Vector Controlled AC Drives

Abstract: Paper briefs about electrical drives and its mode-

rn system. The basic conceptual principles of operation of
vector-controlled AC drives or field oriented controllers a-
re presented and the direct and in direct implementations
are briefly described. The key performance capability of
torque control is emphasized, and mention is made of the
difficulties in achieving the desired performance arising f-
rom feedback sensing and motor parameter variation. So-
me applications such as helper drives, dynamometer drives
and propulsion drives are cited as examples where vector
controlled AC drives provide superior performance.
I ndex terms-Electrical drives, coupling effect, vector contr-
ol, field orientation

I. INTRODUCTION
As the capabilities of AC motor drives have expanded,
a new category of drives has emerged as a practical rea-
lity. This type of drive is distinguished by the strategy
of the control rather than differences in the power circu-
it. These AC motor drives are called vector-controlled
drives or field oriented controllers. The purpose of this
paper is to explain what a vector-controlled AC drive is
and how it works. Some applications requiring the sup-
erior capability of the vector-controlled drive will be
discussed. The terms "field-oriented" and "vector -
controlled" arise from the behavior of the magnetic
fields in the machine. The mechanism of torque
production in electric machines has been well known
for many years. Only recently (Blaschke, 1972) have
these concepts been extended to form the basis of a
strategy for control of AC machines with power
conversion apparatus. It is important to recognize from
the outset that the key output of any electric motor is
torque, not speed, although in the majority of cases
speed is the controlled variable of interest. The AC
machine is essentially an energy converter in which
current or voltage, frequency and speed are inputs and
torque is the output. Note that the motor has influence
on the speed of the load, but other factors like load
torque and moment of inertia are equally important. The
fundamental property of vector controlled AC drives is
that they control the output torque of the machine
accurately and quickly, in contrast to ordinary AC
drives.
II. ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Drives are employed for systems that require motion
control e.g. transportation system, fans, robots,
pumps, machine tools, etc. Prime movers are required
in drive systems to provide the movement or motion
and energy that is used to provide the motion can come
from various sources: diesel engines, petrol engines,
hydraulic motors, electric motors etc. Drives that use
electric motors as the prime movers are known as
electrical drives.
Types of electrical drives:
1) DC Drives: A DC drive is a device that is used to
control the speed of an electrical motor, either a
permanent magnet or a wound motor.
2) AC Drives: An AC drive is a device that is used to
control the speed of an electrical motor, either an
induction motor or a synchronous motor.
A.CONTROLLING OF AC DRIVES
1. Scalar control is based on varying two parameters
simultaneously (frequency and voltage). Scalar control
of ac drives produces good steady state performance but
poor dynamic response. This manifests itself in the
deviation of air gap flux linkages from their set values.
This variation occurs in both magnitude and phase.
2. Vector control (or field oriented control) offers more
precise control of ac motors compared to scalar control.
They are therefore used in high performance drives
where oscillations in air gap flux linkages are
intolerable, e.g. robotic actuators, centrifuges, servos,
etc. In scalar control there is an inherent coupling effect
because both torque and flux are functions of voltage or
current and frequency. This is prone to instability
because of 5
th
order harmonics. Vector control
decouples these effects.
III. FIELDS IN MACHINES:
In order to understand the concept of vector control, in
which the torque output of the motor is controlled, we

need to review how torque is produced. In any electric
machine, torque is produced by the interaction of flux
and MMF. These magnetic fields are generated by
current-carrying coils in the structure. These fields have
vector properties: they have both a magnitude and a
direction or orientation. (Both magnitude and direction
are, in general, time varying.) Torque is proportional to
the product of flux and MMF times the sine of the angle
between them. (This can be elegantly expressed as
the vector cross- product of flux and MMF vectors.)
Since the torque depends on the relative field
orientation, as well as magnitude, a basic problem of
rotating machines is that of preserving optimum
orientation when one of coils is rotating.

B. FIELD ORIENTATION IN DC MACHINES:
The DC machine solves this problem with commutator,
and two separate externally accessible windings. The
field winding establishes a flux field with a fixed
direction with respect to the stator. The armature
windings are connected to the outside world via the
commutator so that armature current generates a
stationary MMF which is perpendicular (sin = 1) to
the flux. As the machine rotates, the commutator
automatically selects the optimally-oriented armature
coils. Thus, one could think of the commutator as the
field oriented controller of a DC machine. It controls
the direction of current in the armature coils on the
basis of armature position. See Fig. 4. Unfortunately,
the commutator is the main drawback of the DC
machine in that it is an expensive structure which
requires high maintenance, as well as producing sparks
in normal operation. This is conceptually what a vector
controlled drive does in the case of an AC machine; that
is, it controls the angle between stator MMF and flux. A
further structural property of the DC machine is that
changes in the current in one winding have little or no
effect on the magnetic field created by the other
winding. Thus flux and MMF magnitudes are separately
controllable and do not interact; they are decoupled.
Decoupling is another goal of the vector-controlled AC
drive. We must determine how to control the stator
current input in order to have independent control of the
machine torque and flux.
In a cage induction machine, only one set of windings is
accessible, those on the stator. Thus, the electrical
inputs to those windings must control MMF, flux, and
their orientation. The basic property of AC machines
utilized is that periodic time varying currents in
polyphase windings produce rotating MMF's in the
machine. So by judicious use of the power switches in
the inverter to control stator current I
s
we can control
the stator MMF amplitude and position. Now if our
controller "knows", by calculation and measurement,
the position and magnitude of the flux, we can decide
how to control the stator MMF by applying the
following principles:

