Transmission Line Circuits and RF Circuits Networksd Analysis

1
Chapter 2 August 2008 2006byFabianKungWaiLee 1

2 . T r a n s m i s s i o n L i n e
C i r c u i t s a n d R F / M i c r o w a v e
N e t w o r k A n a l y s i s
Theinformationinthisworkhasbeenobtainedfromsourcesbelievedtobereliable.
Theauthor doesnot guaranteetheaccuracyor completenessof anyinformation
presented herein, and shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
as a result of the use of this information.
Chapter 2
Agenda
1.0 Terminated transmission line circuit.
2.0 Smith Chart and its applications.
3.0 Practical considerations for stripline implementation.
4.0 Linear RF network analysis 2-port network parameters.
August 2008 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee 2
2
Chapter 2 August 2008 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee 3
References
[1] R.E. Collin, Foundation for microwave engineering, 2nd edition,
1992, McGraw-Hill.
[2] T. C. Edwards, Foundations for microstrip circuit design, 2nd
edition, 1992 John-Wiley & Sons (3
rd
Edition is also available).
[3] D.M. Pozar, Microwave engineering, 2nd edition, 1998 John-Wiley
& Sons (3
rd
edition, 2005 from John-Wiley & Sons is also available).
A very advanced and in-depth book on microwave
engineering. Difficult to read but the information is
very comprehensive. A classic work. Recommended.
Contains a wealth of practical microstrip design
information. A must have for every microwave
circuit design engineer.
Good coverage of EM theory with emphasis on
applications.
Review of Previous Lecture
In previous lecture we have studied how a transmission line (Tline)
structure can guide a travelling EM wave.
We covered the various type of propagation modes for EM waves, in
particular we are interested in TEM and quasi-TEM mode operation.
Under these two modes, the Tline can be represented by distributed
circuit model consisting of RLCG network, the E field corresponds to the
transverse voltage V
t
and the H field corresponds to the axial current I
t
,
V
t
and I
t
are also propagating waves in the Tline.
We have also covered how to derived the RLCG parameters under low
loss condition.
Finally, in the last section of previous chapter, we also studied the
design procedure of stripline structures on printed circuit board.
In this chapter, we are going to study the characteristics of Tline
terminated with impedance, and how to use Tline in RF/microwave
circuits and systems.
3
1.0 Terminated
Transmission Line Circuit
The Lossless Transmission Line
Circuit
A transmission line circuit consists of source, load networks and the
Tline itself.
We will use the coordinate as shown. Some basic parameters will be
derived in the following slides.
Source Network Load Network
V
L
Z
L
I
L
Tline
Z
s
V
s
V
t
(z)
I
t
(z)
l
+z
z = 0 z = -l
The
schematic
The physical
system
4
Voltage and Current on Transmission
Line Circuit
Assumption: Tline is
lossless (=0), and
supporting TEM mode.
At a position z along the
Tline:
At z=0:
( )
L o o
V V V V = + =
+
0
( )
L o o
I I I I = =
+
0
( )
z j
o
z j
o
e V e V z V
+ +
+ =
( )
z j
o
z j
o
e I e I z I
+ +
=
(1.1a)
V
L
l
+z
z = 0
Towards
source
Z
L
I
L
Z=-l
z j
o
z j
o
e I e V
+ +

Incident V and I waves
z j
o
z j
o
e I e V
+ +
-
Reflected
waves
Incident and
reflected
waves combine
to produce load
voltage and
current
Using the definition
of Z
c
( )
+
=
o o
c
L
V V
Z
I
1
|
|
\
|
+
= =
+
+
o o
o o
c
L
L
L
V V
V V
Z
I
V
Z
(1.1b)
+
=
o
o
L
V
V
(1.2a)
|
|
\
|

+
=
L
L
c L
Z Z
1
1
c L
c L
L
Z Z
Z Z
+
=
c
L
L
L
L
L
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
=
+
=
1
1
(1.2b)
L
o
o
I
I
I
=
=
+
(1.2d)
(1.2c)
Reflection Coefficient (1)
The ratio of V
o
-
over V
o
+
is described by a voltage reflection coefficient
. At the load end a subscript L is inserted to denote that this is the
ratio at load impedance. :
Using (1.1b):
Similarly we could also derive the current reflection coefficient:
Z
L
+
o
V
o
V
or
5
At a distance l from the load, the voltage reflection coefficient is given
by:
Note that this equation is only valid when the z=0 reference is at the
load impedance, AND l is always positive.
From now on we will deal exclusively with voltage reflection
coefficient.
(1.2e)
Z
L
+
o
V
o
V
z = 0
z
z = -l
L
l
This product is usually called
electrical length, is given a
unit of radian or degree
( )
( )
l j
L
l j
o
o
l j
o
l j
o
e l
e
V
V
e V
e V
l
2
2
+

=
= =
Reflection coefficient for various load impedance values. Make sure
you know the physical implication of these.
z
z = 0
Z
c
Z
c
0 =
L
z
z = 0
Z
L
=0
Z
c
1 =
L
z
z = 0
Z
L
Z
c
1 =
L
z
z = 0
Z
L
=R+jX
Z
c
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

jX
c
Z R
jX
c
Z R
c
Z jX R
c
Z jX R
L
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
=
c L
c L
L
Z Z
Z Z
+
=
6
Why Do Reflection Occur? (1)
V
L
z
z = 0
Z
L
I
L
z j
o
z j
o
e I e V
+ +

c
o
I
o
V
Z =
+
+
At z = 0:
L
Z
o
V
L
I
+
=
If Z
c
Z
L
then
+
o L
I I
Assuming that I
L
< I
o
+
, electric
charges pile up at theTline and load
intersection. Since like charges repel
each other, this force the excess
electric charge to flow back to the
Tline. This constitutes the reflected
current. From our understanding of
Tline theory, if there is current, there
is also associated voltage, hence
a reflected voltage and current
wave occur.
z j
o
z j
o
e I e V
+ +
-
Note that the total voltage at the Tline-load
intersection is V
o
+
+ V
o
-
= V
L
. Thus the current
drawn by the load Z
L
will increase from
V
o
+
/Z
L
until and equilibrium is reached.
Why Do Reflection Occur? (2)
We can visualize the current flow as due to positive charges
(conventional current).
When I
o
+
> I
L
When I
o
+
< I
L
I
L
I
o
+
I
o
+
I
L
-I
o
-
Tline
Tline
Load impedance
Load impedance
The Tline supply more charges
per unit time than the load can absorb
so excess positive charges reflected back
Positive
charge
Negative
charge
-(-I
o
-
)
At the interface positive and negative charge pairs
are created. The positive charge flows into the
load, while the negative charge flows back to the
source, constituting the reflected current
with negative polarity.
Of course there is only free
electron in conductor. When
a region is said to contain
positive charge, it actually
has less free electrons as
compare to equilibrium state.
7
( ) ( )
( )
|
|
|
\
|
+ = =
+
+
c
o o
o o L L L
Z
V V
V V I V P
*
2
1 *
2
1
Re Re
Let Z
c
be real
2
2
1 +
=
o c inc
V Y P
(1.3) ( )
(
= =
+ + +
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
o Z L o Z L o Z L
V V V P
c c c
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
L o c o c r
V Y V Y P = =
+
Power Delivered to Load Impedance
Power to load:
Thus when
L
= 0, all incident power is absorbed by Z
L
. We say that the
load is matched to the Tline. Otherwise there will be reflected power in
the form of:
The maximum power to load is called the incident power P
inc
:
Z
L P
inc
P
r
P
L
P
incident
P
reflected
L
Impedance matching - Make |
L
| 0
Impedance Matching
Thus the purpose of impedance matching is to reduce reflection from
both the load and the source.
We strive to get maximum power from the source and transport this
power (the available power) to the load.
In other words impedance matching provides a smooth flow of EM
wave along a system of interconnect.
8
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(1)
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
l j
L
l j
o
z j
L
z j
o
z j
o
z j
o
e e V e e V z V
e V e V z V

2 2
1 1
+ +
+
+ = + =
+ =
( )
( ) l j
o
e V z V

2
1
+
+ =
j
L
e =
( )
( )
+
= =
1
1
VSWR
min
max
z V
z V
(1.5)
At any point z along the Tline:
Expressing
L
in polar form
The ratio of maximum |V| to mininum |V| is known as VSWR.
(1.4)
Argand
Diagram
1
0
( ) l j
e

