http://www.melfisher.org/exhibitions/lastslaveships/cuba.

htm

Cuban Society in 1860

Social standing in mid-19th century Cuba was a caste-like system, and divisions were largely dictated by one’s
color and ethnic origin. With many races, and combinations of races, a complex social strata evolved. Rendered
in the simplest of terms, the divisions were the Whites, The Free People of color, and the Slaves.

The Whites were those from Spain (Peninsulares), and those of American birth (Criollos). The Peninsulares
considered themselves the superior group at the time, and controlled much of the business in Cuba. The Criollos
tended to be involved in the agricultural interests. Though the Whites found divisions amongst themselves, they
were all equal with respect to political, social and economic freedom.

The free persons of color (gentes de color) were those of mixed race, often the illegitimate offspring of white
masters and slaves, or freed slaves. This group was classified further into mullato (pardo), and black (moreno).
They were prominent in the service industries. After 1847, Chinese coolies brought in as indentured servants
were also classified in this group, although after the emancipation of the slaves in 1886, they fell to the lowest
rung of the social ladder.

At the bottom were the Slaves. These people, almost exclusively of African descent, were wholly owned by White
masters. Their sole purpose was to provide free labor for the benefit of their owners. They had no freedoms.

The Cuban Slave Trade

Though the slave trade made its first appearance in Cuba in the early 1500’s, it was not until much later that
people were brought to the island in large numbers. Until the late 1700’s, Cuba’s economy was tied exclusively to
Spain. Under the inefficient asiento system, in which monopolistic, mercantile contracts were granted by the
Crown, Cuban goods were allowed to be sold only to Spanish markets. Spain also denied the production of
certain goods in her colonies to ensure there was always an export market. Under these restrictions, agricultural
exports were severely limited, and slave labor was generally linked to relatively small-scale manufacturing,
primarily in Havana.

With the success of both Barbados and Jamaica as sugar producing colonies, the Cuban elite saw a similar
potential for their island, and began petitioning the Crown to ease restrictions. In the 1740’s all taxes were
removed from Cuban sugar entering Spain, and production began to increase. In 1762, Havana was seized by
England, and an eleven-month occupation ensued. This crippled the Spanish asiento system. Cuban exports
were sent to the British markets, further increasing the demand for sugar. The British also had an effective slave-
trading system, and during their occupation over 5,000 Africans were brought to the island. The stage was set for
increased sugar production in Cuba, and the most reliable source for manning such an industry was Africa.

In 1789 Spain opened the Slave Trade to Havana, and thus, at a time when the abolitionist movement was
gaining momentum in other nations, Cuba was increasing its interest in the business. For three decades slave
imports continued unfettered. Eventually, intensive British pressure forced Spain to agree in 1817 that it would
end the Slave Trade within three years. In 1818, with a policy that would only increase the need for slave labor,
Spain opened Cuban markets to the World, further fueling sugar exports. With its new economy dependent on
them, Africans continued to pour into the island. From 1835-40, 165,000 new slaves arrived. Treaties between
England and Spain resulted in British cruisers patrolling the waters of West Africa and Cuba for slavers. This
eventually made passage safe only for vessels flying the American flag.

The Cuban coast, being ringed with many inlets, bays and coves, made it easy for the clandestine slavers to
unload their cargoes without being seen. Ashore, the general population of the island was supportive of slavery,
and there was little chance of a ship’s arrival being reported. With prices for slaves being 10 times the amount
paid in Africa, many ships were willing to take this small risk. Approximately five-percent of the Africans being
shipped to Cuba in the 19th century were intercepted by authorities. Conveying the attitude of Cubans toward the
trade, the British consul-general at Havana wrote to the Prime Minister in May of 1860, “Every Spaniard being
imbued with the idea that the prosperity of Cuba depends on the slave trade being continued, the pressure on the
Government at Madrid, as well as here, is such that they are apprehensive that disorder would ensue did they not
tolerate its being carried on, and they dare not make any efforts for its suppression.”

