ORIGINAL PAPER

Use of remote sensing, GIS and groundwater monitoring

to estimate artificial groundwater recharge in Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia
Ayman M. Alrehaili & M. Tahir Hussein
Received: 9 October 2010 / Accepted: 16 February 2011
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2011
Abstract This study aims to estimate artificial recharge of
groundwater by using remote sensing technology, geo-
graphical information systems, and groundwater surveys.
This study is part of the King Fahd project for rainfall and
runoff water harvesting, within the premises of Alilb Dam
in Diriyah to the west of Riyadh. Digital elevation models
were obtained with the help of aerial photography from the
year 2007. These models were used to delineate watershed.
Average rainfall was calculated using isoheytal method, and
the area of each of the storage lakes was measured using
SPOT 5 satellite images from 2007. Fluctuations in
groundwater levels, evaporation, and infiltration rates were
used to determine the water balance for the purpose of
estimating of artificial recharge. Artificial recharge rates were
found to surpass natural recharge from rainfall. Recharge
wells caused a reduction in the effect of evaporation on
storage lakes and helped in supplying water to the ground-
water reservoir. Moreover, 80% and 86% of the rainwater was
found to be available for artificial recharge in Alilb at 2005
and 2007, respectively. The study recommends the establish-
ment of strategic projects for water storage using artificial
recharge wells, an increase in the number of monitoring wells
around the dams, and the monitoring of hydrochemical
changes in groundwater both before and after the artificial
recharge. It also recommends the erection of a weather station
in the northwest of Wadi Hanifa.
Keywords GIS
.
Remote sensing
.
Groundwater
monitoring
.
Artificial groundwater recharge
.
Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia
Introduction
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is witnessing a rapid growth
in population especially the areas which attract human to
settle. The population of Riyadh area has increased more
than 200% during the period 19741992 (Al-Shareef 2002).
The rapid increase of population together with the
accelerated developments projects led to the demand for
more water but the resources are limited. Groundwater is
not insufficient and thereby desalination of sea water is
the important source for water supply. Taking these
problems into consideration, many dams were con-
structed all over the Kingdom to harvest and control
the rain water. The dams also suffered serious problems
and the yield was below the expected. The climate of the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is dry and hot. Rain precip-
itation is limited to supply these dams with enough water
to be stored and the hot arid climates facilitate the rate of
evaporation. The accumulation of sediments especially
the clay material hinders the infiltration of water to
recharge the groundwater.
Several ambitious projects applying different techniques
to get the maximum benefit from the run-off water and the
water stored by dams were established. One of these was
the King Fahd project for rainfall and runoff water
harvesting in the Saudi Arabia. In this project several wells
were dug in the basins behind the dams in the area west of
Riyadh. The purpose of these wells is to artificially
recharge the groundwater, enhance water quality, and
escape the loss caused by evaporation. It was proven that
A. M. Alrehaili (*)
National Center for Water Technology,
King Abdulaziz City for Science &Technology,
P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: amalharbi@kacst.edu.sa
M. Tahir Hussein
College of Science, SGSRC, King Saud University,
P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
Arab J Geosci
DOI 10.1007/s12517-011-0306-7
artificial recharge for the groundwater is most useful for
conserving the water in arid regions.
This study was carried out to evaluate the artificial
recharge for the groundwater below the dam lakes. The
methods of study included application of some mathemat-
ical equations, remote sensing analysis, well location maps,
and drainage pattern maps. Digital elevation models (DEM)
and geographical information systems (GIS) programs were
used in this study.
The data pertaining the average annual rain fall, rate of
evaporation, rate of infiltration, and fluctuations of ground-
water level in wells in areas of study were collected.
Previous studies
Collecting and storing of surface runoff water was known
in Palestine and Greece for more than 6,000 years. The
tribal groups of Coatch and Bloshistan in India practiced
this method 3,000 B.C. (CGWB and IHP 2000). In Europe,
studies and application of artificial recharge for groundwa-
ter began at the end of the nineteenth century, and in
America, the methods were tried at the beginning of the
twentieth century. In recent years, great attention was made
for artificial groundwater recharge was made especially in
the Arab world and Asia (Pyne 1995).
