products. Some dairy farms specialise in products other than milk.
vii. Dairy farmers usually do not sell their products directly to consumers. Instead, they generally sell milk to wholesalers,
who distribute it in turn to retailers. Retailers then sell milk to consumers in shops or at home.
Distribution
i. Dairy farming accounts for the most farm acreage in the northeastern United States and northwestern Europe.
ii. In northwestern Europe, dairy farms occupy coastal and low-lying meadowlands of abundant precipitation, warm
summers, and cool and cold winters (50 to 60N latitudes).
iii. Other regions of dairy farming are the eastern states of the southeastern part of Australia and the North Island of New
Zealand (30 to 40S latitudes).
iv. Besides, there are numerous minor dairy regions in the western United States, eastern Argentina, middle Chile, the
Republic of South Africa, eastern Japan and western Russia.
Why fishing is highly developed in temperate latitudes?
This is because of a number of factors, which hinders the development of the tropical latitudes are
i. Tropical waters have a large variety of species all mixed up, which reduces the scope for large- scale commercial
exploitation
ii. Tropical waters have high temperature, which does not support plankton population.
iii. The very warm climate does not allow fish preservation and the fish must be consumed quickly.
iv. Most of the tropical countries have inefficient and inadequate transportation.and refrigeration facilities.
v. The demand for fish is also very low in these countries.
Essay on Movement of sea water
It leads to a very thorough mixing of the surface water; and hence determines salinity.
Among these movements are, first, the tidal currents, which everywhere surge backwards and forwards in the
neighbourhood of the land; secondly, currents and drifts, which actually carry warm and saline waters from the equator to
the polar region, from the western coasts to the eastern coasts, from open seas to enclosed seas, water from the bottom to the
surface in some regions and causes surface water to sink to the bottom elsewhere.
This mixing, when it is permanent and long continued, would lead to an absolute uniformity of composition at the surface.
These factors thus cause mixing of water and changes in salinity distribution. However, in the open sea, this mixing is
comparatively easier than in the enclosed seas.
The enclosed sea latter have lesser communication with the open sea and, therefore, salinity increases, e.g., the higher
salinity of the Mediterranean, which is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by narrow Gibraltar strait.
On the other hand, those enclosed seas, which have a wide opening to connect them with the open sea, have variations in
salinity depending on the currents.
For example, the waters of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea are comparatively less saline due to the influx of the waters
of the Gulf Stream.
Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico also has water of higher salinity, as warm and considerably saline equatorial water enters the
region of sub-tropical dry lat itudes in the enclosed boundary.
The subsurface high "saline water outflowing from Mediterranean Sea also increases the salinity of the Bay of Biscay and the
English Channel.
Essay on Functioning of the Ecosystem
Despite the diversity of their components, all ecosystems function in the same way.
They are all open systems in that they take in energy in one form or another in order to convert it into organic matter and
give off waste products. As a result, there are two basic types of links or flows between the component parts of the ecosystem
- energy flow and biogeochemical cycling.
i. In addition, all ecosystems are self-regulating systems and have an ability up to a point to modify the condition of their
internal energy and materials.
ii. The solar energy with the help of chlorophyll in plants under photosynthesis fixes some energy in plants.
The energy that is fixed is called Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) but since every plant has to perform some own function
like growing up, etc. some of this energy is subtracted through respiration.
Respiration-
C6 H12 06 + 6Q2 -> 6H2Q + 6CQ2 + Heat |
i. GPP less that used in respiration is called Net Primary Product (NPP).
ii. The energy of NPP is stored in new living plant tissue or plant biomass which may be either direct Consumed or may die
and accumulate as Detrital Organic Matter (DOM).
iii. The NPP provides the food base for all secondary biological productivity of animals.
Food Chains and Webs
i. Energy fixed in NPP is consumed by animals unable to manufacture their own food, i.e., herbivores (primary consumers)
first, then carnivores (secondary consumers) then the top carnivores (tertiary consumers). The remains are consumed by
decomposing organisms (e.g. bacteria and fungi).
ii. The flow of energy is called the food chain and the position one organism occupies in that is called the trophic level.
iii. In the process of eating and being eaten, energy flows - the passing from one trophic level to the next.
iv. The complex (many) food chains are called food web.