The beginning of the end of the Cuban Slave Trade was not far away though, after the American-Anglo treaty of
1862 made the business too risky for Americans. This was followed by Lincoln’s Emancipation proclamation in
1
1863. With their largest neighbor out of the game, the Cubans could see the end for themselves. The last slave
ship arrived in Cuba in 1866. Twenty years later, slavery was abolished completely on the island.

Sugar and Slaves

Cuba’s thriving plantation system of the mid-1800’s fueled the island’s demand for slave labor. Coffee, tobacco,
and, most importantly, sugar all required a heavy investment of human labor to be successfully raised, harvested
and produced. In 1860 Cuba was home 1,365 sugar mills producing 450,000 tons of crystal, some 30% of the
World’s annual supply. Nearly 370,000 slaves were engaged in its production.

Sugar cane in 1860 was harvested by hand, and cut with a machete-like cane knife as low to the ground as
possible, as the bottom part of the stalk contains a higher amount of liquid. The cut cane was cleaned, crushed in
a mill, and pressed. The juice collected in a gutter below which then directed it to a series of boiling pans, where it
would be heated, clarified and purified. As the heat evaporated the water from the cane juice, the sucrose began
to crystallize. This slurry was then taken to a two-story building called the “purging house.” The upper floor of this
building was pierced with thousands of holes for holding upright metal funnels into which the partially processed
sugar was placed. This allowed the molasses to drain off the sugar, and fall into vats below. The crystalline sugar
was then graded by color, and prepared for market. The molasses was sold as well, or, often in combination with
other sugar by-products, distilled into rum.

The essential requirements for sugar plantations in 1860 were land, oxen, forests and slaves. The land grew the
cane, the oxen provided transportation and powered the mills, forests yielded firewood for boiling, and slaves
provided all the labor.

Afro-Cuban Identities

In 1860, there were just over 370,000 slaves in Cuba – 218,000 were males and 152,000 were females. Over
eighty percent were working on the ingenios (sugar plantations). Virtually all of these people were African, or of
African descent, originating from regions along the West coast of that continent. Most maintained their national
identities throughout the period of slavery, and beyond. The four major groups found in Afro-Cuban slave society
were:

Lucumi – These people were of Yoruba origin from Southwestern Nigeria. An estimated 275,000 were brought to
Cuba, mostly in the period 1820-60, corresponding with the fall of the Oyo empire. They are the originators of the
Santería religion.

Arará – Of Fon, Ewe, Popo, and Makhi origin, these people came from Dahomey and surrounding areas. The
majority, of the approximately 200,000 that arrived, came in the late 1700’s, after defeats by the Yoruba.

Carabalí (also Abakuá) – These people came from Southeastern Nigeria, and were primarily of Igbo and Ijaw
origin. They came to Cuba primarily in the late 1700’s, and early 1800’s, and it is estimated that 240,000 arrived.

Kongo –This was the largest ethnic group brought to Cuba, with around 400,000 people imported. They were
from various Bantu cultures centered in the region of Angola. They came throughout the entire period of the slave
trade to the island.

Another 185,000 people are estimated to have been brought from other regions of Africa. Among these were the
Mandinga and Malikes of Sierra Leone, the Minas from the Gold Coast region, and the Macuás of Mozambique.

Free Afro-Cubans were allowed to form Cabildos, or mutual aid societies, and these were generally organized
according to ethnic origin. These groups served not only as social centers, but also as outlets to express the
various cultural traditions that had flowed into the island. They allowed the African way of life many had known
before slavery to continue, and shape the religious, artistic and social institutions that define “Cuban” culture
today.

