Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103129

www.elsevi e r.om!loa te!mar"etgeo

Petroleum systems o# $ndonesia
%arry &oust
a'
' (on ). *o+le
+'1
a
,ri-e .niversiteit )msterdam' /0e *et0erlands
+
.noal $ndonesia 1om"any' 2a3arta' $ndonesia
(eeived 13 4to+er 20056 reeived in revised #orm 13 Mar0 20076 ae"ted 8 May 2007
)+strat
$ndonesia ontains many /ertiary +asins' several o# w0i0 0ave "roven to +e very "roli9 "roduers o# oil and gas. /0e geology and
"etroleum systems o# t0ese "rodutive +asins are reviewed' summari:ed and u"dated aording to t0e most reent develo"ments. ;e
0ave lin3ed t0e reogni:ed "etroleum systems to ommon stages in t0e geologial evolution o# t0ese synri#t to "ostri#t +asins and
lassi9ed t0em aordingly. ;e reogni:e #our Petroleum <ystem /y"es (P</s) orres"onding to t0e #our main stages o# geodynami
+asin develo"ment' and develo"ed varia+ly in t0e di##erent +asins de"ending on t0eir de"ositional environment 0istory= (i) an oil>"rone
?arly <ynri#t @austrine P</' #ound in t0e ?oene to 4ligoene dee"er "arts o# t0e synri#t gra+ens' (ii) an oil and gas>"rone @ate <ynri#t
/ransgressive &eltai P</' loated in t0e s0allower 4ligoene to early Mioene "ortions o# t0e synri#t gra+ens' (iii) a gas>"rone ?arly
Postri#t Marine P</' 0arateristi o# t0e overlying early Mioene transgressive "eriod' and (iv) an oil and gas>"rone @ate Postri#t
(egressive &eltai P</' #orming t0e s0allowest late /ertiary +asin 9lls. ;e 0ave asri+ed t0e "etroleum systems in ea0 o# t0e +asins to
one o# t0ese ty"es' reogni:ing t0at onsidera+le miAing o# t0e "redominantly laustrine to terrestrial 0arge 0as ta3en "lae.
Burt0ermore' we 0ave grou"ed t0e +asins aording to t0eir "redominant P</s and identi9ed CC+asin #amiliesDD t0at s0are im"ortant
as"ets o# t0eir 0ydroar+on 0a+itat= t0ese 0ave +een termed "roAimal' intermediate' distal' Eorneo and eastern $ndonesian' aording to
t0eir "alaeogeogra"0i relations0i" to t0e <unda raton o# <out0east )sia.
r 2007 ?lsevier @td. )ll rig0ts reserved.
Feywords= $ndonesia6 /ertiary6 <edimentary +asins6 (i#ts6 Petroleum system6 Petroleum system ty"es
1. $ntrodution
Petroleum eA"loration in $ndonesia 0as 0ad a long and
suess#ul 0istory. <ome o# t0e earliest oil "rodution o#
t0e modern age omes #rom s0allow 9elds in 2ava and
<umatra' and disoveries 0ave +een made t0roug0out t0e
"ast entury u" to t0e "resent day. Fnowledge o# t0e
"etroleum 0a+itat 0as +een enouraged sine t0e 1970s'
"artly t0an3s to an enlig0tened "oliy o# oo"eration +y
t0e "etroleum ommunity in $ndonesia' t0roug0 te0nial
on#erenes and t0roug0 "u+liations s"onsored +y t0e
$ndonesian Petroleum )ssoiation ($P)). /0is oo"eration
amongst industry "artii"ants 0as grown #rom t0e need to
develo" a om"re0ensive understanding o# t0e large

1orres"onding aut0or.
?>mail address= %arrydo u stG0otmail. o m (%. &oust).
1
1urrent address= )nadar3o $ndonesia 1om"any' 2a3arta' $ndonesia.
num+er o# sedimentary +asins and "etroleum "rovines
enountered t0roug0out t0e ar0i"elago.
&esri"tion o# t0e "etroleum systems o# $ndonesia an
t0us rest u"on a #oundation o# an eAtensive' om"re0ensive
and relia+le data+ase t0at an +e #ound' #or t0e most "art' in
t0e "u+li domain. Many o# t0e "u+liations are
detailed' +ut several overviews 0ave +een "u+lis0ed
t0roug0 t0e years' onentrating "artiularly on t0e various
0arge and reservoir systems as well as on t0e ommon
"lay ty"es re"resented in t0e di##erent +asins. $n t0is "a"er'
we ma3e re#erene only to a restrited num+er o# CC3eyDD
"u+liations t0at "rovide good summaries o# t0e various
t0emes or areas. /0ey all "rovide aess to a mu0 larger
literature' w0i0 we 0ave used to "re"are +ot0 teAt and
9gures.
$n an early and eAellent "u+liation' <oe"ar-ardi et al.
(1975) identi9ed im"ortant 0arateristis o# t0e +asins
w0i0 were 3nown to ontain 0ydroar+on aumulations=
namely' ?oene to Mioene transgression' #ollowed +y
0258>8172!H > see #ront matter r 2007 ?lsevier @td. )ll rig0ts
reserved. doi=10.1015!-. m ar"etgeo.200 7 .05.007
108 %. &oust' (.). *o+le ! Marine and Petroleum Geology 25 (2008) 103129
mid>Mioene to Plioene regression and Iuaternary
transgression. /0ey also desri+ed t0e siA main reservoir
systems t0at were 3nown in "rodutive +asins>transgressive
lastis' regressive lastis' deltai de"osits' ar+onate
"lat#orm om"leAes' "innale ree#s and #ratured volanis.
/0eir "u+liation #ormed t0e +asis #or all su+seJuent
attem"ts to review t0e 0ydroar+on 0a+itat o# $ndonesian
+asins' and "rovides t0e #oundation o# t0e a""roa0
"resented 0ere.
Bollowing t0e #ormali:ation o# t0e "etroleum system
one"t (Magoon and &ow' 1998)' %owes and /isnawi-aya
(1995) used a modi9ed and more "ratial a""roa0 to
summari:e t0e "etroleum systems o# $ndonesia in a
landmar3 "a"er. /0ey ta+ulated 38 "etroleum systems
assoiated wit0 doumented aumulations as well as
ot0ers t0at were t0oug0t to eAist +ut in w0i0 no
disoveries 0ad yet +een made. Bor t0e 3nown systems'
t0ey "resented "lots o# umulative ultimate disovery
volumes (in million +arrels o# oil eJuivalent) versus num+er
o# 9elds in disovery order (so>alled reaming urves).
;e re#er to many o# t0ese "lots in t0is "u+liation.
$m"ortantly' t0ey noted t0at many o# t0e 38 systems did
not ontain a single area o# mature soure ro3' +ut
re"resented in #at a om"osite o# several distint soure
areas. $n order to wor3 wit0 managea+le num+ers o#
systems' and t0ere+y identi#y t0e similarities and di##er>
enes +etween t0em' we +elieve it is neessary to grou"
individual "etroleum systems into #amilies. &oust (2003)
"resented a "ro"osed #ramewor3 #or t0e identi9ation o#
"etroleum systems in sout0east (<?) )sia' and t0is is
a""lied in t0e lassi9ation "resented 0ere.
/0ere are many "etroleum>+earing sedimentary +asins in
$ndonesia (&arman and %asan <idi' 2000)' t0e num+er
de"ending on w0et0er ea0 individual synri#t gra+en is
ounted' or w0et0er t0ey are grou"ed +y "rovine. ;e
0ave #ollowed t0e lassi9ation used +y t0e $P) #or t0eir
set o# 9eld atlases ($ndonesian Petroleum )ssoiation'
19971991)' w0i0 also re"resents ommon usage. &esri">
tion o# t0e geology and 0ydroar+on 0a+itat o# t0ese
+asins is om"liated +y t0e "let0ora o# loal #ormation
Big. 1. @oation ma" o# $ndonesian +asins' grou"ed aording to resoure volumes. /0ose wit0 less t0an 10 MM+oe do not ontain "etroleum systems
desri+ed 0ere. MM' million6 E' +illion6 +oe' +arrels o# oil>eJuivalent.
names (many o# t0em essentially lit0o#aies and lit0o#aies
eJuivalents) and onKiting age attri+ution. ;e 0ave
ado"ted t0e stratigra"0ies #rom t0e atlases in general'
t0oug0 we 0ave modi9ed t0em w0ere we #elt t0is was
-usti9ed. ;e 0ave reviewed in detail t0e "etroleum systems
wit0 ommerial' or soon to +e ommerial' 9elds only.
/0roug0out $ndonesia ot0er "otential systems are devel>
o"ed (indiated' #or instane' +y oil see"ages in #rontier
+asins)' +ut our main o+-et 0ere is to identi#y and
em"0asi:e t0e main 0arateristis o# t0e suess#ul and
"rodutive ones' so t0at t0e lessons an +e a""lied
elsew0ere.
2. /etonostratigra"0i evolution o# #ar east /ertiary
"etroleum +asins
/0e sedimentary +asins o# $ndonesia #orm t0e ore o# a
#amily o# /ertiary +asins develo"ed t0roug0out <? )sia
(Big. 1). /0oug0 t0ey may di##er slig0tly in age and
develo"ment' t0ey s0are many 0arateristis= nearly all o#
t0em "ass t0roug0 an early /ertiary synri#t to late /ertiary
"ostri#t geologial 0istory' t0ey all 0ave an almost
eAlusively land"lant and!or laustrinealgal 0arge
system and t0ey are 0arateri:ed +y ra"id s0ort wave>
lengt0 sedimentary variations involving a distint suite o#
de"ositional environments and t0eir assoiated lit0o#aies.
$n nearly all o# t0e +asins' #our stages o# tetonostrati>
gra"0i evolution an +e reogni:ed (Big. 2)=
1. ?arly <ynri#t (ty"ially ?oene to 4ligoene)Lorre>
s"onds wit0 t0e "eriod o# ri#t gra+en #ormation and t0e
#ollowing "eriod o# maAimum su+sidene. 4#ten de"osi>
tion is limited to early>#ormed 0al#>gra+ens.
2. @ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)L
orres"onds wit0 t0e "eriod o# waning su+sidene in
t0e gra+en' w0en individual ri#t elements amalgamated
to #orm eAtensive lowlands t0at 9lled wit0 "arali
sediments.
3. ?arly Postri#t (ty"ially ?arly to Middle Mioene)L
orres"onds wit0 a "eriod o# tetoni Juiesene
#ollowing marine transgression t0at overed t0e eAisting
gra+en0orst to"ogra"0y.
8. @ate Postri#t (ty"ially Middle Mioene to Plioene)L
orres"onding to "eriods o# inversion and #olding'
during w0i0 regressive deltas were #ormed.
) 9nal transgressive "eriod 0arateri:es t0e Iuatern>
ary' +ut it 0as no signi9ane to "etroleum 0a+itat and will
not +e re#erred to #urt0er.
/0ese stages an +e related to t0e areaDs "late tetoni
evolution (%all' 1997)' "artiularly to early /ertiary
Big. 2. 10ronostratigra"0y o# $ndonesian "etroli#erous +asins' s0owing stages' +a3ground tetonis and geodynami events. <eaKoor s"reading events
and ontinental ollisions are #rom @ongley (1997).
transtensional stresses generated +y t0e $ndia)sia olli>
sion (inluding o"ening o# t0e <out0 10ina <ea (3020 Ma)
and wit0 late /ertiary u"li#t and inversions aused +y
ollisions and "late rotations. /0ey an also +e orrelated
wit0 t0e #our "0ases or stages o# <? )sian tetonostrati>
gra"0i evolution as de9ned +y @ongley (1997). %is <tage $
(5083.5 Ma) orres"onds to a "eriod o# early ontinental
ollision' w0i0 led to t0e #ormation o# many o# t0e older
synri#t gra+ens' w0ile 0is <tage $$ (83.532 Ma)' during
w0i0 ma-or "late reorgani:ations too3 "lae' resulted in
t0e #ormation and ative su+sidene o# a younger "o"ula>
tion o# ri#ts. <tage $$$ (3221 Ma)' ontem"oraneous wit0
sea Koor s"reading in t0e <out0 10ina <ea' was a "eriod
during w0i0 ri#ting eased' loal inversion too3 "lae
and a ma-or marine transgression mar3ed t0e +eginning
o# "ostri#t develo"ment. <tage $, (210 Ma) was 0ara>
teri:ed +y a maAimum transgression' #ollowed +y several
ollision "0ases t0at led to inversions' u"li#t and t0e
develo"ment o# regressive deltai seJuenes. /0is is eJui>
valent to t0e early and late "ostri#t stages.
3. (elations0i" o# tetono>stratigra"0i 0istory to "etroleum
system develo"ment
Bor many years' it 0as +een reogni:ed t0at most
sedimentary +asins 0ave om"leA 0istories t0at an +e
divided into stages or yles (mentioned a+ove). Fingston
et al. (1983) desri+ed a met0od +y w0i0 various +asin
ty"es ould +e ategori:ed +y t0eir seJuene o# evolu>
tionary stages. <? )sia /ertiary +asins were lassi9ed as
two>stage wren0 or s0ear +asins' in reognition o# t0eir
early synri#t "0ase wit0 "ro+a+le transtensional origin'
#ollowed +y almost inevita+le inversions related to t0e
in0erent insta+ility (reKeted in t0e "oor "reservation
"otential o# t0is +asin ty"e). /0ey also noted t0at ea0
+asin stage ty"ially om"rised a transgressiveregressive
sedimentary yle' w0i0 today we an reogni:e as a
9rst order seJuene' ontaining lowstand' transgressive
and 0ig0stand systems trats' +ounded +y regionally or>
relata+le 0ori:ons.
$t is our +elie# t0at in many +asins' "etroleum systems
an +e related diretly to +asin stage' sine 9rst>order
sedimentary seJuenes o#ten ontain soure' reservoir and
seal ro3s' #reJuently in a #avoura+le vertial suession.
;e 0ave a""lied t0is one"t to $ndonesian "etroleum
systems' al+eit wit0 some modi9ations in reognition o#
t0e synri#t develo"ment (w0i0 does not lend itsel# easily to
t0e lassi model o# seJuene stratigra"0y) and t0e ra"id
#aies variations.
&oust and @i-m+a0 (1997) and &oust (1999) "ro"osed
t0at almost all o# t0e "etroleum systems develo"ed in
$ndonesian +asins ould +e asri+ed to one o# #our +asi
ty"es' ea0 wit0 its 0arateristi soure' reservoir and seal
#aies. Ey lassi#ying t0em in t0is way' it is "ossi+le to ma3e
+road om"arisons o# +asin "ros"etivity. (eognition o#
disrete "etroleum systems de"ends on geo0emial orre>
lation +etween soure ro3s and t0eir related 0ydroar+on
aumulations. $n $ndonesia' t0is is rendered very di#9ult
+y t0e #at t0at= (a) many soure ro3s are t0in and!or
widely distri+uted wit0in t0e seJuene' (+) most oils and
gases derived #rom any "artiular ty"e o# soure ro3 (e.g.
deltai or laustrine) annot +e readily distinguis0ed #rom
ot0ers in t0e same grou"' and () a large amount o# miAing
o# laustrine and terrestrial oils a""ears to 0ave ta3en
"lae. /en %aven and <0ie#el+ein (1995) nevert0eless were
a+le to de9ne w0et0er 0arge in ea0 +asin in $ndonesia
was derived #rom /ertiary laustrine' terrigenous or marine
soure ro3s or w0et0er it ame #rom Meso:oi soures= $n
#at' t0ey used t0is to de9ne w0i0 "etroleum systems were
"resent' in mu0 t0e same way as "resented 0ereL
alt0oug0 we relate t0e "etroleum systems more s"ei9ally
to t0e +asin develo"ment stage.