Biogeochemical Cycling
In primary biological productivity, the simple inorganic elements and compounds of carbon, oxygen hydrogen, nitrogen, etc.
are converted into complex organic substances, e.g., plant and animal tissues. These eventually die and undergo bacterial
decay and decomposition.
In this process of biological degradation, the inorganic elements are eventually released to be reused by the plants. Thus,
there is a continuous circulation of elements from an inorganic (geo) to an organic (bio) form and back again. This is called
biogeochemical cycling.
Nutrient Pools
Some elements, such as C02 and 02 enter and leave the cycle in a gaseous form and follow a simple route from the atmosphere
to the organisms and back.
Others such as hydrogen, N, P, K and Ca are absorbed in the form of soil (in solution), therefore, there circulation is
dependent on hydrological cycle.
Climatic Conditions, Plant Life and Animal Life in Tropical
Desert
Climatic Conditions: Extremely hot with unreliable and scarce rainfall
Plant life
1. Plant life adapted to aridity.
2. Two general classes of vegetation- Perennials and ephemerals. Perennials succulants adjust to aridity by various avoiding
mechanism:
(i) Extensive root system (phreaiophyte)
(ii) Transpiration reduction
a. dying back of leaves as in many grasses
b. shedding of leaves
c. Heavy cuticular and epidermal layers
d. Waxy coating on leaves
e. Sunken stomata
f. Very small, narrow sometimes scaly leaves
g. ridged stems
(iii) Aerial organs may become variously modified according to prevailing climatic conditions.
(iv) Leaf surfaces are generally shiny and glazed.
Ephemerals have short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand after rainfall. They evade drought. Develop vigorously
and produce large number of fruits and flowers during rain
Animal life
Animals show various adaptations either by behavioural adaptation (they escape or retreat):
1. Escape involves aestivation or dormancy.
2. Seasonal migration.
3. Nocturnal habit:
i. Some xerocole rodents seek burrow and passively loose heat by pressing their bodies against the burrow walls.
ii. Some birds and humming birds and bats go into torpor.
4. Jackrabbits and kit fox have large ears.
5. Kangaroo rat seals its burrow by day to keep chamber moist:
i. Obtains water by own metabolic process and from hygroscopic water in food.
ii. Liberates concentrated urine
6. Camel- Low surface area to body size ratio and lower internal heat production result in slower accumulation of heat.
i. Excretes highly concentrated urine.
ii. Loses water from body tissues not blood.
iii. Fat accumulation in hump.
7. Marine birds utilise salt gland to help in maintenance of water.
8. Black throated sparrow zebra finch of Australia feed on dry seeds
9. Small snakes and sidewinder burrow.
Distribution and Characteristics of Red Tropical Soils
Distribution
Hot wet Equatorial regions including the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia and parts of central and South America
Characteristics
1. Deeply weathered, but lack distinct horizon.
2. Highly leached
3. Less humus content because moist conditions enhance bacterial activity
4. Permanent residual of Fe, Mn, A1 oxides in top layer
5. Soil reaction is neutral.
6. Low Fertility
7. Productive if used scientifically.
Distribution and Characteristics of Laterite soils
Distribution
Brazil, W. Indies, tropical Africa, South India, forested warm temperate and tropical regions. These regions have alternate
wet and dry period, and hot humid conditions.
Characteristics
1. Extreme form of red tropical soil type.
2. Leached of alkalis and silica.
3. Accumulation of sesquioxides in top layer.
4. Crust formation near the surface, nodular concretions, induration
5. When dry it becomes hard and thus forms a useful building material.
6. Soil reaction is acidic.
7. Poor base saturation.
Distribution and Characteristics of Red and Yellow Forest
soils
Distribution
S. E. USA, S. E. China, S. Japan, S. E. Brazil, East coast of Africa, under climatic conditions of high temperature and
abundant rainfall
Characteristics
1. Distinct horizon development. A1 - Reddish/yellow, staining by Fe compounds: A2- Light coloured; B Horizon Dark colour
(illuviated).