2
1

+
+ 1
1
Re
Im
Z
L
( ) z V
L

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (2)
( )
( ) l j
e I z I

2
1
+
=
A similar expression can be obtained for I(z).
VSWR measures how good the load Z
L
is matched to the Tline. For good
match, = 0 and VSWR=1. For mismatch load, >0 and VSWR >1.
We can view the incident and reflected wave as interfering with each
other, causing standing wave along the Tline.
A similar phenomenon also exist in waveguide, however it is the E and H
field standing wave the is being measured, so generally the alphabet V is
dropped when dealing with waveguide.
Why SWR is a popular ? - In the early days waveguides are widely used,
and a simple way to measure SWR is to use the slotted line waveguide
with diode detector.
(1.6)
9
Example 1.1
A Tline with 2 conductors and filled with air. A sinusoidal voltage of
magnitude 2V and frequency 3.0GHz is launched into the Tline. The
characteristic impedance of the Tline is 50 and one end of the Tline is
terminated with load impedance Z
L
=100+j100 @3.0GHz. Assume
phase velocity = C, the speed of light in vacuum.
Find the load reflection coefficient
L
.
Find the power delivered to the load Z
L
.
Plot |V | and |I | versus l, the distance from Z
L
.
Determine the VSWR of the system.
l
z
z = 0
Z
L
Z
c
Z
c
=50 2<0
o
Example 1.1 Cont...
The solution (as calculated using MathCAD):
10
Example 1.1 Cont...
Plotting out the voltage and current phasor along the transmission line:
Magnitudes of V and I
are plotted using (1.4) and
(1.6)
Note that |V | and |I | are
always quarter wavelength
or 90
o
out of
phase. The values of |V |
and |I | repeat themselves
every half
wavelength or 180
o
.
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1.62
0.38
V i z ( )
I i z ( ) Zc
0 1 i z
l
Z
L
|V(l)| |I(l)|
o
180
2
o
90
4
z
Z
L Z
c
=50
Voltage phasor
magnitude
Normalized current
phasor magnitude
Distance in terms
of wavelength
( )
( )
( )
( )
l j
o
l j
o
c
Z
l j
o
l j
o
in
e V e V
e V e V
l I
l V
l Z

+
+
+
= =
1
( )
( )
( ) l jY Y
l jY Y
Y l Y
L c
c L
c in
tan
tan
+
+
=
( )
( )
( ) l jZ Z
l jZ Z
Z l Z
L c
c L
c in
tan
tan
+
+
=
Use (1.2b)
(1.7a)
Input Impedance of a Terminated Tline
At any length l from the termination impedance, we can compute the
impedance looking towards the load:
Z
L
Z
c
l
Z
in
(l)
(1.7b)
( )
l j
L
l j
l j
L
l j
c in
e e
e e
Z l Z

+
=
( ) ( ) l j l e
l j

sin cos + =
c L
c L
L
Z Z
Z Z
+
=
11
Special Cases of Terminated Lossless Tline
(1)
l
z
z = 0
Z
L
=0
Z
c
( )
( )
( ) l jZ
Z
l jZ
Z l Z
c
c
c
c in

tan
0
tan 0
=
|
|
\
|
+
+
=
When Z
L
=0:
When Z
L
l
z
z = 0
Z
c
( )
( )
( ) l jZ
l jZ
Z
Z l Z
c
L
L
c
L
Z
in

cot
tan
=
|
|
\
|

(1.8a)
(1.8b)
Z
L
=0
(2)
( ) ( ) jX l jZ l Z
c in
= = tan
jX L j Z = =
Z
c
L
Reactance
( )
( )
( ) jB l jY
l jZ
l Y
c
c
in
= =
tan
cot
1
Z
c
jB C j Y = =
Susceptance
A length of shorted Tline can be used to
synthesize an inductor or reactance, while
a length of opened Tline can be used to
synthesize a capacitor or susceptance.
l
X
0
2

2
3 2
B
l
0
2
2
3 2
This area corresponds to
l < /2, or l < /4
12
(3)
( ) ( ) jX l jZ l Z
c in
= = tan
Z
c
( )
( )
( ) jB l jY
l jZ
l Y
c
c
in
= =
tan
cot
1
Z
c
A length of shorted Tline can be used to
approximate a parallel LC resonator, while
a length of opened Tline can be used to
approximate series LC resonator.
C
p L
p
Z
C
s
L
s
Z
l
X
0
2

2
3 2
B
l
0
2
2
3
2
Example 1.2
A lossless Tline of length l = 10 cm supports TEM propagation mode.
The per unit length L and C are given as L = 209.4 nH/m, C =
119.5pF/m. The Tline is terminated with a series RL load impedance:
Plot the real and imaginary part of Z
in
from f = 1.0 GHz to 4.0 GHz.
2.5nH
120
10 cm
Z
L
13
Example 1.2 Cont...
1
.
10
9
1.5
.
10
9
2
.
10
9
2.5
.
10
9
3
.
10
9
3.5
.
10
9
4
.
10
9
100
50
0
50
100
150
Re Zin 2
.
f
i
.
Im Zin 2
.
f
i
.
f
i
... 999 . 2 , 999 . 1 , 9995 . 0
2
2
GHz GHz GHz f
n f
n l
n l
l
v
v
f
p
p
=
=
=
=
Note that the pattern of the waveform repeat

at an interval of close to 1GHz, this is due to
the periodic nature of tan(l) function.
n=1,2,3,4
( )
9
8
10 5 . 2 120
10 999 . 1
1
86 . 41
+ = =
= =
= =
j Z
v
LC
v
C
L
Z
L
p
p
c
( )
( )
( ) l jZ Z
l jZ Z
Z l Z
L c
c L
c in
tan
tan
+
+
=
frequency
+
+
+
+
= =
1 1
2 2
1
2
oltage incident v
voltage d transmitte
I Z
I Z
V
V
T
c
c
( ) ( ) 0 1 1 0
1
1
1
2
2 1 1
+ = + = =
= +
+
+
+
+ +
V
V
V
V
T
V V V
z = 0
Z
c1 Z
c2
Z
L
=Z
c2
Z
c2
z j z j
e I e V
+ +
1 1

z j z j
e I e V
+ +
1 1
-
z j z j
e I e V
= + +
2 2

( )
1 2
2
2
0
c c
c
Z Z
Z
T
+
= ( )
1 2
1 2
0
c c
c c
Z Z
Z Z
+
=
Using
(1.9)
At z = 0:
Matched termination
Cascading Transmission Lines -
Transmission Coefficient
14
Relationship between Reflection and
Transmission Coefficient
L L
T + =1
Tline
1
Tline
2
or a load Impedance
( )
( )
c L
c L
L
Z Z
Z Z
+
( )
( )
c L
L
L
Z Z
Z
T
+
=
2
V
1
+
V
1
-
V
2
+
Z
c
Z
L
(1.10)
Power Relations
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
inc
c
tr
inc
c
ref
c
inc
Z
Z
P T
Z
V
P
P
Z
V
P
Z
V
P
= =
= =
=
+
+
Z
c1 Z
c2
P
inc
P
ref
P
tr
P
inc
= P
ref
+ P
tr
15
Return Loss and Insertion Loss
Sometimes both voltage reflection and transmission coefficient are
expressed in dB, these are then termed return loss (RL) and
insertion loss (IL).
dB log 20 = RL
dB log 20 T IL =
2 Port
Z
c2
Z
c2
Z
c1
Z
c1
V
s
(1.11a)
(1.11b)
Example 1.3
Find the return loss (RL) and insertion loss (IL) at the intersection
between the Tlines. Assume TEM propagation mode at f = 1.9 GHz for
both Tlines, Z
1
=100, Z
2
=50.
z
z = 0
Z
1
Z
2
0.05 Z
in
z = -0.05
Interface
z
Z
1
16
Example 1.3 Cont...
542 . 9 log 20
3333 . 0
Z
05 . 0
10
2 1
2 1
05 . 0
=
=
+
=
=
=
z
z
Z Z
Z
499 . 2 log 20
3333 . 1
2Z
05 . 0
10
2 1
1
05 . 0
=
=
+
=
=
=
z
z
T
Z Z
T
z
z = 0
Z
1
Z
1
Z
2
0.05 Z
in
( ) ( ) 60 tan j l jZ l Z
c in
= =
For a transmission line terminated with short circuit:
From Example 5.1 (Chapter 1):
781 . 94
8
9
10 591 . 1
10 4 . 2 2
= = =
p
v
m 00924 . 0 876 . 0 tan
781 . 94
1 60 1 1
= =
|
\
|
=

c
Z
l
Exercise 1.1
We would like to use a short length of transmission line to implement a
reactance of X = 60 at 2.4GHz. Show how this can be done using the
microstrip line of Example 5.1, Chapter 1 Advanced Transmission
Line Theory. Hint: use equation (1.8a).
9.24 mm
A number of plated through
hole to reduce the parasitic
inductance of the short.
Top
View
2.86mm
1.57 mm
r
=4.7
r
=1.0
Z
c
50
v
p
= 1.591x10
8
From Example 5.1,
Chapter 1:
17
Terminated Lossy Tline (1)
In the case of a lossy Tline we replace j with = + j in equations
(1.2) to (1.9). As seen from equation (2.7) (Advanced Transmission
Line Theory), the characteristic impedance Z
c
becomes a complex
value too.
Furthermore:
The losses have the effect of reducing the standing-wave ratio SWR
towards unity as the point of observation is moved away from the load
towards the generator.
Most of the time the losses are so small that for short length of Tline,
the neglect of is justified. However as frequency increases beyond
3 GHz, the skin effect and dielectric loss become important for typical
PCB dielectric and conductor.
( )
( )
( ) l l j Z Z
l l j Z Z
e j
e j
l Z
L c
c L
l j l
L
l j l
L
in