Artificial recharge for the groundwater remains the most
practical procedure for retaining the water level in aquifers. For
optimum results, detail geologic and hydrogeologic setting for
these aquifers should be known (Mariolakos et al. 2001).
Water management for artificially recharged aquifers
requires detail study of changes in groundwater level with
time and the method had been followed in Australia since
1920 (Healy and Cook 2002).
Variable methods for artificial recharge are known, but
the most important are the construction of surface water
basins, preparation of deep trenches, and drilling of
injection wells (Todd and Mays 2005). Detail study of
subsurface geology should include the aquifer, the unsatu-
rated zone and the precaution not to contaminate the water
(Bouwer 2002). Kaledhonkar et al. (2003) recommended
the use of a pipe together with a screen mesh to prevent the
pass of solid particles to the aquifer.
Jackson (2002) applied the methods of remote sensing in
the artificial recharge of the groundwater by the determi-
nation of water depth and moisture in the soil. Anbazhagan
et al. (2005) used both remote sensing and GPS to locate
the adequate location for the artificial recharge in India.
Near the coastal area of Southern Iran the study of space
imagery, GPS, and geomorphology lead to locate the
suitable site for recharging aquifers of known depths.
The Pleistocene buried water channel in the limestone of
the Jubaila formation. In 3 years time (19501953) 70 wells
were drilled for water. The average depth of these wells
varies from 60 to 80 m but some reached the depth of
180 m. The drawdown of water the table caused as many as
20 wells to be abandoned. The infiltration f the sewage
water to the groundwater of the Jubaila limestone leads to
the contamination making it not suitable for human
consumption (MAW 1985).
The study area
The study area lies west of Riyadh City, dissected by Wadi
Hanifah and at the city limit of Diriyah town. The area is
bound by longitudes 463050.208 and 463427.744 and
latitudes 244657.115 and 244428.887 (Fig. 1).
Wadi Hanifah flows from the northwest to the southeast
down to the low lands of Al Kharj. The main tributaries are
Wadi Ammariyah, Khamrah, Bear, Liha, Buaija, Aysin, and
Albatha (Al-Shareef 2002).
Geology and hydrogeology
Previous investigations of the study area classified the
limestone as Jubaila formation which lies within Shagra
Group. The formation outcrops northwest of Riyadh area
and extends for a considerable distance along the Arabian
Arc (Vaslet et al. 1991). Steineke and Bramkamp (1952)
were the first workers to define the Jubaila Formation. The
formation also described by Powers et al. (1966) and again
described Powers (1968). Manivit et al. (1985) described
the type locality near Jubaila west of Riyadh. They divided
the formation into two informal units J1 and J2. The Jubaila
limestone lies conformably over Hanifa Formation. All
over the quadrangle Jubaila has a constant thickness of
116 m (Fig. 2).
Jubaila Formation Jubaila Formation rests conformably
on the Hanifa Formation. In the field, Jubaila Formation is
distinguished easily from the underlying the Hanifa
Formation by its uniformity in lithology which is entirely
made of carbonates and devoid of any fine clastic units and
the absence of corals which are quite common in the Hanifa
Formation. The latter being non-uniform in lithology,
produces geomorphic features such as mesa and Questa
(Vaslet et al. 1991).
The lower unit of the Jubaila formation
The lower unit of Jubaila limestone is exposed east and west
to Wadi Hanifa. On the eastern flank, it forms a cliff (20
30 m) high. On this cliff, the talus occupies the part associated
with sand and silt. The talus of coarse only occupies the
shoulder, but it is covering part of the lower unit possibly the
Arab J Geosci
continuation of the interbedded sequence. The interbedded
sequence is formed of frequently repeated beds of micrite and
calcrenite of 10 to 20 cm thick (Vaslet et al. 1991).
Above the interbedded sequence is a hard silicified fine-
grained limestone half a meter thick. This layer is
homogenous and continues for a considerable distance.
These hard grounds were noted in other localities in the
unit. The upper part of the lower unit directly above the
silicified layer is characterized by caving in the limestone.