/0e eAtensive miAing is "ro+a+ly a onseJuene o# t0e
limited develo"ment o# regional seals' and its e##et is t0at
0arge #rom some o# t0e "etroleum system ty"es de9ned
0ere ontri+utes to aumulations in younger "etroleum
system ty"es.
/0e #our +asi "etroleum system ty"es (or P</s6 #or more
detail see &oust and @i-m+a0 (1997)' w0ere t0ey are
re#erred to as 0ydroar+on systems) orrelate well wit0 t0e
#our +asin stages desri+ed in t0e "revious setion' and 0ave
t0e #ollowing 0arateristis (#or a summary see Big. 15)=
1. ?arly <ynri#t @austrine P</= /0is is strongly oil
"rone due to t0e wides"read develo"ment o#
organi>ri0 laustrine ty"e $!$$ soure ro3s' and is
ommon in western $ndonesian +asins. (eservoirs
om"rise Kuvio> laustrine lastis and volanilastis o#
limited Juality' intimately inter+edded wit0 non>marine
s0ales. ) om> "re0ensive summary o# t0is P</ is given
+y <laden (1997).
2. @ate <ynri#t /ransgressive &eltai P</= &eltai or
"arali seJuenes wit0 an overall +a3ste""ing devel>
o"ment ty"i#y t0is P</. <oure ro3s om"rise ty"e
$$!$$$ oals and oaly s0ales t0at "rodue +ot0 oil and
gas' inter+edded wit0 Kuvio>deltai sand reservoirs and
seals' o#ten o# eAellent Juality.
3. ?arly Postri#t Marine P</= <oure ro3s in t0is "rini"ally
marine s0ale seJuene are mainly lean and!or gas>"rone.
/0e main reservoirs om"rise o"en marine ar+onates'
inluding ree#al +uildu"s. /0is P</ ontains t0e only
wides"read regional seal in many $ndonesian +asins.
8. @ate Postri#t (egressive &eltai P</= /0is P</ 0as
similar environments and 0arateristis as t0e @ate
synri#t P</ eAe"t t0at t0e overall deltai develo"ment
is ty"ially "rogradational rat0er t0an retrogradational.
$n most ases' it lies at de"t0s too s0allow #or
0ydroar+on generation' +ut w0ere ma-or deltas are
develo"ed on ontinent margins' it re"resents t0e
dominant system.
8. )s"ets o# t0e 0ydroar+on system
$n t0is setion' we summari:e t0e 0arateristis o# t0e
main elements ommon to $ndonesian "etroleum systems.
/0is is "ossi+le +eause t0e +asins s0are a relatively limited
num+er o# environmentally related lit0o#aies and 0ave
similar tetoni settings. /0e +asins situated "roAimal to
t0e <unda s0el# 0ave a stronger om"onent o# "roAimal
laustrinedeltai lit0o#aies t0roug0out t0eir develo">
ment' w0ile t0ose at t0e edges o# t0e /ertiary ontinental
margin develo" more marine #aies 0arateri:ed +y t0i3
marine s0ales and ar+onates. /0is is reKeted diretly in
t0eir 0ydroar+on 0a+itat' so t0at t0e "etroleum systems
and "lays develo"ed in t0e various +asins an +e lin3ed
diretly to t0e overall t0ree>dimensional #aies!environ>
mental seJuene and t0e tetoni 0istory.
8.1. <oure ro3s
/0e geo0emistry o# oils and soure ro3s #rom
$ndonesia 0as +een reviewed +y many aut0ors' and t0ere
is general onsensus t0at t0e 0ost organi matter originated
#rom land"lants and!or algallaustrine soure material.
) summary o# in#ormation on soure ty"es in t0e ma-or
"etroleum "rovines o# $ndonesia is "resented in Big. 3.
/0e soure ro3 de"ositional environments' desri+ed in
detail +y /odd et al. (1997) and +y <0ie#el+ein and
1ameron (1997)' are as #ollows=
@austrine= @austrine oils originate #rom mainly algal
ty"e $!$$ 3erogen' w0i0 aumulated in dee" or s0allow
#res0 to +ra3is0 water la3es' "rimarily in t0e early synri#t
stage o# +asin develo"ment. <everal su+>#amilies 0ave +een
reogni:ed (e.g. in 1entral <umatra' ;illiams and ?u+an3'
1995) w0i0 are lin3ed to varia+le water 0emistry and t0e
admiAture o# terrestrial organi detritus.
Parali or deltai= %ydroar+ons #rom soure ro3s o#
t0is ty"e arise #rom oals and oaly s0ales de"osited in a
variety o# Kuvial to estuarine lower oastal "lain environ>
ments' ty"ially in t0e late synri#t and late "ostri#t +asin
stages. /0e 3erogen is mainly o# terrigenous (land "lant)
origin' ty"e $$!$$$' +ut may ontain some algal elements
derived #rom Kood"lain la3es. $n general' a miAture o# oil
and gas is generated.
Marine= %ydroar+ons generated #rom marine soure
ro3s 0ave geo0emial 0arateristis t0at are +roadly
similar to t0ose #rom t0e "arali environments in t0at
t0ey are derived #rom detrital land "lant organi matter.
/0e ty"ial ty"e $$ marine soure ro3s seen eAtensively in
Big. 3. <oure ro3 ty"es in $ndonesian +asins +ased on oil ty"ing #rom /odd et al. (1997)' s0owing lit0ology' age' and t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0ey are
develo"ed and total assoiated reserve volumes in million +arrels o# oil>eJuivalent. ?<' ?arly <ynri#t6 @<' @ate <ynri#t6 ?P' ?arly Postri#t6 @P' @ate
Postri#t6 %1' 0ydroar+ons.
ot0er "arts o# t0e world are not "resent in any a+undane
0ere. %owever' t0e "resene o# marine +iomar3ers (e.g.
130>steranes in some oils #rom 2ava and *ort0 <umatra)
indiate t0at t0e soure ro3s were de"osited in a marine
setting' even t0oug0 t0e +ul3 o# t0e organi material
re"resents trans"orted land "lant material. $n t0e Ma0a>
3am &elta' soure ro3 #aies 0ave +een identi9ed reently
in dee" water tur+idites w0ere one again' t0e organi
matter is "redominantly o# terrestrial origin (&un0am
et al.' 20016 Peters et al.' 20006 Guritno et al.' 20036 <aller
et al.' 2005). )way #rom deltai de"oenters it is li3ely t0at
marine s0ales o# t0e early "ostri#t interval' many o# w0i0
ontain low "erentages o# disseminated terrestrial organi
material' 0ave generated signi9ant Juantities o# gas. $n
eastern $ndonesia' oils o# marine lasti' marly and
ar+onate a#9nities our. /0ese oils 0ave geo0emial
0arateristis ty"ial o# marine oils glo+ally (Peters et al.'
1999) and are derived #rom eit0er "re>/ertiary soure ro3s
(e.g. ons0ore <eram)' or #rom Mioene marine marls
(e.g. t0e <alawati Easin).
)s was noted +y <0aw and Pa30am (1992)' t0e 0ig0er
t0an average 0eat Kow eA"eriened in several /ertiary
$ndonesian +asins "lays an im"ortant role in raising t0e
0ydroar+on "ros"etivity o# some o# t0e s0allower +asins.
$t is notiea+le t0at many oils s0ow a miAed laustrine
and "arali geo0emial signature (e.g. in <out0 <umatra).
/0ese may arise #rom s0allow la3e margin #aies or #rom
miAing o# 0arge #rom two distint soure ro3s during
vertial migration. /0is miAing' "lus t0e overall similarity
o# geo0emial 9nger"rints' om"liates t0e identi9ation
o# a disrete soure system #or grou"s o# geo0emially
related oils' as "ro"osed in t0e original de9nition o# a
"etroleum system (Magoon and &ow' 1998).
8.2. (eservoirs
(eservoir ro3s are a+undant t0roug0out $ndonesian
+asins in a variety o# sedimentary #aies. )s wit0 soure
ro3s' t0eir develo"ment is losely related to de"ositional
environment and +asin evolution.
*on>marine siliilastis= /0ese 0arateri:e t0e early
synri#t setion o# "roAimal +asins. /0ey ty"ially om"rise
Kuvio>deltai sands t0at are o#ten t0in' wit0 a signi9ant
ontent o# lit0i material and limited sorting. Porosities are
+elow 20M and "ermea+ilities u" to 100 m& and' in
general' t0e Juality and develo"ment are 0ig0ly varia+le.
)lluvial #ans ad-aent to +asin +ounding #aults may
ontain oarse lastis' +ut are "oorly sorted and s0ale>
out ra"idly.
Bluvio>deltai to s0allow marine siliilastis= /0ese #aies
#orm t0e +est lasti reservoirs o# $ndonesia' wit0 "orosities
u" to 25M and o#ten multi>&ary "ermea+ilities. &elta
"lain and oastal sands' derived #rom older ratoni areas'
"rovide t0e +est reservoirs. /0ese ty"ially our wit0in t0e
late synri#t "a3age. @ate "ostri#t sands o# <umatra and
2ava o#ten 0ave a signi9ant lit0i!ar3osi om"onent t0at
redues t0e "ermea+ility. /0e yli regressive units o# t0e
late "ostri#t deltai sediments in Falimantan' on t0e ot0er
0and' 0ave eAellent reservoir "ro"erties.
&ee" marine siliilastis= /ur+iditi sands 0ave "rovided
a #ous #or eA"loration in reent years' "rimarily in t0e
o##s0ore FuteiMa0a3am &elta (&un0am and MFee'
2001). &rilling ativity in t0e dee"water Ma3assar <traits
0as s0own t0at reservoir Juality sands were de"osited in
slo"e and +asin Koor settings (&un0am and MFee' 2001).
<ands de"osited in 0annellevee om"leAes aross t0e
slo"e and in unon9ned su+marine #ans 0ave suess#ully
+een targeted using 3& seismi. <tudy o# t0e lin3 +etween
t0e slo"e and t0e +asin Koor "rovides insig0ts into sand
distri+ution and t0e loation o# "otential reservoirs (<aller
et al.' 2008).
Plat#orm and ree#al ar+onates= /0ese reservoirs' 0ar>
ateristi o# t0e more distal late synri#t areas and "ostri#t
stages' "rovide loally 0ig0 "orosity reservoirs (o38M in
"laes). $n general' t0e ree#oid and +a3>ree# #aies 0ave t0e
+est reservoir 0araters' w0ile "lat#orm ar+onates 0ave
more limited "otential.
8.3. <eals
<eals an also +e losely related to +asin stage and are
eit0er intra>#ormational or more regionally develo"ed.
$nter+edded deltai seals= $ntra>#ormational s0ale seals
are ty"ial o# deltai seJuenes' w0ere t0ey ommonly at
as to" seals #or inter+edded sands or' in om+ination wit0
#aults' as side seals to #ault losures (o#ten ontri+uting lay
smear). /0ose o# t0e late synri#t were desri+ed in Faldi
and )t3inson (1997)' w0o reviewed s0ale inter+eds #rom
t0e /alang )3ar Bormation o# *ort0west 2ava in terms o#
seal a"aity' geometry and integrity. /0e main sealing
lit0o#aies' ran3ed in order o# inreasing seal a"aity'
om"rise delta "lain' 0annel' "rodelta and delta #ront
s0ales. /0ese onlusions are "ro+a+ly eJually a""lia+le
to t0e deltai seJuenes o# t0e late "ostri#t.
/0i3er seal #ormations and regional seals= /0e marine
s0ales o# t0e early "ostri#t re"resent t0e only genuine
regional seals o# t0e $ndonesian +asins. /0ey may at as
ultimate seals to t0e late synri#t deltai sediments or t0ey
may om"letely enase t0e ar+onate +uild>u"s o# t0e early
"ostri#t.
8.8. /ra"s
) variety o# tra" ty"es are "resent in $ndonesian +asins'
de"ending on t0e loation and tetoni 0istory. /0e
greatest onentration o# tra"s is to +e #ound in t0e +asins
ad-aent to t0e <umatra2ava ar' w0ere eAtensive t0rust
+elts are develo"ed' and in t0e ontinent margin seJuenes
o# eastern Falimantan. ?lsew0ere' tra"s are loated a+ove
ri#t +oundary #aults t0at 0ave +een reativated during
inversion and in t0e eAtensive ree#oid ar+onate "rovines
in distal "arts o# t0e #oreland +asins. /0e #ollowing tra"
ty"es are ommonly develo"edLt0ey o#ten de9ne t0e "lays
t0at are "resent.
Bolded di" losures= *;<? to ;? trending antilinal
di" losures are a+undant in <umatra and 2ava +asins
(w0i0 develo"ed into #oreland +asins in t0e late "ostri#t
stage)' w0ere t0ey may a##et t0e entire syn> and
"ostri#t seJuenes. /0ey #orm elongate drag #olds' are
#reJuently ross>#aulted and are o#ten +ounded +y reverse
#aults or t0rusts nuleated a+ove synri#t +oundary #aults
(t0e so>alled CC<unda #oldsDD). Many o# t0ese strutures
are related to wren0 inversions o# t0e synri#t and
are loated ad-aent to gra+en +oundary #aults. )t
s0allower levels' un#aulted dra"e losures may our'
es"eially w0ere strutural growt0 0as +een ontinuous'
or w0ere strutural deta0ment 0as ta3en "lae in "ostri#t
s0ales.
&i"!#ault losures= Many individual tra"s related to
antilinal strutures demonstrate #ault!di" losure. Boot>
wall losures are es"eially ommon= t0ey may +e sim"le or
om"leA' and are sometimes related to intra+asinal 0orst
+lo3s or strutural noses.
<ynsedimentary strutures= $n t0e Futei and /ara3an
+asins growt0>#ault related strutures' many o# t0em
inverted +y su+seJuent movements' are develo"ed. /ra"s'
usually in t0e 0angingwall +lo3' may +e di" losed or #ault
related. $n t0e dee"er water' toe>t0rust antilinal strutures
#all into t0is ategory.
Easement to"ogra"0y= ) relatively small num+er o# 9elds
are #ound in +asement 0ig0 +lo3s' w0ere t0e reservoir is
#reJuently re"resented +y #ratured ro3s t0e "re>ri#t
seJuene. $n ot0er ases' onla" onto t0e +asement sur#ae
a""ears to de9ne t0e tra" mor"0ology.
(ee#oid ar+onate strutures= 1ar+onate reservoirs our
in antilines' +ut tra""ing is o#ten assisted +y "lat#orm
growt0 or ree#oid relie#. $n most ases' t0ese are o#
relatively low relie#' +ut in t0e ?ast *atuna and <alawati
+asins' 0ig0 relie# "innale ree#s are develo"ed.
1lasti stratigra"0i tra"s= <edimentary "in0>out o#ten
a""ears to ontri+ute to tra""ing' +ut rarely is t0e main
onstituent o# a tra". ?Ae"tions are w0ere 0annels ut
Big. 8. <tratigra"0i setions o# sout0ern and western $ndonesian +asins' s0owing +asin stage' ommon #ormation names' lit0ology and "redominant
de"ositional environments (t0i3nesses are not indiated).
strutural noses in t0e deltai seJuenes o# t0e late syn>
and "ostri#t setion. &ee" water "lays o# t0e Ma0a3am
&elta may also 0ave a om"onent o# stratigra"0i
tra""ing' "artiularly in "onded mini>+asins in intra>slo"e
environments.
