Equalization

Ha Hoang Kha, Ph.D

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: hhkha@hcmut.edu.vn
Chapter 3
Content
1. Introduction
Multipath fading
ISI
2. Discrete-time channel model
3. Linear equalizer
Zero-forcing equalizer
MMSE equalizer
4. Nonlinear equalizer
ZF decision feedback equalizer
MMSE decision feedback equalizer
Equalization
2
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Base Station (BS)
Mobile Station (MS)
multi-path propagation
Path Delay
P
o
w
e
r
path-2
path-2
path-3
path-3
path-1
path-1
1. Introduction : multipaths
Channel Impulse Response:
Channel amplitude |h| correlated at delays t.
Each tap value @ kTs Rayleigh distributed
(actually the sum of several sub-paths)
Equalization
3
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
ISI due to Multi-Path Fading
Transmitted signal:
Received Signals:
Line-of-sight:
Reflected:
The symbols add up on
the channel
Distortion!
Delays
Equalization
4
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Time-dispersion => frequency felectivity
The impulse response of the channel is correlated in the time-domain
(sum of echoes)
Manifests as a power-delay profile, dispersion in channel
autocorrelation function A(At)
Equivalent to selectivity or deep fades in the frequency domain
Delay spread: t ~ 50ns (indoor) 1s (outdoor/cellular).
Coherence Bandwidth: Bc = 500kHz (outdoor/cellular) 20MHz
(indoor)
Implications: High data rate: symbol smears onto the adjacent ones (ISI).
Equalization
5
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Performance of multipath channels
First, compare 1-tap (i.e. flat) Rayleigh-fading channel
vs AWGN.
i.e. y = hx + w vs y = x + w
Note: all multipaths with random attenuation/phases
are aggregated into 1-tap
Next consider frequency selectivity, i.e. multi-tap,
broadband channel, with multi-paths
Effect: ISI
Equalization techniques for ISI & complexities
Equalization
6
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Flat Fading (Rayleigh) vs AWGN
Equalization
7
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
ISI/Freq. Selective Channel
Typical BER vs. S/N curves
S/N
BER
Frequency-selective channel
(no equalization)
Flat fading channel
Gaussian
channel
(no fading)
Frequency selective fading <=> irreducible BER
floor!!!
Equalization
8
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Freq. selective channel with equalization
Typical BER vs. S/N curves
S/N
BER
Flat fading channel
Gaussian
channel
(no fading)
Diversity (e.g. multipath diversity) <=>
Frequency-selective channel
(with equalization)
improved
performance
Equalization
9
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Rayleigh Flat Fading Channel
BPSK: Coherent detection.
Conditional on h,
Averaged over h,
at high SNR.
Looks like
AWGN, but
p
e
needs to be
unconditioned
To get a much
poorer scaling
2. Discrete time model for ISI channels
{b
m
} is a data sequence.
Equalization
11
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Examples of waveforms
The output of the impulse modulator
L: the length of the data sequence
T: symbol duration
Equalization
12
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Noise is assumed to be zero-mean white Gaussian with
double-sided spectral density
and autocorrelation function
The received signal after receiver filtering
a modified transmitter filter includes the transmitter filter
and channel
Channel output without noise
Equalization
13
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Discrete-time CIR:
The sampled signal of y(t) at every T seconds is
given by
Sampled noise
Discrete channel
Equalization
14
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Given
Example of discrete channel
Find the discrete-time CIR
Find the sampled noise n
l
Equalization
15
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
With the discrete-time CIR channel
can be found
Solution
Equalization
16
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
The sampled noise is given by
Solution
The variance of noise is given by
It can be shown that
Equalization
17
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
The discrete-time CIR is a causal impulse response
of length P, i.e.,
The discrete-time channel
The received signal in the discrete-time domain is
given by
Equalization
18
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Suppose that is the desired signal
ISI problem
The received signal can be re written as
is a delay.
Due to the ISI terms, the desired signal cannot
be clearly observed from the received signals.
It is necessary to eliminate the ISI terms to extract
the desired signal.
Equalization
19
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
: the impulse response of the equalizer.
3. Linear equalizer
: the z-transform of h
p
.
: the z-transform of the impulse response of LE
Equalization
20
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
It is desired when the noise is ignored.
Zero-forcing equalizer
In z-domain, it is required
The linear equalizer is called the zero-
forcing (ZF) equalizer because the ISI is forced to be
zero.
Equalization
21
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
The noise after ZF equalization is
Zero-forcing equalizer
If has nulls (in frequency response), the
variance of noise can be infinity.
Another disadvantage of the ZF equalization is that
ZF equalizer has an infinite impulse response for
finite-length channels.
Equalization
22
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
mt ph cng sut
ca nhiu
c p ng xung di ti v cng cho knh
c p ng xung hu hn
Assume that is independent identically distributed
(iid) and , .
Minimum mean square error linear equalizer
The error is defined as
The desired signal
The MSE is given by
Rewritten in matrix form as
M: the length of the LE.
Equalization
23
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
MMSE equalizer: Orthogonal principle
The error should be uncorrected with at
the optimality, i.e.,
where and
At the optimality, the MMSE is given by
Equalization
24
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
sai s khng tng quan
vi tn hiu ng vo
-->
MMSE equalizer: derivative
Note that the MSE cost function is a quadratic
function of g.
The minimum is obtained from
This is the same condition found from the
orthogonality principle.
Equalization
25
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Example: MMSE equalizer
Consider the channel with impulse response
( ) ( ) 0.5 ( ) h t t t T o o = +
and zero-mean white Gaussian noise has the variance
The transmitted signal is assumed
2
0.1
n
o =
2
[ ] 1
l
E b =
l
b
[ ] 0,
l l k
E bb k l