2
http://www.cubacultura.org/cats.asp?cID=51

En 1763 los españoles intercambiaron la ciudad de La Habana por Florida a los britanicos. Con el regreso del
gobernador español, se rompio el monopolio de la Real Compañia de Cadiz, liberalizando el comercio de la isla
con 7 puertos españoles. Para evitar nuevos ataques, se construyo una cadena de nuevas fortalezas alrededor
de La Habana. En 1791, la gran revuelta de esclavos en la vecina Haiti elimino al principal competidor de la
industria azucarera cubana. Muchos colonos franceses salieron huyendo de La Española, refugiandose en Cuba,
donde establecieron plantaciones de cafe y modernizaron el proceso de obtencion del azucar. Despues de 1818
le fue permitido a la isla la venta directa con cualquier puerto. Entre 1810 y 1825 se independizaron todas las
colonias españolas de America, quedando solo Cuba y Puerto Rico. Cuba estaba envuelta en el auge de la
produccion azucarera que generaba una inmensa riqueza, y los hacendados no veian con buenos ojos la
independencia porque temian una experiencia similar a la haitiana.

Cuba envió dos diputados a las Cortes de Cádiz y la Constitución allí elaborada rigió en la isla entre 1812 y 1814.
En 1823 Fernando VII impuso de nuevo en España y sus colonias el absolutismo y con esto agudizó las
diferencias y oposición entre criollos y españoles que se hacen cada vez mas claras. Así en 1823 el poeta
cubano José María Heredia y José Francisco Lemus organizan la sociedad secreta ¨Soles y Rayos de
Bolívar¨cuyo objetivo era llevar la independencia a la isla; por este año también la política de los Estados Unidos
hacia Cuba queda clara en las palabras de su Secretario de Estado John Quincy Adams, quien dijo: "Esas islas
(Cuba y Puerto Rico) son apéndices naturales del continente de Norte América, y una de ellas (Cuba) casi puede
verse de nuestras costas, por una multitud de consideraciones se está convirtiendo en un objeto trascendental
para los intereses políticos y comerciales de la Unión...". En 1820 la presion diplomatica de Inglaterra obligo a
España a firmar un acuerdo para detener el trafico de esclavos, aunque la importacion no se detuvo en 1840
habia unos 400.000 en Cuba. Ya para el año 1842 el Censo Oficial reportó una población de 1.037.624 de
habitantes: 448.291 blancos, 152.838 negros libres y 436.495 esclavos negros. En 1845 se declaro ilegal la trata
de africanos, pero los plantadores comenzaron a importar chinos, que eran contratados durante 8 años en
regimen de semiesclavitud para trabajar en los campos de caña de azucar. Al cabo de ese tiempo quedaban en
libertad para regresar, lo que hizo una escasa minoria. Entre 1838 y 1880 se continuo modernizando la industria
azucarera cubana, que llego a superar la tercera parte de la produccion mundial. El ferrocarril comenzo en 1937,
antes que en España, con el objeto de transportar el azucar de los ingenios a los puertos. Las exportaciones
cubanas a Estados Unidos eran el doble que a España y las haciendas azucareras se habían incrementado
hasta cerca de 800 desde unas 400 para el año de 1790. En 1848 el Presidente de los Estados Unidos, Polk, le
ofrece a España 100 millones de USD por Cuba, oferta que se aumento a 130 millones en 1854. España se
niega a vender la isla.

http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/race/EndSlave.htm

End of Slavery in Cuba

Under the terms of the Pact of Zanjón, which ended the The Ten Year War in 1878, slaves who fought on either
side of the war were set free, but those who did not fight had to endure almost another decade of slavery.

Two years later the Spanish Cortes approved an abolition law (1880) that provided for an eight-year period of
patronato (tutelage) for all slaves liberated according to the law. This only amounted to indentured servitude, as
slaves were required to spend those 8 years working for their masters at no charge. On October 7 1886, slavery
was finally abolished in Cuba by a royal decree that also made the patronato illegal.

The end of legal slavery, however, did not bring racial harmony to Cuba, and Spanish "thinkers" continued to warn
against the potential "evils" of a racially mixed society.

