Invasive Species

INVASIVE SPECIES
Contents:
a. Disseminations of Invasive Species
b. Impact of Invasive Species
c. Impact of Invasive Species on Biodiversity
d. Hybridisation of Species
e. Impacts of Invasive Species on Human Beings
f. International Laws and Regulations on Invasive Species
g. Why Dinosaurs would be Threat

INVASIVE SPECIES
Because of increasing movements and global developments, introduction of alien species into
different ecosystems for the purpose of scientific research and recreation has become a
common phenomenon; but the truth behind this is, the alien species in new ecosystem acts as
an invasive species (the concept has been explained in the given table on the following page).
Today, these invasive species has become one of the greatest threats for the land ecosystem
as well as aquatic ecosystem
1
.
Invasive species are not only the threat to native species of flora and fauna but it can also
result in major disruption to ecosystem health as a whole. These are potential enough to cause
social and economic damage by means of spreading different diseases and loss of goods and
services on large scale
2
.
Our ecosystems are extremely vulnerable only because of destruction of natural habitats,
introduction of invasive species, over-exploitation of natural resources, and pollution. These
activities are weakening ecosystem resilience and ability to survive in changing landscape
because of climate change and thus continuously declining capacity for providing ecosystem
services. If it would not be checked now, this problem is likely to be exacerbated as a result
of the additional pressure on ecosystems which are arising from climate change
3
.
However, introduction of alien species in a new ecosystem is not a new phenomenon rather it
has been practicing for thousands of years and many times, the human-beings are benefited,
e.g. potatoes and maize are introduced in Europe and that did not cause any threat rather
benefited to local people
4
. But the experiment of this activity in modern world is hardly

1
The National Invasive Species Council, http://www.invasivespecies.gov/.
2
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Invasive Species,
http://www.fws.gov/contaminants/issues/invasivespecies.cfm.
3
USDA, Invasive Plants and Climate Change, http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/topics/invasive-plants.shtml.
4
Invasive Species Ireland, http://invasivespeciesireland.com/background/environmental-impacts/.

beneficial and most of the alien species have become invasive species in their new
environment and causing irreparable damage to native species and ecosystem with significant
economic consequences
5
. The Forest Service estimates the economic impact of these invaders
is about $138 billion annually
6
.
Invasive Species
What is an Invasive Species?
Any species is invasive when it is non-native to the ecosystem in which it is found as
well as capable of causing environmental damage and/or economic and social harm to
human beings. Invasive species often are competent enough in new ecosystems that
they displace native species and disrupt important ecosystem processes. Ranging from
the small flora to big fauna (e.g. Asian python) all can be invasive
7
.
How Does a Species Become Invasive?
More often, invasive species owe their success by their rapid growth in new ecosystems
because of the following characteristics:
They tolerate a variety of habitat conditions;
They compete aggressively for resources (like food, water, and nesting sites);
Last but not the least: they lack natural enemies in the new ecosystem
8
.
What Effect Can Invasive Species have?
Can disrupt the normal cycle of ecosystems;
Can reduce the size and number of native wildlife;
Can diminish forest health and productivity;
Can cause major environmental, economic, and social damage
9
.

Disseminations of Invasive Species

5
Invasive Species, Agriculture and Trade: Case Studies from the NAFTA Context. Presented at the Second
North American Symposium on Assessing the Environmental Effects of Trade (Mexico City, March 25-26,
2003): Prepared jointly by Center for International Environmental Law: Anne Perrault, Morgan Bennett and
Defenders of Wildlife: Stas Burgiel, Aimee Delach, Carroll Muffett,
http://www.cec.org/storage/49/4117_perrault-etal_en.pdf.
6
USDA: National Invasive Species Information Center.
7
Pacific Northwest Research Station, Invasive Species, http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/invasives/.
8
9

It is always not necessary that the invasive species are introduced deliberately by human
beings rather there are many other ways that the invasive species get migrated from one
ecosystem to another. In fact, increased movements of human beings increased the chances of
seeds transportation (by means of food and sometime also possible through the vehicles;
sometimes, you dont know your vehicles are carrying seeds and pollens)
10
.
Furthermore, the moving animals from one region to another region bring pellets, grain, or
weed-free hay to areas where feed is limited or grazing is not allowed. Also use this feed
several days before leaving as seeds are dispersed through waste
11
. In addition, these animals
(sometimes) also carry many micro-organisms (virus and bacteria) that cause severe diseases
to flora and fauna in the new ecosystem
12
.
However, generally, invasive species are introduced into new ecosystems by human
activities; sometimes it is done intentionally and sometimes unknowingly
13
:
Intentional
Trade: Trading of flora and fauna for the purposes of scientific research, recreation
activity, and for other economic purpose
14
.
Unknowingly
Ships & watercraft: Ships can carry aquatic organisms in their ballast water
15
.