These caves vary in size from few decimeters to few meters
(Vaslet et al. 1991).
The upper unit of the Jubaila formation
This unit is 60 m thick and exhibits no layering as the layer
below. The unit is formed of intraclastic and bioclastic
calcarenite. Locally variation in color at the base was seen.
It can be concluded that the Jubaila carbonate rocks were
subjected to two major diagenetic processes such as
isochemical when there was no change in chemistry of
the sediments during its transformation into rocks such as
cementation and recrystallization (neomorphism) and allo-
chemical changes which involved dolomitization and
Fig. 1 Location map of the
study area
Arab J Geosci
dedolomitizaton. Stylolites are a common diagenetic phe-
nomenon in the Jubaila carbonates (Vaslet et al. 1991).
The deep sedimentary sequences of Jubaila formation
form an aquifer. It was classified as an average water
reservoir in both quantity and quality (Albassam 2002).
Most of the subsurface layers in the vicinity of the study
area carry water due to the presence of secondary porosity.
Faults and fractures help recharge these aquifers from the
surface run-off stream and Wadis.
The Wadis also furnish plentiful surface water. Since
1960, the water level is rising almost reaching the ground
surface due to the continuous recharge from the sewage
water (MAW 1985).
The Jubaila hydrogeologic formation transmissivity
ranges between 1.710
3
and 1.210
3
m
2
/s and the
salinity ranges between 1,000 and 4,100 mg/l and the
storage factor is 1.310
4
(GDC 1979; Italconsult 1969;
Parsons Basil Consultant 1969).
Rainfall
The data for the climate records were taken from
Presidency of Metrology and Environment, Air Force
Airport, King Khalid International Airport (PME 2007),
rainfall records at the stations in Riyadh, Wadi Hanifah,
Jubaila, Dhurmah, and Sadoos (MWE 2007a)
Rain gauge stations of PME (2007) are more reliable
because of the complete data while the data of the Ministry
of Water and Electricity are discontinues and not systematic
especially during the period 20052007.
The analyses of data concerning the rainfall paved the
way for initiation of Database for the average rainfall
during each month to cover the period of study 2005
2007. The program WMS was used analyze the digital
elevation points (SRI 2007a), initiation of drainage
basins and all relevant procedures pertaining it. Precau-
tions included the suitability of DEM like being free of
Fig. 2 Geological map of the
study area (Modified), (Vaslet et
al. 1992)
Arab J Geosci
false pixels or rude data as doming and furrow; all
these can be corrected by replacing some values.
Reference point was located (basin mouth) to allow
the computer to draw the streams net and Wadis which
flow towards that point. Alilb dam was chosen as point
or the basin mouth of Wadi Hanifah. The next step was
the initiation of the drainage system using the program
ArcGIS. The boundaries of the drainage basins were
plotted on the maps prepared by DEM. Then, a contour
map of rain distribution for specific month was made.
The area between two adjacent contour line was
calculated (Fig. 3). The average rainfall in the region
was estimated by the equation (Daradkh 2006).
P
P
N
1
P
i
A
i
A
Where P is the average rainfall in the region successive P
i
is the average rainfall between tow isohyets and A
i
is the
area between two successive isohyets.
Rainfall rate on Wadi Hanifa watershed in February
2005 was estimated at 49.8 mm (Table 1), April 2006,
15 mm, November 2006, 58 mm, December 2006, 11 mm,
February 2007, 23 mm, and April 2007, 30 mm.
Evaporation
ArcGIS was not applied in the analyses of the rate of
evaporation this study due to the incomplete data. The
number of the stations belonging to the Ministry of Water
and Electricity is limited and the recording is irregular. The
data used in this study were obtained from PME (2007)
precisely the stations of the Air Force Airport and King
Khalid International Airport (Fig. 4). The data cover the
period 19852007. The evaluation of the rate of evapora-
tion was focused on the months February and April because
they represent maximum stored water recorded. During
these 2 months also, the maximum artificial recharge for the
groundwater occurred. The average rate of evaporation
reached in February 5 and 8 mm/day during April.