2. Pronounced leaching. Reason: High rainfall.
3. Little humus. Reason - Warmer region enhances pronounced bacterial activity.
4. Pedogenic process - Podzolization and laterization.
5. Very susceptible to erosion. Reason: Crust formation.
6. Productivity - Fertilizer responsive crop yield high.
Distribution and Characteristics of Grey-brown Podzolic Soil
Distribution
Mid latitude deciduous forest on western margin of the continents and parts of eastern Asia, such as Manchuria, Korea,
Japan, Western Europe, North East United States.
Characteristics
1. Less leached (compared to podsols).
2. Less acidity (compared to podsols).
3. More humus content (compared to podsols).
4. Thick dense and dark brown B horizon contains minerals and organic colloids.
5. Fertility- Reasonble.
6. Productivity- high (Lime and Fertilizer responsive).
7. Bacterial action- relatively rapid, faster organic matter decomposition.
Why Soil are of different Colours?
1. The different colours of soil reflect processes of formation and evolution.
2. Generally, a dark brown or black soil is very fertile due to the largey amount of organic material it contains.
3. Grasslands where organic material from plant roots is incorporated into the soil usually are darkest.
4. Chernozem soils (from the Russian, meaning "black Earth") in the western part of the American wheat belt and Ukranian
wheat fields are among the world's darkest and most fertile.
5. The amount of humus that has decomposed in the soil determines its organic content and creates the darker colour.
6. Red and yellow soils are a product of iron oxidation.
7. When organic material is weathered away by physical processes, mineral residues, especially iron oxides, are left behind.
8. The red and yellow soils are especially common in subtropical and tropical areas, where frequent and intense precipitation
removes humus through leaching.
What are El Nino and La Nina?
The El Nino and La Nina are oceanic phenomenon driven by atmospheric circulation. It is caused by the Walker Circulation.
The Walker circulation is a convective cycle/cell that owes its origin to the gradient of sea surface temperatures along the
Equator in the Pacific Ocean.
The Walker circulation is driven by major east-west pressure gradients set up by differences between air rising over heated
continents and the warmer parts of the oceans, on the one hand, while air subsiding over continental areas where deep high
pressure systems have become established, and in association with subtropical high pressure cells, on the other.
The walker cell was discovered by G.T. Walker, a British meteorologist, who studied these phenomena and named it as
Southern Oscillation. The average period of this oscillation is 3 years, but it ranges from 2 to 10 years.
When it was discovered that El Nino seemed to be related to the Southern Oscillation, the occurrences began to be referred
to as El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.
Near the South American coast, the winds blow offshore, blowing the surface water westward away from the adjacent
continental margins. To replace the blown away surface water deep cool water replaces the blown away surface water.
This is called as upwelling. The air above this cool water is stabilised, convection, suppressed and thus, it cannot rise and join
the normal meridional circulation.
Instead it flows westwards where it flows as South East Trade winds across the South Pacific to warm the western Pacific
where it gains moisture and are heated. It then rises and flows eastwards to complete the cell.
Each year in October, however, the Trade winds slacken and the upwelling is reduced. The warm tropical surface water that
was blown up against the western margin begins to flow back eastwards across the ocean's eastern boundary, it further
suppresses the normal upwelling along the coast.
The weakening of the trades is related to the movement of the Indo-Australian low-pressure cell to the east, beginning in
October and November. Concurrent with the eastward shift of the Indo-Australian low pressure cell is the movement of the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) southwards.
The ITCZ's normal seasonal migration is from 10N latitude in August to 3N in February, but during El Nino Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) events it may move south of the Equator in eastern Pacific. This shift causes the weakening of the Trade
winds.
The warm surface waters remain off the South and Central American coast for an entire year or longer. Upwelling continues
to be suppressed and reduced by the overriding warm surface water and the failure of the Trade winds to blow it away. The
effect is called as El Nino (meaning the "Christ Child" in Spanish).
This appearance causes the air pressure to drop over large areas of the southeast Pacific while pressure rises over western
Pacific. This see-saw variation of air pressure is called the Southern Oscillation.
The shift in pressure pattern causes the Equatorial Easterlies to diminish and to eventually reverse direction. Westerly winds
then drag warm surface water towards the east.
When the warm water reaches the South American coast, it is deflected southward along the coastlines of, Peru and Ecuador!