5. <ummary o# $ndonesian "etroleum +asin geology
$n t0is setion' we summari:e t0e stratigra"0i and
strutural develo"ment o# t0e various "rodutive +asins o#
$ndonesia' and relate t0em to t0e "etroleum system
#ramewor3 "resented a+ove (Bigs. 8 and 5). $t s0ould +e
noted t0at many o# t0ese are om"osite +asins' om"rising
a num+er o# se"arate synri#t gra+ens overlain +y a +lan3et
o# "ostri#t de"osits. $n many ases' t0e #aies vary
onsidera+ly aross t0e various "rovines' de"ending on
t0e "roAimity to or distane #rom t0e ontem"orary o"en
oean (in t0e synri#t) and to :ones o# ative de#ormation
(in t0e "ostri#t).
*ote t0at in asri+ing reservoir levels to "etroleum
system ty"es and +asin stages' we 0ave inluded P</ 3
+asal ar+onates wit0in P</ 2 in t0ose areas w0ere'
+eause t0ere is no regional seal +etween t0em' t0ey
essentially #orm one om+ined grou" o# reservoirs.
?Aam"les o# t0is inlude areas w0ere t0e Eatu (a-a
Bormation diretly overlies t0e /alang )3ar Bormation
in t0e <out0 <umatra Easin. .nless stated' we 0ave
#ollowed t0e "etroleum systems lassi9ation as de9ned
+y %owes and /isnawi-aya (1995).
5.1. *ort0 <umatra Easin
/0e *ort0 <umatra Easin om"rises a series o# nort0
sout0 trending ridges and gra+ens #ormed in ?arly
4ligoene time (Big. 5). )lmost t0e entire +asin 9ll is
marine' mu0 o# it' es"eially in t0e nort0' om"rising
+asinal dee"er marine laystones' s0ales and s0allow water
ree#oid limestones' t0e latter develo"ed on strutural 0ig0s.
(egressive s0allow water deltai #aies are #ound in t0e
sout0east. /0e seJuene is "redominantly argillaeous and
t0e division into #our>+asin stages is somew0at ar+itrary.
?arly <ynri#t (?arly 4ligoene)= 1oarse>grained on>
glomerates and +iolasti limestones are reorded at t0e
+ases o# t0e gra+en 9lls and on t0eir ad-aent 0ig0s.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene)= /0is om"rises t0i3'
dee" marine laystones' mudstones and dar3 s0ales o#
t0e Eam"o Bormation. /0ese re"resent t0e main soure
ro3 #or t0e gas in t0e nort0ern "art o# t0e +asin=
alt0oug0 lean ( 1M /41' ty"e $$$)' t0ey are very t0i3
and may rea0 0ig0 maturities.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to Middle Mioene)= /0is se>
Juene' orres"onding to t0e Peutu Bormation' om>
"rises t0i3 +asinal dee"er marine s0ales and marls' wit0
eAtensive ree#oid ar+onate +uildu"s develo"ed on
strutural 0ig0s. /0e latter #orm eAellent reservoirs'
wit0 "orosities averaging 15M in t0e )run 9eld. &ee"
water sandy #aies (Eelumai Bm) are "resent in t0e
sout0.
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Plioene)= /0is
regressive seJuene om"rises t0e argillaeous Eaong
Bm (in w0i0 tur+idite sands our) and t0e overlying
"arali s0ales' silts and sands o# t0e Feuta"ang and
<eurula #ormations. $n t0e nort0' dee"er marine #aies
ontinued' w0ile towards t0e sout0east' t0ese #orma>
tions +eame s0allower wit0 t0e de"osition o# regressive
deltai sands o# moderate to good reservoir Juality.
/etoni develo"ment in t0e +asin is su+dued. Bollowing
t0e Palaeogene ri#t #ormation' a @ate 4ligoene loal
unon#ormity and a Mid Mioene regional unon#ormity
are reorded' w0ile t0e deltai seJuene in t0e sout0east
was #olded during suessive wren0 "0ases in t0e Middle
Mioene to Plioene.
5.1.1. Petroleum systems
/wo ma-or systems are reogni:ed=
/0e Eam"oPeutu (N) "etroleum system (Eu3 and
M1ullo0' 1998) is "resent in t0e nort0. $t is soured #rom
t0e dee" marine Eam"o Bormation' wit0 a "ossi+le
seondary ontri+ution #rom t0e Mioene Peutu Borma>
tion. /0e main reservoir!tra"s are ar+onate +uild>u"s o#
t0e Peutu (or )run) Bormation' wit0 minor ontri+ution
#rom t0e eJuivalent sandy Eelumai Bormation and +ase>
ment. Bi#teen trillion u+i #eet (t#) o# gas and 1 +illion
+arrels (++l) o# ondensate' res"etively' 0ave +een loated
in 10 9elds' dominated +y t0e )run 9eld wit0 almost 18 t#
o# gas. /0is system om"rises a late synri#t soure o# early
"ostri#t a#9nity and early "ostri#t reservoir and tra"s.
/0e EaongFeuta"ang (N) "etroleum system' loated in
t0e sout0east' is more oil>"rone and ontains many o# t0e
s0allow 9elds t0at "rodued t0e 9rst reserves in $ndonesia.
10arge is t0oug0t to +e derived #rom marine!deltai oaly
soure ro3s o# t0e Eaong Bormation' +ut re>migration
#rom dee"er reservoirs may also ontri+ute. (eservoirs
our in t0e rat0er ill>sorted sandy deltai #aies o# t0e late
"ostri#t Feuta"ang and <eurula #ormations' re"resenting
yli regressive "0ases. )+out 75M o# t0e 9elds "rodue
or "rodued +ot0 oil and gas' and all 0ydroar+ons are
0arateri:ed +y )P$ gravities o# over 80. /ra"s are mainly
di" losures related to *;<? trending #olds' and most
are #aulted to some eAtent (only a #ew are learly related to
t0rusts). <tratigra"0i "in0>outs a""ear to ontri+ute to
tra""ing in some ases' +ut in only one 9eld (Peudawa)
does t0e tra" a""ear to +e "rimarily stratigra"0i.
%owes and /isnawi-aya (1995) distinguis0ed a "otential
t0ird "etroleum system in t0e +asin' t0e MioeneEelumai
( ) "etroleum system to w0i0 a #ew 9elds in t0e #ar sout0
o# t0e +asin (e.g. ;am"u) may +elong.
1reaming urves #or oil!ondensate and gas (%owes and
/isnawi-aya' 1995) demonstrate t0at *ort0 <umatra is a
0ig0ly mature "rovine t0at 0as +een eA"lored wit0
moderate e#9ieny.
Big. 5. <tratigra"0i setions o# nort0ern and eastern $ndonesian +asins' s0owing +asin stage' ommon #ormation names' lit0ology and "redominant
de"ositional environments (t0i3nesses are not indiated).
Big. 5. *ort0 <umatra EasinLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma"
s0owing de"oenters and oil!gas 9elds lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin
stage in w0i0 t0ey our.
5.2. 1entral <umatra Easin
/0e 1entral <umatra Easin om"rises a num+er o#
se"arate synri#t gra+ens +elow a "ostri#t seJuene (;illiams
and ?u+an3' 1995). Most o# t0e many 0ydroar+on
aumulations "resent lie diretly a+ove or ad-aent
to t0e synri#t gra+ens' a onseJuene o# t0e relatively
s0allow +urial and immaturity o# t0e "ostri#t seJuene
(Big. 7).
/0e 9ve "rodutive gra+ens (Eeng3alis' )man' Ealam'
/an-ung Medan and Firi!(angau) ontain similar strati>
gra"0i suessions wit0 relatively "roAimal #aies assoia>
tions (;illiams and ?u+an3' 1995). /0ey were #ormed
along "re>/ertiary strutural trends (nort0sout0 and
;*;?<?) and originated as 0al#>gra+ens in an o+liJue
eAtension stress regime. /0e #our>stage +asin 0istory an +e
reogni:ed' as #ollows=
?arly <ynri#t (@ate ?oene to 4ligoene)= Pematang and
Felesa #ormations. /0ese onsist o# an assoiation o#
alluvial' s0allow to dee" laustrine and Kuvio>deltai
#aies re"resented +y laminated s0ales' silts and sands
wit0 oals and onglomerati intervals. &ee" la3e
organi ri0 s0ales ontaining algal!amor"0ous material
Big. 7. 1entral <umatra EasinLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma"
s0owing synri#t +asins (in#erred to +e areas o# 0ydroar+on generation)
and oil!gas 9elds lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage o# t0e reservoir in
w0i0 t0ey our. 4il #amilies (18) and ty"ial tra" ty"es desri+ed +y
0arateristi 9elds are #rom ;illiams and ?u+an3 (1995).
wit0 t0in sands (Erown <0ale Bormation)' and s0allow
la3e lig0t grey s0ales wit0 0umi oals ensure t0at
0arge #rom t0e early synri#t is miAed laustrine and
terrestrial' mainly ty"e $!$$' wit0in w0i0 #our oil
#amilies 0ave +een distinguis0ed (Fat:' 1995). /0e +est
reservoirs are #ound in Kuvio>deltai sands' w0ere
"orosities and "ermea+ilities may +e u" to 17M and
100 m&' res"etively.
@ate <ynri#t?arly Postri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly
Mioene)= /0is seJuene' eJuivalent to mu0 o# t0e
<i0a"as Grou"' inludes several "arali #aies t0at
reord a gradual transgression= /0e Menggala Borma>
tion is still Kuvial' +ut is overlain +y s0allow marine
sandy (Ee3asa" Bormation) and argillaeous (Eang3o
Bormation) #aies' t0e latter #orming a regional seal.
/0e Menggala and Ee3asa" #ormations ontain t0e +est
reservoirs o# t0e +asin' wit0 "orosities o# t0e order o#
25M and "ermea+ilities o# u" to #our &aries.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to Middle Mioene)= /0is inludes
t0e distal marine #aies o# t0e <i0a"as Grou"' w0i0
reords t0e 9nal stages o# transgression (&uri Borma>
tion delta #ront sands and s0ales) #ollowed +y t0e "eriod
o# maAimum /ertiary Kooding (/elisa Bormation s0ales
and silts).
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Iuaternary)= /0is stage
re"resents t0e @ate /ertiary sedimentary 9ll o# t0e +asin'
and inludes regressive deltai and alluvial sediments
interru"ted +y several unon#ormities. 4nly t0e dee"est
"art o# t0is seJuene (Petani Bormation wit0 marine
s0ales' sands and oals) 0as signi9ane #or "etroleum
aumulation.
/0ree "0ases o# geodynami develo"ment are
reogni:ed=
)n ?oene4ligoene eAtensional "0ase wit0 #our
su+ "0ases as indiated 0ere (;illiams and ?u+an3'
1995)' leading to #ormation o# t0e synri#t gra+ens and
early de#ormation o# t0e sedimentary 9ll (<0aw et al.'
1997). /0e 9rst t0ree su+>"0ases orres"ond to t0e
early synri#t "eriod' w0ile "0ase 8 +elongs to t0e late
synri#t.
1. ?arly ?oene= *< and *;<? s0earing and
#ormation o# isolated ri#ts and 0al# gra+ens' wit0
t0e ma-or +oundary #aults on t0e western Kan3s.
2. Middle ?oene= ra"id su+sidene.
3. 4ligoene= ontinued su+sidene and e"isodi deAtral
wren0ing.
8. @ate 4ligoene?arly Mioene= waning su+sidene
aom"anied +y u"li#t.
)n ?arlyMiddle Mioene "0ase o# u"li#t and gentle
#olding aom"anied +y wren0 #aulting along a
*;<? (Earisan) trend. /0is "eriod #ollows t0e early
"ostri#t. $t was res"onsi+le #or t0e #ormation o# most o#
t0e strutural tra"s' su0 as t0e #ored dra"es over t0e
+asin margin #aults.
Movement ontinued u" to t0e Plio>Pleistoene in t0e
#orm o# *;<? deAtral wren0 #aulting' orres"onding
to t0e 9nal stage o# "ostri#t develo"ment.
5.2.1. Petroleum systems
$n t0e 1entral <umatra Easin almost all o# t0e
0ydroar+ons a""ear to 0ave +een derived #rom laustrine
to terrestrial soure ro3s o# t0e early synri#t stage' "ossi+ly
wit0 some ontri+ution #rom oals o# t0e late synri#t. Bour
#amilies o# oils are reogni:ed (;illiams and ?u+an3'
1995)' essentially related to variations in t0e synri#t soure
#aies (Big. 7). Potential soure +eds in t0e "ostri#t are
immature.
(eservoir levels our t0roug0out t0e seJuene'
alt0oug0 t0e +ul3 o# t0e 9elds are #ound at multi"le levels
+elow regional seals in t0e early "ostri#t (Eang3o and
/elisa #ormations). ;e an t0us reogni:e a single' t0oug0
om"leA' "etroleum system' alled t0e Pematang<i0a"as
(N) system as de9ned +y %owes and /isnawi-aya (1995) wit0
t0ree su+divisions= PematangPematang (a""roAimately
20 aumulations)' Pematang<i0a"as (a""roAimately 90
aumulations) and Pematang&uri (a""roAimately 23
aumulations).
/0e #ollowing tra" ty"es an +e reogni:ed in t0e $P)
)tlas ($ndonesian Petroleum )ssoiation' 1991a' +) listing
o# -ust over 100 9elds= (1) di" losures related to sim"le
#olds and dra"e (59 aumulations)' t0rusts (88 aumula>
tions) and wren0 #aults (7 aumulations)' a##eting +ot0
syn> and "ostri#t seJuenes' (2) #ault>di"' mainly #ootwall
losures (22 aumulations)' and (3) +asement to"ogra"0y
(2 aumulations only). $n 12 aumulations' stratigra"0i
"in0>outs a""ear to ontri+ute to tra""ing. /0ere a""ear'
0owever' to +e no 9elds in w0i0 t0e tra""ing is "rimarily
stratigra"0i.
;illiams and ?u+an3 (1995) noted t0at most o# t0e
oil9elds are onentrated in dra"e strutures over +asement
"alaeo>0ig0s and along t0e eastern Kan3s o# t0e 0al#
gra+en ri#ts u"di" o# t0e +asin entre soure ro3s' w0ile
ot0ers are develo"ed in drag and inversion #olds (CC<unda
#oldsDD) ad-aent to t0e +asin +oundary #aults. (e"eated
"0ases o# strutural movement are evident #rom variations
in t0e t0i3ness o# t0e seJuene.
$n total a+out 25 +illion +arrels </4$$P 0ave +een
loated in t0e +asin' o# w0i0 8 and 8 +illion +arrels are
loated in t0e Minas and &uri 9elds' res"etively. /0e
Minas 9eld is t0e largest in <? )sia. *otiea+le is t0e la3
o# gas' illustrative o# t0e dominane o# t0e 0ig0ly oil>"rone
laustrine 0arge o# Petroleum <ystem 1 (<0ie#el+ein
and 1ameron' 1997). /0e reaming urve (%owes and
/isnawi-aya' 1995) is indiative o# e#9ient eA"loration and
a very mature "rovine.
