CHEG351 Spring 2008-Mass Transfer-Ahmed A Abdala

Instructor
Dr. Ahmed A. Abdala

Office: Bu Hasa, Room. 2-214
Phone: 607-5584
e-mail: aabdala@pi.ac.ae
Office Hours:
Posted hours + Open Door Policy
Class Schedule
Sunday/Tuesday/Thursday 13:00-14:00
Bu Hasa, Room 2-123
Books
Required Text:
Jaime Benitez, Principles and Modern Applications of Mass
Transfer Operations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(2002).
References:
Seader, Henley, Separation Process Principles, 2
nd
Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (2006).
Frank P. Incropera and David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass transfer, Separation Process Principles, 5
th

Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (2006).
Treybal, F. Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed., McGraw-
Hill, New York (1980).
Grading
3 One-hour exams 50 %
Final Exam 25 %
Homework and Quizzes 20 %
Class participation 5 %
A 90
B 80-89
C 70-79
D 60-69
F < 60
Purpose of the Course
Introduce the student to both, microscopic and
macroscopic approach to mass transfer.
In the first part of the course, microscopic diffusional
processes and the prediction and use of transport
processes are discussed.
The second part of the course primarily deals with the
design of mass transfer equipment both packed and tray
columns.
The third part of the course deals with macroscopic
separation processes including absorption and stripping,
distillation, extraction, and membranes separation.
Course Outlines and Timeline
Fundamentals of Mass Transfer (2 weeks)
Diffusion of Gas in Porous Solid (1 week)
Convective Mass Transfer (2 weeks)
Interphase Mass Transfer (2 weeks)
Equipment for Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer
Operations (2 weeks)
Absorption and Stripping (2 weeks)
Distillation (3 weeks)
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (2 weeks)
Week (Dates) Topic Chapter
1-3
(Jan 27-Feb 14)
Fundamentals of Mass Transfer
Molecular Mass transfer
Diffusion Coefficient
Steady State Molecular Diffusion
1
4 (Feb 16-Feb 21) Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids Treybal
Exam 1 (Last week of February)
5-6
(Feb 24-Mar 6)
Convective Mass Transfer
Mass Transfer Coefficients
Mass and Heat Transfer Analogy
Convective Mass Transfer Correlations
Multicomponent Mass Transfer
Coefficients
2
7-8
(Mar 9- 20
Interphase Mass Transfer
Equilibrium
Diffusing Between Phases
Material Balance
Equilibrium Stage Operations
3
9 (Mar 23- 27) Spring Break
Exam 2 (First Week of April)
Week (Dates) Topic Chapter
10-11
(Mar 30-Apr 10)
Equipment for Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Operations
Liquid dispersed
Gas Dispersed
4
12-13
(Apr 13- 24)
Absorption and Stripping
Countercurrent Multistage Equipment
Countercurrent Continuous-Contact Equipment
Thermal Effect during Absorption and Stripping
5
Exam 3 (Last week of April)
14-15
(Apr 27- May 8)
Distillation
Single Stage Operation-Flash Vaporization
Batch Distillation
Continuous Rectification
McCabe-Thiele Method
Binary Distillation in Packed Towers
Multicomponent Distillation
6
16
(May 11-18)
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Liquid Equilibria
Stage-Wise Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Equipment for Liquid-Liquid Extraction
7
Final Exam
10
Introduction to Mass Transfer
Mass transfer refer to the movement of a
component in a mixture between regions of
different compositions
In a system containing two or more
components (mixture) with whose
concentrations vary from point to point, there
is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred
The direction of movement is from a region of
higher concentration to that of a lower
concentration
Mass Transfer in our Daily Life
Scent of a delicate perfume
Dissolution of Sugar or salt in tea
Drying of laundry
Evaporation of water to the atmosphere
Diffusion of chemical impurities in lakes, ground,
etc
Mass transfer in Unit Operations:
Unit operations based on mass transfer:
Distillation
Gas Absorption
Adsorption
Humidification and dehumidification
Liquid extraction
Membrane separation

A liquid mixture of miscible
and volatile substances
separated into individual or
groups of components by
partial vaporization
Crude petroleum
distillation into gasoline,
kerosene, fuel oil, and
lubricating stock
Distillation
Gas Absorption
A soluble vapor (in a mixture of other inert
gases) absorbed by a liquid.
Washing of ammonia from a mixture of
ammonia and air by means of liquid water
Removal of acid gases from
natural gas using amine

Adsorption
A species (adsorbate) from a gas or a liquid
mixture is preferentially concentrated on a
solid (adsorbent) surface
Removing objectionable odors and
impurities from industrial gases
Removing objectionable taste and
odor from drinking water
Liquid Extraction
Separation of the constituents of a liquid solution
by contact with another insoluble liquid
The solution which is to be extracted is called the
Feed, and the liquid with which the feed is
contacted is called the Solvent
The solvent-rich product of the operation is called
the Extract, and the residual liquid from which the
solute has been removed is called the Raffinate


Liquid Feed
Extract
A, B

A, B
Raffinate
S, B
Solvent Feed
S

All of solvent exits
in the extract
All of carrier exits
in the raffinate
Crystallization
A non-volatile component is separated from
a liquid phase saturated with this
component
Usually involves cooling
The mixture components must have
different crystallization temperature

Humidification-dehumidification
The liquid phase is a pure liquid containing but one component while
the gas phase contains two or more substances.
Usually the inert or carrier gas is virtually insoluble in the liquid.
Condensation of carbon tetrachloride out of a stream of nitrogen is
one example of humidification
Removal of water from wet air is one example of dehumidification
Humidification involve transfer from the liquid to the gas
Dehumidification involves mass transfer from the gas to the liquid

.

humidification
dehumidification
Membrane Separation
Separation by selectively controlling the passage from one side
of the membrane to the other. The membrane serves to:
Prevent intermingling of two miscible
phases
Prevent ordinary hydrodynamic
flow, thus movement of substances
through it is by diffusion
Dialysis is an example of membrane
separation

Mechanism of Mass Transfer
Mass transfer occurs by two basic mechanisms:
Molecular Mass Transfer
Mass is transferred by the molecular in quiescent fluid
Convection
Mass is transferred from a surface of a moving fluid aided by the
dynamic characteristics of the flow
Both mechanisms often act simultaneously
Frequently, one mechanism can dominate
quantitatively so that approximate solutions
involving only the dominant mode can be used
Molecular Mass Transfer

