Why measure hardness?

Examples of indirect information

through hardness testing are: mate-
rial identification, service life,
wear behaviour and even informa-
tion about the material strength.
It is true that the practitioner
knows that the hardness often pro-
vides only limited information
about the material property in
which he is directly interested.
However, hardness testing, a fast
and economical method for mate-
rial evaluation, is now indispensa-
ble in our workshops.
Static penetration methods in
which the hardness is derived from
the indentation which remains
behind after a specially shaped
geometric body has been pressed
into a workpiece in a defined man-
ner have long been known. Widely
used methods include the BRI-
NELL (1900), ROCKWELL
(1919) and VICKERS (1925)
Different types of operation and
investigative procedures have in
the meantime associated themsel-
ves with this "new" and advanced
method. Also, in the meantime in
the USA an EQUOTIP standard
has even been published (ASTM A
956-96: Standard Test Method for
EQUOTIP Hardness Testing).
EQUOTIP measuring principle
To get the EQUOTIP instrument
ready for measurements, the load-
ing tube is pushed up to the coil
until contact is felt (1). The catch
chuck latches in the impact body
(2). If one allows the loading tube
to return to the starting position,
the impact body is pulled into a
starting position (3) and the impact
spring is tensioned. Pressing the
release button (4) opens the catch
chuck, and the impact spring laun-
ches the now free impact body in
the direction of the measuring
point. Shortly before the impact,
the impact body passes through
the coil (5). The permanent
magnet integrated into the impact
body induces an electric voltage.
After the impact, the impact body
rebounds and again induces an
electric voltage in the coil. This
voltage is somewhat smaller be-
cause the impact was retarded.
These electric voltages are propor-
tional to the impact and rebound
velocities. The electronic proces-
sing computes the hardness value
L from these two velocities.
Applied to a specific group of
materials, this L value is a genuine
hardness unit because the harder
the measured material the higher
the rebound velocity and conse-
quently the computed L value.
Please note that we do not use the
rebound value alone but the quo-
tient of the two velocities. Solely
due to this, measurements in all
directions are possible. At the
same time, in conjunction with
placing a measuring point in the
immediate vicinity of the test sur-
face, possible errors (e.g. because
of friction) are also excluded. The
most marked feature of EQUOTIP
is that the device is convenient and
portable and that it permits meas-
urement not only vertically down-
25 years of experience with the EQUOTIP method
Hardness measurements
on metallic parts
Hardness tests have always been important
in the metalworking industry. Often, the
hardness value is the substitute for other
(more complicated or more expensive)
material testing, and the properties and
qualities in which the testing person is
actually interested are derived indirectly
from the simpler hardness test.
Apart from the long-known methods, the
70s saw the advent of a novel method the
EQUOTIP method which made use of
modern aspects of sensor technology and
electronics and set new standards with
regard to user-friendliness, applications and
accuracy. The prejudice that stationary
testing means accurate measurement and
testing with mobile instruments means
inaccurate measurement was no longer
applicable from that time.
Report by
PROCEQ SA
methods. It is striking that no new
methods have been developed for
some decades. It was not until the
mid 70s that something radically
new emerged with the invention of
the EQUOTIP method. Below, we
shall concentrate on this most
recent method because in spite
of being used for 25 years it still
has a certain novelty appeal.
EQUOTIP method (1975)
An impact body is launched by
spring-loaded force against the
surface of the test specimen. When
it is about 1 mm from the test sur-
face, the impact velocity and the
rebound velocity are measured,
from which the hardness value L is
determined by means of the follo-
wing equation:
L =
Rebound velocity
x 1000
Impact velocity
wards but also in any desired
direction.
Other reasons for the ready accept-
ance are:
Ease of use
High accuracy of measurement
Immediate digital display
Wide measuring range
Measurement in any direction
Readings in split seconds
Suitable for all metallic
materials
High reproducibility
Also measures on curved
surfaces
At a time when documentation of
test results (ISO 9000) has become
increasingly important, the fact
that data transfer via printer or
computer is possible is no doubt
also greatly appreciated. (By the
way, this was possible even in the
pre-PC era!)
Considering this historical back-
ground, it is understandable that
the VICKERS/BRINELL/
ROCKWELL scales are still
engraved in the minds of many
people, which makes conversion
of the actual genuine hardness
value "L" to the traditional hard-
ness values necessary. With
EQUOTIP, we are now in the
same position as the inventors of
the ROCKWELL/SHORE/
VICKERS procedures were for-
merly. They too were not able to
use the BRINELL scale which was
widely used at that time, because
every procedure measures some-
thing different. Manufacturers and
their customers have been using
the different testing methods and
brands of instruments for decades.
Depending on the equipment they
use, they are set individually diffe-
rent specifications. For this reason,
it is in practice indispensable to be
able to convert values of one proce-
dure to values of another, and no
doubt this is a subject which is
sometimes troublesome. Fewer
problems will occur and discus-
sions will be avoided if hardness
values were to be specified in the
scales corresponding to the proce-
dures used in practice. This means
in HRC values if one measures
with the ROCKWELL method, in
HV value if the VICKERS method
is used and in L values if measure-
ments are taken with EQUOTIP.
Necessary test equipment
The basic EQUOTIP unit is
equipped with the universal impact
device D.
For confined spaces, special shapes
of the test pieces or particular
surface finish, special impact de-
vices are available. Each of these
special impact devices matches the
indicating unit of the basic unit D.
The indicating unit "perceives"
which impact device is connected
and automatically selects the instru-
ment-specific parameters (conversi-
on, correction of impact direction,
etc.).