5.3. <out0 <umatra Easin
/0e <out0 <umatra Easin also om"rises a series o#
semi>onneted **;<<? trending synri#t +asins
wit0 a ommon "ostri#t seJuene (Eis0o"' 2000a). /wo
main ri#t "rovines are reogni:ed' +ot0 o# w0i0
ontain 0ydroar+on 9elds. /0e smaller and more "roA>
imal o# t0e two is 2am+i' w0ereas t0e larger and dee"er is
situated in t0e Palem+ang area. Most o# t0e oil and
gas 9elds are onentrated along t0rust and #old trends
a+ove or lose to t0e areas o# ative mature soure ro3s
(Big. 8).
?arly <ynri#t (?oene to ?arly 4ligoene)= /0is
om"rises t0e ontinental @a0at and @ematang #orma>
tions. /0ese are se"arated +y an unon#ormity' indiat>
ing t0at at least two "0ases o# ri#t #ormation were
involved. Baies inlude alluvial' laustrine and +ra3>
is0>water sediments re"resented +y tu##aeous sands'
onglomerates and laystones. $n "laes t0e seJuene
may +e over 1 3m t0i3. /0e @a0at Bormation ontains
+ot0 soure and reservoir ro3s' +ot0 very varia+le in
0arater and Juality (;illiams et al.' 1995).
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= /0e
main "art o# t0is seJuene om"rises a retro>regressive
Big. 8. <out0 <umatra EasinLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma"
s0owing in#erred areas o# ative 0ydroar+on generation' and oil!gas 9elds
lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0e main reservoir ours.
/0e loation o# "otential "etroleum su+>systems are indiated (18).
<igni9ant 9elds (810 million +arrels) are num+ered.
deltai setion +elonging to t0e /alang )3ar Bormation'
+y #ar t0e most im"ortant reservoir in t0e +asin and
strongly time transgressive. <ediments were derived
#rom t0e nort0east and t0e #aies dee"en sout0>
westwards #rom Kuvial to +asinal. (eservoirs inlude
delta "lain to marine sands' silts and s0ales. Many o# t0e
sands are Juart:ose (derived #rom t0e <unda s0el#) and
are o# good Juality wit0 "orosities o# u" to 25M. 1oals
and oaly s0ales o# t0e /alang )3ar Bormation
re"resent im"ortant ty"e $$ and $$$ soure ro3s.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to Middle Mioene)= &uring t0is
transgressive marine "eriod' "lat#orm and +uild>u"
ar+onates o# t0e Eatu (a-a Bormation aumulated
a+ove t0e ri#t s0oulders' w0ile dee"er marine s0ales
(Gumai or /elisa Bormation) were de"osited a+ove t0e
synri#t gra+ens. Eat0yal environments lay to t0e sout0>
west' w0ere t0e seJuene is very t0i3 (over 2 3m). /0e
Eatu (a-a is in an im"ortant reservoir' wit0 "orosities o#
u" to 38M in ree#oid #aies. /0e Gumai Bormation
re"resents an eAellent regional seal #or t0e underlying
deltai #ormations.
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Iuaternary)= &uring
t0e late "ostri#t stage' two "0ases o# deltai "rograda>
tion' re"resented +y t0e )ir Eena3at and Muara ?nim
Bormations (also alled t0e @ower to Middle Palem>
+ang) 9lled t0e +asin' gradually overing larger areas
as t0e environment +eame s0allower' so t0at +y
Iuaternary times wides"read alluvial ontinental sedi>
ments aumulated. /0e sands ontain reservoirs wit0
good "orosities o# u" to 25M.
/0ree main tetoni "0ases are reogni:ed=
Paleoene to ?arly Mioene eAtension and gra+en
#ormation6
?arly Mioene to ?arly Plioene Juiesene' wit0 some
normal #aulting6 and
Plioene to (eent t0i3>s3inned deAtral trans"ression
and inversion' #orming eAtensive su+>"arallel ;*;?<?
antilinal trends.
5.3.1. Petroleum systems
/0e <out0 <umatra Easin is a large and om"leA area' in
w0i0 multi"le 0ydroar+on soure and reservoir systems
are "resent. Eis0o" (2000a)' 0owever' related all aumula>
tions to t0e @a0at/alang )3ar (N) "etroleum system' w0ile
noting t0at onsidera+le miAing o# oils derived #rom laustrine
and "arali soures is evident. %owes and /isnawi-aya (1995)
also reogni:ed only one P<' t0e /alang )3ar (N).
Brom our analysis' +ased on $ndonesian Petroleum
)ssoiation (1990)' we +elieve t0at #our distint areas an
+e distinguis0ed (Big. 8). $n t0e a+sene o# more "reise
geo0emial ty"ing' we annot learly asri+e ea0 o# t0ese
to an individual "etroleum system6 0owever' t0e "rimary
reservoir level di##ers in ea0 ase and t0e aumulations
"ro+a+ly 0ave a miAed 0arge. ;e an t0ere#ore loo3 u"on
t0ese as "otentially suggestive #or #our se"arate "etroleum
su+systems.
1. Mainly develo"ed in t0e 2am+i and Merangan su+>
+asins' ontains oil and gas aumulations in t0e late
"ostri#t seJuene. )ssuming t0at 0arge is derived #rom
deltai soure ro3s' t0is "etroleum system may +e
re#erred to as t0e /alang )3ar!Palem+angPalem+ang
(.) P<.
2. @oated in t0e 2am+i su+>+asin' om"rises a single gas
9eld (Grissi3) loated in early "ostri#t reservoirs. /0is
9eld ould also +e soured #rom t0e early "ostri#t setion
and' i# so' ould re"resent a 0y"ot0etial GumaiGumai
(O) P<.
3. @oated in t0e Palem+ang area' ontains nearly all o#
t0e larger oil and gas 9elds in t0e +asin and is develo"ed
in t0e late synri#t /alang )3ar and early "ostri#t Eatu
(a-a #ormations. /0is is t0e @a0at!/alang )3ar/alang
)3ar (N) P<.
8. $n t0e Muara ?nim area (lose to t0e mountain #ront)'
ontains a num+er o# smaller oil 9elds. /0is re"resents
t0e same ty"e o# "etroleum system as 1 (a+ove)'
alt0oug0 t0e #at t0at almost all t0e 9elds "rodue oil
only suggests t0at t0ey may +e eit0er 0arged #rom a
se"arate soure area' or t0at maturity and retention
de9ne a di##erent oil and gas miA.
/ra"s in +ot0 t0e synri#t and "ostri#t seJuenes are
dominantly antilinal' assoiated wit0 elongate inversion
trends' and many are reverse or t0rust #aulted' es"eially
w0ere t0e ;*;?<? #old trends ross *<Ltrending ri#t
+oundary #ault trends. <everal 9elds are #ault de"endant
(largely #ootwall losures)' w0ile t0e relie# o# tra"s in t0e
Eatu (a-a ar+onates is o#ten en0aned +y ree#oid #aies
develo"ments u" to 100 m t0i3. <tratigra"0i "in0>out
on strutural noses and +asement onla" are res"onsi+le #or
tra""ing in a small num+er o# syn> to early "ostri#t
aumulations.
/0e reaming urve #or oil suggests t0at t0e +asin is
mature (%owes and /isnawi-aya' 1995)' +ut t0ere is little
sign o# reaming in t0e gas disovery trend' and more gas
disoveries ould +e eA"eted.
5.8. /0e *atuna <ea
/0e *atuna <ea is divided into two distint "etroleum
"rovines +y a +road ridge' t0e *atuna )r0 (Big. 9). /0e
two 0ave a ommon early 0istory' +ut t0e western +asin
om"leA remained more "roAimal t0an t0e eastern area in
t0e "ostri#t "eriod.
?arly <ynri#t (@ate ?oene to ?arly 4ligoene)= /0e
seJuene om"rises Kuvio>deltai to Kuvial and alluvial
sands o# t0e @ama Bormation overlain +y s0allow
laustrine s0ales o# t0e Eenua Bormation' w0i0 loally
#orm ri0 oil and gas soure ro3s. )+ove t0ese lie
Kuvio>deltai sands and s0ales o# t0e @ower Ga+us Bm.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)=
&e"osition o# laustrine to Kuvio>deltai sediments o#
t0e Feras and .""er Ga+us #ormations ontinued
during t0is "eriod.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to Middle Mioene)= /0is "eriod
was mar3ed +y a marine transgression and is re"re>
sented +y s0ales o# t0e Earat and )rang #ormations. $n
western *atuna' t0e #ormer are non>marine wit0 oals'
w0ile in eastern *atuna t0ey are o"en marine. 1ondi>
tions on strutural 0ig0s were #avoura+le #or t0e
later develo"ment o# "lat#orm and ree#oid ar+onates
(/erum+u Bormation).
@ate Postri#t (@ate Mioene to Iuaternary)= &uring t0is
"eriod onditions remained s0allow marine' "artially
restrited' and laystones o# t0e Muda Bormation were
de"osited. Minor develo"ments o# deltai sands are
reorded loally.
/0e tetoni 0istory o# t0e *atuna +asins is om"leA'
+eing signi9antly di##erent #rom west to east. @ate ?oene
Big. 9. *atuna <ea +asinsLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma"
s0owing in#erred areas o# ative 0ydroar+on generation and oil!gas 9elds
lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0ey our.
to 4ligoene eAtension "0ases were res"onsi+le #or #orma>
tion o# t0e ri#ts t0roug0out t0e area' w0ile ?arly to Middle
Mioene *?<; and *;<? wren0 movements reord>
ing om"leA "late read-ustments a##eted west *atuna'
"roduing +asin margin inversions. $n east *atuna' o"en>
ing o# t0e <out0 10ina <ea ontinued until late in t0e
/ertiary and t0ere is little evidene #or om"ressional
movements. @oal to regional unon#ormities are "resent
at t0e end o# t0e early synri#t and during t0e early "ostri#t
"eriods.
5.8.1. Petroleum systems
$n ;est *atuna many 0ydroar+on 9elds are assoiated
wit0 <unda>ty"e inversion #olds #ormed in t0e Mioene
ad-aent to t0e main +oundary #aults o# a num+er o# t0e
ri#t +asins. /0ese di">losed antilinal strutures are
sometimes assoiated wit0 t0rusts and are o#ten #aulted.
/0e 0arge is derived #rom synri#t laustrine s0ales and t0e
main reservoirs om"rise "arali to marine sands o# t0e
Ga+us Bormation. Feras and Earat s0ales #orm e#9ient
regional seals. Most o# t0e 9elds are s0allow (maAimum
2 3m)' 0ave 0ig0 )P$ gravities and "rodue +ot0 oil and
gas. $n om"arison to ot0er +asins wit0 similar stratigra>
"0y' t0ere are a #ew 9elds. /0is is due to t0e #at t0at tra"s
are largely limited to om"leA wren0>reativated +ound>
ary #ault :ones wit0 *?<; or *;<? orientations.
)long su0 #ault trends' several small #ault>de"endant
9elds may +e lustered. /0is "etroleum system is 3nown as
t0e EenuaGa+us (N) P<.
4ne large' as yet non>"rodutive gas 9eld' CC&>)l"0aDD is
"resent in a large ar+onate +uildu" in eastern *atuna
(May and ?yles' 1985). /0e gas ontains a 0ig0 "erentage
o# 14
2
' suggesting t0at t0e 0arge is derived #rom dee">
seated soures assoiated wit0 rustal #aults along t0e
western margin o# t0e <out0 10ina <ea. %ydroar+on
0arge #or t0is P< may +e derived "artly #rom t0e "re>ri#t'
+ut is more li3ely to +e derived #rom t0e synri#t and it is
re#erred to 0ere as t0e /ertiary/erum+u (.) P<.
/0e reaming urves #or *atuna "resented +y %owes
and /isnawi-aya (1995) s0ow no signs o# reaming.
%owever' t0e num+er o# 9elds is too small to "rovide
relia+le statistis. /0e om"leA geology and ontinuous
tetonis 0ave led to signi9ant issues related to t0e timing
o# migration versus tra" #ormation. (e>migration may +e
ommon' and t0is is "ro+a+ly reKeted in t0e a""arently
"oor 9nding e#9ieny.
5.5. <unda and )sri +asins
/0e geology o# t0ese two ri0 0ydroar+on +asins s0ows
many similarities to one anot0er' as desri+ed +y Eus0nell
and /emans-a (1985)' ;ig0t et al. (1997) and <u3anto et al.
(1998). /0e loation o# ma-or 9elds and strutural elements
are s0own in Big. 10. /0e stratigra"0i nomenlature is
similar to t0at o# <out0 <umatra.
?arly <ynri#t (?arly 4ligoene)= /0is is re"resented +y
t0e Eanuwati Bormation' an eAellent laustrine dee"
water ty"e $ soure ro3 wit0 /41 o# u" to 8M and a
0ydrogen indeA (%$) o# u" to 550 mg!g. ) +asal
marginal alluvial sandy!onglomerati #aies' wit0out
soure "otential' also ours.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= /0is
stage ommenes wit0 Kuvio>deltai sediments o# t0e
/alang )3ar Bormation' and ontinues wit0 Eatu (a-a
ar+onates' as in <out0 <umatra. Eot0 #orm eAellent
reservoirs. ) oaly>s0ale "otential soure 0ori:on is also
"resent' +ut alt0oug0 ri0' is immature at t0is level.
$ntra#ormational s0ale seals are #ound in t0e u""er "art
o# t0e seJuene (u""er Gita mem+er).
?arly Postri#t (Middle Mioene)= /ransgressive marine
s0ales o# t0e )ir Eena3at Bormation #orm eAellent
seals #or t0e underlying reservoirs.
@ate Postri#t (@ate Mioene to Iuaternary)= /0is
regressive seJuene (1isu+u0 Bormation) ulminates in
deltai sediments wit0 oals' +ut lies too s0allow to
ontri+ute to 0ydroar+on generation.
Big. 10. *; 2ava' <unda and )sri +asinsLsim"li9ed loation and
struture ma" s0owing in#erred areas o# 0ydroar+on generation and oil!
gas 9elds lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0e main reservoir
is develo"ed.
/0e tetonis o# t0ese isolated +asins is 0ig0ly su+dued
om"ared to ot0er <umatran +asins. /0e evolution
inludes "re> to ?arly 4ligoene ri#t #ormation resulting
in 0al# gra+ens along en>e0elon #aults' #ollowed +y synri#t
su+sidene and a Juiet "ostri#t stage wit0 limited wren0
reativation.
5.5.1. Petroleum systems
/0e Eanuwati/alang )3ar (N) P<. %owes and /isnawi>
-aya (1995) alled t0is t0e EanuwatiEatu (a-a P<. $t
inludes all o# t0e 0ydroar+ons tra""ed in t0e <unda
Easin. &eltai sands o# t0e /alang )3ar Bormation as well
as onla""ing "lat#orm ar+onates and ree#s o# t0e over>
lying Eatu (a-a Bormation #orm im"ortant reservoirs'
o#ten in om+ination. /0e 9elds are onentrated on inter>
+asinal 0ig0s and 0orsts and in #ootwall losures along
#aulted noses on t0e gentle +asin Kan3. ) total o# a+out 950
million+oe (+arrels o# oil>eJuivalent) 0as +een disovered'
o# w0i0 90M is oil. )ording to Eis0o" (2000+) 75M o#
reserves are loated in t0e /alang )3ar Bormation.
$n t0e )sri Easin' t0e same elements o# t0e "etroleum
system our' +ut all aumulations are in /alang )3ar
sands as t0e Eatu (a-a reservoir is a+sent. )""roAimately
500 million+oe 0as +een disovered in nine 9elds' mainly
in #aulted antilines on t0e 0al#>gra+en di" Kan3. $n
t0e ;iduri Bield' tra""ing is assisted +y stratigra"0i
"in0>out (1arter' 2003).