Molecular Mass Transfer in Gases
According to the kinetic theory of gases:
Gas molecules move in space in random
motion with average velocity
Gas molecules repeatedly undergoing
collisions with other moving gas
molecules which causes them to be
deflected into a new direction
(molecules move along a zigzag path)

Molecular Mass Transfer in Gases
Across a hypothetical section normal to the concentration gradient,
there are more solute molecules in one side of the section than in the
other
Accordingly, an overall net transfer from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration will result
The net flow of each molecular species occurs in the direction of a
negative concentration gradient.
Mixture Compositions
Mass transfer always involves two or more
components (mixtures)
Consequently, we must account for the
variation of physical properties which
normally exist in a given system
Composition of multicomponent mixtures
can be expressed as:
Mass concentration
Molar concentration
27
Mass Concentration
The mass concentration of component i is the mass of
component i per unit volume

The total mass concentration or density

The mass fraction of component i is the
mass fraction of species I divided
by the total mass

Symbol Component # moles
Molecular
Weight
A 11 16
B 4 30
C 6 44
i
i
m
Vol
=
n
i
i
m
Vol
= =
i i
i
m
w
m
= =
i
w 1 =
Molar Concentration
The molar concentration of component i (c
i
) is
the number of moles of component i per unit
volume

The total molar concentration, c

The mole fraction of liquids and solids mixtures, x
i

molecualr weig
i i
i
i
ht of species i
n
c
Vol M
= =
n
i
i 1
c c
=
=
i
i
c
x
c
=
Molar Concentration, Ideal Gas
The molar concentration,

The total molar concentration, c

The mole fraction of ideal gas mixtures, y
i

The sum of the mole fractions is 1
The density of gas species i,
i

The total density of a gas mixture,

.
partial pressure of
i i
specie i
i
s
n P
c
Vol RT
= =
total
n P
c
Vol RT
= =
i i i
i
total
c n P
y
c n P
= = =
*
i i i
i i i
m n M
c M
Vol Vol
= = =
*
total total av
av
m n M
cM
Vol Vol
= = =
av i i
M y M =
Mixture Composition, Example

A flue gas consists of CO
2
, O
2
, H
2
O vapors, and
N
2
.

The mole fraction of CO
2
and O
2

in the gas
stream is 12% and 6%, respectively. The weight
fraction of H
2
O in the gas is 6.17%. Calculate the
density of this gas at 500 K and 110 kPa.
Solution Strategy:

Find y
i
to calculate M
av
Calculate c assuming ideal gas, c=P/RT
Problem 1.4, Benitez
1
; *
n
av av i i
i
c M M M y
=
= =
Solution: calculation of yi
Basis: 1 mole (n
total
=1)

From equation 4:
Species y
i
=n
i
w
i
M
i
m
i
, g
CO
2
0.12 - 44 5.28
O
2
0.06 - 32 1.92
H
2
O y
H2O
0.0617 18 18 y
H2O
N
2
y
N2
- 28 28 y
N2

( )
i i total i i
n y n y ; y 1 1 = = =
( )
i i i
m 2 n M =
( )
total i i i
m m n M 3 = =

( )
2
2
H O
H O
total
w
m
4
m
=
( )
2
2
H O
total H O
18 y
m 291.7 y
0.0
5
617
= =
Solution: Calcualtion of y
i
, Contd.
From 3

Thus:

but

Solving 7, 8 gives:
y
H2O
= 0.1; y
N2
= 0.72
( )
2 2
total H O N
m 5.28 1.92 18 y 2 6 8 y = + + +
( )
1 2 2
H O H O N
291.7 y 7.2 18 y 7 28 y = + +
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2
N H O CO O
H O
y 1 y y y
1 y 0.12 0. 8 06
= + +
= + +
Solution: Calculation of M
av
, c and

av i i
g
M M y 0.12 x0.44 0.06 x32 0.1x18 0.72 x 28 29.16 1
mol
= = + + + =
3
3
P 110 x10 mol
c 26.5
RT 8.314 x500 m
= = =
av
mol g g
c M 0.0265 x 29.16 0.772
liter mol liter
= = =
Average Velocities: Mass Average
In a multi-component system species normally have different velocities
Evaluation of a characteristic velocity for the gas mixture requires the
averaging of the velocities of each species present
Let v
i
denotes the absolute velocity of species i relative to stationary
coordinate axis
The mass-average velocity for a multi-component mixture is defined in
terms of the mass densities

The molar-average velocity for a multi-component mixture is defined in
terms of the molar concentrations of all components by:

Note that (upper-case) V is used for the molar average velocity,
whereas (lower-case) v is used for the mass average velocity
n n
i i i i n
i 1 i 1
i i n
i 1
i
i 1
v v
v v
= =
=
=
= = =

n n
i i i i n
i 1 i 1
i i n
i 1
i
i 1
c v c v
V x v
c
c
= =
=
=
= = =

Flux
Flux of a given species is a vector quantity represents the
amount of such species that passes per given unit time
through a unit area normal to that vector
Mass flux of component i, n
i

Molar flux of component i, N
i

Total mass flux, n

Total molar flux, N
i i i
n v =
i i i
N c v =
n
i
1
n n v = =
n
i
1
N N cV = =
Diffusion versus Bulk Flow Flux

The flux (molar or mass) is the sum of two
vectors quantities:
Diffusion flux (concentration gradient)
Mass diffusion flux, j
i
Molar diffusion flux, J
i
The total mass or molar diffusion flux is zero
Bulk flow flux (bulk motion)
Mass
Molar

i i i
j ( v v ) =
i i i
J c ( v V ) =
i i
v w n =
i i
c V y N =
Mass and Molar Flux Units
Mass flux
Dimensions

Si Units kg m
-2
s
-1

Molar flux
Dimensions

Si Units kmol m
-2
s
-1

3 2
m L m
n v x
t L L t
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
-
3 2
mol L mol
N cV x
t L L t
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
-
Ficks Law of Diffusion
Equation describes the rate of mass diffusion
For binary, isothermal, isobaric system:

D
12
is the diffusivity or diffusion coefficient
Adolf Fick (1829-1901)
1 12 i
J c D x =
1 12
mole fractionof species i diffusivity
total concentartion operator del
molar diffusion flu
i
x
J c D x =
Remember
x y z

