Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter

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Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter
The alkali metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC), originally called the sodium heat engine (SHE) was
invented by Joseph T. Kummer and Neill Weber at Ford in 1966, and is described in US Patents 3,404,036;
3,458,356; 3,535,163; and 4,049,877; it is a thermally regenerative electrochemical device for the direct conversion
of heat to electrical energy. (1,2) It is characterized by high potential efficiencies and no moving parts except the
working fluid, which make it a candidate for space power applications.(2)
This device accepts a heat input in a range from about 900 K1300 K and produces direct current with predicted
device efficiencies of 15-40%. In the AMTEC sodium is driven around a closed thermodynamic cycle between a
high temperature heat reservoir and a cooler reservoir at the heat rejection temperature. The unique feature of the
AMTEC cycle is that sodium ion conduction between a high pressure or activity region and a low pressure or
activity region on either side of a highly ionically conducting refractory solid electrolyte, is thermodynamically
nearly equivalent to an isothermal expansion of sodium vapor between the same high and low pressure.
Electrochemical oxidation of neutral sodium at the anode leads to sodium ions which traverse the solid electrolyte
and electrons which travel from the anode through an external circuit where they perform electrical work, to the low
pressure cathode, where they recombine with the ions to produce low pressure sodium gas. The sodium gas
generated at the cathode then travels to a condenser at the heat rejection temperature of perhaps 400700 K where
liquid sodium reforms. The AMTEC thus is an electrochemical concentration cell which converts the work generated
by expansion of sodium vapor directly into electric power.
The converter is based on the electrolyte used in the sodium-sulfur battery, sodium beta"-alumina, a crystalline phase
of somewhat variable composition containing aluminum oxide, Al2O3, and sodium oxide, Na2O, in a nominal ratio
of 5:1, and a small amount of the oxide of a small cation metal, usually lithium or magnesium, which stabilizes the
beta" crystal structure. The sodium beta"-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE) [ceramic] is nearly insulating with
respect to transport of electrons, and is a thermodynamically stable phase in contact with both liquid sodium and
sodium at low pressure.
Single cell AMTECs with open voltages as high as > 1.55 V and maximum power density as high as > 0.50 W/cm
at temperature of 1173K (900C) have been obtained with long term stable refractory metal electrodes.(3)
Efficiency of AMTEC cells has reached 16% in the laboratory.( reference?) High voltage multi-tube modules are
predicted to be 20% to 25% efficient, and power densities up to 0.2 kilowatts per liter appear to be achievable in the
near future.(ref?) Calculations show that replacing sodium with a potassium working fluid increases the peak
efficiency from 28% to 31% at 1100 K with a 1 mm thick BASE tube. (ref?)
Most work on AMTECs has concerned sodium working fluid devices. Potassium AMTECs have been run with
potassium beta" alumina solid electrolyte ceramics, and show improved power at lower operating temperatures
compared with sodium AMTECs.( 4-7 )
A detailed quantitative model of the mass transport and intefacial kinetics behavior of AMTEC electrodes has been
developed and used to fit and analyze the performance of a wide variety of electrodes, and make predictions of the
performance of optimized electrodes.(8,9) The interfacial electrochemical kinetics can be further described
quantitatively with a tunneling, diffusion, and desorption model.(10,11) A reversible thermodynamic cycle for
AMTEC shows that it is, at best, slightly less efficient than a Carnot cycle.(12)
AMTEC requires energy input at modest elevated temperatures, and not at a specific wavelength, it is easily adapted
to any heat source, including radioisotope, concentrated solar, external combustion, or nuclear reactor. A solar
thermal power conversion system based on an AMTEC has advantages over other technologies (including
photovoltaic systems) in terms of the total power that can be achieved with such a system and the simplicity of the
system (which includes the collector, energy storage (thermal storage with phase change material) and power
conversion in a compact unit). The overall system could achieve as high as 14 W/kg with present collector
Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter
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technology and future AMTEC conversion efficiencies.(reference?) The energy storage system outperforms
batteries, and the temperatures at which the system operates allows long life and reduced radiator size (heat reject
temperature of 600 K).(reference?) Deep-space applications would use radioisotope thermoelectric generators;
hybrid systems are in design. (reference?)