<u3anto et al. (1998) "ro"osed t0at oil>saturated sands
in t0e early synri#t indiate t0at a seond P< is "resent in
t0e )sri Easin. /0ey re#erred to t0is as t0e Eanuwati
%arriet (.) P<. %owever' t0ere is as yet no ommerial
"rodution #rom it.
/0e reaming urves o# t0ese two +asins are di##erent.
)lt0oug0 t0e <unda urve suggests relatively e#9ient
eA"loration' t0e 1988 disovery o# t0e ;iduri 9eld
on9rmed t0e "ros"etivity o# t0e )sri Easin at a very
late stage. <0ort and a+undant migration "at0s #rom t0e
+asin entres leading to aumulations in t0e +est
reservoirs (/alang )3ar and Eatu (a-a) on t0e +asin
Kan3s ontri+ute to t0e e#9ieny o# t0e system' as does t0e
"resene o# a wides"read laystone seal.
5.5. *ort0west 2ava
/0e *ort0west 2ava Easin (Big. 10) lies +ot0 on and
o##s0ore and om"rises two main 0al# gra+en>de9ned
de"oentres= t0e ri0 o##s0ore )rd-una Easin towards t0e
west and t0e ons0ore 2ati+arang Easin in t0e sout0east
(*o+le et al.' 1997). /0e ons0ore and nears0ore areas
ontain lasti wedges derived #rom t0e 2ava 0interland in
t0e "ostri#t' w0ile t0e more distal o##s0ore areas remained
dominated +y ar+onates.
?arly <ynri#t (@ate ?oene to ?arly 4ligoene)= /0is
om"rises tu##s and minor inter+edded laustrine s0ales
o# t0e 2ati+arang Bormation. ,olanilastis "rovide t0e
reservoir #aies #or some ons0ore 2ava 9elds' w0ereas
t0e soure ro3 a""ears to 0ave a signi9ant deltai
om"onent' indiative o# ma-or ontri+utions #rom t0e
overlying /alang )3ar Bormation.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= )s in
<out0 <umatra' t0is seJuene om"rises a transgressive
seJuene o# Kuvio>deltai' oastal and s0allow marine
sands' s0ales and oals (/alang )3ar Bormation)'
#ollowed +y "lat#orm and ree#oid ar+onates (Eatu
(a-a Bormation)' +ot0 o# w0i0 are "rodutive.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to Middle Mioene)= $n ontrast to
t0e +asins #urt0er to t0e west' "arts o# t0e 2ava +asins
remained in an o"en to distal marine ar+onate
environment longer. /0is ma3es it di#9ult to distinguis0
early #rom late "ostri#t stages. ;0ile a num+er o#
regressive lasti deltai "0ases are reogni:ed ons0ore and
nears0ore in t0e 1i+ula3an Bormation' mu0 o# t0e
area is 0arateri:ed +y s0el# marine sands (CCMassiveDD
and CCMainDD) t0at are im"ortant reservoirs in o##s0ore
nort0west 2ava.
@ate Postri#t (@ate Mioene to Iuaternary)= Plat#orm
ar+onates and regressive lastis o# t0e Parigi and
1isu+u0 #ormations reKet a redution in su+sidene
and t0e onset o# inversion movements lin3ed to Plioene
#olding in t0e sout0.
/0e tetoni 0istory o# t0e area (Gres3o et al.' 1995) an
+e traed +a3 to t0e earliest /ertiary' w0en ooling
#ollowed metamor"0ism o# t0e +asement ro3s. (i#ting
related to deAtral wren0ing #ollowed in t0e ?oene
(5080 Ma)' w0ile Middle to @ate Mioene ollision events
(dated 175 Ma) led to re"eated loal inversions along t0e
ons0ore trend.
5.5.1. Petroleum systems
%owes and /isnawi-aya (1995) reogni:ed two "rimary
"etroleum systems in t0e area. /0e dominant one is t0e
/alang )3arMain!Massive (N) P<' and is 0arateristi o#
t0e o##s0ore )r-una Easin. 10arge is derived #rom t0e late
synri#t /alang )3ar oals and oaly s0ales' w0ile most o#
t0e aumulations are loated in 1i+ula3an sandstones o#
t0e early "ostri#t (CCMassiveDD and CCMainDD). )lt0oug0
multi"le reservoirs are re"resented' only #ew 9elds are
#ound in early and late synri#t or late "ostri#t reservoirs.
/0e seond "etroleum system "ro"osed +y %owes and
/isnawi-aya (1995) is re"resented +y t0e early synri#t
2ati+arang interval' loated in t0e ons0ore' and w0i0
inludes t0e 2ati+arang Bield' t0e only aumulation to
0ave +een loated in t0is 0ig0ly #aulted tu##aeous
reservoir. %owever' a more detailed study o# *ort0west
2ava +y *o+le et al. (1997) indiated t0at t0e /alang )3ar
soure system was overw0elmingly t0e ma-or ontri+utor
o# oil and gas in all o# t0e su+>+asins' inluding t0e ons0ore
region. <even "rimary de"oenters were reogni:ed w0i0'
+ased on geo0emial data' s0owed strong oil>soure
orrelations wit0 /alang )3ar oals and ar+onaeous
s0ales. Baies variations wit0in t0e /alang )3ar soure
ro3s were noted' ranging #rom Kuviodeltai to marginal
marine. $n ontrast to ot0er <unda>style +asins in t0e 2ava
<umatra region' no evidene was #ound to su""ort ma-or
0arge #rom t0e laustrine synri#t seJuene.
4# t0e tra"s desri+ed in t0e $P) Bield )tlas volume $,
($ndonesian Petroleum )ssoiation' 1989a' +)' at least 0al#
are #ormed +y antilines' many o# t0em 0ig0ly #aulted.
Bault>de"endant losures' mainly #ootwalls are also
ommon' w0ile a #ew 9elds are tra""ed in ree#oid
ar+onate mounds. )s in ot0er +asins' stratigra"0i
tra""ing "lays a minor ontri+utory role only.
) se"arate "etroleum system' re#erred to as t0e Eiogeni
Parigi (.) "etroleum system' 0as +een "ro"osed to over
s0allow +iogeni gas aumulations in ar+onates o# t0e
late "ostri#t. /0e 0arge #or aumulations wit0in t0is
system omes #rom +iogeni onversion o# organi matter
at s0allow de"t0' w0ile reservoirs om"rise nort0 sout0
trending "orous +io0erms in t0e sout0ern "art o# t0e *;
2ava o##s0ore (e.g. )P* 9eld).
/0e )r-una Easin' as in many o##s0ore "rovines' s0ows
0ig0 eA"loration e#9ieny #or oil and suggests t0at little
remains to +e #ound. Bor gas' t0e urve suggests t0at as yet'
reaming 0as not +een a0ieved. /0e 2ati+arang su+>+asin
urve is ty"ial o# om"leA situations w0ere one' "ro+a+ly
stratigra"0ially assisted tra"' dominates t0e +asin.
5.7. *ort0east 2ava
/0e ?ast 2ava Easin area om"rises a om"leA o#
*?<; trending troug0s' se"arated +y ridges and ar0es
(Big. 11). <everal o# t0ese +asins ontain 0ydroar+on
aumulations w0ile several ot0ers re"resent' as yet'
#rontier "rovines. )s in ;est 2ava' t0ere are signi9ant
di##erenes +etween t0e lasti dominated ons0ore +asins in
t0e sout0west and t0e ar+onate>dominated areas +elow
t0e ?ast 2ava <ea.
?arly <ynri#t (@ate ?oene to ?arly 4ligoene)= /0is is
re"resented +y t0e *gim+ang Bormation' in w0i0 a
+asal laustrine to "arali seJuene wit0 soure ro3s is
ra"idly sueeded +y o"en marine s0ales wit0 sands and
ar+onates.
Big. 11. ?ast 2ava EasinLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma" s0owing
in#erred areas o# 0ydroar+on generation and oil!gas 9elds lassi9ed
aording to t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0e main reservoir ours.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate 4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= /0is
sedimentary unit is dominated +y "lat#orm and ree#oid
ar+onates o# t0e Fu-ung and Pru"u0 #ormations wit0'
at t0e +ase' marine s0ales (wit0 t0in sands) indiating
t0at t0is +asin lay lose to t0e ontinent margin at t0is
time.
?arly Postri#t (?arly to @ate Mioene)= )t t0e +eginning
o# t0is "eriod' t0e ar+onate "lat#orms were drowned
and eAtensive dee"er marine lastis (/u+an and
;onolo Bormation s0ales and *grayong Bormation
sands) were de"osited. @oally' ar+onates "ersisted and
volanilastis are "resent.
@ate Postri#t (@ate Mioene to Iuaternary)= @oal
tetonis and wides"read ative volanism dominated
t0is "eriod' so t0at a variety o# seJuenes is develo"ed'
inluding marine lays' volanilastis' ar+onates and
sands' de"osited in a variety o# s0allow to dee"er water
environments.
/0e tetoni 0istory "asses t0roug0 ?oene to ?arly
4ligoene ri#ting stages' during w0i0 a num+er o# 0al#
gra+ens were #ormed' #ollowed +y a "0ase o# Juiesene
and' starting in t0e late Mioene (at 7 Ma)' loal
de#ormation and ative volanism. /0e ons0ore #old +elt
is om"leA' and is t0oug0t to originate #rom o+liJue
wren0ing o# +asement and inversion involving unsta+le
s0ale seJuenes ("ossi+ly inluding gravity>indued growt0
#aults). $n t0e o##s0ore area east o# Madura' ative
wren0ing along ?; trends 0as resulted in t0e #ormation
o# eAtensive and very young inversion strutures (e.g. in t0e
Fangean $sland area nort0 o# Eali).
5.7.1. Petroleum systems
Bive "etroleum systems 0ave +een reogni:ed in *ort0>
east 2ava' as originally "ro"osed +y %owes and /isnawi>
-aya (1995) and su+seJuently u"dated=
1. *gim+ang4F *grayong (.) P< in t0e 1e"u area o# ?ast
2ava6
2. *gim+ang*gim+ang (N) P< in t0e Fangean area
o##s0ore area nort0 o# Eali6
3. *gim+angFu-ung (N) P< in t0e 1e"u amd Madura
+asins6
8. /ertiaryMioene (.) P< in t0e Muria0 EasinLt0is is
largely a +iogeni gas system6 and
5. /ertiaryPlioene (N) P< in t0e sout0east Madura and
nort0 Eali areas' a +iogeni gas system.
Bields in t0e $P) Bield )tlas volume $, ($ndonesian
Petroleum )ssoiation' 1989+) om"rise mainly older oil
aumulations #rom ons0ore east 2ava. Ey #ar' t0e ma-ority
o# t0ese are loated in sandstones and alareous sand>
stones o# t0e early "ostri#t *grayong' 4F' /u+an and
;onolo #ormations' and wit0 a #ew eAe"tions' t0ey our
in s0allow #aulted and deta0ed t0rust antilines o# small
dimensions and now are s0ut>in or a+andoned. ) #ew 9elds
our in ree# limestone o# t0e late synri#t' w0ile some ot0ers
are #ound in alareous and volani sands o# t0e late
"ostri#t.
/0e t0ree "etroleum systems o# greatest ommerial
signi9ane at t0e "resent time are t0e *gim+angFu-ung
(N)' *gim+ang*gim+ang (N) and /ertiaryPlioene (N). /0e
*gim+angFu-ung P< is atively +eing "ursued in t0e
Madura and ?ast 2ava +asins' targeting t0e Fu-ung and
1& ar+onate reservoirs (?ssam <0ara# et al.' 2005).
Burt0er to t0e east' large o##s0ore gas disoveries 0ave
+een made in t0e late synri#t setion (e.g. Pagerungan'
Fangean Earat). /0e origin o# t0is gas is li3ely to +e #rom
over mature *gim+ang Kuvio>deltai oaly soure ro3s'
w0i0 0ave also soured oil aumulations (e.g. 2<53).
Eiogeni gas 9elds #rom t0e /ertiaryPlioene system' su0
as /erang<irasun (1.1 t#) are also attrating industry
interest.
?A"loration in ?ast 2ava 0as a long 0istory' dating #rom
t0e late 19t0 entury' w0en many o# t0e small ons0ore
9elds were disovered. Bollowing a long "eriod wit0out
suess' t0e move o##s0ore in t0e late 1970s 0as resulted in
a signi9ant re-uvenation o# oil disoveries and s"etaular
suess in loating large gas 9elds. 4ns0ore eA"loration 0as
also +een re3indled' wit0 t0e Fu-ung "lay in t0e 1e"u area
+ringing new li#e to an old +asin. (eent disoveries in t0e
1e"u area ran3 amongst t0e largest made in $ndonesia over
t0e "ast 20 years.
5.8. Earito Easin
/0e Earito Easin o# sout0ern Falimantan (Big. 12)'
t0oug0 older t0an most ot0er +asins in ;est $ndonesia'
"assed t0roug0 a similar 0istory' wit0 syn> and "ostri#t
stages. /0e maAimum transgression interval a""ears to +e
late 4ligoene in age. /0e +ul3 o# t0e synri#t seJuene
+elongs to yles o# t0e /an-ung Grou".
?arly <ynri#t (Paleoene to ?arly ?oene)= $n at least 9ve
ri#t +asins' alluvial to laustrine sediments' wit0 good
soure ro3 "otential aumulated.
@ate <ynri#t (Middle to @ate ?oene)= &uring t0is
"eriod' retroregressive Kuvio>deltai sediments wit0
oals' #ollowed +y marine s0ales wit0 ar+onates were
de"osited.
?arly Postri#t (4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= &uring t0is
"eriod' sta+le marine onditions "revailed and s0allow
marine ar+onates o# t0e Eerai Bormation overed
mu0 o# t0e area. ) minor regressive "0ase is reorded
in t0e @ate 4ligoene.
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Iuaternary)= ."li#ts
led to t0e develo"ment o# regressive deltai onditions
and t0e ar+onates were drowned +y regressive lastis
o# t0e ;aru3in and &a0or #ormations.
?arly /ertiary ri#ting along *;<? trends #ollowed
@ate 2urassi to 1retaeous em"laement o# t0e Meratus
o"0ioliti om"leA along t0e sout0east margin o# <unda>
land (%ut0inson' 1995)' and led to t0e develo"ment o#
Big. 12. ?ast Falimantan' Earito and FuteiMa0a3am +asinsLsim"li9ed
loation and struture ma" s0owing Earito Easin de"oenter' Ma0a3am
&elta 9eld trends and oil!gas 9elds lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage
in w0i0 t0ey our.
0orsts and gra+ens in t0e Earito Easin. $n t0e @ate
/ertiary' ontinuous om"ression and u"li#t o# t0e
Meratus mountains led to t0e sinistral reativation o# t0e
gra+en +oundary #aults (<atyana et al.' 1999).
5.8.1. Petroleum systems
/an-ung/an-ung (N) "etroleum system= t0e #ew 9elds in
t0e +asin "rodue oil (wit0 )P$ gravities o# 30801) and gas
and are "ro+a+ly soured #rom eit0er 0ig0ly mature
/an-ung Bormation soure ro3s or a miAture o# early
and late synri#t laustrine and deltai soure ro3s.