= + +

Diffusion Coefficient
Dimensions

Units:
Common unit is cm
2
/s
SI unit is m
2
/s
Diffusion coefficient depends on pressure,
temperature, and composition of the system
Typical value
0.5x10
-5
-1.0x10
-5
m
2
/s for Gases
10
-10
-10
-9
for liquids
1
12
i
mol
J
D
c x
= =
( )
2 1
L t
mol

( ) ( )
2
3 1
L
t
L L

=
Lennard-Jones (6-12) Potential
The L-J potential describes the repulsion and
attraction forces between molecules

is the center to center distance
between molecules at zero potential
energy
is the minimum energy

I
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

E
n
e
r
g
y

( )
12 6
r
r r

(
| | | |
=
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

D
12
for Binary Ideal Gas Mixture
1. Based on the kinetic theory of gases, diffusion in binary
gas mixture can be described using Lennard-Jones
potentials

2. Wilke-Lee Equation

3
2
1
2
12
2
AB AB D
0.00266T
D
P M
=
( )
( )
1
3
2 2
1
2
3
AB
12
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
D
P M
(
(

=
AB
" Average" molecular we t M igh
Temperatur T e , K
Pressu r P re ,ba
AB
Collisiondiameter
D
iffusionCollision Int D egral
D
12
for Binary Ideal Gas Mixture
1
AB
A B
1 1
M 2
M M
(
= +
(

A B
AB
2

+
=
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
D
b
* * *
*
a c e g
exp dT exp fT exp h
iffusionCollision I
T
T
nt D egral = + + +
*
AB A B
AB
kT
T ;
= =
a
1.06036
b 0.15610
c 0.19300
d 0.47635
e 1.03587
f 1.52996
g 1.76474
h 3.89411
A A
Experimental values of and canbe obtaine from appendix B , page 439
1
3
b b b
V molar volume of species as liq 1.18V ; uid at T =
A
b b
T Normal boi 1 ling point .15 T ;
k
=
It can also be estimated as follow :
3
2
1
2
12
2
AB AB D
0.00266T
D
P M
=
( )
( )
1
3
2 2
1
2
3
AB
12
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
D
P M
(
(

=
1
3
b b b
V molar volume of species as liq 1.18V ; uid at T =
Estimation of Molar Volume
V
b
can be obtained from table 1.2, page18
It can also be estimated based on the atomic volume
contributions of the elements forming the component
(table 1.3, page 18)
It can also be estimated from critical volume:
1.048
A c
V 0.285 V =
Examples: Estimation of V
b
Ethanol (C
2
H
6
O):

phenol :

3
b
V 2* 14.8 6 * 3.7 7.4 59.2 cm / mol = + + =
3
b
V 6 * 14.8 6 * 3.7 7.4 15 103.4 cm / mol = + + =
OH
Estimation of Diffusion Coefficient for
Gas system
Larson (1964) measured the diffusivity of
chloroform in air at 298K and 1 atm and
reported its value as 0.093 cm
2
/s. Estimate
the diffusion coefficient by the Wilke-Lee
equation and compare it to that calculated
using the kinetic theory and to the
experimental value.
Problem 1.12, Benitez
Solution
Using Wilke-Lee
Let A Chloroform; B Air
From Appendix B,

A
= 5.389 ;
B
=3.620
( /k)
A
=340.2; (/k)
B
=97.0 K
1
1
AB
A B
1 1 1 1
M 2 2 46.9 g / mol
M M 119.4 29

(
(
= + = + =
(
(

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
D
b
* * *
*
a c e g
exp dT exp fT exp hT
T
= + + +
AB A B
340.2* 97.0 181.66 K = = =
a
1.06036
b 0.15610
c 0.19300
d 0.47635
e 1.03587
f 1.52996
g 1.76474
h 3.89411
( )
( )
1
3
2 2
1
2
3
AB
12
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
D
P M
(
(

=
( )
AB AB
kT T 298
T* 1.64
/ k 181.66
= = = =
A B
AB
5.389 3.620
4.5045
2 2

+ +
= = =
Solution contd

( )
( )
( )
1
3
2 2
1
2
3
1 / 2 3 3 / 2
AB
2
12 1 / 2 2
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
3.03 0.98 / 46.9 x10 x 298
D 0.0928 cm / s
1x46.9 x4.5045 x1.157
P M

(
(
(

= = =
( ) ( ) ( )
D
0.15610
1.06036 0.193 1.03587 1.76474
1.157
exp 0.47635 * 1.64 exp 1.52996 * 1.64 exp 3.89411* 1.64 1.64
= + + + =
( )
12 , calculated 12 , measured
wilkee lee / Experimental
12 , measured
D D
0.0928 0.093
% Error x100 x100 0.2%
D 0.093

= = =
3
2
1
2
3 / 2
2
12 1 / 2 2
2
AB AB D
0.00266 T 0.00266 x 298
D 0.100 cm / s
1x46.9 x4.5045 x1.157
P M
= = =
Using KTG based model:
( )
12 ,Wilkee Lee 12 , KTG
Wilkee Lee / KTG
12 , KTG
D D
0.0928 0.100
% Error x100 x100 7.8%
D 0.100

= = =
( )
12 , KTG 12 , measured
KTG / Experimetal
12 , KTG
D D
0.100 0.093
% Error x100 x100 8.3%
D 0.093

= = =
Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion Coefficient for liquids
For Binary dilute liquid systems Stokes-Einstein
Equation can be used as the theoretical basis for
other correlation:

This relation is valid for colloidal particles or large
round molecules through a solvent which behave
as a continuum relative to the diffusing species
Semiempirical correlation has the general form:

( )
0
AB B
A
D
f V
kT
=

0
AB
A B
radius of solu viscosity te of solvent
kT
D
6 r
=
Wilke and Chang Equation
Widely used correlation for non-electrolytes in
an infinite dilute solution

( )
1
2 8
0
B B
AB B
0.6
A
7.4 x10 M
D
T V

=
0 2
AB
B
B
3
3
A
D diffusivity of Ainvery dilute solution in solvent B ,cm / s
M Molecular weight of solvent B
T temperature , K
viscosity of solvent B ,cP
V solute molar volume at its normal boiling point ,cm / mo
75.6 cm / mol for water as
l
sol
=
=
=
=
=
=
B
ute
= 2.26 for water as solvent
= 1.9 for metahnol as solvent
= 1.5 for ethanol as solvent
= 1.0 for u
association factor of solvent
nassociated solvents, e.g.
B , dimensionle
benzene, et
ss
her,
=
heptane
Hayduk and Minhas Equation-Aqueous
For aqueous solution