10
Invasive alien species: a growing problem for environment and health, (21 Feb 2013 Last modified: 15 Aug
2013, 11:54 AM), http://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/invasive-alien-species-a-growing.
11
12
13
National Wildlife Federation, Invasive Species, http://www.nwf.org/wildlife/threats-to-wildlife/invasive-
species.aspx.
14
species.aspx.
15
species.aspx.

Trade of wood products: Many small insects can get into wood, shipping palettes and
crates, which are shipped around the world
16
.
Ornamental plants: Some of the ornamental plants can be invasive species once
escaped from the laboratory
17
.
Impact of Invasive Species
Environmental Impacts
Can damage the biodiversity
18
;
Can change food-cycle and food-web
19
;
Can prevent native species to reproduce by killing the young one
20
;
Can cause species extirpation and (even) extinction
21
;
Can cause soil degradation, and erosion
22
.
Social Impacts
Can engender various diseases
23
;
Can damage the quality of water and pollute the environment
24
;
Can reduce land and water recreational opportunities
25
.

16
species.aspx.
17
species.aspx.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Economic Impacts
Can reduce productivity in forestry, agricultural, and fishing sectors
26
;
Can put potential restrictions on export and import trades
27
;
Can decrease property values
28
;
Above all, control and management costs of these invasive species can be
significant
29
.
Impact of Invasive Species on Biodiversity (Significant Examples):
Invasive species damages native species through predation, e.g. feral cats kill smaller
creatures. Cats have been introduced to approximately 180 000 islands worldwide,
and have a significant impact - in Britain alone, cats are estimated to kill 25-29
million birds every year
30
.
Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) are native to Southeast Asia introduced
in Florida that caused damage on large scale to native species
31
.
The American mink was introduced in Europe for fur farming. As result of this, now
it is common in many parts of Europe and damaging the local wildlife, particularly
ground-nesting birds. Many native animals have already been escaped
32
.

25
26
27
28
29
30
European Environment Agency.
31
32

The numbers of amphibians are declining all around the world because of the invasive
Chytrid Fungus. It is very aggressive and grows very fast
33
.
The Australian paperbark tree has replaced native plants, e.g. sawgrass, over 400,000
acres of south Florida. It has a combination of traits such as spongy outer bark and
flammable leaves and litter that increase the fire frequency and intensity. Because of
this, many birds and mammals adapted to the native plant community declined as
paperbark spread
34
.
Native of South America, the aquatic plant water hyacinth damaged the local habitat
on large scale in Texas and Louisiana. And, similarly, Australian Caulerpa (marine
algae) damaged the habitat in Mediterranean Sea
35
.
Native of southern Russia, the zebra mussel introduced in the United States; as a
result of this, at least thirty native freshwater mussel species are threatened
36
.
When the predatory brown tree snake introduced in cargo from the Admiralty Islands,
it has removed ten of the eleven native bird species from the forest of Guam
37
.
Herbivores can also wreak great damage; in the 16th century, the first sailors to land
on the remote Atlantic island of St. Helena introduced goats, which rapidly
extinguished over half the endemic plant species
38
.
North American gray squirrels are driving native red squirrels to extinction in Great
Britain and Italy by foraging for nuts more efficiently than the native species
39
.

33
34
Simberloff Daniel, Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done,
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/simberloff.html.
35
36
37
38

Hybridisation of Species
Hybridisation or cross-breeding is not always beneficial rather it is also a serious problem
because it leads gradually to the extinction of many native species, as their gene pools
inevitably evolve to become those of the invader. For examples:
Japanese knotweed is a typical virulent hybrid of two alien species originating from
different parts of Asia. The hybrid has been found to grow faster than its parents,
outcompetes other plants and altering ecosystem by damaging other native species
40
.
The endangered, endemic Hawaiian duck is being lost because of hybridization with
North American mallards introduced for hunting
41
.
The rarest European duck (the white-headed duck) is threatened only because of
hybridization with the North American ruddy duck
42
.
Impacts of Invasive Species on Human Beings
The most dangerous effects of invasive species are as a carrier of diseases; e.g. the Asian
tiger mosquito has been linked to more than 20 diseases, including yellow fever and
chikungunya fever. It has come to Europe mainly through the intercontinental trade in used
tyres, and is now prevalent in several southern European countries, especially Italy.
Furthermore, climate change projections reported that the mosquito will likely extend its
range further north in coming years
43
.