$n t0is om"leAly de#ormed +asin' 0ydroar+ons are
tra""ed in "reri#t to "ostri#t reservoir levels (+asement
and ?oene to Mioene sands) in t0rusted and 0ig0ly
#aulted antilinal strutures. )t least 0al# o# t0e 0ydro>
ar+ons are loated in one 9eld (/an-ung' disovered in
1937) and t0e reaming urve (%owes and /isnawi-aya'
1995) reKets t0is.
5.9. FuteiMa0a3am &elta Easin
/0e FuteiMa0a3am &elta Easin is t0e largest +asin in
$ndonesia (155'000 3m
2
) and one o# its ri0est 0ydroar+on
"rovines wit0 several giant 9elds (Big. 12). $t 0as a
om"leA 0istory (Moss et al.' 1997)' and is one o# t0e only
$ndonesian +asins to 0ave evolved #rom a ri#ted internal
#rature!#oreland +asin into a marginal>sag. Mu0 o# t0e
early +asin 9ll in t0e Futei Easin 0as +een inverted and
eA"osed (<atyana et al.' 1999)' and t0e late "ostri#t
Ma0a3am &elta dominates t0e "ros"etivity. /0e latter
also ontains a dee"water ontinental margin "lay rare in
ot0er $ndonesian +asins.
?arly <ynri#t (Paleoene to ?arly ?oene)= <ediments o# t0is
stage om"rise alluvial sediments 9lling in t0e
to"ogra"0y o# *?<; and **?<<; trending ri#ts in
t0e ons0ore Futei Easin. /0ey overlie a +asement
om"rising late 1retaeous to early /ertiary dee" marine
seJuenes.
@ate <ynri#t (Middle to @ate ?oene)= &uring t0is
"eriod' a ma-or transgression too3 "lae in t0e Futei
Easin' "artly related to ri#ting in t0e Ma3assar <trait'
and +at0yal s0ales wit0 t0in sands aumulated.
?arly Postri#t (4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= &uring t0is
"eriod' +at0yal onditions ontinued to dominate and
several t0ousand meters o# "redominantly s0ales au>
mulated. 4n struturally s0allow areas o"en marine
ar+onate "lat#orms were develo"ed.
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Iuaternary)= Brom
Middle Mioene onwards a ma-or "assive margin deltai
seJuene "rograded into t0e dee" water Ma3assar <trait'
#orming t0e Ma0a3am &elta seJuene' t0e "rimary
0ydroar+on>+earing "ortion o# t0e +asin. ) variety
o# on> and o##s0ore deltai de"ositional environments
are develo"ed in t0e Eali3"a"an and Fam"ung Earu
#orma> tions' inluding dee"er water slo"e and +asin Koor
#aies. ?Aellent soure and reservoir ro3s are "resent'
wit0 inter+edded sealing s0ales. &uring t0is "eriod'
erosion rewor3ed large "arts o# t0e Futei synri#t
seJuene.
/0e tetoni 0istory may +e summari:ed as #ollows=
Bollowing de#ormation o# t0e late 1retaeous to earliest
/ertiary +asement' eAtension and ri#ting assoiated wit0
o"ening o# t0e Ma3assar <traits ontinued t0roug0 to t0e
end o# t0e ?oene. 4ligoene su+sidene and sag were
#ollowed +y inversion o# t0e early Futei Easin 9ll along its
initial +oundary #aults in t0e early Mioene' resulting in t0e
erosion o# several t0ousand meters o# t0e synri#t seJuene
(<atyana et al.' 1999). /0is in turn led to a ma-or deltai
"rogradation over t0e ontinent margin to t0e east (to
#orm t0e Ma0a3am &elta seJuene). 1ontinental ollisions
in t0e area are t0oug0t to 0ave +een res"onsi+le #or
younger inversions a##eting t0e early Mioene seJuene.
;it0in t0e s0el# Ma0a3am &elta seJuene' t0e dominant
tra">#orming me0anism om"rises syn>sedimentary
growt0 #aulting. /0e slo"e to +asin Koor setion is 0ara>
teri:ed +y toe>t0rust strutures.
5.9.1. Petroleum systems
$n t0is +asin' a num+er o# "etroleum systems an +e
reogni:ed' ea0 wit0 assoiated su+>systems=
1. $n t0e ons0ore Futei Easin' largely om"rising inverted
synri#t seJuenes w0ere as yet #ew 0ydroar+ons 0ave
+een loated' %owes and /isnawi-aya (1995) suggested
t0at an early synri#t to early "ostri#t "etroleum system'
t0e /an-ungEerai (.) P< may +e develo"ed. %owever' it
remains s"eulative.
2. /0e ons0ore to o##s0ore Ma0a3am &elta' w0i0
inludes t0e ma-ority o# "ros"etive seJuenes' +elongs
to a t0i3' late "ostri#t ontinental margin stage o#
develo"ment. $n t0is ri0 oil and gas "rovine' almost all
o# t0e 0ydroar+ons are soured #rom and tra""ed in
reservoirs o# t0e late "ostri#t stage. )ordingly' t0e
deltai Eali3"a"anEali3"a"an (N) P< is overw0elmingly
t0e dominant one in t0is area. (eservoir sands'
+elonging to a series o# sta3ed regressive deltai
"rogradational seJuenes range in age #rom Middle
Mioene to Pleistoene (Eali3"a"an to Fam"ung Earu
#ormations)' and most aumulations our at several
levels' se"arated +y intra#ormational sealing s0ales
re"resenting maAimum Kooding sur#aes. )s in ot0er
/ertiary deltas' a range o# tra" ty"es is re"resented'
inluding=
(a) %angingwall antilinal rollovers assoiated wit0
growt0 #aults' many ut +y synt0eti and antit0eti
#aults to #orm CColla"sed restDD strutures. /ra">
"ing o# individual sta3ed aumulations is "artly>
#ault de"endant (i.e. in #ootwall or 0anging wall
+lo3s). /0e strutures are #reJuently dome>s0a"ed
or oval in s0a"e and our mainly in nears0ore and
s0allow o##s0ore areas.
(+) ?longated inverted antilinal deltai rollover stru>
tures wit0 a **?<<; trend' related to t0rusts and
reverse #aults' o#ten on +ot0 Kan3s. /0ese our
"rimarily in t0e ons0ore "art o# t0e delta and
ontain many o# t0e larger 9elds. 10arateristi o#
many 9elds are ross #aults t0at divide t0e
aumulations into se"arate units. M1lay et al.
(2000) demonstrated t0at many o# t0ese strutures
originate #rom inversion o# growt0>#aulted stru>
tures a+ove a dutile su+strate.
() <tratigra"0i tra"s related to deltai sand +odies
enased in s0ales. $n many ases stratigra"0i
0anges ontri+ute to tra""ing only' #or instane
w0ere deltai 0annels are dra"ed over antilinal
trends' +ut in a #ew ases sand "in0>out a""ears to
de9ne t0e tra" (e.g. in t0e Eong3aran and /am+ora
9elds)' w0ile a 0ydrodynami e##et an sometimes
+e identi9ed.
&uval et al. (1998) summari:ed some o# t0e most
im"ortant "arameters t0at im"at 0ydroar+on "ro>
s"etivity. /0ey indiated t0at t0e main 0arge #or 9elds
in t0e /am+ora and /unu trends is derived #rom t0i3
deltai oals and oaly s0ales in t0e intervening synline'
wit0 minor ontri+utions #rom a marine and leaner
soure ro3 in t0e o##s0ore trend +etween t0e /unu and
<isi 9elds. /0ey noted t0at e#9ient s0ort migration
"at0s u" to 15 3m in lengt0 lead #rom t0ese 0arge
3it0ens into ad-aent strutures. /0ey noted a gradual
transition #rom oil' in more "roAimal antilinal 9elds
(/am+ora' %andil) to gas!ondensate ri0 9elds in more
distal trends' w0ere soure ro3s are leaner' and t0i3er
s0ale "a3ages restrit migration o# 0eavier 0ydroar>
+ons. /0ese o+servations relate to t0e s0allow "rogra>
dational deltai seJuenes.) num+er o# antilinal
strutures ontain oil and gas 9elds in early Mioene
regressive sands' #or instane in t0e ;ailawi 9eld. /0ese
deltai sands' wit0 inter+edded s0ales and oals (Flin-au
Bormation) were de"osited during t0e "eriod o# maAi>
mum transgression w0en ar+onate #aies were eAten>
sively develo"ed in t0e Futei!Ma3a3am area. /0ey
"rovide evidene #or t0e loal strengt0 o# t0e deltai
system and suggest t0at an early "ostri#t "etroleum
system eAists in "laes. /0is an +e re#erred to as t0e
Flin-auFlin-au (.) P<.
3. (eently' t0e #ous o# eA"loration 0as moved into t0e
dee"er water "ortions o# t0e delta' w0ere 9elds are +eing
disovered in tur+idite reservoirs de"osited in slo"e
0annel and +asin Koor systems. /0e disoveries +elong
to a new "etroleum system alled t0e MioeneMio!
Plioene (.) P<. (eservoir Juality sands 0ave +een #ound
widely distri+uted in t0e Middle Mioene to Plioene
setion. /0e oil and gas aumulations are t0oug0t to
0ave reeived 0arge #rom organi matter o# land "lant
origin' trans"orted into dee" water settings +y tur+idity
Kows (&un0am et al.' 20016 @in et al.' 2000). Peters et al.
(2000) distinguis0ed two maturity>related #amilies o# oil
derived #rom dee" water systems' +ot0 less waAy t0an
t0e ons0ore oils.
1om"ressional antilines and toe t0rusts #orm t0e
"rimary strutural tra"s in t0e Ma0a3am dee"water
system. (eservoir sands our in on9ned amalgamated
0annellevee om"leAes (e.g. Mera0 Eesar and ;est
<eno disoveries)' and as unon9ned s0eet>li3e su+>
marine #ans (&un0am and MFee' 2001). &ue to t0e
nature o# t0e sand +odies' o""ortunities learly eAist #or
stratigra"0i tra""ing. /0ere is still mu0 to +e learned
a+out t0e geometry and "rodutivity o# t0ese sand
+odies as additional disoveries are made and a""raised.
/0e ;est <eno 9eld' disovered +y .noal in t0e late
1990s' is $ndonesiaDs 9rst dee"water develo"ment' t0e
9rst +arrel o# oil +eing "rodued in mid>2003.
/0e FuteiMa0a3am &elta "rovine is one o# t0e ri0est
in $ndonesia' wit0 disoveries totalling more t0an 3.5
+illion +arrels o# oil and 35 t# o# gas. $t su""orts an
im"ortant and eA"anding @*G "ro-et. /0e reaming
urve #or oil suggests t0at' unless signi9ant new reserves
are identi9ed in t0e dee" water' only small inremental
aumulations an +e eA"eted in t0e #uture. /0e gas urve'
on t0e ot0er 0and' w0i0 is 0arateri:ed +y a series o#
ste"s reKeting ma-or disoveries' s0ows little evidene #or
reaming. <u0 a CCrelatively e#9ientDD reaming urve is
ty"ial #or deltai areas in w0i0 t0ere is a gradual seaward
s0i#t in eA"loration as new te0nologies +eome availa+le.
5.10. /ara3an Easin
/0e /ara3an Easin 0as a similar develo"ment to t0e
FuteiMa0a3am Easin (@entini and &arman' 1995)' w0i0
it resem+les in many ways (Big. 13). $t om"rises #our su+>
+asins' two ons0ore (t0e /idung and Eerau synri#t +asinsL
mainly @ate ?oene to Middle Mioene)' and two o##s0ore
(t0e Eelungan/ara3an and Muara "ostri#t +asins wit0
mainly younger 9ll). )s in t0e FuteiMa0a3am Easin'
0ydroar+ons 0ave +een loated in t0e late "ostri#t stage
only.
?arly <ynri#t (Middle ?oene)= /0is seJuene is domi>
nated +y volanis and volanilastis o# t0e <em+a3ang
Bormation. $t is 0ig0ly tetoni:ed.
Big. 13. /ara3an EasinLsim"li9ed loation and struture ma" s0owing
in#erred areas o# ative 0ydroar+on generation and @ate Postri#t oil!gas
9eld trends.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate ?oene)= /0is om"rises Kuvio>deltai
to s0allow marine s0ales' mar3ing a ra"id transgressive
"0ase.
?arly Postri#t (4ligoene to ?arly Mioene)= /0is "eriod
is dominated +y o"en marine ar+onate "lat#orm
develo"ment on s0allow +lo3s' wit0 dee"er marine
environments re"resented +y s0ales and marls in t0e
intervening de"ressions. @oal late 4ligoene u"li#t an
+e lin3ed to a minor lasti "rogradation #rom t0e west.
@ate Postri#t (Middle Mioene to Iuaternary)= /0is
#orms t0e main 0ydroar+on>+earing seJuene and is
om"osed o# a num+er o# regressive "rogradations o#
inter+edded Kuvio>deltai sands' s0ales and oals.
*?<; trending growt0 #aults interset wit0 #our
*;<? trending #old trends. /o t0e sout0 and nort0
o# t0e deltai de"oenters' ar+onates ontinued to
aumulate.
?oene ri#ting was #ollowed +y a generally Juiesent
+asin 0istory' interru"ted +y a "0ase o# u"li#t in t0e
ons0ore area in t0e @ate 4ligoene. /ra"s were #ormed in
t0e Plioene and Pleistoene and rely on a om+ination o#
growt0 #aults and disrete *;<? trending om"ressional
#olds and #aults "rodued during a series o# u"li#t and
inversion events.
5.10.1. Petroleum systems
)ll 0ydroar+ons in t0e /ara3an +asin are derived #rom
and tra""ed in late "ostri#t stage sediments. <oure ro3s
are Middle to @ate Mioene oals and oaly s0ales o# t0e
/a+ul Bormation' w0ile Kuvio>deltai sands +elonging to
t0e @ate Mioene /a+ul and Plio>Pleistoene /ara3an
#ormations #orm t0e main reservoirs. ) variety o# tra"
ty"es are "resent' onentrated at "oints w0ere growt0
#aults ulminate a+ove t0e *;<? trending antilinal
ar0es. <everal 0angingwall di" losures' assisted or not +y
#ault losure are re"resented' as well as loal "ure #ootwall
losures. )ll aumulations +elong to t0e /a+ul/ara3an
(N) P<. /0e dee"water area remains largely uneA"lored to
date wit0 only a #ew wells 0aving +een drilled' so #ar
wit0out ommerial suess.
/0e reaming urve #or t0is +asin is dominated +y t0e
disovery o# t0e Eunyu 9eld in 1922. <ine t0en only minor
Juantities o# mainly gas 0ave +een added.
5.11. ?astern $ndonesia= Eula (<eram)' <alawati' Eintuni
and ?ast <ulawesi Easins
?astern $ndonesian Easins ($ndonesian Petroleum )sso>
iation' 1998) di##er #rom t0ose o# western $ndonesia
(Big. 18). /0ey inlude signi9antly older sedimentary
seJuenes derived #rom slies o# t0e )ustralian ontinental
margin t0at were inor"orated in t0e eastern $ndonesian
ollision :one during t0e Middle and @ate /ertiary
(%ut0inson' 1995). /0us' alt0oug0 /ertiary de"ositional
environment and lit0o#aies develo"ments are
reogni:a+le'
t0e /ertiary synri#t to "ostri#t +asin develo"ment annot +e
readily a""lied to t0e "etroleum 0a+itat.
/0e Eula Easin in <eram overlies and is "artly
inor"orated in a #old!t0rust and :one #ormed w0ere t0e
outer margin o# )ustralian ontinental s0el# ollided
wit0 $rian 2aya in t0e mid>/ertairy (%ut0inson' 1995).