+ +
+ +
=

+
=

tanh
tanh
1
1
2 2
2 2
(1.12)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
l
c
l
L
l
c
e l V Y l P
e e V Y VI l P

2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
*
1
2
1
Re
2
1
|
\
|
=
|
\
|
= =
+
+
(1.13)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
+ =
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
+
+ +
l
L
l
c
L c
l
c L
e e V Y
V Y e l V Y P l P

2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
1

1
2
1
1
2
1
Loss due to incident wave
Loss due to reflected wave
Power delivered increases as we
proceed towards the generator!
Terminated Lossy Tline (2)
At some point z = -l from the load-Tline interface, the power directed
towards the load is:
Of the power given by (1.11), the power dissipated by the load is
given by (1.3), the remainder is dissipated by the lossy line.
18
Chapter 2
Exercise 1.2
Consider a transmission line circuit below, determine V
in
and V
L
.
( )
( )
[ ]
l jZ Z
l jZ Z
c in
L c
c L
Z Z
tan
tan
+
+
=
Thus ( )
l j
L
l j
o s Z Z
Z
in
e e V V V
in s
in
+
+
+ = =
Solving for V
o
+
:
C L
c L
Z Z
Z Z
L +
=
( )
( )
[ ] [ ] ( ) [ ]
l j
c
Z
L
Z
c
Z
L
Z l j
l
c
jZ
L
Z
l
L
jZ
c
Z
s
Z
c
Z
s
e e
V
o
V

+
+
+ +
+
=
1
1
tan
tan
V
L
Z
L
I
L
Tline
Z
s
V
in
V
t
(z)
I
t
(z)
+
-
V
s Z
c
,
z
0
Z
in
l
Chapter 2
Exercise 1.2 Cont
Knowing V
o
+
, we can find V
in
and V
L
:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
L o L
l j
L
l j
o in
V z V V
e e V l z V V
+ = = =
+ = = =
+
+
1 0

19
Demo Transmission Line Simulation
Exercise
VL Vin
Vs
R
RL
R=100 Ohm
MLIN
TL1
Mod=Kirschning
L=100.0 mm
W=2.9 mm
Subst="MSub1"
Tran
Tran1
MaxTimeStep=1.0 nsec
StopTime=100.0 nsec
TRANSIENT
R
Rs
R=10 Ohm
VtPulse
SRC1
Period=1000 nsec
Width=6 nsec
Fall=Trise psec
Rise=Trise psec
Edge=linear
Delay=0 nsec
Vhigh=1 V
Vlow=0 V
t
MSUB
MSub1
Rough=0 mil
TanD=0.02
T=1.38 mil
Hu=3.9e+034 mil
Cond=5.8E+7
Mur=1
Er=4.6
H=1.57 mm
MSub
VAR
VAR1
Trise=200.0
Eqn
Var
2.0 Smith Chart and Its
Applications
20
Introduction (1)
In analyzing electrical circuits, one very important parameter is the
impedance Z or admittance Y seen at a terminal/port.
For time-harmonic circuits Z or Y is dependent on frequency and a
complex value.
To visualize arbitrary Z or Y value, we would need an infinite 2D plane:
R
X
0
Z = R + jX Z = V/I = R + jX
Y = I/V = G + jB
Resistance
Reactance
Conductance Susceptance
Introduction (2)
In RF circuit design, we can represent an impedance Z = R+jX in terms
of its reflection coefficient with respect to a reference impedance (Z
o
):
Usually we would take Z
o
= Z
c
, the characteristic impedance of a Tline
in the system.
is also a complex value, however we have learnt that its magnitude is
always < 1 for passive impedance value.
Effectively if reflection coefficient is plotted, all possible passive Z and Y
values can be fitted into a finite 2D area.
impedance reference
1
= = = =
+
o
Y
o
o
Y Y
o
Y Y
o
Z Z
o
Z Z
Z
-1 0
-1
1
1
Re()
Im()
Region for
passive Z or Y
21
Introduction (3)
To facilitate the evaluation of reflection coefficient, a graphical
procedure based on conformal mapping is developed by P.H. Smith in
1939.
This procedure, now known as the Smith Chart permits easy and
intuitive display of reflection coefficient as well as impedance Z and
admittance Y in one single graph.
Introduction (4)
22
Formulation (1)
1
1
1
1
+
=
+
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
+
=
z
z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
o
o
o
o
impedance normalized
1
1
=

+
= z
Let z = r + jx and = U + jV:
Then
jV U
jV U
jx r

+ +
= +
1
1
Equating real and imaginary part:
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
x
x
V U
r
V
r
r
U
= |
\
|
+
+
= + |
\
|
+
Equation of circles for U and V:

Depends only on r (r circle)
Depends only on x (x circle)
Formulation (2)
jV
U
-1 1
-1
1
r circles
x circles
The complex plane
for reflection coefficient :
||=1
Imaginary axis
Real axis
23
Formulation (3)
Note that:

+
=
+

= =
j
j
e
e
z
y
1
1
1
1 1
Let y = g + jb and = U + jV:
jV U
jV U
jb g
+ +

= +
1
1
Again proceeding as before we obtain:
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
b
b
V U
g
V
g
g
U
= |
\
|
+ + +
+
= +
|
|
\
|
+
+
Depends only on g (g circle)
Depends only on b (b circle)
Formulation (4)
jV
U
-1 1
-1
1
g circles
b circles
24
R=50
R=100
R=200
X=10
X=30
X=-10
X=-30
R and X
circles
G circles
+ B circles
- B circles
The Complete Smith Chart with r,x,g
and b circles
Smith Chart Example 1
Z
o
= 50Ohm.
Z = 50 + j0
25
Z
o
= 50Ohm.
Z = 50 + j30
Z = 50 - j30
Z
50
j30
R=50 circle
X=30 circle
X=-30 circle
Z
50
j30
Z
o
= 50Ohms
Z = 100 + j30
Z
100
j30
Question: What would
you expect if the real part
of Z is negative ?
26
Z
o
= 50Ohm
Z = 50//(-j40) or
Y = 0.020 + j0.025
Y
0.02
j0.025
B G
Z
50
-j40
X
R
B =0.025 circle
G =0.02 circle
Z
o
= 50Ohm
Z = 50//(j40) or
Y = 0.020 - j0.025
Z
50
j40
X
R
Y
0.02
-j0.025
B G
G =0.02 circle
B = -0.025 circle
27
Smith Chart Summary (1)
Thus a point on a Smith Chart
can be interpreted as reflection
coefficient .
It can also be read as
impedance Z = R + jX.
It can also be read as
admittance Y = G + jB.
Z=30 +j20
Y=0.023-j0.015
=0.34<2.11
Smith Chart Summary (2)
When we add a reactance in
series with Z, the point on the
Smith Chart will move in such a
way that it remains on the
constant R circle.
When we add a susceptance in
parallel to Y, the point on the
Smith Chart will move in such a
way that it remains on the
constant G circle.
Z = 30+j20
Y = 0.023-j0.015
Y = 0.023-j0.015
jB
Z = 30+j20 jX
+X
-X +B
-B
jB Y
jX
Z
Z
in
= Z
L
+ jX
= R
L
+ j(X
L
+ X)
Y
in
= Y
L
+ jB
= G
L
+ j(B
L
+ B)
28
In this example we would like to observe the locus of impedance Z
in
as l
is changed for Z
L
= 200 + j0 (say at certain operating frequency f
o
).
Recall equations (1.2d) and (1.7) in this chapter:
( )
( )
( ) l jZ Z
l jZ Z
l Z
L c
c L
in
tan
tan
+
+
=
( )
l j
L in
e l
2
= =
l
z
z = 0
Z
L
Z
c Z
c
=50
V
s
<0
o
Z
in
,
in
Tline with and
2
= with where is the wavelength
6 . 0
250
150
50 200
50 200
= = =
+
L
Smith Chart Example 6 Cont...
Locus for
in
(the SWR circle)
L in
l = = , 0
8 4
or