39
40
41
42
43

The effects on the ecosystems indirectly affect human beings because in many cases, the
ecosystems altered by invasive alien species may be less capable to provide important
ecosystem services which support human activity, e.g. the pollination carried out by
honeybees may be affected by invasive alien species - the yellow-legged hornet, native to
Asia, has been found to devastate beehives in France
44
.
The invasive species are capable enough to damage the human economic activities by
extinguishing the native human beneficial species and through spreading diseases. It largely
affects the agricultural system, e.g. Spanish slug, found in many of the European countries is
potential enough to devastate many crops
45
.
International Laws and Regulations on Invasive Species
To control and regulate the impact of invasive species at global level, United Nations has
constituted Global Invasive Species Program. Besides, there are many other international
programs designed to deal with the particular sorts of introduced invasive species
46
.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) obliges Parties to the Convention to prevent the
introduction of invasive species:
Article 8 (h) of CBD put obligation on all Parties to the Convention as: Contracting Party,
as far as possible and as appropriate to prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate
those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species
47
.

44
45
46
USDA, International Laws and Regulations, http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/laws/intlglobalconv.shtml.
47
CBD, Considerations for Implementing International Standards and Codes of Conduct in National Invasive
Species Strategies and Plans, http://www.cbd.int/invasive/doc/cbd-invasive-species-strategies-en.pdf.

Article 8 (g) of CBD: Parties to establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control
the risks associated with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from
biotechnology which are likely to have adverse environmental impacts that could affect the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account the risks to
human health
48
.
Panama is a party to the CBD and therefore she is obliged to ensure its policies comply with
these articles
49
.
Besides, following are the important treaties and conventions related to invasive species:
1. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) 13 provides a framework for
international cooperation to prevent the spread of pests of plants and plant products.
Several Standards on Phytosanitary Measures can be applied to invasive species
50
.
2. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) adopted the "International
Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments".
The objective of the Convention is to prevent, minimize and finally eliminate the
transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens through the control and
management of ships' ballast water and sediments
51
.
3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) suggests alternate
model for regulating invasive species not already covered by the IPPC or other
agreements. Convention proposed to prevent harm in exporting country; however, can

48
CBD, Considerations for Implementing International Standards and Codes of Conduct in National Invasive
Species Strategies and Plans, http://www.cbd.int/invasive/doc/cbd-invasive-species-strategies-en.pdf.
49
CBD, Panama - Overview, http://www.cbd.int/countries/?country=pa.
50
USDA, International Laws and Regulations, http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/laws/intlglobalconv.shtml
51

be applied when species is endangered in exporting country and considered an
invasive in importing country
52
.
Panamanian Condition in respect of International Standards
Number and Extent of Protected Areas in Panama

The National System of Protected Areas (SINAP) represents the principle force for the
conservation of Panamas extraordinary biological richness in situ. With 65 official
designation protected areas, Panama has 2,600,018.050 hectare of land under the National
System of Protected Areas, which covers roughly about 34.43% of the total land area
53
.

52
53

Out of 65, 12 protected areas are internationally recognized and strictly protected: The Darien
National Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site (1981) and Biosphere Reserve (1983); the
Friendship International Park a World Heritage Site (1990) and Biosphere Reserve (2000).
The Volcan Baru National Park; the Fortuna Forest Reserve, the Palo Seco Protected
Woodland Area, The Bastimento Island National Park, the Volcan Wetland Lagoon and the
San San Pond Sak Wetland, which also form part of The Friendship International Biosphere
Reserve. 5 wetlands recognized as Ramsar Sites: the Punta Patio Wetland (1993), the Gulf
of Montijo Wetland (1990), the San San Pond Sak Wetland (1993), the Eastern Region of the
Baha de Panam Wetland (2003) and the Damani-Guariviara Wetland (2004). The Portobelo
National Park (1980) and the San Lorenzo Woodland Protection Zone-Protected Landscape
(1980) were declared as World Cultural Heritage sites also
54
.
An Analysis of Protected Areas
An analysis of the diverse natural processes of the protected areas, their current situation, the
connectivity of the ecosystems, the extent to which these eco systems are represented within
the SINAP, the health of the habitats, conservation of key species, biological diversity, the
conservation of endemic species and the natural state of evolutionary processes, indicates that
the vital processes of the protected areas within the Atlantic region have been preserved
almost unchanged, with pristine environments and a high degree of conservation
55
. This is
not the situation in the Pacific region, where the most important protected areas are at risk
and show a very high degree of intrusion and fragmentation of habitats
56
.
In addition to the protected areas, 15,103.4 km
2
(20%) of the Panamanian territory is made up
of five reservations and one indigenous territory established by law. The traditional methods
of land use employed by the indigenous populations have contributed to the conservation of