1. If the flux is less than we want,
increase in stator MMF component
parallel to flux: Increase I
s
cos by
increasing I
s
or decreasing or some
combination thereof. Conversely if the flux is
too large, decrease the component of stator
MMF parallel to flux. See Fig5.
2. If we want to produce zero torque, make the
stator MMF exactly parallel to the flux (sin=
0), and I
S
=I
m
(magnetizing current).
3. In order to produce torque, make the MMF
lead or lag the flux in space. The direction of
torque depends on the sign of . Increase
torque by increasing both and I
s
.
The vector control tracks the flux position and makes
the stator MMF follow it around with an angular




separation which depends on how much torque is to be
produced. Since the stator MMF must also maintain the
flux, there is always a component of I
s
parallel to the
flux. Generally speaking, the flux will be rotating so
that the controller must make the stator MMF rotate in
order to keep a constant orientation. If we assume
constant flux operation, then a certain constant
magnetizing current component I
M
will be required to
maintain flux. We can say:
I
M
= I
S
cos= Constant,I
S
sin torque
This leads to the relationship between stator current,
torque angle and torque for constant flux operation.
I
s
2
= I
M
2
+ kT where T = desired torque
= arc tan (kT/I
M
) See Fig. 6
By maintaining these relationships, the control
achieves decoupling of flux and torque.



Although this is conceptually simple, the controller
has to take flux amplitude
measurements, convert into vector form, and
perform fairly complex calculations to arrive at and
I
S
. These must then be converted into individual
currents per phase. The vector controlled drive
requires hardware or software capable of doing
complex calculations rather quickly.


IMPLEMENTATIONS OF VECTOR CONTROL:
Because the amplitude and orientation of
stator MMF is directly controlled by a
current-fed inverter, these are particularly
easy to equip with field oriented controllers. The
amplitude of the DC link current is directly
proportional to I
S
and the choice of output thyristor
pair determines which of 6 directions in space the
MMF may have. The inherent regenerative ability of
current-fed inverters is a substantial advantage,
because true field oriented controllers are designed to
operate in all quadrants. It is possible to design
vector controls for voltage fed drives, but this is more
complex because three current regulators are
necessary to establish precise control over stator
MMF. Furthermore, in order to utilize the 4 quadrant
capability, a line side converter capable of
bidirectional current flow is required. This usually
means another set of switches, for example, as in a
dual thyristor converter. Although direct flux sensing
control schemes are the most immune to
complications arising from misadjustment and
machine parameter change due to temperature, the
practical difficulties of air-gap flux sensing are
formidable. Therefore almost all vector controlled
drives are of the indirect type, where flux position is
inferred from rotor position or derived from highly
precise calculations based on stator current and
voltage. In those vector controls based on rotor
position feedback, advantage is taken of the fact that
the flux motion with respect to the rotor is very slow
compared to the mechanical speed of the rotor, owing
to the shorted windings on the rotor. The flux motion
is computed as the sum of the rotor angular velocity
plus a small component (slip) proportional to the
product of torque and rotor resistance. Means must be
provided to compensate for the change in rotor
resistance with temperature. Figure 7 shows the block
diagram for a vector-controlled drive. The main
drawback is the need for a rotor incremental position
encoder, although this is a far less difficult matter
than flux sensors in the air gap. Since low cost
computing power has increased dramatically with the
development of the microprocessor, there have been
many proposed implementations of vector control
based on the calculation of flux position from stator
current and voltage. These schemes are based on the
analysis of terminal voltage into two components,
namely stator IR drop, and speed voltage. The flux
reveals its amplitude and position as a result of its
velocity relative to the stator windings which induces
voltages in them. All these approaches suffer from
the serious drawback that, at low speeds, one cannot
distinguish IR drops from speed voltage, particularly
since stator resistance varies with temperature.
Consequently, these controllers perform increasingly

better as speed increases, but are in serious difficulty
below 0.2 P.U. speed. They are also the most
dependent on correct "tuning" which is essentiall
programming in the motor parameters. Although we
have implied that flux is maintained constant, a field
oriented controller can manipulate the amplitude of
flux as well as torque, so that operation at reduced
flux in extended speed is perfectly permissible.