= = l l
4 2
or

= = l l
8
3
4
3
or

= = l l
l j
L in
e
2
=
Direction
away from
load or towards
generator
Direction
away from
generator
or towards load
The locus in which
|
in
| is constant is also
known as constant
SWR circle (as the
SWR depends on the
magnitude of reflection
coefficient).
29
Typical Applications of Smith Chart (1)
Smith Chart is used in impedance transformation and impedance
matching. Although this can be performed using analytical method,
using graphical tool such as Smith Chart allows us to visualize the
effect of adding a certain element in the network. The effective
impedance of a load after adding series, shunt or transmission line
section can be read out directly from the coordinate lines of the Smith
Chart.
Smith Chart is used in RF active circuits design, such as when
designing amplifiers. Usually certain contours in the form of circles
are plotted on the Smith Chart.
2-port network parameters such as s
11
and s
22
are best viewed in
Smith Chart.
Chapter 2
Typical Applications of Smith Chart (2)
Classically Smith Chart can also be used to find the position along the
transmission line with maximum and minimum voltage or current.
Z
L
( ) z V
L
Z
c
,
Z
c
z
z=0
z=-l
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) l j
o
l j l j
o
l j
L
l j
o
e V l z V
e e V l z V
e e V l z V

2
2
2
1
1
1
+
+
+
+ = =
+ = =
+ = =
( ) ( ) = =
+
1
o
V l z V
( ) ( ) + = =
+
1
o
V l z V
When voltage has
maximum magnitude
When voltage has
minimum magnitude
n l = 2
n l 2 2 =
L
30
Exercise 2.1 - Impedance
Transformation
Employing the software fkSmith (http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/),
find a way of transforming a load impedance of Z
L
= 10 + j75 into Z = 50
using either lumped L, C or section of Tline. Assume an operating
frequency of 1.8GHz.
Z
c
Z
L
=10+ j75
V
s
<0
o
2 - port network
Z = 50
3.0 Practical Considerations
for Stripline Implementation
31
Practical Transmission Line Design and
Discontinuities
Discontinuities in Tline are changes in the Tline geometry to
accommodate layout and other requirements on the printed circuit
board.
Virtually all practical distributed circuits, whether in waveguide, coaxial
cables, microstrip line etc. must inherently contains discontinuities. A
straight uninterrupted length of waveguide or Tline would be of little
engineering use.
The following discussion consider the effect and compensation for
discontinuities in PCB layout. This discussion is restricted to TEM or
quasi-TEM propagation modes.
Ground plane gap
trace
plane
gap
trace
ground plane Bend
bend
Socket-trace interconnection
socket
pin
trace
via
Via
plane
cylinder
trace
pad
Junction
Bend
Line to Component
Interface
Step
Open
Practical Transmission Line
Discontinuities Found in PCB (1)
Here we illustrate the
discontinuities using
microstripline. Similar
structures apply to
other transmission line
configuration as well.
32
Practical Transmission Line
Discontinuities Found in PCB (2)
Further examples of microstrip and co-planar line discontinuities.
Gap
Pad or Stub
Coupled lines
Examples of bend and via
on co-planar Tline.
Discontinuities and EM Fields (1)
Introduction of discontinuities will distort the uniform EM fields present
in the infinite length Tline. Assuming the propagation mode is TEM or
quasi-TEM, the discontinuity will create a multitude of higher modes
(such as TM
11
, TM
12
, TE
11
, ) in its vicinity in order to fulfill the
boundary conditions (Note - there is only one type of TEM mode !!).
Most of these induced higher order modes are evanescent or non-
propagating as their cut-off frequencies are higher than the operating
frequency of the circuit. Thus the fields of the higher order modes are
known as local fields.
The effect of discontinuity is usually reactive (the energy stored in the
local fields is returned back to the system) since loss is negligible.
The effect of reactive system to the voltage and current can be
modeled using LC circuits (which are reactive elements).
For TEM or quasi-TEM mode, we can consider the discontinuity as a
2-port network containing inductors and capacitors.
33
See Chapter 5, T.C. Edwards, Foundation
for microstrip circuit design [4], or Chapter 3 [F. Kung]
Modeling a discontinuity using circuit theory element such as RLCG is a
good approximation for operating frequency up to 6 20 GHz. This upper
limit will depends on the size of the discontinuity and dielectric thickness.
The smaller the dimension of the discontinuity as compared to the
wavelength, the higher will be the upper usable frequency.
As a example, the 2-port model for microstrip bend is usually accurate up
to 10GHz.
A
A
B B
0.25
0.25
Minimum distance
A
A
B
B
Two port
networks
0.25
For instance for a microstrip bend, a snapshot of the EM fields at a
particular instant in time:
Non-TEM mode
field here*
Quasi-TEM
field
H field
E field
*This field can be decomposed into
TEM and non-TEM components
Direction of propagation
34
Open:
C
f
The open end of a stripline contains fringing E field.
This is manifested as capacitor C
f
. The effect of C
f
is to slightly increase the phase of the input
impedance.
The approximate value of C
f
have been derived by Silvester and Benedek from the
EM fields of an open-end structure using numerical method and curve fitted as follows:
P. Silvester and P. Benedek,Equivalent capacitances
of microstrip open circuits, IEEE Trans. MTT-20, No. 8
August 1972, 511-576.
pF/m log 2036 . 2 exp
5
1
1
(
(
\
|
=

=
i
i
i
f
h
W
K
W
C
0.0840 - 0.0147 - 0.0133 - 0.0073 - 0.0267 - 0.0540 - 5

0.0240 - 0.0267 - 0.0087 - 0.0260 - 0.0133 - 0.0033 - 4
0.2170 0.1317 0.1308 0.1062 0.1367 0.1815 3
0.2220 - 0.2233 - 0.238 - 0.2535 - 0.2817 - 0.2892 - 2
2.403 1.938 1.738 1.443 1.295 1.110 1
i
51.0 16.0 9.6 4.2 2.5 1.0
r
(3.1)
h=dielectric thickness
W=width
Microstrip Line Discontinuity Models
(1)
eff
f c
eo
C cZ
l
(3.2)
Z
c
C
f
Z
c
l
e
o
Z
f
Z
eo
(2)
Assuming the effect of C
f
can be represented by a short length of
Tline:
Thus in microstrip Tline design, we need to fore-shorten the actual
physical length by l
eo
to compensate for fringing E field effect.
35
(3)
Shorted via or through-hole:
|
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
1
4
ln 2 . 0
d
h
h L
s
(3.3a)
L
s
in nH
C
p
in pF
h in mm
d and d
2
in mm
r
= dielectric constant of PCB
N = number of GND planes
N C
d d
hd
r
p
2
056 . 0

(3.3b)
C
p
/2
L
s
C
p
/2
This is the capacitance between the via and
internal plane. If there are multiple internal
conducting planes, then there should be one
C
p
corresponding to each internal plane.
Cross section
of a Via
h
d = diameter of via
GND planes
d
2
(4)
C
1
C
2
C
1
T
1
T
2
Gap:
See Chapter 5, T.C. Edwards, Foundation
for microstrip circuit design [4], or
B. Easter, The equivalent circuit of some microstrip
discontinuities, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques
vol. MTT-23 no.8 pp 655-660,1975.
36
(5)
90
o
Bend:
L
C
L
See Edwards [4], chapter 5
Approximate quasi-static expressions for L
1
, L
2
and C:
( ) ( )
pF/m
/
25 . 2 83 . 1 5 . 12 14
d w
w
C
r
d
w
r
+
=

T
2
T
1
w
( ) pF/m 0 . 7 2 . 5 25 . 1 5 . 9 + + + =
r
d
w
r
w
C

1 <
d
w
1 >
d
w
nH/m 21 . 4 4 100
(
=
d
w
d
L
for
for
(3.4)
r
= dielectric constant of substrate,
assume non-magnetic.
d = thickness of dielectric in meter.
Example 3.1 - Microstrip Line Bend
For a 90
o
microstrip line bend, with w=2.8mm, d=1.57mm,
r
= 4.2. Find the
value of L and C.
( )
0.30pF 0.00288 104.309 C
pF/m 104.309
0 . 7 2 . 4 2 . 5 834 . 1 25 . 1 2 . 4 5 . 9
= =
=
+ + + =
w
C
834 . 1 =
d
w
[ ]
18.95pH L
nH/m 120.701 21 . 4 834 . 1 4 100
=
= =
d
L
0.30pF
18.05pH 18.05pH
At 1GHz:
Reactance of C
Reactance of L
5 . 530
2
1
=
fC
c
X
119 . 0 2 = fL X
L