For Non-aqueous (nonelectrolyte) solution

( )
0 8 0.19 1.52
AB A B
A
D 1.25 x10 V 0.292 T
9.58
1.12
V

=
=
0.27 1.29 0.125
0 8 B B
AB 0.42 0.92 0.105
A B A
V T
D 1.55 x10
V
=
( ) ( )
( )
11 2 1
9 3 3
c c c br
br c b
br c
c
2
c
c
br
P T 0.132 0.278 1 T
T ln P / 1.013 T
T ;
Surface tension at normal boiling point , dyne / cm
P critical pressure , bar
T critical temper
0.9076 1
T 1 T
ature , K

=
(
= = +
(
=
(

=
=
Hayduk and Minhas Equation-Restrictions

1. The method should not be used in viscous solvent,
i.e.
B
has to be less than 20 cP
2. For water as solute, the dimer volume should be
used, i.e. V
A
=37.4 cm
3
/mol
3. For organic acids in solvents other than water,
methanol, or butanol, the dimer volume should be
used i.e. V
A
=2V
A
(actual)
4. For nonpolar solutes diffusing into monohydroxy
alcohols, V
B
should be multiplied by a factor of
8
B
Example: Liquid Diffusivity
Calculate the diffusivity of ethanol in dilute
solution in water at 288 K. Compare your
estimate with the experimental value
reported in Appendix A. the critical volume
for ethanol is 167.1 cm
3
/mol and the
viscosity of water at 288 K is 1.153 cP.
Solution: Using Wilke-Chang Correlation

A is ethanol
B is water

1.048 1.048 3
A c
V 0.285 V 0.285 * 167.1 60.9 cm / mol = = =
( )
1
2 8
0
B B
AB B
0.6
A
7.4 x10 M
D
T V

=
B
2.26 , M 18 , 1.153 cP = = =
( )
1
2 8
0
AB
0.6
7.4 x10 2.26 x18
D x1.153
288 60.9
=
0 5 2
AB
D 1.002 x10 cm / s
=
( ) ( )
0 5 2
AB
measured
D 1.00 x1 App 0 c em m / s dix A
=
5 5
5
1.002 x10 1.00 x10
% Error x 100 0.2%
1.00 x10

= =
Solution: Using Hayduk and Minhas
Correlation
A is ethanol
B is water

Using the correlation for aqueous solution

( )
0 8 0.19 1.52
AB A B
D 1.25 x10 V 0.292 T

=
A
9.58 9.58
1.12 1.12 0.963
V 60.9
= = =
( )
0 8 0.19 1.52 0.946
AB
6 2
D 1.25 x10 60.9 0.292 288 x1.153
0.991x10 cm / s

=
=
1.048 1.048 3
A c
V 0.285 V 0.285 * 167.1 60.9 cm / mol = = =
1.153 cP =
5 5
5
0.991x10 1.00 x10
% Error x 100 0.9%
1.00 x10

= =
Diffusion Coefficient for Multicomponent Mixtures
Multicomponent systems can be handled by using an
effective diffusivity or pseudobinary approach

, i i eff i
J c D x =
,
in the mixture
i eff
is characteristic diffusion coefficient of component i D
( )
1
,
1
1
n
i i j
j
i eff n
j i i j
j
ij
j i
N y N
D
y N y N
D
=
=
Example
Ammonia is being cracked on a solid
catalyst according to the reaction

at one place on the apparatus where the
pressure is 1 bar and the temperature
is 300 K, the analysis of the gas is 40%
NH
3
, 20% N
2
and 40% H
2
by volume.
Estimate the diffusion coefficient of
ammonia in the gaseous mixture.
3 1
3 2 2 2 2
NH N H +
Ammonia
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Example
Rewrite the equation as

3 1
2 2
A B C +
Ammonia (A)
Nitrogen (B)
Hydrogen (C)
( )
1
,
1
1
n
A A j
j
A eff n
j A A j
j Aj
j i
N y N
D
y N y N
D
=
=
( )
( ) ( )
,
1 1
A A A B C
A eff
B A A B C A A C
AB AC
N y N N N
D
y N y N y N y N
D D
+ +
=
+
0.4; 0.2; 0.4
A B C
y y y = = =
3 1
2 2
:
;
B A C A
from the stoichiometric equatio
N N N N
n
= =
Solution continued
D
AB
and D
AC
can be
calculated as discussed
for binary gas mixture
using Wilke-Lee
equation and the
following parameters

D
AB
=0.237 cm
2
/s
D
AC
=0.728 cm
2
/s

, /k, K M, g/mol
NH
3
2.900 558.4 17
N
2
3.798 71.4 28
H
2
2.827 59.7 2
( )
( )
1
3
2 2
1
2
3
AB
12
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
D
P
Wilke Lee Equat
M
ion

(

=
Solution Continued
3 1
2 2 A B C A A A A
N N N N N N N + + = =
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
,
3 1
2 2
2
0.4
1 1
0.2 0.4( 0.4 0.4
0.237 0.728
1.4
0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.237 0.728
1.4
0.4 1
0.237 0.728
0.457 /
A A
A eff
A A A A
A
A A
N N
D
N N N N
N
N N
cm s

=
+
=
+ +
| | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
=
+
=
Diffusion in Stagnant Gas Mixture
For stagnant gas mixture, the flux of all
component except component A are zeros
The effective diffusivity equation reduces to
( ) ( )
( )
1
'
,
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
A A A A
A eff n n
j A j
j j
Aj Aj
j i j
n
j
j
Aj
j i
i
N y N y
y
D
D
y N y
D D
= =
=

=

= =

'
1
j
j
A
y
where y
y
=
Diffusion of Dilute Solute through

Homogenous Solution of Mixed Solvents
j
n
0 0.8 0 0.8
1 ,eff M j 1 , j
j 2
( Perkins and Geankoplis D ) x D
=
=
0 2
1 ,eff
M
j
0 2
1j
D effective diffusivity of adilute solute Aint othemixture ,cm / s
mixtureviscosity, cP
viscosity of pure component j ,cP
D Diffusivity of infinte dilutionof component Ainto solvent j ,cm / s
=
=
=
=
Steady State Molecular Diffusion in
Fluids
Continuity Equation
If
no accumulation, i.e.
no chemical reaction, i.e. R
A
=0
Then the continuity equation reduces to:

For diffusion only in z direction

.

chemical reaction
divergence
accumu
i
lati
i i
on
C
N R 0
t
+ =
_
i
C
0
t
i ,z
i i ,z
N
0 N N constant
z
= = =
i , y i ,x i ,z
i
N N N
N 0
x y z

= + + =

n
i
i 1
N constant
=
=
Steady State Diffusion in Gases

For steady-state diffusion in z direction without
chemical reaction in a binary mixture

Separating the variables:
At constant temperature and pressure, c and D
AB
and N
A
, N
A
+N
B
=const

( )
A
A A A B AB
dy dz
N y N N cD
=
+
( )
A A A
A
A AB A A B
N J y N
dy
N cD y N N
dz
= +
= + +
( )
A 2 2
A1 1
y z
A
A A A B AB y z
dy dz
N y N N cD
=
+

Steady State Diffusion in Gases

Rearrange and let we get

For ideal gas mixture, c =P/RT

( )
A 2 2
A1 1
y z
A
A A A B AB y z
dy dz
N y N N cD
=
+

( )
( )
A A2 A B
2 1
A B A A1 A B AB AB
N y N N
z z 1 z
ln
N N N y N N cD cD
( +

= =
(
+ +

A
A
A B
N
N N
=
+
AB A A2
A A
A A1
cD y
N ln
z y
(
=
(

AB A A2
A A
A A1
D p y
N ln
RTz y
(
=
(

Example:
Nickel Carbonyl (A) is produced by passing carbon
monoxide (B) at 323 K and 1 atm over nickel slab. The
following reaction takes place at the surface solid surface:

The reaction is very rapid, so that the partial pressure of
Co at the metal surface is essentially zero. The gases diffuse
through a film of 0.625-mm thick. At steady-state, estimate
the rate of production of nickel carbonyl, in moles/m
2
.s.
The compsoition of the bulk gas phase is 50 mole% CO.
The binary gas diffusivity under these conditions is D
AB
=20
m
2
/s.
4
Ni ( s ) 4CO( g ) Ni ( CO ) ( g ) +
Graphical Representation of the
Problem

Ni
Ni
C
O

N
i
(
C
O
)
4

Bulk Gas Phase
50% CO, 50% Ni(CO)
4

N
B

N
A

1
2
z
=
0
.
6
2
5

m
m

Solution
From the reaction stoichiometry

For binary gas at steady state conditions

B A A B A
A
A
A B
N = -4N ; N=N +N = -3N
N 1
N +N 3
= =
AB A A2
A A
A A1
D p y
N ln
RTz y
(
=
(

Solution, contd.
y
B1
=0

Substituting numerical values

1 1
2
A B
A
y 1 y 1 0 1
y 0.5
= = =
=
2
A
20 mm
1
N
3
=
2
6 2
m
/ s x
10 mm
1 atm
| |
|
|
\ .
5
1.0135 x10 Pa
x
atm
3
m
8.314
| |
|
\ .
2
x Pa
mol K
323 K
| |
|
|
\ .
( )
0.623 mm
m
x
3
10 mm
2
1
0.5
3
ln
1
1
3
0.189 mol / m .s
(

(
(
( | |

(
|
\ .
=
Steady State Diffusion through Stagnant
Gas
For diffusion of gas A through stagnant Gas B
N
B
=0;
A
=1
Flux equation for binary ideal gas mixture at SS condition becomes

It also can be written in terms of linear driving forces:

.

2
1
A
AB
A
A
1 y
D p
N ln
RTz 1 y
(
=
(
(

z
Distance, z
M
o
l
e

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

y

y
A

y
B

( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
AB
A A A
B ,M
B ,
B B
,M
B
M
B
B
D p
N p p
RTp z
where p is the logerithmic mean partial pressur
p p
P
e of B;
p
ln
P
=
| |
\
=
|
|
.
Steady State Equimolar Counter Diffusion
z
( )
A
A AB A A B
dy
N cD y N N
dz
= + +
A
A AB
dy
N cD
dz
=
2 A 2
1 A1
z y
A AB A
z y
N dz cD dy =

( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
AB AB
A A A A A
D P D
N y y p p
RTz RTz
= =
For equimolar counter diffusion
N
B
=-N
A
; N
i
=0

Steady State Diffusion in Liquids
Unlike the case of gas mixtures, the
concentration and the binary diffusion
coefficient may vary considerably
Nevertheless, we can estimate the molar flux
using an average concentration and best average
diffusion coefficient available
We have:

AB 2
1
0
A A
A A
A A
D c x
N ln
z x
(
=
(
(

AB 2
1
0
A A
A A
A A av
D x
N ln
z M x
(
| |
=
(
|

\ .
(

Steady-State Diffusion in Liquids

Diffusion of A through Stagnant B:
N
B
=0,
A
=1 then

Equimolar Counterdiffusion
N
B
=-N
A
, N=0 then
AB 2
1
0
A A
A A
A A av
D x
N ln
z M x
(
| |
=
(
|

\ .
(

( )
AB
1 2
0
A A A
BM av
D
N x x
x z M
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
( )
2 1
2 1
BM
B B
BM
B B
where x is the logarithmic mean mole fraction of B
x x
x
ln x / x
( )
AB
1 2
0
A A A
av
D
N x x
z M
| |
=
|
\ .
Example:
A crystal of Chalcanthite (CuSO
4
5H
2
O) dissolves in a large
tank of pure water at 273 K. Estimate the rate at which the
crystal dissolves by calculating the flux of CuSO
4
from the
crystal surface to the bulk solution. Assume that the
molecular diffusion occurs through liquid film uniformly 0.01
mm thick surrounding the crystal. At the inner side of the film,
adjacent to the crystal surface, the solution is saturated with
CuSO
4
, while at the outer side of the film the solution is
virtually pure water, the solubility of chalcanthite in water at
273 K is 24.3 g of crystal/100 g of water and the density of
the corresponding saturated solution is 1140 kg/m
3
.
The diffusivity of CuSO
4
in dilute aqueous solution
at 273 K can be estimated as 3.6x10
-10
m
2
/s.
The density of pure liquid water at 273 K is
999.8 kg/m
3
.