To summarize the special capabilities of a vector-
controlled drive, we can state:
1. The ability to control torque output of the
machine quickly and precisely."Quickly"
means step response of 1 ms to 20 ms
depending on drive power rating and type of
switching devices. Some corollaries of this
property are:
a. Ability to operate as a torque follower.
b. Acceleration and deceleration at
c.
torque limit
d. Ability to yield speed on overload

2. True 4 quadrant operation: Dynamic
reversing and the ability to produce
torque in either direction while
maintaining either direction of rotation
(Assumes power circuit can handle
continuous regeneration.)
3. The ability to start into a machine
spinning in either direction.
4. The ability to control flux in the
machine.
Regardless of the technique used, a vector controlled
drive is far more versatile than
an ordinary frequency-programmed drive. As we
know, in a frequency programmed drive, the external
speed


































reference controls the output frequency directly,
although there are always rate limit circuits to
prevent the output frequency from changing too fast.
That type of drive does not have flux position
information, and depends on predictable behavior of
the load. As the output frequency increases, if there is
a load, the stator field gradually pulls ahead
of the flux, torque is developed, and current is drawn.
If the load torque drops to zero, the rotor speeds up,
allowing the flux to catch up to the stator field. The
motor torque then falls to zero. Torque is not
controlled; it builds up if the motor encounters a load
torque to retard the motion of the rotor (and
consequently the flux). If the load is a difficult type,
it may not be possible to start or accelerate with a
frequency programmed drive. Nevertheless, most
loads like centrifugal pumps and fans can be handled
with frequency programmed AC drives.

APPLICATIONS:
What types of applications are difficult for ordinary
AC drives where a vector-controlled drive may be
put to good use? One obvious category is helper
drives where one desires to drive a large machine
with several motors connected to different parts. This
is difficult for frequency programmed drives because
they tend to behave like very stiff speed regulators.
Once the stator frequency is established, the speed
change from zero to full load is determined by the
motor. Low slip types like NEMA B designs may
have only 10 to 15 rpm of rated slip. On the other
hand, with a vector-controlled drive, there is no
dependence on the motor for load sharing. One drive
is set up as a speed regulator. (Vector-controlled AC
drives usually include a PID speed regulator, but its
use is optional depending on the application.)The
output of its speed error amplifier, properly limited,
is used as a master torque command for all drives.
One can easily adjust the sharing by potentiometer
control of the torque command into each drive.
Figure 8 shows the block diagram of a drive system
with AC helper drives of the field-oriented type.

Another good application for vector controlled AC
drives is dynamometers where control of load torque
on an engine or other prime mover under test is the
main objective. Ability to continuously regenerate is
vital in this situation. The non-sparking character of
the AC motor is a real advantage in engine test cells
where explosive vapors may occur. Still another
application would be traction or propulsion drives.
Typically, these applications require the drive to
accelerate
from standstill at torque limit to top speed, cruise in
either direction at top speed, then regeneratively
decelerate at torque limit to stop. Sometimes dynamic
reversing at torque limit is necessary to go from some
forward speed to a reverse speed as fast as possible
without stopping at zero, and maintaining torque as
the direction of rotation changes.
Another class of applications which benefit from
vector control AC drives is centrifuges, which need
to accelerate from standstill at torque limit and
decelerate at torque limit to stop. Due to the large
moment of inertia, a substantial fraction of operating
time is spent in torque limit.
Hard to start loads like extruders and positive
displacement pumps are good applications because a
vector control drive can always generate at least 1
P.U. torque at standstill. (More torque can be
provided by increasing the current rating of the
drive.)
Finally, the category of loads where moment of
inertia and load torque are wildly variable or totally
unpredictable, or the motor is already spinning at
some speed in either direction, call for a drive which
can adapt to the circumstances of the moment. By
definition ordinary AC drive cannot, so the vector
control drive gives one the maximum probability of
success in an unknown area.












CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, vector-controlled AC drives are the
current state of the art in induction motor drive
technology. Their superior performance
characteristics have enabled them to begin displacing
dual armature converter DC drives, which have been
the performance standard for many years. This
process will undoubtedly continue because the vector
control techniques have only a modest effect on cost
and complexity of the control. We shall see more and
more vector-controlled AC drives applied as their
merits become fully appreciated by drive users.


REFERENCES:
[1] "Adjustable Speed AC Drive Systems". ed. B. K. Bose. IEEE
Press 1981
[2] Blaschke, F., "The Principle of Field Orientation as Applied to
the New Transvektor Closed-Loop Control System for rotating
Field Machines", Siemens Review, may 1972
[3] Gabriel, R., Leonhard, W., Nordbjr, C., "Field Oriented Control
of a Standard AC Motor Using Microprocessors", IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, March / Apri1 1980
[4] Bose, B. K., "Power Electronics and ACDrives ", Prentice -
Hal1 1986
[5] Wasko, C. R. ~ "500HP 120Hz Current Fed Field-Oriented
Control Inverter for Fuel Pump Test Stands , IEEE-IAS
Conference Record, 1986 Annual Meeting pp. 314-320
[6] C. D. Schauder, F, H. Choo, M. T. Roberts, High Performance
Torque Controlled Induction Motor Drives" IEEE-IAS Conference
Record, 1982 Annual meeting pp. 563-568
[7]Vector Controlled AC Drives by R. H. Osman, Engineering
Manager, AC Drives, Robicon Corporation