While space power systems are of intrinsic interest, terrestrial applications will offer large scale applications for
AMTEC systems. At the +25% efficiency projected for the device and projected costs of $350/kW, AMTEC is
expected to prove useful for a very wide variety of distributed generation applications including self-powered fans
for high efficiency furnaces and water heaters and recreational vehicle power supplies(reference?) Cathodic
protection of pipelines, remote telemetry from oil well sites are other areas where this type of electrical generation
might be used. The potential to scavenge waste heat may allow for integration of this technology into general
residential and commercial cogeneration schemes although costs per kilowatt-hour would have to drop substantially
from current projections.
References
1. Weber,N.(1974), "A Thermoelectric Device Based on Beta-Alumina Solid Electrolyte" Energy Conversion 14, 1-8
(1974).
2. Hunt,T.K., Weber, N., and Cole, T. (1981), " High Efficiency Thermoelectric Conversion with Beta"-Alumina
Electrolytes, The Sodium Heat Engine', Hunt,T.K., N. Weber and T. Cole, Solid State Ionics 5 p 263-266, North
Holland.
3. Williams,R., Jeffries-Nakamura, B., Underwood, M., Wheeler, B., Loveland, M., Kikkert,S.,Lamb,J., Cole,T.,
Kummer,J., and Bankston, C., (1989), J. Electrochem. Soc., V 136, p 893-894,
4. Williams, R. M., Jeffries Nakamura,B., Underwood, M. L., Ryan, M. A., O'Connor, D., and Kikkert,S. (1992)
"High Temperature Conductivity of Potassium Beta" Alumina", Solid State Ionics, V 53-56, p 806-810
5. Williams, R. M., Kisor, A., and Ryan, M. A. (1995) "Time Dependence of the High Temperature Conductivity of
Sodium and Potassium Beta" Alumina in Alkali Metal Vapor", J. Electrochem. Soc., V 142, P 4246,
6. Williams, R. M., Kisor, A., Ryan, M. A., Jeffries Nakamura,B., Kikkert, S., and O'Connor, D. (1995) "Potassium
Beta" Alumina/Potassium/Molybdenum Electrochemical Cells", 29th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference Proceedings, AIAA, Part 2p 888,
7. Barkan, A., Hunt, T., and Thomas, B., (1999) "Potassium AMTEC Cell Performance," SAE Technical Paper
1999-01-2702, doi:10.4271/1999-01-2702.
8. Williams R. M.; Loveland M. E.; Jeffries-Nakamura B.; Underwood M. L.; Bankston C. P.; Leduc H.; Kummer J.
T.(1990) "Kinetics and Transport at AMTEC Electrodes,I," J. Electrochem. Soc. V137, p1709
9. Williams R. M.; Jeffries-Nakamura B.; Underwood M. L.; Bankston C. P.; Kummer J. T. (1990) "Kinetics and
Transport at AMTEC Electrodes II," J. Electrochem. Soc. 137, 1716
10. Williams,R. M., Ryan, M. A., Saipetch, C., LeDuc, H.(1997) "A Quantitative Tunneling/Desorption Model for
the Exchange Current at the Porous Electrode/Beta-Alumina/Alkali Metal Gas Three- Phase Zone at 700-1300", p
178 in Solid-State Chemistry of Inorganic Materials, edited by Peter K. Davies, Allan J. Jacobson, Charles C.
Torardi, Terrell A. Vanderah, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Volume 453, Pittsburgh, PA
11 Williams,R. M., Ryan, M. A. LeDuc, H., Cortez,R. H., Saipetch, C., Shields,V., Manatt,K., Homer,M.L.(1998)
"A Quantitative Model for the Exchange Current of Porous Molybdenum Electrodes on Sodium Beta-Alumina in
Sodium Vapor", paper 98-1021, Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Proceedings, Colorado Springs,
Colorado, (1998)
12. Vining C. B.; Williams R. M.; Underwood M. L.; Ryan M. A.; Suitor J. W., (1993) "Reversible Thermodynamic
Cycle for AMTEC Power Conversion" J. Electrochem. Soc. V 140, p 2760
Article Sources and Contributors
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Article Sources and Contributors
Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498072698 Contributors: Aaron Walkhouse, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Makowarb,
Materialscientist, Olivier LODI, R'n'B, Russ3Z, Sillybilly, Slicky, Thinghy, 3 anonymous edits
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