AB 2
1
0
A A
A A
A A av
D x
N ln
z M x
(
| |
= (
|

\ . (

4 2 4 2
CuSO 5 H O( s ) CuSO ( aq ) 5 H O( liq ) + -
4 2
CuSO 5 H O( s ) A( aq ) 5 B( liq ) + -
Crystal
Boundary Layer
Pure Water
C
u
S
O
4

H
2
O

N
B

N
A

z
=
0
.
0
1

m
m

x
A1

x
A2

x
B1

x
B2

A
=
1
A
X =
1

M
| |
=
|
\ .
2

M
| |
=
|
\ .
av

M
| |
=
|
\ .
0
AB
D =
z =
2
A
X =
A
N =
Graphical Representation of the
Problem
Crystal
Boundary Layer
Pure Water
4 2 4 2
CuSO 5 H O( s ) CuSO ( aq ) 5 H O( liq ) + -
4 2
CuSO 5 H O( s ) A( aq ) 5 B( liq ) + -
C
u
S
O
4

H
2
O

N
B

N
A

z
=
0
.
0
1

m
m

x
A1

x
A2

x
B1

x
B2

Solution
From the reaction equation

Now we need to find the mole fractions at the
inner side of the film
At the inner side of the film, the solution is
saturated (24.3 g CuSO
4
5H
2
O /100 g water)

B A A B A
A
A
A B
N =5N ; N=N +N =6N
N 1
0.167
N +N 6
= = =
Solution, contd
100 g of H
2
O as a basis
Mass of CuSO
4
5H
2
O= 24.3 g
4
4 2
CuSO
4
CuSO H O
M
159.63
Mass of CuSO =24.3x 24.3 x 15.53 g
(M +5 M ) 159.63 5 * 18
= =
+
1
2
4 2
H O
CuSO H O
4
2
A
5M
5 * 18
Mass of Hydration water=24.3x 24.3 x 8.77 g
(M +5 M ) 159.63 5 * 18
Total Mass of water 100 8.77 118.77 g
Number of moles of CuSO 15.53 / 159.63 0.973 mol
Number of moles of H O
0.973
x
0
118.77 / 18 6.0
.97
43 mol
= =
+
= + =
=
= =
= =
0.0158
3 6.043
=
+
Solution, Contd
Since the other end of the film is virtually pure
water, x
B2
=1, x
A2
=0
The molar density of the film ( /M) changes from
point 1 to point 2
At the inner side of the film (near the crystal)
M
av
=159.63*0.0158+18*(1-0.0158)= 20.24
/M =1140/20.2=56.32 kmol/m
3

At the other end of the film (pure water)
/M =999.8/18=55.54 kmol/m
3

( /M )
av
=(56.32+55.54)/2=55.93 kmol/m
3

Solution, Contd
For SS binary liquid diffusion

Substitute numerical values:

AB 2
1
0
A A
A A
A A av
D x
N ln
z M x
(
| |
=
(
|

\ .
(

10 2
A
3.6 x10 m
N 0.167
=
( )
/ s
0.01 mm
3
m
x
10 mm
3
55.93 kmol / m
| |
|
\ .
( )
2
0.167 0
ln
0.167 0.0158
3.342 kmol / m s
(
(

=
( ) ( )
2
2
3600s
Rate of dissolutionof the crystal 3.342 kmol / m s x 249.71 kg / kmol
h
30 kg / m h
| |
=
|
\ .
=
Analogies Among Molecular
Momentum and Mass Transfer
Momentum equation

Shear stress is a viscous momentum flux
Kinematic viscosity has same units as diffusion coefficient
u is the volumetric momentum concentration
This equation is analogous to Ficks law
Schmidt number is defined as the dimensionless ratio of
momentum and mass diffusivities
_
elocity
hear stress
isc sity
v
s
v o
d u

dz
=
( ) ( )
momentum per unit volume

Kinematic viscosity or
Momentum diffusivity
d u d u

dz dz
| |
= =
|
\ .
u
z
( )
AB
/
Sc
D

=
Analogies Among Molecular Heat and
Mass Transfer
Fouriers Law

has same units as mass and momentum diffusivity
This equation is analogous to corresponding equations for momentum
and mass transfer
Prandtl umber is defined as the dimensionless ratio of momentum and
mass diffusivities

Lewis number is defined as the dimensionless ratio of thermal and mass
diffusivities

r t ate of heat Transfer hermal conducitivity
dT
q k
dz
=
( )

( )
Kinematic viscosity or
thermal energy per unit volum
Momentum diffusivity
hermal diffusi t
p p
p
vity
d Tc d Tc
k
q
c dz dz
| |
= = |
|
\ .
z
T
P
C
Pr
k

= =
c
AB
S
Le
D Pr
= =
Maxwell-Stefan Relations
Momentum balance for binary ideal gas mixture:
( )
1 12 1 2 1 2
p f y y v v =
( )
D

= =
1 2 1 2 1
1
12
y y v v p
d Maxwell Stefan Equation
P
D
12
12
P
Maxwell Stefandiffusivity
f
=
2
In chapter 1, we discussed the transport of species via
molecular motion (diffusion/microscopic scale)
The Diffusion flux, J
i
=-D
ij
c x
i

In addition to transport by molecular motion, mass may
also transported by the bulk motion of fluid
(convective/macroscopic scale)
The convective flux = c
i
V
Convective mass transfer involves
Transport of species between boundary surface and a moving fluid
Transport of species between two relatively immiscible moving
fluids
This mode of transfer depends both on the transport
properties and on the dynamic characteristics of the
flowing fluid
3
When a fluid flows past a solid surface under turbulent flow
conditions:
A laminar condition exists at a region close to the surface
Stagnant layer of the fluid exists near the solid boundary
Molecular diffusion is responsible for mass transfer through
the stagnant and laminar flowing fluid layers
The controlling resistance to convective mass transfer is
often the result of this "film" of fluid.
However, under most convective conditions, this film is
extremely thin and its thickness is virtually impossible to
measure or predict theoretically.
Mass transfer rates cannot be calculated
based on the concepts of molecular diffusion
Solid Surface
turbulent
laminar
Fluid
4
Flow past solid Surface
Solid surface
stagnant
laminar
turbulent u
With increasing distance from the surface,
the character of the flow gradually changes,
becoming increasingly turbulent, until in the
outermost region of the fluid fully turbulent
conditions prevail
5
Flow past solid Surface
In the turbulent region:
Particles of fluid no longer flow in the orderly manner
found in the laminar sub-layer
Instead, relatively large portions of the fluid, called
eddies, move rapidly from one position to another with an
appreciable component of their velocity in the direction
perpendicular to the surface past which the fluid is flowing
These eddies contribute considerably to the mass-transfer process
Because the eddy motion is rapid, mass transfer in the turbulent region is
much more rapid than it would be under laminar flow conditions
This situation cannot be modeled in terms of Fick's law.
Instead, it is explained in terms of a mass-transfer
coefficient, an approximate engineering idea that simplifies
the analysis of a very complex problem