This weakens the Walker circulation but an enhanced Hadley circulation which again increases the Trade winds and keeps
the warm water from flowing across in the eastern Pacific, thus, ending El Nino.
When the colder water is re-established in the eastern Pacific, the Hadley cell weakens and conditions are set up for the
return of the warm water currents.
Essay on Marine Vegetation
a. Algae are the most primitive of all plant life.
b. Members of this group lack roots, stems and leaves. However, they contain chlorophyll and are capable of photosynthesis.
c. Large algae live on rocky reefs while the smaller ones are parasites on other living organisms.
d. Those algae that grow on plants are called epiphytic -and those growing on animals are known as epizoic.
e. There are four types of algae
(i) Blue-green algae Very primitive plants and some of the common varieties that come under this category are
trichodesmiums and filamentous. Trichodesmium are found in the form of sticks in Red Sea and Indian Ocean. They bring
about the characteristic reddish colour of the Red Sea.
(ii) Green algae occur in shallow waters, mostly upto 10 metres. As their name implies, they are green in colour, which is
derived from chlorophyll.
This family of algae is most common in tropical oceans. Common examples of green algae are Ulva [Sea Lettuce], Halimeda
and Penicillus [Neptune's shaving brush].
(iii) Brown algae are generally brown in appearance, because the green colour of the chlorophyll is marked by yellow and
brown pigments.
They are found in cooler waters and generally occur in rocky coasts of higher altitudes. However, few varieties of brown algae
are found in tropical and sub tropical regions also.
"Kelp" beds and sargassum are some of the common varieties of brown algae. Brown algae are an important ocean resource
for iodine and potash.
Sargassum is particularly found in an area of the Atlantic Ocean called the Sargasso Sea.
(iv) Red Algae are one of the most beautiful marine plants, having wide range of colours like red, purple, brown and green.
Many red algae are calcareous, including encrusting forms that tend to cement sediments together. Besides calcium
carbonate these plants also contain a considerable amount of magnesium.
Large quantities of agar-agar are also extracted from certain red algae varieties.
It is a colorless, tasteless, odourless jelly like substance, useful in manufacturing of ice cream, glues, gelatin and act as
stabilizing agent in foods.
What are the Thermal Layers of the Oceans?
i. There are three different layers of the ocean from top to bottom in the tropics.
ii. Epilimnion - First layer, extended up to 500 m in the top most layer with temperature ranging between 20-25C. It is a
zone of fresh water of relatively warm water in which mixing occurs as a result of wind action and convection currents.
iii. Thermocline layer - below the first layer in which the temperature decreases with depth is greater than t hat of the
oVerlying and underlying water. It is also called as Metalimnion.
iv. Hyplomnion - The third layer, the lower layer of water characterised by a uniform temperature that is coolef than other
layers.
v. Oceans are great moderating agents on the Earth.
vi. The freezing of ocean water forces the salt ions out of the water, so the ice that forms is almost freshwater ice. Ocean ice is
generally no thicker than 3 m.
vii. The ice insulates the water under it from the colder air temperature above; therefore, the water below the ice never gets
cold enough to freeze.
viii. The water immediately below the ice is not only cold but it also contains a high concentration of salts. This high
concentration of salt makes the water denser than surface water.
ix. The denser water sinks to the bottom of the ocean, causing a vertical circulation of the ocean water. This type of
circulation is called thermohaline referring to both temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). Because of this circulation,
the deep water of the oceans has about the same temperature as the coldest surface water.
x. In tropical regions the ocean is wanned by the Sun. Ocean waters near the equator may have a surface temperature as high
as 30C. Near the poles the surface water temperature is about 0C.
xi. The surface layer of water, which is penetrated by solar radiation, is about 100 m deep. This water is warmer and less
dense than the colder water below. Because of this temperature difference, there is little mixing between the two.
xii. The zone separating the warm surface water and the cold water below is called the thermocline.
Short Essay on Tides
The rise and fall of the sea water due to gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon are called tides.
The Moon has about twice the tide-generating effect than the Sun because it is much closer to the Earth. Small horizontal
forces tend to push water into two bulges on opposite sides of the Earth, one directly facing the tide-generating body and the
other directly opposite.