54
55
56

some areas of great biological importance, mainly in the Atlantic region where the majority
of the reservations are established. However, the level of poverty in which these people live,
and the pressures of population growth, is putting environmental conservation in these areas
at risk
57
.
The National Environmental Strategy (ENA) approved in May 1999 defines the strategies
and organizational criteria for environmental management over the long-term (2000-2020).
The ENA has provided support for the development of specific environmental management
tools, such as the National Biodiversity Strategy (2000) and the National Action Plan for
Panamas Biological Diversity (2000), which were developed with a focus on sustainable
development, and were consistent with the UNDP country plan for Panama 2002-2006 and
the Millennium Development Goals. These actions also agreed with Panamas ratification of
the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1995
58
.
As a result of the need to strengthen SINAP, the in situ conservation program of the National
Action Plan for Biological Diversity gives priority to: the prevention of the degradation and
deterioration of terrestrial ecosystems; to coastal, marine and freshwater areas; to the
restoration of the flora and fauna populations under threat in these areas; and to the reduction
of genetic erosion within these populations. In such a vulnerable and threatening situation,
any external activity will be not allowed and justifiable
59
.

Why Dinosaurs would be Threat?
As the studies of dinosaurs have evidenced that they had following salient features that
categorised them as invasive species:

57
58
UNDP, Supporting Country Action on the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas,
www.protectedareas.org/.../Panama/Application%20Panama%20post%20.
59

High tolerance capacity: Dinosaurs can tolerate in different ecosystems very
comfortably ranging from very cold to warm weather conditions
60
.
Dinosaurs grow faster and they have capacity to reproduce rapidly: Based upon the
studies of past, some species of dinosaurs had evidenced fast growth and they had
reproduced as frequently as crocodiles, laying clutch of eggs each year. Added to this,
some dinosaurs such as Maiasaura had provided parental protection to their young
children that reduced the mortality rate. In such condition, maintenance of fast
growing population dinosaurs is not only a challenge but it is also a big threat to the
local ecosystem as well as global ecology (once they escape from the confined area)
61
.
Dinosaurs compete for their food aggressively: Studies of past dinosaurs have
evidenced that because of the big size and body structure, they competed for their
food very aggressively. Some of the species of dinosaurs were carnivorous; they had
eaten either other herbivores dinosaurs or other species of animals
62
.
Dinosaurs have no enemies: Generally, dinosaurs had no enemy in new ecosystem
rather they were the enemies of other species
63
.

Likewise, Dino-Adventure Park could have following percussions once the idea would be
galvanized:
Panama has tropical climate with the property of no extreme weather condition, which
can be ideal for the dinosaurs to survive and grow fast without any difficulty, which
definitely later on threat for the management.
Park Management would have very much trouble in managing the fast growing
population of dinosaurs. As the dinosaurs have the property of growing rapidly, in

60
The Economist, What ate dinosaurs? (Nov 12, 2011), http://www.economist.com/node/21538078.
61
John A. Ruben, Terry D. Jones, and Nicholas R. Geist, Respiratory and Reproductive Paleophysiology of
Dinosaurs and Early Birds, http://www.sonoma.edu/users/g/geist/PBZ_03_geist.pdf.
62
USGS, What did dinosaurs eat?, http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/food.html.
63
The Economist, What ate dinosaurs? (Nov 12, 2011), http://www.economist.com/node/21538078.

such condition, there are many chances of their escape from the confined area and
once they escape, it will be big threat for the biodiversity as a whole.
The amount of their food will be another big issue, which ultimately put pressure on
existing ecosystem. Ultimately, it will disrupt the normal cycle of ecosystem.
Last but not the least: Illegal trafficking of dinosaurs will be big threat; because of
Panamas geographic position as buffer zone between two big continents (i.e. North
America and South America) with having easy accessible sea routes, the illegal
trafficking of dinosaurs will be very easy.
Moreover, as we have already seen in some of the movies that idea did not work rather it is
just CRAZY. Therefore, I think, its not only the native people of Panama but park
management, tourists, local and national governments, international community and of course
environment as a whole would get in BIG TROUBLE because of Dino-adventure Park.

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