At the time of emancipation, most slaves were employed on plantations, and most free black Cubans were
women who lived in the cities. Cuban society didn't exactly welcome the free slaves with open arms. For example:

* In 1887, only 11% of Afro-Cubans of all ages could read and write (compared with 33% of whites).
* Spanish officials regularly removed the Don and Doña titles from official documents and identity cards issued
to Afro-Cubans. In 1893 these titles were returned, according to an article in La Igualdad on December 16, 1893.
* Afro-Cubans were excluded from seats in theatres (except in the gallery), and many hotels and restaurants
refused them service.
* The Union of railroad drivers banned Afro-Cubans from the profession altogether, and many job ads specified
a race requirement.
* Official government and cultural influence promoted the racial fears that existed in white society to lock out
3
blacks from society.

After 1898, according to Aline Helg in Our Rightful Share, "Only a few outstanding Afro-Cubans who distinguished
themselves by very exceptional military abilities or Western educational standards had access to white privileged
circles."

"Cuba's blacks were not themselves a homogenous group," wrote Richard Cott in Cuba: A New History. "They
came from many tribes and nations along the length of the West African coastline, from Senegal in the north to
Angola in the south - and even from Mozambique on Africa's south-east coast. They brought with them different
languages, different beliefs, different customs, and different music, and through much of the nineteenth century
they preserved these differences in the new Cuban home to which they had been transported."

A law passed in 1880 stated that every community of more than 500 had to establish one school for boys and one
for girls, and that racial divisions would be suppressed. It was expected that the different municipalities would pay
for elementary education themselves, as Madrid only financed the University of Havana. Between 1883 and 1895,
the number of schools on the island rose from 535 to 904.

In spite of apparent official insistence, many schools refused to accept black children, and some municipalities
began to run separate schools for blacks. Others simply refused to enroll blacks, or imposed a special fee that
most could not pay.

As black children began to attend municipal schools, private schools for richer white families began to appear.
According to an article in the Gaceta de La Habana on May 1 1889, their number tripled within a decade.

In 1883, black citizens living in Havana, led by Francisco Bonet and Antonio Rojas appealed to Governor General
Emilio Calleja to finally allow Afro-Cuban children to attend municipal-run schools all over the island. General
Calleja answered that to discriminate by race in such a manner was anti-Christian and prevented the full
integration of Cuban society.

Historian Aline Helg in Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912 (Pg. 28);
"Obviously, the 500,000 men, women, and children of African descent living in Cuba in the early 1890s were far
from a homogeneous group. Although all of them probably shared the experience of some kind of white racism,
broad cultural, educational, class, sexual, and regional differences divided them. Generally, those who had been
brought over from Africa and the offspring of those Africans distinguished themselves from Afro-Cubans from
families of generations of Cuban residence; also, those who had experienced slavery traveled a different path
from those who had always been free or those with long-standing free lineage. In addition, no common Afro-
Cuban culture or subculture united them against the dominant Spanish-Cuban culture. Rather, African and
Spanish traditions blended to produce a continuum of subcultures that can only be crudely sketched.

"At one end of the continuum, the African-born (of whom there were approximately 13,000 elderly in 1899), along
with many Afro-Cuban rural workers, were deeply attached to Africa and spoke little Spanish, transmitted orally.
Predominant among the latter were the Yoruba-speaking peoples of the Bight of Benin, who brought with them
what was known in Cuba as the Lucumí tradition, and the Congos of Angola and northern Congo, who brought
the Congo tradition. Former Lucumí and Congo slaves had a decisive influence on folk medicine, religion, and
brujería, as well as on oral literature, music, dance, play, and cooking. As Montejo recalled, although the African-
born did not know to read and write, they were the ones who taught him morality and culture. In fact, in some rural
Afro-Cuban communities unfrequented by local priests and other disseminators of Catholicism and Spanish
culture, the influence of the African-born was little challenged."

In 1887, the Directorio Central de las Sociedades de la Raza de Color was founded to represent "in the strictest
legality" the interests of people of color and to coordinate the actions of the various "color societies" throughout
the island in order to preset a unified stand against racism. By July 1892, the Directorio consisted of 65 societies
throughout Cuba. The official newspaper of the Directorio Central was La Igualdad.