A calibrated test block is associ-
ated with each device. An individu-
al calibration certificate is affixed
to each test block. It can be re-
moved and, for example, filed with
the test documents. For the func-
tion test, the test block is placed
on a massive, rigid support. The
mean value from 3-5 measure-
ments must be within 6L of the
marked value.
Preparation-measurement-
evaluation
Suitable test specimens are prima-
rily compact, massive parts.
Owing to the dynamic mode of
action, it should be ensured that
the test specimen does not move
or oscillate during the measure-
ment. Parts which are too thin or
Loading tube
Catch chuck
Impact spring
Impact body
with permanent
magnet
Coil
Neutral position Loading Loaded Test impact
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Aluminium
Brass
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Bronzes
Grey and nodular
cast iron
Heat-treatable steel
High-strength
steel
Tool and
high-speed
steel
Hard
steels
(cold-
rolled)
Hardness value L 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Measuring range
of most important
hardness test
methods
thinly coated are not very suitable
for this method. The measured
surface must be bare metal, and a
very fine measuring surface should
be produced by grinding.
10-20 mm
2
are sufficient for 3-5
test impacts and the surface should
not be rougher than ISO N7 (2
m). Widely scattered individual
values are an indication of insuffi-
cient preparation. The required sur-
face quality is similar to that for
ROCKWELL but less fine than
that for VICKERS.
Uncertainties in the
measurement
The EQUOTIP method has an
uncertainty of 4L. Expressed in
other hardness scales, this means
5 HV, 4.5 HB or 0.5 HRC.
Every measurement method has
uncertainties in the measurement.
They are caused by:
the test piece:
genuine irregularities in the
material, surface preparation,
geometry, shape, size, layers,
strains, etc.
the instrument:
normal wear and tear, variation
in the friction of the mechanical
components, normal tolerances,
geometry of the test specimen,
calibration, accuracy of the
instrument, repeatability, varia-
tions between individual instru-
ments within the same series,
variations between different
series or brands, etc.
the operator:
lack of practice and skill, care-
fulness, power of observation,
fatigue, etc.
Conversion
No conversion is possible without
conversion dispersion. In princi-
ple, this dispersion is an addition
of the uncertainties in the meas-
urement by the two converted
methods.
This applies both to conversions
from EQUOTIP to static procedu-
res and to conversions from static
hardness values to other static
values. Consequently, the conver-
sion results in some loss of accu-
racy.
"L" contains additional
information
In contrast to static hardness meas-
uring processes, the measurements
obtained from dynamic processes
embody additional information
alongside the hardness figures.
The modulus of elasticity and in
particular the reactive behaviour
of the material under test in the
dynamic measuring process are
elements of the measured results.
Reactive behaviour under rapid
plastic deformation is dependent
on the type of material/alloy, on
the production process (rolling,
forging, casting, etc.) and on the
heat treatment used (grain struc-
ture, annealed, quenched and tem-
pered, etc.). If this facility is ex-
ploited skilfully, the user can
deduce additional information
from the hardness value L, for
example data on embrittlement,
modification of the grain structure,
influence of zone thicknesses,
distortion states, etc.
The hardness scale of a dynamic
process is always related to the
relevant material.
Hardness measure-
ment in virtually
impossible places
Basic unit D with
impact device D
and electronic
indicating unit,
test block D and
coupling paste.
All information,
such as L value and
converted value,
statistics of the
measurement
series, bar graph,
etc., appear on the
large LCD display.
To keep the dispersion band for
conversions narrow, the materials
have therefore been divided into
groups with similar reactions. As a
result, there is not just a single
conversion table for "steel" in
general but separate tables for
"steel and cast steel" and for "cold
work tool steel". In special cases,
there may well be a need to make
finer distinctions in the interest of
keeping conversion inaccuracies as
low as possible. (Key word: the
company's own conversion tables
for special alloys/processing.) The
user himself can now input these
empirical tables of the company
into the display unit.
Secure basis for measurement
in the long term and ...
In the 25 years since its invention,
the manufacturer has succeeded in
maintaining the measuring basis
unchanged. A 2000 "L" value
means exactly the same as an "L"
value obtained in 1975. Even if
some components (impact
device/impact body/display unit,
etc.) have been interchanged be-
tween prototypes and the instru-
ments of the different manufactu-
ring series, the measured values
remain within the tolerance of
6L specified at the time!
The developers of the EQUOTIP
method continue to carry out re-
search and development and guar-
antee a standard and constant level
of measurement of the hardness
value L in the future too.
The fields of application will be
extended and conversions for new
materials and system extensions
are constantly being worked out.
Exchangeability, compatibility and
upgrading are important design
criteria. Existing EQUOTIP users
will also benefit from future inno-
vations.
... what about the future?
For example, a system extension
recently came on the market under
the name EQUOSTAT Hardness
Tester, closing an existing, system-
related gap in applications: it per-
mits hardness measurements on
small, thin or light workpieces.
The EQUOSTAT unit can also be
Llog, S.A. de C.V.
Cuitlahuac #54
Col. Arag on La Villa
07000, Mexico D.F.
Tel/Fax (52) 57.50.1414
57.50.1188, 55.77.81.26
E-Mail:
ventas@llogsa.com
Internet:
www.llogsa.com
used in the EQUOTIP mode, and
any existing EQUOTIP impact
devices can continue to be used.
The EQUOSTAT unit may be
regarded as a universal hardness
tester since it is optimized with
respect to material type, sample
geometry and measuring range, so
that there are scarcely any limits to
its applications.
Loading the impact device Hold the instrument steadily
and trigger the impact
Recommendation
1 measured value = mean
value of 3 to 5 impacts
In the literature,
in particular in
DIN 50150, the
uncertainties in the
measurement are
dimensioned as
follows:
EQUOSTAT
Hardness Tester
with all impact
devices