6
Convective versus Molecular Mass
Transfer
As we learned, the mechanism of molecular diffusion, at
least for gases, is fairly well known

On the other hand, the mechanism of the flow process
involving the movement of the eddies in the turbulent
region is not thoroughly understood
Therefore, the rate of mass transfer through the various
regions from the surface to the turbulent zone is usually
estimated in the same manner found useful for molecular
diffusion
.
( )
( )
A A2 AB
A A
A A1
c / c cD
N ln
z c / c
(
=
(

7
Flux of Convective Mass Transfer
For convective mass transfer the cD
AB
/z term of the
general flux equation that characterize molecular diffusion,
is replaced by F, a mass-transfer coefficient:

Since the surface through which the transfer takes place
may not be plane, so that the diffusion path in the fluid may
be of variable cross section, N
A
is defined as the flux at the
phase interface or boundary where substance A enters or
leaves the phase for which F has been defined
2
1
A A
A A
A A
c /c
N F ln
c /c
(
=
(
(

8
Convective Mass transfer: Diffusion of
A through Stagnant B
For diffusion of A through stagnant B in a binary
system: (N
B
=0;
A
=1)

For Gases:

For Liquids

( )
1 2
G
A A A
B ,M
F
N y y
y
=
2
1
A
A
A
1 c /c
N F ln
1 c /c
(
=
(
(

2 1
2
1
B B
b ,M
B
B
y y
y
y
ln
y
=
| |
|
|
\ .
( ) ( )
2
1 2 1 2
1
A
L
A L A A A x A A
A B ,M
1 x
F
N F ln N x x k x x
1 x x
(
= = =
(
(

2 1
2
1
B B
b ,M
B
B
x x
x
x
ln
x
=
| |
|
|
\ .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
G
A A A y A A G A A c A A
B ,M
F
N y y k y y k p p k c c
y
= = = =
9
Example:
A gas absorber is used to remove benzene (C
6
H
6
) vapors
from air by scrubbing the gas mixture with a nonvolatile
oil at 300 K and 1 atm. At a certain point in the absorber,
the benzene mole fraction in the bulk of the gas phase is
0.02, while the corresponding interfacial benzene gas-
phase concentration is 0.00158. The benzene flux at that
point is measured as 0.62 g/m
2
/s.
a) Calculate the mass transfer coefficient in the gas phase at that
point in the equipment, expressing the driving force in terms of i)
mole fractions, ii) molar concentrations, kmol/m
3
.
b) If the benzene fraction in the bulk of the liquid phase is 0.125,
while the corresponding interfacial benzene liquid-phase
concentration is 0.158. Calculate the mass-transfer coefficient in
the liquid phase, expressing the driving force in terms of mole
fractions.
10
Solution part a: Gas Absorber
T=300 K, P= 1 atm
This is a diffusion of A (benzene) in stagnant B (Air)
y
A1
=0.02; y
A2
=0.0156
n
A
=0.62 g/m
2
.s
a)

Non-Volatile Oil
Air-Benzene
Oil-Benzen
Air
Air + benzene
Oil
( )
1 2
A y A A
N k y y =
( )
( )
1 2
-3
A
y
A A
2
2
mol
m s
7.94x10
N mol
k = = 1.89
0.02 0.0156 m s
y y
=

| |
|
\ .
-
2
3 A
A
2
A
g
m s
g
mol
0.62
n mol
N = = =7.94x10
M m s
78.1
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
.

\
interface
2 1
Benzene
11
Solution Part b: Gas Absorption
b)
( )
1 2
A c A A
N k c c =
( )
( )
1 2
-3
3 A
c
A
2
3
A
mol
m s
7.94x10
N m
k = = 46.8 x10
s
c c
0.81 0.
mol
m
64
| |
|
\ .
| |
.
=
|
\

A A
A
p y P
c
RT RT
= =
( )
( )
1 1
1
2 2
2
A A
3
A
3
A A
3
A
3
3
p y P 0.02 x1
c 0.81 mol / m
RT RT
0.0825 x10 x300
p y P
0.0158 x1
c 0.64 mol / m
RT R
atm
atm m
K
mol
T 0.0825 x10 x3
K
00
= = = =
= =
| |
|
.
=
=
\
12
Solution Part c: Gas Absorption
c) In the liquid side of the interface
x
A1
=0.158, x
A2
=0.125; x
B1
=0.842, x
B2
=0.875
1 2
1
2
B B
B ,M
B
B
x x
0.842 0.875
x 0.858
0.842
x
ln
ln
0.875
x

= = =
| | | |
| |
|
\ .
\ .
( )
( )
1 2
-3
A
x
A A
2
2
mol
m s
7.94x10
N mol
k = = 0.24
0.158 0.125 m s
x x
=

| |
|
\ .
Air + benzene
Oil
Benzene
2 1
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
L
A A A x A A
B ,M
F
N x x k x x
x
= =
( )
( )
1 2
2
-3
A B ,M
L
2
A A
mol
m s
7.94x10 x0.858
N x
mol
F = = 0.206
0.158 0.125 m s
x x
| |
|
\
=
interface
13
Convective Mass transfer: Equimolar
Counterdiffusion
For equimolar counter diffusion (N
A
=-N
B
,
A
=undefined)
For Gases:

For Liquids

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
A G A A y A A G A A c A A
N F y y k y y k p p =k c c

= = =
( ) ( ) ( )
A1 2 1 2 1 2
A L A x A A L A A
N F x x k x x k c c

== = =
'
L L x
F k c k

= =
' '
G G c y
P
F k P k k
RT
= = =
14
Example:
A packed bed distillation column is used to adiabatically
separate a mixture of methanol and water at a total
pressure of 1 atm. Methanol, the more volatile of the two
components, diffuses from liquid toward the vapor phase,
while water diffuses in the opposite direction. Assuming
that the molar latent heat of vaporization of both
components are similar, this process is usually modeled as
one of the equimolar counterdiffusion . At point a in the
column, the mass transfer coefficient is estimated as
1.62x10
-5
kmol/m
2
-s-kPa. The gas phase methanol mole
fraction at the interface is 0.707, while at the bulk gas it is
0.656. Estimate the methanol flux at that point.