Typically the effect of bend is not
important for frequency below 1 GHz
This is also true for discontinuities like
step and T-junction.
37
(6)
Step:
L
1
C
L
2
( ) pF/m 17 . 3 log 6 . 12 33 . 2 log 1 . 10
2
1
2 1
+ =
r
w
w
r
w w
C

T
2
T
1
w
2
w
1
See Edwards [4] chapter 5
Approximate quasi-static expressions for L
1
, L
2
and C:
pF/m 44 - log 130
1
2
2 1
|
\
|
=
w
w
w w
C
10 5 . 1 ; 10
1
2

w
w
r
10 5 . 3 ; 6 . 9
1
2
=
w
w
r
nH/m 0 . 1 2 . 0 75 0 . 1 5 . 40
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
=
w
w
w
w
w
w
d
L
L
L L
L
L
m m
m
2 1
1
1
+
=
L
L L
L
L
m m
m
2 1
2
2
+
=
L
m1
and L
m2
are the per unit length
inductance of T
1
and T
2
respectively.
for
for
(3.5)
(7)
T-Junction:
T
1
T
3
T
2
L
1
C
1
L
1
T
1
T
2
T
3
L
3
See Edwards [4], chapter 5
for alternative model and
further details.
38
Effect of Discontinuities
Looking at the equivalent circuit models for the microstrip
discontinuities, the sharp reader will immediately notice that all these
networks can be interpreted as Low-Pass Filters. The inductor
attenuates electrical signal at high frequency while the capacitor shunts
electrical energy at high frequency.
Thus the effect of having too many discontinuities in a high-frequency
circuit reduces the overall bandwidth of the interconnection.
Another consequence of discontinuity is attenuation due to radiation
from the discontinuity.
f
|H(f)|
0
f
|H(f)|
0
Some Intuitive Concepts on
Discontinuities
Seeing the equivalent circuit models on the previous slides, one cant
help to wonder how does one knows which model to use for which
discontinuity?
The answer can be obtained by understanding the relationship
between electric charge, electric field, current, magnetic flux linkage
and quantities such as inductance and capacitance.
A few observations are crucial:
As current encounter a bend, the flow is interrupted and the current
is reduced. Moreover there will be accumulation of electric
charges at the vicinity of the bend because of the constricted flow.
As current encounter a change in Tline width, the flow of charge
either accelerate or decelerate.
39
Intuitive Concepts (1)
Excess charge - whenever there is constricted flow or a sudden
enlargement of Tline geometry, electric charge will accumulate. The
amount of charge greater than the charge distribution on an infinite
length of Tline is known as excess charge. The excess charge can be
negative. Associated with excess charge is a capacitance.
Excess flux - similarly constricted flow or ease of flow, change in Tline
geometry also result in excess magnetic flux linkage. The amount of
flux linkage greater than the flux linkage on an infinite length of Tline is
known as excess flux. This excess flux is associated with an
inductance, again the excess flux can be negative although it is usually
positive (inductance is always corresponds to resistance in current
flow, recall V=L(di/dt)).
Both excess charge and excess flux can be computed from the higher
order mode EM fields in the vicinity of the discontinuity. For instance
by subtracting the total E field from the normal E field distribution for
infinite Tline, we would obtain the higher order modes E field (or local
E field). From the boundary condition of the local E field with the
conducting plate, the excess charge can be calculated. Similar
procedure is carried out for the excess flux.
This argument although presented for stripline, is also valid for coaxial
line and waveguide in general.
Usually numerical methods are employed to determine the total E and
H field at the discontinuity, and it is assumed the fields are quasi-
static.
40
For instance in a bend. As current approach point B, the current density
changes. We can imagine that current flow easily in the middle as
compared to near the edges. As a result the flux linkage at B for both T
1
and T
2
increases as compared to the flux linkage when there is no bend.
Associated with the excess flux we introduce two series inductors, L
1
and
L
2
. The inductance are similar if T
1
and T
2
are similar in geometry.
Also at B, more positive electric charges (we think in terms of
conventional charge) accumulate as compared to the charge distribution
for infinite Tline. Thus we associate a capacitance C
1
at B.
L
1
C
1
L
2
B
T
1
T
2
harder to flow
Easier to flow
Constricted flow - L
Increase flow - C
Charge accumulation - C
Exercise 3.1
What do you expect the equivalent circuit of the following discontinuity
to be ?
41
Methods of Obtaining Equivalent
Circuit Model for Discontinuities (1)
3 Typical approaches
Method 1: Analytical solution - see Chapter 4, reference [3] on Modal
Analysis for waveguide discontinuities.
Method 2: Numerical methods such as
Method of Moments (MOM).
Finite Element Method (FEM).
Finite Difference Time Domain Method (FDTD).
And many others.
Numerical methods are used to find the quasi-static EM fields of a 3D
model containing the discontinuity. The EM field in the vicinity of the
discontinuity is split into TEM and non-TEM fields. LC elements are
then associated with the non-TEM fields using formula similar to (3.1)
in Part 3.
Agilents Momentum
Ansofts HFSS CSTs Microwave
Studio
Sonnet
Methods of Obtaining Equivalent Circuit
Model for Discontinuities (2)
Method 3: Fitting measurement with circuit models. By proposing an
equivalent circuit model, we can try to tune the parameters of the
circuit elements in the model so that frequency/time domain response
from theoretical analysis and measurement match.
Measurement can be done in time domain using time-domain
reflectometry (TDR) and frequency domain measurement using a
vector network analyzer (VNA) (see Chapter 3 of Ref [4] for details).
42
Radiation Loss from Discontinuities
At higher frequency, say > 5 GHz, the assumption of lossless
discontinuity becomes flawed. This is because the higher order mode
EM fields can induce surface wave on the printed circuit board, this wave
radiates out so energy is loss.
Furthermore the acceleration or deceleration of electric charge also
generates radiation.
The losses due to radiation can be included in the equivalent circuit
model for the discontinuity by adding series resistance or shunt
conductance.
Reducing the Effects of Discontinuity
(1)
To reduce the effect of discontinuity, we must reduce the values of the
associated inductance and capacitance. This can be achieved by
decreasing the abruptness of the discontinuity, so that current flow will
not be disrupted and charge will not accumulate.
Chamfering of bends
W
b
For 90
o
bend:
It is seen that the optimum
chamfering is b=0.57W
(see Chapter 5, Edwards [4])
For further examples see
Chapter 2, Bahl [7].
W
1.42W
W
W
43
Reducing the Effects of Discontinuity
(2)
T
2
T
1
Mitering of junction Mitering of step
For more details of compensation for discontinuity,
please refer to chapter 5 of Edwards [4] and
Chapter 2 of Bahl [7].
T
1
T
3
T
2
W
2
W
1
0.7W
1
T
1
T
3
T
2
W
2
W
1
2W
2
0.5W
2
or
smaller
Connector Discontinuity: Coaxial -
Microstrip Line Transition (1)
Since most microstrip line invariably leads to external connection from
the printed circuit board, an interface is needed. Usually the microstrip
line is connected to a co-axial cable.
An adapter usually used for microstrip to co-axial transistion is the SMA
to PCB adapter, also called the SMA End-launcher.
44
Connector Discontinuity: Coaxial -
Microstrip Line Transition (2)
Again the coaxial-to-microstrip transition is a form of discontinuity,
care must be taken to reduce the abruptness of the discontinuity. For
a properly designed transition such as shown in the previous slide, the
operating frequency could go as high as 6 GHz for the coaxial to
microstrip line transition and 9 GHz for the coaxial to co-planar line
transition.
Exercise 3.2
Explain qualitatively the effect of compensation on the equivalent
electrical circuits of the discontinuity in the previous slides.
45
Example 3.2
A Z
c
= 50 microstrip Tline is used to drive a resistive termination as
shown. Sketch the equivalent electrical circuit for this system.
Top view
MSUB
MSub1
Rough=0 mi l
TanD=0.02
T=1.38 mi l
Hu=3.9e+034 mi l
Cond=5.8E+7
Mur=1
Er=4.6
H=0.8 mm
MSub
VIAHS
V1
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.0 mm
D=20.0 mi l
VIAHS
V2
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.8 mm
D=20.0 mi l
VIAHS
V3
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.8 mm
D=20.0 mi l
VIAHS
V4
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.8 mm
D=20.0 mi l
VIAHS
V5
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.8 mm
D=20.0 mi l
VIAHS
V6
T=1.0 mi l
H=0.8 mm
D=20.0 mi l
R
R2
R=100 Ohm
R
R1
R=100 Ohm
C
C1
C=0.47 pF
MLIN
TL3
L=15.0 mm
W=1.45 mm
Subst="MSub1"
MLIN
TL2
L=10.0 mm
W=1.45 mm
Subst="MSub1"
MLIN
TL1
L=25.0 mm
W=1.45 mm
Subst="MSub1"
MSOBND_MDS
Bend1
W=1.45 mm
Subst="MSub1"
MSOBND_MDS
Bend2
W=1.45 mm
Subst="MSub1"
L
LSMA1
R=
L=1.2 nH
C
CSMA2
C=0.33 pF
C
CSMA1
C=0.33 pF
Port
P1
Num=1
4.0 Linear RF Network
Analysis 2-Port Network
Parameters
46
Network Parameters (1)
Many times we are only interested in the voltage (V) and current (I)
relationship at the terminals/ports of a complex circuit.
If mathematical relations can be derived for V and I, the circuit can be
considered as a black box.
For a linear circuit, the I-V relationship is linear and can be written in
the form of matrix equations.
A simple example of linear 2-port circuit is shown below. Each port is
associated with 2 parameters, the V and I.
Port 1
Port 2
R
C V
1
I
1
I
2
V
2
Convention for positive
polarity current and voltage
+
-
For this 2 port circuit we can easily derive the I-V relations.
We can choose V
1
and V
2
as the independent variables, the I-V
relation can be expressed in matrix equations.
2 - Ports
I
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
Port 1
Port 2
R
C V
1
I
1
I
2
V
2
(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
V
y y
y y
I
I
( )
(
(
(
=
(
2
1
1 1
1 1
2
1
V
V
C j
I
I
R R
R R
Network parameters
(Y-parameters)
( )
2
1
1
1
2
2 2 1
V C j V I
CV j I I
R R