= =
[ ] 0
l k
E b n =
Find 2-tap MMSE equalizer for the desired signal
l l
s b =
Equalization
26
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
4. Nonlinear equalizer: DFE
Structure of the decision feedback equalizer
DFE
Equalization
27
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
tr isi ca nhng
k hiu trc
gy ra
Zero-forcing DFE
The convolution of g
m
and h
p
is given by
M: length of FFF and P is the length of channel
Equalization
28
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Zero-forcing DFE
Output of the FFF is given by
To estimate at time l
Assume are available.
Equalization
29
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Zero-forcing DFE
The ISI due to these past symbols can be
eliminated
is the impulse response of the FBF
denotes the detected symbols of
If the decision are correct , we chose
Equalization
30
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
loi b thnh phn isi ca cc k hiu trc
Zero-forcing DFE
The output of the DFE becomes
The zero-forcing condition for FFT becomes
Equalization
31
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Zero-forcing DFE
In matrix form
When
Equalization
32
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
mong mun ch thu
c cm
Example: ZF-DFE
Equalization
33
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Solution
Equalization
34
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
MMSE DFE
ZE DFE only attempts to remove the ISI, the noise
can be enhanced
The MSE is given by
Let
Equalization
35
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
MMSE DFE
ZE DFE only attempts to remove the ISI, the noise
can be enhanced
The MSE is given by
Equalization
36
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Example: MMSE DFE
Equalization
37
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Solution
Equalization
38
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Solution
Equalization
39
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Solution
Equalization
40
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Example: Channels with frequency nulls
Equalization
41
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Example: BER for MMSE LE
Equalization
42
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
khng dng
b linear
Example: BER for MMSE DFE
Equalization
43
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
dng b linear
5. Adaptive linear equalizer
Adaptive equalizers can be considered as practical
approaches.
They do not require second-order statistics of
signals.
A training sequence is used to find the equalization
for the LE or DFE.
Equalization
44
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Iterative approaches: steepest descent algorithm
The output of the LE is given by
Assume that an LE is causal and has a finite length of M.
The MSE as a function of g is defined by
Equalization
45
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
p ng xung
Steepest descent algorithm
Suppose that is an initial vector
The gradient is defined as
The next vector which may yield a smaller than
can given by
Steepest descent Constant step size
Equalization
46
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
phng php lp
nu o hm g0 >0 --> ang tng
--> tr xung
Steepest descent algorithm
A recursion toward the minimum is given by
k: iteration index
The iteration is terminated when the SD direction
becomes zeros, i.e.,
Equalization
47
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Steepest descent algorithm
If is large, the recursive
diverges and never finds
the minimum.
If is too small, it would
take too many iterations
to converge.
It is important to
determine the value of
such that the recursion
can converge at a fast
rate.
Equalization
48
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
u ln
Convergence analysis of the SD algorithm
Note that
We consider the different vector
Egeindecomposition of is given by
Equalization
49
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
sai s bc
lp th k
Convergence analysis of the SD algorithm
Let . Then it follows that
represents the mth element of
We can fined the following property
Equalization
50
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Convergence analysis of the SD algorithm
The sufficient condition for convergence is
is the maximum eigenvalue
Since
another practical sufficient condition is
Equalization
51
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Ry = E(yyT)
Least mean square (LMS) approach
The SD algorithm can overcome the matrix
inversion of the MMSE approach.
However, it has not been overcome the need for
second-order statistics.
The least mean square (LMS) algorithm is an
approximation of the SD algorithm.
Recall the MSE
Equalization
52
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Least mean square (LMS) approach
The SD algorithm can be represented by
where
If is replaced by without the expectation
we can obtain the LMS approach
Equalization
53
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
t Ul = Sl - gT.Yl
yl: tn hiu u vo b cn
bng thi im l
ko cn quan tm
knh truyn
Adaptive decision feedback equalizers
We the training sequence is available, we can use
the correct symbols in the DFE.
The MSE of the DFE is written as
where
The adaptive DFE finds the equalization vector
from the and
The LMS algorithm can used for the adaptive DFE.
Equalization
54
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
g: b cn bng thun
f: feedback
`
tn hiu ng vo
Home work 1
Given the discrete-time channel model as fig
b
n
={-1, +1} denotes the information bits
channel impulse response h=[0.227, 0.460, 0.688, 0.460, 0.227]
Wn is AWGN with zero mean and variance N
0
/2
Design and simulation ZF and ZF-DFE, and for
SNR=[5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30]
Plot BER vs SNR


Channel h
n

d
n

y
n

b n

Equalizer filter

Noise w
n


Equalization
55
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
dB
3. contemporary communication system using
matlab
adaptive equalizer for isi ch
t chn m, chn chiu di
Home work 2
Given the discrete-time channel model as fig
b
n
={-1, +1} denotes the information bits
channel impulse response h=[0.227, 0.460, 0.688, 0.460, 0.227]
Wn is AWGN with zero mean and variance N
0
/2
Design and simulation MMSE and MMSE-DFE,
and for SNR=[5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30]
Plot BER vs SNR


Channel h
n

d
n

y
n

b n

Equalizer filter

Noise w
n


Equalization
56
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
Home work 3
Given the discrete-time channel model as fig
b
n
={-1, +1} denotes the information bits
channel impulse response h=[0.227, 0.460, 0.688, 0.460, 0.227]
Wn is AWGN with zero mean and variance N
0
/2
Design and simulation: LMS algorithm for MMSE
and MMSE-DFE for SNR=[5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30]
Plot BER vs SNR, and the convergence for
different


Channel h
n

d
n

y
n

b n

Equalizer filter

Noise w
n


Equalization
57
H. H. Kha, Ph.D.