/0e +ul3 o# t0e seJuene is om"osed o# a variety o#
Meso:oi to Middle /ertiary o"en marine "elagi and
oeani de"osits' inluding lays' limestones and t0in
sands. /0e 9rst oil disoveries' w0i0 were made +y t0e
&ut0 in t0e early 1900s' #oussed on Plioene to
Pleistoene marginal marine sands and limestones. More
reent disoveries in t0e om"leA #old and t0rust
+elt suess#ully loated oil in #ratured 2urassi lime>
stones (e.g. 4seil Bield6 10arlton' 2008). Geo0emial
studies (Peters et al.' 1999) demonstrate t0at t0e oil is
derived #rom /riassi2urassi marine ar+onate ty"e $$
soure ro3s.
/wo 0ydroar+on>+earing late /ertiary suessor +asins'
t0e <alawati and Eintuni +asins' are #ound in t0e EirdDs
%ead region o# ;est Pa"ua (#ormerly alled $rian 2aya).
Eot0 overlie )ustralian ontinental +asement. Permian and
Meso:oi are 3nown to our in t0e Eintuni Easin and
"rovide an im"ortant 0ydroar+on 0a+itat.
$n t0e <alawati Easin t0e "re>/ertiary does not
ontri+ute to t0e "etroleum system and i# "resent' ours
at de"t0s o# no ommerial onseJuene=
?arly <ynri#t (Paleoene to ?oene)= &uring t0is "eriod'
outer neriti to +at0yal s0ales and ar+onates o# t0e
;ari"i Bormation were de"osited' indiating t0at ri#t
#ormation too3 "lae in dee" water.
@ate <ynri#t (@ate ?oene to 4ligoene)= /0e dee"water
environments were sueeded +y a ar+onate "lat#orm
(Bauma Bormation) and deltai lastis (<irga Borma>
tion) as t0e ri#t was in>9lled.
?arly Postri#t (Mioene)= /0is "eriod re"resents a
transgressive "eriod during w0i0 eAtensive ar+onate
"lat#orms and ree#s o# t0e Fais Bormation develo"ed.
/0e ree#s are surrounded +y marginal lastis o# t0e
dee" water Flamogun Bormation. /0is s0oaled into
t0e @ate Mioene. (a"id su+sidene is evidened
+y 0ig0>standing "innale ree#s. 10arge in t0e +asin
may +e derived #rom marine ty"e $$!$$$ soure ro3
marls and s0ales o# t0e Flasa#et Bormation (Peters
et al.' 1999).
@ate Postri#t (Plio>Pleistoene)= ) ra"idly de"osited and
very t0i3 seJuene o# regressive lastis' inluding
sands and s0ales o# t0e Flasaman Bormation aumu>
lated. /0e underlying @ate Mioene Flasa#et soure
ro3 attained maturity as a result o# t0is t0i3
sedimentary wedge.
Bollowing aretion o# t0e +asement seJuene in t0e
Paleoene' su+sidene was ra"id in t0is ontinent margin
+asin. /ransurrent movements along t0e <orong #ault
ommened in t0e late Mioene and led to u"li#t and
Big. 18. ?ast $ndonesia +asinsLloation ma" (to" le#t)' ;est Pa"ua and <eram +asins (<alawati' Eintuni and Eula' res"etively' to" rig0t) and /omori
Easin' <ulawesi (+ottom le#t). 4il and gas 9elds are lassi9ed aording to t0e +asin stage in w0i0 t0ey our.
erosion ad-aent to t0e +asinLt0is "rovided t0e sediments
#or t0e late "ostri#t t0at overed t0e Mioene ar+onates.
;ren0 movements 0ave ontinued u" to t0e "resent day.
/0e /ertiary setion ;iriagar area (Big. 18) o# t0e
Eintuni Easin 0as a similar stratigra"0y to t0e <alawati
Easin' wit0 t0e eAe"tion t0at "innale ree#s did not
develo" to t0e same degree' "er0a"s due to eAessive
su+sidene rates. @ow relie# Fais Bormation ree#s' w0ere
"resent' are 3nown to ontain oil' +ut t0e volumes are less
signi9ant t0an in t0e <alawati trend. /0e main "etroleum
system o# t0e Eintuni +asin ours wit0in t0e Meso:oi
setion' as indiated +y t0e 0uge gas disoveries at
;iriagar (&olan and %ermany' 1988)' ,orwata and
.+adari (olletively 3nown as t0e /aggu0 9eld). /0e
soure #or t0ese 0ydroar+ons lies wit0in a t0i3 Permian
seJuene' ri0 in ty"e $$$ oals' wit0 some ontri+utions
#rom overmature marine argillaeous ty"e $$!$$$ soure
ro3s o# t0e Mid>@ate 2urassi.
/0e /omori Easin o# eastern <ulawesi (Big. 18) +ears
many similarities to t0e <alawati and /ertiary Eintuni
+asinal areas. @e#t lateral stri3esli" movements along t0e
<orong #ault 0ave resulted in aretion o# )ustralian
miroontinental #ragments into t0e ?ast <ulawesi and
Eanggai><ula regions (Milsom et al.' 1999). 1ollision (%all'
1997) and o+dution o# o"0ioliti material in ?ast
<ulawesi' t0oug0t to 0ave ourred during t0e Plioene'
reated a #oldt0rust system wit0 an assoiated #oreland
+asin alled t0e /omori Easin. $n t0e <enoro>/oili
and /ia3a regions' +ot0 oil and gas 0ave +een #ound
in Mioene +io0ermal reservoirs o# similar age to t0e
reservoirs in t0e <alawati and Euntuni +asins (&avies'
1990).
5.11.1. Petroleum systems
$n t0e Eula Easin' only one small "roduing 9eld is
"resent (Eula>@emun' a""roAimately 15 million++l). $t
+elongs to a "etroleum system t0at an +e de9ned as
0aving +een 0arged #rom a /riassi2urassi marine
ar+onate ty"e $$ mudstone soure ro3 and 0aving a
Pleistoene ree#oid sandy limestone reservoir. $t is de9ned
0ere as t0e Meso:oiBu#a (N) P<. /wo small oil 9elds' now
losed in' are loated in marginal marine sandstone
reservoirs in t0e t0rusted 2urassi and /riassi seJuenes'
indiating t0at a seond "etroleum system is "resent. /0is
we re#er to t0e Meso:oiManusela (.) P<' as de9ned +y
%owes and /isnawi-aya (1995). ) new disovery in t0is
"etroleum system' t0e 4seil 9eld' is urrently under
develo"ment (*ilandaroe et al.' 2001).
/0e <alawati Easin is 0arateri:ed +y a om"at area
wit0 a ri0 "etroleum system' #rom w0i0 more t0an
300 million++l o# oil 0ave +een "rodued #rom 15 9elds
(0al# o# it #rom one 9eld' ;alio). ;e re#er to it as t0e
Flasa#etFais (N) P<. $t is 0arateri:ed +y t0e #ollowing
elements= <oure ro3Llate Mioene marine s0ales and
marlstones (ty"e $$!$$$) o# t0e Flasa#et Bormation6
reservoir ro3!tra"LFais Bormation limestones and do>
lomiti limestones in "innale ree#s underlying sur#ae
dra"e antilines om"osed o# sealing s0ales. /0e "innale
ree#s are situated u"di" o# t0e "ro+a+le soure 3it0en to
t0e nort0' allowing #or e#9ient migration #rom overlying
s0ales into "orous migration onduits. $n t0is small
"rovine wit0 a single "lay' eA"loration 0as +een 0ig0ly
e#9ient' as an +e seen #rom t0e reaming urve (%owes
and /isnawi-aya' 1995). Bollowing t0e mid>1970s #ew new
disoveries 0ave +een made and' as in many ar+onate
"rovines' t0e "rodution 0as sine +een in stee" deline.
/wo "etroleum systems are develo"ed in t0e Eintuni
Easin area= t0e /ertiaryFais (.) P< and t0e )i#am(oa+i+a
(N) P< in t0e "re>/ertiary seJuene. /0e /ertiaryFais
system 0as yielded little in t0e way o# ommerial oil
disoveries' alt0oug0 wit0 im"roved seismi' +etter de9ni>
tion and loation o# ree#al #aies may +e "ossi+le. /0e
)i#am(oa+i+a system is +y #ar t0e more im"ortant'
giving rise to a ma-or new @*G "ro-et +ased on t0e over
18 t# o# erti9ed gas reserves o# t0e /anggu0 9eld area.
/0e (oa+i+a sands' w0i0 #orm t0e "rimary reservoir' are
similar in age and "ro"erties to t0e 0ig0ly "rodutive
Plover Bm' well 3nown #rom /imor <ea region o#
t0e *ort0west s0el# o# )ustralia (;0ittam et al.' 1995).
) seondary reservoir in Paleoene tur+iditi sands is also
"resent' +ut t0e reservoir "ro"erties a""ear less uni#orm
t0an t0ose o# t0e "rimary (oa+i+a sands.
<trutural develo"ment in t0e /anggu0 area was two
#old= an early "0ase o# @ate Meso:oi "ostri#t #olding'
#ollowed +y Plio>Pleistoene om"ression assoiated wit0
t0e develo"ment o# t0e @engguru #old and t0rust +elt to t0e
east. 10arge #rom t0e Permian!2urassi soure system was
initiated during t0e Plioene +y ra"id su+sidene and +urial
wit0in a #oreland setting west o# t0e @engguru t0rust #ront.
$n t0e /omori +asin o# ?ast <ulawesi' two "etroleum
systems 0ave +een o+served to date. /0e 9rst is t0e
/omori/omori (.) P< in w0i0 oil 0as +een #ound in
#ratured limestones o# t0e @ower Mioene /omori
Bormation (&avies' 1990). /0e reservoir #aies is a
"lat#orm limestone' wit0 lower "orosity and "ermea+ility
t0an t0e ree#oid #aies seen elsew0ere in t0e region. 10arge
#or t0is system is derived #rom marine s0ales and marls o#
t0e @ower Mioene /omori Bormation' w0i0 0as
geo0emial "ro"erties similar to t0ose o# t0e Flasa#et
Bormation in t0e <alawati +asin (al+eit o# slig0tly di##erent
age). /0e seond system is t0e Mina0a3iMantawa (.) P<.
/0is system enom"asses a series o# gas disoveries in
+io0ermal reservoirs o# t0e @ate Mioene Mantawa
mem+er o# t0e Mina0a3i Bormation. /0e gas a""ears to
+e largely o# +iogeni origin' +eing derived #rom +aterial
onversion o# organi matter in t0e surrounding Mina0a3i
and Matindo3 laystones. <ome o# t0e gas aumulations
0ave a small oil rim and elevated ondensate yield'
indiating t0at a miAed soure system is ative' wit0 oil
0arge derived #rom t0e underlying /omori s0ales (*o+le
et al.' 2000). Gas resoures in t0is region are +eing
a""raised wit0 t0e "ossi+ility o# #uture ommerial
develo"ment #or loal or eA"ort mar3ets.
5. 1ommon "etroleum systems and t0eir develo"ment
$n t0e a+ove disussion' we 0ave limited t0e "etroleum
systems identi9ed and disussed to t0ose t0at our in
"rodutive 0ydroar+on +asins in $ndonesia and w0i0 are
re"resented +y 9elds or "otentially ommerial aumula>
tions. $ndiations #or ot0er systems t0at ould' #or
instane' +e evidened +y "romising soure ro3 0ori:ons
and!or see"ages 0ave not +een inluded' nor 0ave "otential
"etroleum systems in non>"rodutive +asins (o# w0i0 t0ere
are several). /0e reason #or t0is is t0at t0e unertainties
related to t0ese "otential and s"eulative "etroleum
systems are so great t0at t0ere is little to +e learned #rom
t0emLrat0er' t0e lessons derived #rom t0e 3nown systems
disussed a+ove s0ould +e a""lied to evaluate t0eir
"otential. Bor a more om"lete list o# "otential and
s"eulative systems (t0ose wit0out disoveries to date)'
t0e reader s0ould onsult %owes and /isnawi-aya (1995)
and Erads0aw et al. (1997). /0e latter inludes a list o#
"etroleum systems in t0e $ndonesian)ustralian Pone o#
1oo"eration (P41)).
/0e list o# "etroleum systems "resented re"resents our
+est estimate +ased on t0e "rini"le o# lustering t0ose
wit0in one +asin area (as urrently in ommon usage in
$ndonesia) su""orted +y geo0emial orrelation studies.
)s t0e latter im"rove' t0e list will need onstant revision.
5.1. Petroleum systems in t0eir +asin stage onteAt
Most o# t0e "etroleum systems identi9ed a+ove an +e
grou"ed into one o# t0e #our "etroleum system ty"es
desri+ed #rom <? )sia in general +y &oust and @i-m+a0
(1997) and s0own in Big. 15. ;e t0us ma3e a lin3 +etween
t0e "etroleum geology and t0e +asin evolution' so t0at we
an identi#y t0e ommon elements o# "etroleum systems
develo"ed in t0e #our +asin stages and +ring out t0e
variations wit0in t0emLt0e latter usually +eing related to
di##erenes in t0e seJuene o# de"ositional environments. ;e
an reogni:e two ategories in ea0 "etroleum system ty"e=
1ategory (i)= /0ose in w0i0 +ot0 soure and reservoir
lie wit0in t0e same +asin stage (i.e. t0e P< is integral to
t0at stage).
1ategory (ii)= /0ose in w0i0 t0e reservoir lies in
anot0er' usually younger' +asin stage t0an t0e soure.
/0e +asi "etroleum system ty"es desri+ed +elow
are sometimes s0ortened in t0e teAt and 9gures to P</ 1'
P</ 2' P</ 3 and P</ 8=
1. ?arly <ynri#t @austrine "etroleum system ty"e (P</ 1)
1ategory (i)
PematangLPematang (N) P< (1entral <umatra
Easin).
Big. 15. /0e #our "etroleum system ty"es (P</s) ty"ial o# <out0east )sian /ertiary +asins and t0eir relation to +asin stages' #rom &oust and @i-m+a0'
(1997). ) num+er o# t0e most im"ortant 0arateristis o# ea0 are s0own.
Eanuwati%arriet M+r (.) P<' (<unda!)sri
+asins).
/an-ung/an-ung (N) P<' (Earito Easin).
1ategory (ii)
Pematang<i0a"as (N) P<' reservoir in P</ 2
(1entral <umatra Easin).
Pematang&uri (N) P<' reservoir in P</ 3 (1entral
<umatra Easin).
EenuaGa+us (N) P<' reservoir in P</ 2 (;est
*atuna <ea).
Eanuwati/alang )3ar (N) P<' reservoir in P</ 2
(<unda!)sri +asins).
*gim+angFu-ung (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 2
(*? 2ava Easin).
*gim+ang*grayong (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 3
(*? 2ava Easin).
*gim+angPlioene (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 8
(*? 2ava Easin).
/an-ungFutei (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 3 (Futei
Easin).
2. @ate <ynri#t /ransgressive Bluvio>deltai "etroleum
system ty"e (P</ 2)
1ategory (i)
/alang )3ar/alang )3ar (N) P<' inludes "ossi+le
0arge #rom P</ 1 (<out0 <umatra Easin).
1ategory (ii)
Eam"oPeutu (N) P<' reservoir in P</ 3 (*ort0
<umatra Easin).
/alang )3arPalem+ang (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 8
(<out0 <umatra Easin).