+ + =
= +
C
I
1
I
2
V
2
jCV
2
R
V
1
I
1
V
2
( )
2 1
1
1
V V I
R
=
47
To determine the network parameters, the following relations can be
used:
For example to measure y
11
, the following setup can be used:
0
2
1
1
11
=
=
V
V
I
y
0
1
2
1
12
=
=
V
V
I
y
0
2
1
2
21
=
=
V
V
I
y
0
1
2
2
22
=
=
V
V
I
y
This means we short circuit the port
2 - Ports
I
2
V
2
= 0 V
1
I
1
(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
V
y y
y y
I
I
V Y I =
or
Short circuit
By choosing different combination of independent variables, different
network parameters can be defined. This applies to all linear circuits
no matter how complex.
Furthermore this concept can be generalized to more than 2 ports,
called N - port networks.
2 - Ports
I
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
I
I
z z
z z
V
V
V
1
V
2
I
1 I
2
(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
I
h h
h h
I
V
H-parameters
Z-parameters
Linear circuit, because all
elements have linear I-V relation
48
2 2 1
2 2 1
2
2
1
1
DI CV I
BI AV V
I
V
D C
B A
I
V
+ =
+ =
(
=
(
0
2
1
2
=
=
I
V
V
A
0
2
1
2
=
=
V
I
V
B
0
2
1
2
=
=
V
I
I
D
0
2
1
2
=
=
I
V
I
C
(4.1a)
(4.1b)
2 -Ports
I
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
Take note of the
direction of positive current!
ABCD Parameters (1)
Of particular interest in RF and microwave systems is ABCD
parameters. ABCD parameters are the most useful for representing
Tline and other linear microwave components in general.
Short circuit Port 2
Open circuit Port 2
ABCD Parameters (2)
The ABCD matrix is useful for characterizing the overall response of 2-
port networks that are cascaded to each other.
(
=
(
=
(
3
3
3 3
3 3
1
1
3
3
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 1
1
1
I
V
D C
B A
I
V
I
V
D C
B A
D C
B A
I
V
I
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
I
2
V
3
I
3
(
1 1
1 1
D C
B A
(
2 2
2 2
D C
B A
Overall ABCD matrix
49
Z
Y
1
0
1
=
=
=
=
D
C
Z B
A
1
0
1
=
=
=
=
D
Y C
B
A
(4.2a)
(4.2b)
, Z
c
l l D
l
Z
j C
l jZ B
l A
c
c
cos
sin
1
sin
cos
=
=
=
=
(4.2c)
2 -Ports
I
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
ABCD Parameters of Some Useful 2-
Port Network
Example 4.1
Derive the ABCD parameters of an ideal transformer.
1:N
(
=
(
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
I
V
N
I
V
N
1 1 2 2
1 2
I V I V
NV V
=
=
Hints: for an ideal transformer, the following
relations for terminal voltages and currents
apply:
Port 1 Port 2
50
Exercise 4.1
Derive equations (4.2a), (4.2b) and (4.2c).
Hint : For the Tline, assume the voltage and current on the Tline to be
the superposition of incident and reflected waves. And let the
terminals at port 2 corresponds to z = 0 (assuming propagation along
z axis).
Partial Solution for Exercise 4.1
Case1: For I
2
= 0 (open circuit port 2),
L
= 1, thus:
( ) ( ) ( ) l V e e V l z V V
o
l j l j
o

cos 2 1
2
1
+ +
= + = = =
( )
z j
o L
z j
o
e V e V z V
+ + +
+ =
( )
z j
Z
V
L
z j
Z
V
e e z I
c
o
c
o +
+ +
=
For (4.2c)
First we note that for terminated Tline, voltage and current along z axis are given by:
( ) ( )
+ +
= + = = =
o o
V V z V V 2 1 1 0
2
( ) ( )
( ) l j
e e l z I I
c
o
c
o
Z
V
l j z j
Z
V

sin 2
1
2
1
+
+
=
= = =

Thus ( )
( ) l A
o
o
V
l V
I
V
V
cos
2
cos 2
0
2
2
1
= = =
+
+
=
( )
( ) l jY C
c
V
l j
I
V
I
o
c
Z
o
V
cos
2
sin 2
0
2
2
1
= = =
+
+
=
, Z
c
l
V
s
z=0
z
y
V
1
V
2
51
Partial Solution for Exercise 4.1 Cont
, Z
c
l
V
s Case 2: For V
2
= 0,
L
= -1.
Proceeding in a similar
manner, we would be able
to obtain B and D terms.
Z
1
Y
Z
2
Hint: Consider each element as a 2-port network.
Exercise 4.2
Find the ABCD parameters of the following network:
52
S-Parameters - Why Do We Need
Them?
Usually we use Y, Z, H or ABCD parameters to describe a linear two
port network.
These parameters require us to open or short a network to find the
parameters.
At radio frequencies it is difficult to have a proper short or open
circuit, there are parasitic inductance and capacitance in most
instances.
Open and short conditions lead to standing wave, which can cause
oscillation and destruction of the device.
For non-TEM propagation mode, it is not possible to measure voltage
and current. We can only measure power from E and H fields.
As oppose to V and I, S-parameters relate the reflected and incident
voltage waves.
S-parameters have the following advantages:
1. Relates to familiar measurement such as reflection coefficient,
gain, loss etc.
2. Can cascade S-parameters of multiple devices to predict system
performance (similar to ABCD parameters).
3. Can compute Z, Y or H parameters from S-parameters if needed.
S-parameters
Hence a new set of parameters (S) is needed which
Do not need open/short condition.
Do not cause standing wave.
Relates to incident and reflected power waves, instead of voltage
and current.
53
Normalized Voltage/Current Waves (1)
Consider an n port network:
Each port is considered to be
connected to a Tline with
specific Z
c
.
Linear
n - port
network
T-line or
waveguide
Port 2
Port 1
Port n
Reference plane
for local z-axis
(z = 0)
Z
c2
Z
c1
Z
cn
z
z=0
There is a voltage and current on each port.
This voltage (or current) can be decomposed into the incident (+) and
reflected (-) components.
V
1
+
V
1
-
Linear
n - port
Network
Port 2
Port 1
Port n
z = 0
V
1
I
1
+z
Port 1
+
+ =
1
1
1
V V V
= == = V
1
V
1
+
+
- V
1
-
+
( )
+
+
=
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
V V
I I I
c
Z
( )
( )
+
+
+ = =
+ =
1 1 1
1 1
0 V V V V
e V e V z V
z j z j
( )
( )
+
+
= =
=
1 1 1
1 1
0 I I I I
e I e I z I
z j z j
54
The port voltage and current can be normalized with respect to the
impedance connected to it.
It is customary to define normalized voltage waves at each port as:

ci
i
i
ci
i
i
Z I a
Z
V
a
+
+
=
=
(4.3a)
Normalized
incident waves
Normalized
reflected waves
ci
i
i
ci
i
i
Z I b
Z
V
b
=
=