Since the tidal bulges due to the Moon's gravity are dominant, the tides observed on the Earth have periods dominated by
lunar motions. They are modified by the changing position of the solar bulges.
The basic types of tides observed on the Earth are a diurnal tide (period of 1 lunar day), a semidiurnal tide (period of half a
lunar day, like that predicted for the equilibrium tide), and a mixed tide, with characteristics of both.
Mixed tides are usually dominated by semidiurnal periods and display significant inequality. The inequalities are greatest
when the Moon is over the tropics and least when it is over the Equator.
Essay on Monsoon Deficiency and Drought in India
The deficient monsoon has led to a "tough situation" through-out the country with several districts finding themselves in the
grip of a severe drought. The gravity of the crisis made Prime Minister Manmohan Singh break the protocol and address the
meeting of Chief Secretaries called by the Cabinet Secretary to tell the States to get ready with contingency plans to ensure
adequate availability of food grains and other essential items.
Worst Drought
Underlining the grim reality, Manmohan Singh warned, "In no case should we allow the citizens to go hungry. This calamity
must be avoided at all costs". The entire Government machinery of the Centre and the States has to start working in the top
gear to keep a close watch on the food front.
The Center's concern over drought was also reflected in the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's address to the nation from
the ramparts of Red Fort on Independence Day. He said that the Centre was committed to tackle drought on priority.
The Prime Minister also took stock of the situation at the Chief Ministers' conference. In all 177 districts have been declared
drought hit. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Assam, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh and parts of other States are likely
to be affected by the deficient rainfall. Manipur and Himachal Pradesh have declared drought in all districts.
Deficiency of Monsoon
The monsoon deficiently has dropped to 29 percent of the normal and the situation is grim. In different regions, northwest is
43 percent deficient, northeast 36 percent, central India 19 percent and south peninsula is 23 percent rainfall deficient.
According to the Indian Meteorological Department, annual rains are likely to be 87 percent of the normal LPA (Long Period
Average). Deficient rainfall will result in 20 percent decline in sowing of kharif crops.
According to the latest data of the Agriculture Ministry, the paddy coverage is 57.1 lakh ha less in 2008. There is also a
deficiency of 1.17 lakh ha in area under total coarse seeds and 1.29 lakh ha in sugarcane.
Measures Taken
In major announcements, the Centre has decided to postpone the date for repayment of farmers' bank loans and provide
additional support to farmers for payment of interest on short-term crop loans. In the long-term measures, the Prime
Minister has exhorted the people to give more attention to programmes for water collection and storage. 'Save Water' should
be one of our national slogans. To put the concerted action on the ground, the Centre has constituted a high-powered Group
of Ministers under the chairmanship of Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee to suggest immediate measures to help the
farmers.
The Centre has taken may steps to help farmers face the drought and protect the standing crops from further damage. A
diesel subsidy of 50 percent has been provided to farmers with a maximum of Rs. 1000 per hectare to facilitate
supplementary irrigation in drought affected and rainfall deficient areas.
Additional power has been made available from the Central pool to the affected States such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Assam. The aim is to ensure that all agricultural operations are carried out in time to arrest loss in
production. Against a total seed requirement of 110.96 lakh quintals required by different states, availability of 126.50 lakh
quintals of seed has been ensured.
Special Schemes
Procurement and distribution of Truthfully Labeled seeds has also been permitted as a special measure for kharif, 2009.
Distribution of mini-kits has also been included as an admissible item under the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and
are relaxation of seed varieties has been permitted under the National Food Security Mission (NFSM).
State agricultural universities and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have been directed to ensure timely dissemination of
advisory services to the agricultural extension staff and farmers.
Schemes such as the RKVY, the NFSM, the National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Macro Management in Agriculture
(MMA) have been provided with additional funds and flexibility to use the available funds for crop development to support
alternate crops. The Government has also placed special emphasis on improving the availability of farm credit through
increased coverage and renewal of Kisan Credit Cards.
Controlling Drought
Some imaginative steps will have to be taken immediately to ensure that the prices of basic food items like sugar, pulses,
edible oils and vegetables begin to come down. There is an urgent need for a coordinated approach involving the Centre and
the States to lessen the gravity of the situation.

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