/alang )3arMain!Massive (N) P<' reservoir in
P</ 3 (*; 2ava Easin).
/alang )3ar2ati+arang (.) P<' reservoir in P</ 1
(2ati+arang tu##s ons0ore 2ava).
3. ?arly Postri#t Marine "etroleum system ty"e (P</ 3)
1ategory (i)
GumaiGumai (.) P< (<out0 <umatra Easin).
/ertiary/erum+u (.) P<' origin o# 0arge
un3nown (?ast *atuna <ea).
Flin-auFlin-au (.) P< (Ma0a3am &elta Easin).
Flasa#etFais (N) P< (<alawati Easin). /ertiary
Fais (.) P< Eintuni Easin. /omori/omori (.) P<
/omori Easin.
8. @ate Postri#t (egressive &eltai "etroleum system ty"e
(P</ 8)
1ategory (i)
EaongFeuta"ang (N) P< (*ort0 <umatra Easin).
Eali3"a"anEali3"a"an (N) P< (Ma0a3am &elta
Easin).
MioeneMio!Plioene (.) P< (&ee"water Ma3as>
sar <traits).
/a+ul/ara3an (N) P< (/ara3an Easin).
1ategory (ii)
/ertiaryEelumai (.) P<' soure "ossi+le Eaong'
reservoir in P</ 3 (*ort0 <umatra Easin).
) num+er o# "etroleum systems do not lend t0emselves
to lassi9ation in t0e #our P</s. /0ese inlude=
EiogeniParigi (.) P<' #or w0i0 t0e 0arge is +iogeni
rat0er t0an t0ermogeni (*; 2ava)6
Meso:oiBu#a (N) P<' 0arge #rom "reri#t Meso:oi into
reservoir in P</ 8 (Eula Easin)6
Meso:oiManusela (.) P<' 0arge and reservoir in t0e
"reri#t Meso:oi (Eula Easin)6
)i#am(oa+i+a (N) P<' 0arge #rom "re>Meso:oi'
reservoir in Meso:oi early "ost ri#t (Eintuni Easin)6 and
Mina0a3iMantawa (.) P<' +iogeni 0arge #rom @ate
Mioene sediments (/omori E<$*).
7. Easin #amilies' t0eir tetonostratigra"0i evolution and
"ros"etivity
/0e distri+ution o# t0e "etroleum systems identi9ed is
de"endent on t0e sedimentary +asin 0istory. Fnowledge o#
t0e syn> and "ostri#t +asin evolution and t0e suession o#
de"ositional environments ma3es it "ossi+le to identi#y
and!or "redit w0i0 "etroleum systems (and t0eir
onstituent "lays) may +e "resent. /o aid t0is' we 0ave
distinguis0ed a num+er o# 0arateristi $ndonesian +asin
#amilies' w0i0 0ave distint CCtra-etoriesDD (&oust' 2003)
t0roug0 a matriA o# dee"ening de"ositional environment
and +asin develo"ment "0ase (Big. 15).
ProAimal +asins= /0ese are +asins t0at t0roug0out t0eir
develo"ment maintained relatively "roAimal de"ositional
environments. /0ey are loated lose to t0e ore o# t0e "re>
/ertiary <unda 1raton.
?volution= ?arly <ynri#t' laustrine6 @ate <ynri#t' deltai6
?arly Postri#t' marine (lasti)6 @ate Postri#t' deltai.
&ominant "etroleum system ty"e(s)= P</ 1 ?arly <ynri#t
@austrine.
?Aam"le +asins= 1entral <umatra' ;est *atuna' )sri.
ProAimal +asins are strongly oil>"rone' reeiving 0arge
#rom ri0 early synri#t laustrine to deltai soure ro3s.
/0e +est reservoirs and most o# t0e 0ydroar+on aumu>
lations are situated in late synri#t deltai lastis' under>
lying t0e regional early "ostri#t seal. /0e maintenane o#
"roAimal environments im"lies t0at su+sidene was lim>
ited' and maturity is o#ten a ruial issue= ty"ially 9elds
are loated diretly a+ove ative early synri#t soure
3it0ens.
$ntermediate +asins= /0ese 0ave a ty"ially "roAimal
synri#t develo"ment' +ut underwent greater su+sidene in
t0e "ostri#t' w0ere t0ey are 0arateri:ed +y more distal
environments.
?volution= ?arly <ynri#t' laustrine to deltai6 @ate
<ynri#t' deltai6 ?arly Postri#t' marine (lasti and
ar+onate)6 @ate Postri#t' deltai.
&ominant "etroleum system ty"e(s)= P</ 2 @ate <ynri#t
/ransgressive &eltai' P</ 1 ?arly <ynri#t @austrine'
wit0 minor P</ 3 ?arly Postri#t Marine.
?Aam"le +asins= <out0 <umatra' ?ast *atuna' <unda'
*; 2ava ons0ore' *? 2ava ons0ore' Earito.
$ntermediate +asins ontain t0e greatest diversity o#
"etroleum system ty"es' t0an3s to t0eir miAture o# ri0
synri#t 0arge and "ostri#t reservoirs. /0ey are +ot0 oil and
gas "rone t0an3s to t0e en0aned su+sidene' w0i0 +rings
t0e late synri#t to maturity' t0us allowing #or a 0arge #rom
miAed early and late synri#t laustrine and deltai soures.
/0e "resene o# marine lasti and ar+onate reservoirs
overed +y regional marine s0ales en0anes t0e e#9ieny
o# t0ese +asins. /0e late "ostri#t deltai seJuene ontains
oaly soure ro3s and reservoir sands' +ut maturity is not
rea0ed' so 0arge to t0is level an +e a0ieved only w0ere
t0e early "ostri#t seal is "roAimal and +rea0ed (as in t0e
2am+i area o# <out0 <umatra).
Big. 15. Petroleum systems ty"es in $ndonesia grou"ed into #amilies s0owing t0e de"ositional environment evolution in relation to tetoni +asin stages'
a#ter &oust (2003). CC/ra-etoriesDD o# ProAimal' $ntermediate' &istal and Eorneo (Falimantan) +asins are s0own.
&istal +asins= &istal +asins ou"y t0e edges o# t0e "re>
/ertiary <unda raton' and 0ave eit0er a 0istory o#
su+stantial su+sidene or are loated distally wit0 res"et
to "ostri#t u"li#t and delta develo"ments.
?volution= ?arly <ynri#t' deltai6 @ate <ynri#t' marine6
?arly Postri#t' marine (ar+onate and lasti)6 @ate
Postri#t' deltai to dee"er marine.
&ominant "etroleum system ty"e(s)= P</ 2 @ate <ynri#t
/ransgressive &eltai' P</ 3 ?arly Postri#t Marine' P</
8 @ate Postri#t (egressive &eltai.
?Aam"le +asins= *ort0 <umatra' *; 2ava o##s0ore' *?
2ava o##s0ore.
&istal +asins were o"en to t0e oean in t0e early synri#t
and miss t0e laustrine develo"ment' so most o# t0e 0arge
is terrestrial (deltai and!or marine). )s a result' t0ey tend
to +e more gas "rone (eAe"t in t0e ase o# t0e sout0ern
"art o# *ort0 <umatra' w0ere t0e soure and reservoir are
in t0e "ostri#t stage). $n many ases' t0e main reservoirs are
early "ostri#t ar+onatesLt0ese +asins lie outside t0e
inKuene o# t0e /ertiary lasti wedges.
Eorneo +asins= /0e FuteiMa0a3am and /ara3an +asins
o# Falimantan +elong to a #amily t0at develo"ed on @ate
Meso:oi to /ertiary rust and su+seJuently ame to lie
along a "assive ontinental margin. ?arly stages o# +asin
evolution were su+-eted to eAtensive inversion and only
t0e late "ostri#t ontri+utes to t0e "etroleum geology.
?volution= ?arly <ynri#t' alluvial6 @ate <ynri#t' dee"
marine6 ?arly Postri#t' dee" marine (ar+onate and
lasti)6 @ate Postri#t' deltai to dee"er marine.
&ominant "etroleum system ty"e(s)= P</ 8 @ate Postri#t
(egressive &eltai.
?Aam"le +asins= FuteiMa0a3am' /ara3an.
/0ese +asins s0ow t0e late "ostri#t "ros"etivity +estL
t0ey are very ri0' wit0 eAellent deltai reservoirs and
soure ro3s. /0e inter+edded nature o# t0e soure'
reservoir and seals results in multi"le sta3ed aumula>
tions' ontaining ma-or reserves o# +ot0 oil and gas.
?astern $ndonesian +asins= /0ese +asins 0ave om"leA
and varia+le 0istories' in w0i0 t0e tetoni develo"ment is
s"read over t0e Meso:oi and /ertiary. *evert0eless' we
an still identi#y similar "atterns as in t0e ot0er +asins in
t0e /ertiary.
?volution= ?arly <ynri#t' o"en marine to dee" water6
@ate <ynri#t' ar+onates and deltais6 ?arly Postri#t'
ar+onate "lat#orms and marine lastis6 @ate Postri#t'
deltai.
&ominant Petroleum system ty"e(s)= Meso:oi/ertiary'
P</ 3 ?arly Postri#t Marine.
?Aam"le +asins= /omori' Eula' <alawati' Eintuni.
$n t0e <alawati' /ertiary Eintuni and /omori +asins' t0e
0arge a""ears to arise #rom Mioene soure ro3s. $n
ot0er areas' Meso:oi and "re>Meso:oi ro3s wit0 strong
a#9nity to )ustralian seJuenes "rovide +ot0 soure and
reservoir.
More detail on t0e 0ydroar+on 0a+itat "arameters
related to t0e environments re"resented in t0e various
+asin ty"es are desri+ed a+ove in t0e setion on as"ets o#
t0e 0ydroar+on system.
$t is interesting to note t0at' as wit0 many +asins'
$ndonesian +asins usually om"rise suites o# "roAimal to
distal environments at ea0 stage in t0eir 0istory. /0e
0arateristis o# t0e various +asin ty"es noted a+ove'
t0ere#ore' an +e a""lied to t0e desri"tion and evaluation
o# "ortions o# +asins as mu0 as to t0at o# t0e +asins as a
w0ole. /0e +asin #amilies re#erred to are elements o# a
mu0 larger system o# similar +asins' develo"ed t0roug0>
out t0e /ertiary o# t0e Bar ?ast and <? )sia (&oust and
<umner' 2007).
8. <ummary and onlusions
$ndonesian "etroli#erous +asins s0are a num+er
o# im"ortant 0arateristis= most are /ertiary in age and
"ass t0roug0 early /ertiary synri#t to late /ertiary "ostri#t
stages o# geologial develo"ment. /0ey are 9lled wit0 non>
marine to marine sediments su+-et to ra"id
environmentally> ontrolled #aies variations and
reeive 0arge almost eAlusively #rom terrestrial and!or
laustrine soure material. /0e "etroleum systems "resent
in t0e various +asins an
+e lassi9ed into #our P</s' w0i0 an +e related diretly to
t0e main stages o# +asin develo"ment. /0ese P</s are=
?arly <ynri#t @austrine P</Lstrongly oil>"rone'
t0an3s to 0arge #rom ri0 laustrine soure ro3s'
loated in t0e dee"er ?oene to 4ligoene "arts o# t0e
ri#t +asins.
@ate <ynri#t /ransgressive &eltai P</Lommonly
wit0 oil and gas derived #rom terrestrial deltai soure
ro3s' ou"ying t0e s0allower 4ligoene to early
Mioene "arts o# t0e ri#t +asins.
?arly Postri#t Marine P</Lmainly gas "rone' wit0
0arge #rom marine s0ales' orres"onding to an early
Mioene "eriod o# transgression t0at Kooded t0e synri#t
gra+ens and t0eir surrounding "lat#orms.
@ate Postri#t (egressive &eltai P</Loil and gas "rone'
derived #rom ri0 deltai terrestrial soure ro3s de"osited
in deltas t0at "rograded out over t0e +asins in t0e late
/ertiary in res"onse to ollisional and inversion events.
/0e develo"ment and distri+ution o# "etroleum systems
in $ndonesian +asins is de"endent on a num+er o# #ators'
inluding t0e soure ro3 #aies and maturity' varia+ility in
t0e develo"ment o# reservoir #aies' w0et0er t0e sealing
0ori:ons are intra>#ormational or regional in eAtent and on
t0e style and develo"ment o# strutural tra"s. 10arge
annot in general +e asri+ed to individual soure 0ori:ons
and it is lear t0at onsidera+le miAing 0as ta3en "lae.
/0is is reKeted in t0e #at t0at in many ases an older and
dee"er>lying P</ 0as a""arently 0arged reservoirs +e>
longing to s0allower P</s.
*ot sur"risingly' t0e "redominant de"ositional environ>
ment and lit0o#aies o# t0e +asins ditates t0e "redominant
"etroleum system ty"e t0at is "resent. ;e 0ave reogni:ed
t0e #ollowing CC+asin #amiliesDD' +ased on t0eir loation wit0
res"et to t0e ontinental ore o# <? )sia' t0e <unda
1raton=
ProAimal +asins (e.g.' 1entral <umatra' ;est *atuna'
)sri) in w0i0 t0e ?arly <ynri#t @austrine P</ is
"redominant.
$ntermediate +asins (e.g. <out0 <umatra' ?ast *atuna'
<unda' ons0ore 2ava' Earito)' w0i0 ontain +ot0
synri#t P</s as well as' in some ases' a ontri+ution
#rom t0e ?arly Postri#t Marine P</.
&istal +asins (e.g. *ort0 <umatra' 2ava o##s0ore) in
w0i0 t0e dominant P</s are t0e @ate <ynri#t /rans>
gressive &eltai and t0e Marine and (egressive &eltai
P</s o# t0e "ostri#t.
Eorneo +asins (e.g. FuteiMa0a3am' /ara3an) in w0i0
only t0e @ate Postri#t (egressive &eltai P</ is
develo"ed.
?astern $ndonesian +asins (e.g. /omori' Eula' <alawati'
Eintuni) in w0i0 t0e "etroleum system is eit0er
Meso:oi or +elongs to t0e ?arly Postri#t Marine P</.
)3nowledgements
;e are grate#ul to all o# t0e aut0ors w0ose wor3 over t0e
years 0as ontri+uted so a+undantly to 3nowledge o#
$ndonesian "etroleum geologyLwit0out t0em a synt0esis
o# t0e main trends' as we 0ave attem"ted 0ere' would +e
im"ossi+le. 4ne o# us (%.&.) is also grate#ul to <0ell
$nternational Petroleum 1om"any #or t0e o""ortunity
(in t0e 1990s) to study' wit0 an outstanding team' t0e
#asinating geology o# Bar ?ast /ertiary +asins. <ome o#
t0e ideas "resented 0ere were oneived during t0is "eriod.
(.).*. is grate#ul #or t0e su""ort o# .noal $ndonesia
1om"any and #or t0eir "ermission to "u+lis0 t0is artile.
Binally' we are very grate#ul to anonymous reviewers w0o
0el"ed us in many ways to inrease t0e Juality and
onsisteny o# t0e teAt.
(e#erenes
Eis0o"' M.G.' 2000a. <out0 <umatra Easin Provine' $ndonesia= t0e
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Bile (e"ort 99>50<.
Eis0o"' M.G.' 2000+. Petroleum systems o# t0e *ort0west 2ava Provine'
2ava and o##s0ore <out0east <umatra' $ndonesia. .<G< 4"en>Bile
(e"ort 99>50(.
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