Infiltration
There is a difference between infiltration and the actual
artificial groundwater recharge. Usually not all the amount
of water penetrating down the upper layers reaches the
saturated zones below. For this artificial recharge is
considered as a part of infiltration. Infiltration slows down
with time after the rainy season. Also, infiltration rate varies
Fig. 3 Contour map of rainfall Wadi Hanifah watershed, February 2005
Arab J Geosci
according to the type of the soil. For any soil type, there is a
maximum limit of the rate of infiltration. Retardation in the
rate of infiltration is a function of the soil type, amount of
rainfall and the mechanism of infiltration through the
saturated zones (Albassam 2002), presence of gases in the
unsaturated soil, and the permeability of the soil (Shoblaq
and Aammar 1998).
The age of the dam affects greatly the rate of infiltration
in its basin. This because accumulation of sediments
increases with time and these sediments retards the rate of
infiltration. The Dams Project, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
executed an experimental study using ring infiltrometer in
Alilb dam, and the rate of infiltration was found to be
41 mm/day.
Water level fluctuation
The wells pertaining to this study were located by the GPS.
During the period 20052006, water level in the wells was
measured manually one reading every 2 weeks before the
rainy season, after the rainfall the reading was taken every
2 days. In the year 2007, the reading was registered once
every 2 weeks. Data registering was commenced in Diriyah
area on March 7, 2005 and continued up to September 6,
2007. The measuring of water level was started with well 1
and then two more wells (2 and 3) were added by the date
of February 2007.
1. Fluctuation of water level in well 1
The highest reading recorded in this well was 639 m.
Above sea level registered on March 3, 2007.The lowest
level was 614.5 m taken on November 17, 2006. The
average water level was 627.5 m (Fig. 5).
2. Fluctuation of water level in well 2
Measurement of water level in this well started on May 25,
2007. The highest water level recorded was 634.8 m, and
that was the reading of May 3, 2007 while the lowest level
was 619.6 m, and that was the reading on September 6,
2007.It can be noticed the water level in this well rose
(Fig. 6) during the months of April and May 2007 due to
the artificial recharge that followed the rainfall.
3. Fluctuation of water level in well 3
The collection of data in this well started on February 25,
2007. The average water level during time span of the study
was 649.9 m (above sea level). The highest water level
recorded on May 3, 2007 was 652 m. While the lowest
level measured on September 6, 2007 found to be 645 m.
The maximum peak of water level in this well was
observed during April and May, 2007 due to the artificial
recharge following rainy season (Fig. 7).
Availability of water for the artificial recharge
Alilb dam is located near Diriyah and about 15 km west of
Riyadh. The dam was constructed with mortar 1974. The
dam is 200 m long and 9.5 m high (Fig. 8). The storage
capacity is 310
6
m
3
. The purpose of the dam was to
harvest and control the surface drainage of Wadi Hanifah
and its tributaries (MWE 2007b).
The size of the dam lake, directly after rainfall, was
observed by space imagery using SPOT 5 images (SRI
2007b). The aerial extension of water in the lake was
calculated using the program ERDAS. After reading the
height of water on the dam scale, the total volume of water
harvested can be calculated and compared with field study.
During February 2005, the surface area of the lake was
found to be 206,577 m
2
and the height reached 3.5 m. But
in April 2007, the surface area of water is 278,673 m
2
and
the height was 7 m.
Fig. 4 Histogram for the rate of evaporation in the Air Force Airport
and King Khalid International Airport for the period (19852007)
Table 1 Calculated amount of rainfall (mm) in Wadi Hanifah
watershed, February 2005
Pi Ai (km
2
) Pi Ai (mm/km
2
)
31.5 16.3 513.4
49.5 54.2 2,682.6
4.5 65.1 2,635.1
85.5 32.2 2,753.9
76.5 87.2 5,983.2
58.5 81.8 4,783
67.5 73.4 4,956.8
49.5 458.9 22,713.5
4.5 332.6 13,471.2
31.5 60.6 1,907.5
Total 1,253 62,401
Average 62,401/1,253 49.8 mm
Arab J Geosci
The thickness of the clay sediments below the lake is
2.02.5 m. If the rate of infiltration and the rate of
evaporation are both considered constant, then the water
available for artificial recharge can be estimated at a known
period.