(4.3b)
i = 1, 2, 3 n
Thus in general:
V
i
+
and V
i
-
are propagating
voltage waves, which can
be the actual voltage for TEM
modes or the equivalent
voltages for non-TEM modes.
(for non-TEM, V is defined
proportional to transverse E
field while I is defined propor-
tional to transverse H field, see
[1] for details).
a
2
b
2
a
1
b
1
a
n
b
n
Linear
n - port
Network
T-line or
waveguide
Port 2
Port 1
Port n
Z
c1
Z
c2
Z
cn
55
Scattering Parameters (1)
If the n port network is linear (make sure you know what this means!),
then there is a linear relationship between the normalized waves.
For instance if we energize port 2:
a
2
b
1
b
n
Port 2
Port 1
Port n
Z
c1
Z
c2
Z
cn
b
2
Linear
n - port
Network
2 12 1
a s b =
2 22 2
a s b =
2 2
a s b
n n
=
Constant that
depends on the
network construction
Scattering Parameters (2)
Considering that we can send energy into all ports, this can be
generalized to:
Or written in Matrix equation:
Where s
ij
is known as the generalized Scattering (S) parameter, or just
S-parameters for short. From (4.3), each port i can have different
characteristic impedance Z
ci
.
n n
a s a s a s a s b
1 3 13 2 12 1 11 1
+ + + + = L
n n
a s a s a s a s b
2 3 23 2 22 1 21 2
+ + + + = L
n nn n n n n
a s a s a s a s b + + + + = L
3 3 2 2 1 1
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
n nn n n
n
n
n
a
a
a
s s s
s s s
s s s
b
b
b
:
...
: : :
...
...
:
2
1
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
2
1
O
(4.4a)
(4.4b)
a S b =
or
56
Linear Relation Between a
i
and b
i
That a
i
and b
i
are related by linear relationship can be proved using
Greens Function Theory for partial differential equations.
For a hint on proof of this, you can refer to the advanced text by R.E.
Collins, Field theory of guided waves, IEEE Press, 1991, or you can
see F. Kungs detailed mathematical proof.
(
=
(
=
(
2
1
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
a
a
S
a
a
s s
s s
b
b
0
1
2
1
12
0
1
2
2
22
0
2
1
2
21
0
2
1
1
11

= = = =
= = = =
a a a a
a
b
s
a
b
s
a
b
s
a
b
s
(4.5a)
(4.5b)
S-parameters for 2-port Networks
For 2-port networks, (4.4) reduces to:
Note that a
i
= 0 implies that we terminate i th port with its characteristic
impedance.
Thus zero reflection eliminates standing wave.
Good termination can be established reliably for RF and Microwave
frequencies in a number of transmission system. This will be illustrated
in the following slides.
57
Measurement of S-parameter for 2-port
Networks
2 Port
Z
c2
Z
c2
Z
c1
Z
c1
V
s
a
1

0
1
2
21
0
1
1
11
2 2
= =
= =
a a
a
b
s
a
b
s
b
1
b
2
b
1
2 Port
Z
c1
Z
c2
Z
c1
Z
c2
V
s
b
2
a
2
0
2
1
12
0
2
2
22
1 1

= =
= =
a a
a
b
s
a
b
s
Measurement of s
11
and s
21
:
Measurement of s
22
and
s
12
:
Example of Terminations
DIY 50 Termination for grounded
co-planar Tline
2 100 SMT resistor
(0603 package, 1% tolerance)
Another example
of broadband
50 co-axial
termination
-20dB
0dB
Measured s
11
from 10 MHz to 3 GHz
using Agilents 8753ES VNA
OSL calibration
performed on Port 1
58
An example of VNA by
Agilent Technologies.
Other manufacturers
of VNA are Advantek,
Wiltron, Anritsu, Rhode &
Schwartz etc.
Device under test
(DUT)
Port 1
Port 2
Practical Measurement of S-
parameters
Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) - an instrument that can measure the
magnitude and phase of S
11
, S
12
, S
21
, S
22
.
General Vector Network Analyzer
Block Diagram
Measuring s
11
and s
21
:
DUT
Receiver /
Detector
Processor and Display
Incident (R)
Reflected (A)
Transmitted (B)
Signal
Separation
Directional coupler
LO1
Reference
Oscillator
Sampler
+
ADC
Port 1 Port 2
59
Relationship Between Port Voltage/Current
and Normalized Waves
From the relations:
One can easily obtain a and b from the port voltages and currents (for
instance a 2-port network):
This shows that S-parameters can be computed if we know the ports
voltage and current (take note these are phasors).
Most RF circuit simulator software uses this approach to derive the S-
parameters.
( )
( )
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
2
1
2
1
I Z V
Z
b
I Z V
Z
a
c
c
c
c
=
+ =
(4.6a)
2-ports
network
V
1 V
2
I
1
I
2
a
2
a
1
b
2
b
1
Z
c1
Z
c2
+
+ =
1
1
1
V V V ( )
+ +
= =
1
1
1
1
1
1
V V I I I
c
Z
( )
( )
2 2 2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
I Z V
Z
b
I Z V
Z
a
c
c
c
c
=
+ =
Usually Z
c1
= Z
c2
= Z
c
(4.6b)
Example 4.2 - Measuring Normalized
Waves
This setup shows how one can measure a
1
and b
1
with oscilloscope.
It can be done for frequency < 1 MHz where parasitic inductance and
capacitance are not a concern.
2-ports
network
V
1
V
2
I
1
Z
c
= 50
Z
c
= 50
R
test
= 1
Channel 2
Channel 1
To oscilloscope
Signal generator
Assume Z
c1
= Z
c2
= 50
R
test
should
be as small
as possible
60
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
Example in Time-Domain (1)
This experiment is done using a signal generator and Agilent
Technologies Infiniium Digital Sampling Oscilloscope.
Test resistor, as small
as possible, (V
2
-V
1
)/R
test
gives the current flowing
into the network
Sample RLC network
Signal generator model
We would like to find what is
s
11
at 10 kHz
V2 V1
R
R2
R=180 Ohm
C
C1
C=50.0 nF
R
Rtest
R=10 Ohm
R
Rs
R=50 Ohm
VtSine
SRC1
Phase=0
Damping=0
Delay=0 nsec
Freq=10 kHz
Amplitude=0.5 V
Vdc=0 V
Tran
Tran1
MaxTimeStep=1.0 usec
StopTime=5 msec
TRANSIENT
L
L1
R=
L=47.0 uH
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
Experiment setup.
From signal
generator
61
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
V
2
V
1
(16x averaging
10mV per
division)
V
2
V
1
peak-to-peak
amplitude 40.0mV Frequency 10 kHz
V
2
peak-to-peak
amplitude 668mV
V
2
waveform
(200mV per
division)
T
o
= 1/10000 = 100usec
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
Zooming in to measure the phase angle.
Phase = positive
if voltage leads
current, zero if
both voltage and
current same
phase, and negative
otherwise.
Phase calculation:
radian 503 . 0 2 = =