Available water Harvested water Evaporation Infiltration
Volume of lake water Height Area
Evaporation Evaporation per day Factor No: day Area
Infiltration Rate of infiltration per day Factor Area
In the year 2005
Since the water of the dam lake continued for 15 days after
the rainfall during February 2005, the actual amount of
water that recharged the aquifer can be calculated as
follows:
Volume of lake water : 3:5 m 206577 m
2
723011 m
3
Evaporated water : 5 0:001 15 206577 m
2
15493 m
3
Infiltration : 41 0:001 15 206577m
2
127045 m
3
Water available for recharge : 723011 15493 127045
Available water 580473 m
3
It can be noted that evaporation resulted in a loss of 2%
and the infiltration causes the lake to lose 18% of its water.
Therefore, in 15 days time, the lake lost 20% of its water.
In the year 2007
Since the dam lake prevailed for 20 days after the rainfall of
April 2007, the actual amount of water which recharged the
aquifer can be computed as follows:
Amount of lake water : 7 m 278673 m
2
1950711 m
3
Evaporation : 8 0:001 20 278673 m
2
44588 m
3
Infiltration : 41 0:001 20 278673 m
2
228512 m
3
Water available for recharge is : 1950711 44588 228512
Available water 1677611 m
3
It can be noted that evaporation resulted in a loss of 2.3%
while the infiltration contributed in a loss of 12% of the lake
water. Therefore, in 20 days time, the lake lost 14%of its water.
Rate of the artificial recharge
The rate of the artificial recharge of the groundwater was
estimated using the data record of observed fluctuations in the
wells under investigation. The storage coefficient was deter-
mined to be 1.310
4
according to (GDC 1979, Italconsult
1969, Parsons Basil Consultant 1969). Estimated thickness of
the saturated layer was 57 m (PSRCEWD 2007).
Rate of artificial recharge using equation 1
Equation 1 is applied when the data available cover less
than three wells or to estimate the recharge by one single
well (Healy and Cook 2002). In this study, the equation was
applied for all wells.
R Sy
dh
dt
Fig. 7 Graphical drawing showing fluctuation of water level in well 3
Fig. 6 Graphical drawing showing fluctuation of water level in well 2
Fig. 5 Graphical drawing showing fluctuation of water level in well 1
Arab J Geosci
Where R is recharge, Sy is specific yield, h is water table
height, and t is time.
1. The artificial recharge rate in well 1
During the time of study which started March 7, 2005 and
completed September 6, 2007, the rate of artificial recharge
in well 1 showed a considerable variation. The maximum
recharge rate was 110
4
m/day recorded in April 2007
(Fig. 9).
2. The artificial recharge rate in well 2
Variation in recharge rate in this well was observed during
the time of study 25/26/9/2007. The highest rate of
artificial recharge was obtained in April 2007 when it
reached 110
4
m/day as shown by (Fig. 10).
3. The artificial recharge rate in well 3
The rate of artificial recharge was variable during the period
of study which started February 25 and terminated 6 of
September 2007. The highest value recorded was in April
2007 when it reached 1.410
5
m/day (Fig. 11).
Rate of artificial recharge using equation 2
The application of Eq. 2 requires the presence of a
minimum of three wells, a known distance between them,
storage coefficient and the thickness of the saturated bed
(Hussein 1980).
T
S

h
t

cd cd
2 bcab
R
T
H
Where T is the transmissivity, S is the storage coefficient,
h is the average change in water level of the first well, t
represents the time, d is the distance between the first and
the second wells, and c is the distance between the second
and the third wells. The distances between wells were
calculated using the program Erdas, a represent the
difference in water level in second well and b is the
difference of water level of the third well. The thickness
of the saturated zone H below the dam was obtained from
the geophysical studies which found to be 57 m
(PSRCEWD 2007).
Fig. 8 Spot 5 Image showing
Alilb Dam (SRI 2007b)
Arab J Geosci
Discussion
Generally, there is a direct relation between the rate of the
artificial recharge and the amount of rainfall in the study
area. The relations between these two parameters are
directly proportional. For example, in April 2006, the
rainfall in Wadi Hanifah watershed was measured 15 mm,
and the rate of artificial recharge found to be 3.710
5
m/
day. In November 2006, when the rainfall reached 58 mm
the rate of recharge rose to 8.710
5
m/day.
When the rainfall was low as that of December 2006
reaching only 11 mm, the rate of recharge was also lowered
to 110
5
m/day. During February 2007, the average
rainfall was 23 mm, and the rate of recharge recorded was
only 1.410
5
m/day.
In a comparison between the low recharge in April and
the high recharge of November 2007, the amount of rainfall
alone was not the only reason to determine the rate of
recharge. During November rains were heavier reaching
58 mm on Wadi Hanifah watershed, but sometimes, people
do not rely on the groundwater and if not put into
consideration the rate of recharge will increase. The
previous documentation of the two events were observed
in November but recorded in April.
In Diriyah area, the rate of recharge increases steadily
after the process of recharging starts. During March
2005, the available water for recharge was 580,473 m
3
and the rate of recharge reached 510
5
m/day in the
observation wells. In April 2007, the rainfall records
showed 23 mm, and the available water in Alilb dam
mounted 1,677,611 m
3
, and the rate rose steadily in both
wells 1 and 2 to 110
4
m/day.
Equation 2 was applied on Diriyah area data for the
period started February 25, 2007 up to September 6, 2007.
During February 2007, the rate of recharge increased
although there was no artificial recharge in Alilb dam area.
After the rainfall in April when the natural and the artificial
recharge were associated the rate continued to rise until the
beginning of May 2007, then stated to diminish as expected
during this time of the year (Table 2).
The rise of the rate of recharge in Diriyah area
during the period April and May 2007 can be attributed
to two reasons; the first was the rainfall at the
beginning of February 2007 on Wadi Hanifah water-
shed and the second was the surface runoff following
the opening of the gates of AlMuzairaa dam. The rate
of recharge reached 1.84 m/day during the first days of
April 2007.
Fig. 11 Graphical representation of recharge rate in well 3 for the
period 19/317/5/2007
Fig. 10 Graphical representation of recharge rate in well 2 for the
period 25/26/9/2007
Fig. 9 Graphical representation of recharge rate in well 1 for the
period 7/3/20056/9/2007
Table 2 Rate of recharge for the period 25/26/9 2007
Period Rate of recharge (m/day)
25/219/3/2007 0.461
19/310/4/2007 1.845
1019/4/2007 0.45
19/43/5/2007 1.45
317/5/2007 0.96
1730/5/2007 0.18
30/526/7/2007 0.08
26/79/8/2007 0.18
9/86/9/2007 0.058
Arab J Geosci
The rate went low for a time and then started to rise
again after the rains which took place in the middle of April
2007.The accumulation of those rains reached 30 mm, and
at the same time, the available water for artificial recharge
in the lake dam reached 1,677,611 m
3
.
Conclusion
The study proved that the use of remote sensing techniques
and the GIS furnish great contribution in the estimation of
artificial recharge for the groundwater. The use of these
techniques covers the improvement of space images,
treatment of digital elevation models, delineation of
watershed, measuring the distance between the observation
wells and drawing of geological and isohytal maps.
The use of wells designed for artificial recharge reduces
the loss of water by evaporation. These wells help to make
the harvested water reach the groundwater table rapidly. It
was also noted that the fluctuation in the rate of recharge is
a function of natural phenomena including the amount of
rainfall, rate of infiltration, surface drainage, and also
artificial factors like the presence of wells prepared for
recharge.
The topography of the area around Alilb dam does not
play any role in the rates of recharge. The Wadi channel is
narrow and in places reaches only 200 m in width. The
channels, in places, have many obstacles that hinder the
draining of water such as farms and dams.
The continuous withdrawal of water from pumping wells
will not help determine the real rate of recharge whether it
is natural or artificial. May be the difference between the
two types of recharges is that the artificial one affect the
aquifer faster than the natural.
Acknowledgment The author would like to acknowledge Prince
Sultan Research Center for Environment, Water and Desert, King
Saud University for the help and encouragement.
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