o
T
t
t
8us
Voltage leads current
V
2
V
2
V
1
10mV/division
62
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
Measured results
Converts into current phasor
e.g. I
1
= I
amp
e
j
, where = phase
V
1
is used as the reference for
phase measurement, hence V
1
= V
amp
e
j0
where V
amp
= V
peak
Voltage and current
magnitude
VSWR 3.896 = VSWR
s11 1 +
1 s11
:=
s11 0.564 0.179i = s11
b1
a1
:=
b1
V1 I1 Zc
2 Zc
:= a1
V1 I1 Zc +
2 Zc
:=
V1 V2amp :=
I1 1.753 10
3
9.635i 10
4
+ =
I1 I1amp exp i I1phase ( ) :=
I1amp 2 10
3
=
I1phase 0.503 = I1amp
V21amp
Rtest
:= I1phase
t
To
2 :=
t 8 10
6
:= To 1 10
4
= To
1
fo
:=
fo 10000 :=
V21amp
0.04
2
:= V2amp
0.668
2
:= Rtest 10 := Zc 50 :=
Example 4.3 - S
11
Measurement
Compare this with
measured results
V2 V1
R
R21
R=180 Ohm
R
Rtest
R=10 Ohm
C
C1
C=50.0 nF
VSWR
VSWR1
VSWR1=vswr(S11)
VSWR
S_Param
SP1
Step=1.0 kHz
Stop=10.0 kHz
Start=10.0 kHz
S-PARAMETERS
Term
Term1
Z=50 Ohm
Num=1
L
L1
R=
L=47.0 uH
freq
10.00kHz
S(1,1)
0.554 - j0.168
VSWR1
3.755
63
( )
( )
i i
ci
i i i
i i ci i i i
b a
Z
I I I
b a Z V V V
= =
+ = + =
+
+
1
( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
* Re
2
1
i i i i i
b a I V P = =
Power Waves
Consider port i, since (assuming z = 0):
Power along a waveguide or transmission line on Port i :
Because of this, a
i
and b
i
are sometimes refer to as incident and
reflected power waves. S-parameters relate the incident and reflected
power of a port.
(4.7)
More on S Parameters
S parameters are very useful at microwave frequency. Most of the
performance parameters of microwave components such as
attenuators, microwave FET/Transistors, coupler, isolator etc. are
specified with S parameters.
In fact, theories on the realizability of 3 ports and 4 ports network such
as power divider, directional coupler are derived using the S matrix.
In the subject RF Transistor Circuits Design or RF Active Circuit
Design, we will use S parameters exclusively to design various small
signal amplifiers and oscillators.
At present, the small signal performance of many microwave
semiconductor devices is specified using S parameters.
64
Extra Knowledge 1 - Sample Datasheet
of RF BJT
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
+
+
+
n nn n n
n
n
n
V
V
V
S S S
S S S
S S S
V
V
V
:
...
: : :
...
...
:
2
1
' '
2
'
1
'
2
'
22
'
21
'
1
'
12
'
11
2
1
O
( ) 1
1
= =
|
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
ci
i
i
i ci
ci
i
Z
I
V
I Z
Z
V
Extra Knowledge 2
We can actually use S matrix to relate reflected voltage waves to
incident voltage waves. Call this the S matrix to distinguish from the
S matrix which relate the generalized voltage waves.
The reason generalized voltage and current are used more often is the
ratio of generalized voltage to current at a port n is always 1. This is
useful in deriving some properties of the S matrix.
Of course when the characteristic impedance of all Tlines in the
system are similar, then S = S.
65
Z
Z
c2
Z
c1
Example 4.4 S-parameters for Series
Impedance
Find the S matrix of the 2 port network below.
See extra notes for solution.
, Z
c
l
c
Z c
Z
1
a
1
b
2
b
2
a
(
(
(
=
(
2
1
2
1
0
0
a
a
e
e
b
b
l j
l j
Example 4.5 S-parameters for

Lossless Tline Section
Derive the 2-port S-matrix for a Tline as shown below.
Case 1: Terminated Port 2
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
1
1
11
= = = = =
+
=
c
Z Z
c
Z Z
c
Z
V
c
Z
V
a
a
b
s
Since
+
=
1
2
V e V
l j
21
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
s e
a
a
b
l j
c
Z
V
c
Z
V
V
V
= = = =
=
Case 2: from symmetry, s

11
= s
22
= 0, s
12
=s
21
=e
j
:
l
, Z
c
l
Z
c
a
1
b
1
b
2
Z
in
= Z
c
+z
z=0
z
66
I I I V V V = = +
+ +

1
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
= E Z Z E Z Z S
c c
1
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ = S E E S Z Z
c (
(
(
(
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
L
M O M M
L
L
E
Exercise 4.3 Conversion Between
Impedance and S Matrix
Show how we can convert from Z matrix to S matrix and vice versa.
hint: use equations (4.4) and (4.6) and the fact that:
For a system with Z
c1
= Z
c2
= = Z
cn
= Z
c
:
S Matrix for Reciprocal Network
Symmetry (1)
A linear N-port network is made up of materials which are isotropic and
linear, the E and H fields in the network observe Lorentz reciprocity
theorem (See Section 2.12, ref [1]).
A special condition arises when the linear N-port network does not contain
any sources (electric and magnetic current densities, J and M), the
network is called reciprocal.
Reciprocal network cannot contain active devices, ferrites or plasmas.
Active devices such as transistor contains equivalent current and source in
the model, while in ferro-magnetic material, the bound current due to
magnetization* constitutes current source. Similarly the ions moving in a
plasma also constitute current source.
Linear
n - port
Network
Port 2
Port 1
Port n
0
0
=
=
M
J
r
r
* See for instance the book by D.J. Griffith,
Introductory electrodynamics, Prentice Hall,
or any EM book for further discussion on
magnetization and (permeability)
67
S Matrix for Reciprocal Network
Symmetry (2)
Under reciprocal condition, we can show that the S Matrix is symmetry,
i.e. s
ij
= s
ji
.
For example for a 3-port reciprocal network:
Many types of RF components fulfill reciprocal and linear conditions, for
example passive filters, impedance matching networks, power
splitter/combiner etc.
You can refer to Section 4.2 and 4.3 of Ref. [3] or extra notes from F.
Kung for the derivation.
t
S S =
(4.8)
t
S
s s s
s s s
s s s
s s s
s s s
s s s
S =
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
=
33 23 13
32 22 12
31 21 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
This is achieved by using Reciprocity Theorem
in Electromagnetism, and using the definition
of V and I from EM fields, one can show that
the Z matrix is symmetrical. Then using the
relationship between S and Z matrices, we
can show that S matrix is also symmetry.
1
*
*
=
(
=
(
S S S
t
t
U S S S S
t t
=
(
(
(
(
=
(
=
(
1 .. 0 0
0 : :
0 .. 1 0
0 .. 0 1
* *
O
S Matrix for Lossless Network - Unitary
When the network is lossless, then no real power can be delivered to
the network. By considering the voltage and current at each port, and
equating total incident power to total reflected power, we can show
that:
Again you can refer to Section 4.3 of Ref. [3] or extra note from F.Kung
for the derivation.
Matrix S of this form is known as Unitary.
2 2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1 n n
b b b a a a + + + = + + + K K
(4.9)
68
U S S S S
t
= =
|
|
\
|
* *
Reciprocal and Lossless Network
Thus when the network is both reciprocal and lossless, symmetry and
unitary of the S matrix are fulfilled.
This is the case for many microwave circuits, for instance those
constructed using stripline technology.
Conversion Between ABCD and S-
Parameters
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
21
21 12 22 11
21
21 12 22 11
21
21 12 22 11
21
21 12 22 11
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
S
S S S S
D
S
S S S S
Z
C
S
S S S S
Z B
S
S S S S
A
o
o
+
=

=
+ +
=
+ +
=
( )
D CZ Z B A
D CZ Z B A
S
D CZ Z B A
S
D CZ Z B A
BC AD
S
D CZ Z B A
D CZ Z B A
S
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
+ + +
+
=
/
/
/
2
/
2
/
/
22
21
12
11
For 2-port networks, with Z
c1
= Z
c2
= Z
o
:
(4.10a)
(4.10b)
69
Shift in Reference Plane (1)
V
n
+
V
n
-
(
(
(
(
(
=
=
n n
l j
l j
l j
e
e
e
A
a A S A b
... 0 0
: : :
0 ... 0
0 ... 0
' '
2 2
1 1
O
V
2
+
V
2
-
V
1
+
V
1
-
V
n
+
V
n
-
Linear
N - port
Network
0
0
0
z=-l
2
z=-l
1
z=-l
n
V
2
+
V
2
-
V
1
+
V
1
-
+ve z direction
Note: For a wave propagating in
+ve z direction, V
i
+
e
-jl
ci
i
i
ci
i
i
Z
V
b
Z
V
a
+
= =
'

'
' '
Let:
i = 1,2,n
(4.11)
Shift in Reference Plane (2)
( )
( )
(
(
= =
(
(
=
(
=
(
+
+
2 2 2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1 1 1
2 2
1 1
2
22 21
12
2
11
2
1
2
1
'
0
0
,
'
'
'
'
'
l j l l j
l l j l j
l j
l j
e s e s
e s e s
A S A S
e
e
A
a
a
S
b
b

For 2-port network:

(4.12)
70
Cascading 2-port Networks
a
1A
a
1B
a
2B
a
2A
b
2A
b
1A b
1B
b
2B
A B
(
=
(
=
(
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
a
a
S
b
b
a
a
S
b
b
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

(
=
(
=
(
B A B A B
B A A B A
A B
B
A
B
A
D S S S S
S S D S S
S S
S
a
a
S
b
b
22 22 21 21
12 12 11 11
22 11
2
1
2
1
1
1
New S matrix:
Let:
a
1A
a
2B
b
1A
b
2B
(4.13)
THE END

Transmission Line Circuits and RF Circuits Networksd Analysis

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1

Chapter 2 August 2008 2006byFabianKungWaiLee 1

Chapter 2 August 2008 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee 16

Note that the pattern of the waveform repeat

Equation of circles for U and V:

0.0840 - 0.0147 - 0.0133 - 0.0073 - 0.0267 - 0.0540 - 5

Example 4.5 S-parameters for

Case 2: from symmetry, s

For 2-port network:

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