15
Solution
Equimolar counterdiffusion
Let A is methanol; B is water
Gas side of the interface

k
G
= 1.62x10
-5
kmol/m
2
-s-kPa; P=1 atm
y
A1
=0.707; y
A2
=0.656

Water-Methanol
Water
Methanol
V L
M
W
vapor
Liquid
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
A G A A y A A G A A c A A
N F y y k y y k p p =k c c = = =
( )
( ) ( )
1 2
5
2
A G A A
5
2
N k p p 1.62 x10 0.707 0.656
kmo
kmol 101.325 kPa
atm
l
8.37 x10
m
atm m s kPa
s
= =
| | | |
| |

\ .
=
\
.
1 2
1 2
A A
A A
p y P
p 0.707 atm; p 0.656 atm
=
= =
16
Analogy Between Heat and Mass
Transfer
There are similarities between mass and heat transfer
governing equations when expressing the driving force in
terms of dimensionless variables
There are more experimental data available for heat
transfer than for mass transfer
There are also many similar dimensionless groups that
contain the heat and mass transfer coefficient
These dimensionless groups can be used to convert
equations or correlation of data on heat transfer to
correlation on mass transfer by replacing the
corresponding groups of heat transfer with groups of mass
transfer
17
Analogy between Heat and Mass
Transfer
These analogies should be used
when the flow conditions and
geometry are the same
If the heat transfer data is based
on situation where no mass
transfer is involved, the analogy
would produce mass-transfer
coefficients corresponding to no
net mass (equimolar counter
flow) and the mass transfer
coefficient would be k
G
, k
C
, k
y

Mass transfer Heat transfer
Reynolds number

Schmidt number

Prandtl number
Sherwood number

Nusselt number
Grashoff number Grashoff number

Peclet number

Peclet number
Stanton number

Stanton number
Chilton-Colburn j-
factor
Chilton-Colburn j-
factor
AB
Sc
D
=
AB
F
Sh
cD
=

D
AB
v
Pe Re Sc
D
= =

2
3
D D
j St Sc =
3
D 2
g
Gr

=

D
D
Sh Sh F
St
Re Sc Pe cv
= = =
P
C
Pr
k
=
h
Nu
k
=

3 2
H 2
g T
Gr

=

P
H
C v
Pe Re Pr
k
= =

H
H P
Nu Nu h
St
Re Pr Pe C v
= = =
2
3
D H
j St pr =
v
Re

=

Heat transfer
Reynolds number

Prandtl number
Nusselt number
Grashof number

Peclet number
Stanton number
Chilton-Colburn j-factor
v
Re

=
P
C
Pr
k
=
h
Nu
k
=
3 2
H
2
g T
Gr

P
H
C v
Pe Re Pr
k
= =
H
H P
Nu Nu h
St
Re Sc Pe C v
= = =
2
3
D H
j St pr =
Mass transfer
Reynolds number

Schmidt number

Sherwood number

Grashof number
Peclet number

Stanton number

Chilton-Colburn j-factor
AB
Sc
D
=
AB
F
Sh
cD
=

D
AB
v
Pe Re Sc
D
= =
2
3
D D
j St Sc =
3
D
2
g
Gr

=
D
D
Sh Sh F
St
Re Sc Pe cv
= = =
v
Re

=
19
Example: Flow Normal to Cylinder
For flow normal to a cylinder, the average heat-transfer coefficient-
averaged around the periphery of the cylinder- is given by

where Nu
av
and Re are computed using the cylinder diameter as the
characteristic length, and the fluid properties are evaluated at the
average conditions of the stagnant fluid film surrounding the solid
(average temperature and average concentration). Estimate the rate of
sublimation of a cylinder of UF
6
(M= 352), 1.0 cm diameter and 10 cm
long exposed to an air stream that flows normal to the cylinder axis at
a velocity of 1.0 m/s. The surface temperature of the solid is 303 K, at
which temperature the vapor pressure of UF
6
is 27 kPa. The bulk air is
at 1 atm and 325 K.
0.5 0.31
av
Nu 0.43 0.532 Re Pr ; 1 Re 4000 = +
20
Phase Diagram for UF
6
UF
6
is a solid below a temperature of 134F (57C)
and a gas at temperatures above 134F.
21
Solution
For heat transfer we have:

Replacing Nu
av
with Sh
av
and Pr with Sc we get:

Or

The properties are calculate at average
temperature and average concentration

0.5 0.31
av
Nu 0.43 0.532 Re Pr ; 1 Re 4000 = +
0.5 0.31
av
Sh 0.43 0.532 Re Sc ; 1 Re 4000 = +
Solid
UF
6
A
i
r

0.31 0.5
AB AB
F v
0.43 0.532
cD D

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .

Air
UF
6

1 2
av
303 325
T 314 K
2
+
= =
( )
6
av
UF
27 0
p 13.5 kPa
2
+
= =
( )
( )
6
av
UF
A
av
p
13.5
y 0.133 ;
P 101.3
= = =
( )
av i i
i
M y M 0.133 x352 1 0.133 x 29 71.96 = = + =
22
Solution: average Properties
Solid
UF
6
A
i
r

Air
UF
6

1 2
3 av
av
av
PM 101.325 x71.96
2.8 kg / m
RT 8.314 x314
= = =
( ) ( )
0.618
rM M rM rM rM
0.807T 0.357 exp 0.449T 0.340 exp 4.058T 0.018 = = + +
1
i ci 6
cM i
M cM i ci cM cM rM 3 4
i cM i ci av cM
i
y Z
T T
0.176 ;T y T ; P RT ;T
T y V M P
(
= = = =
(

3
av
22.9 x10 cP

=
O
2
N
2
UF
6

Y
i
0.182 0.685 0.133
T
c
, K 154.6 126.2 5005.8
P
c
, abr 50.4 33.9 46.6
M, g/mol 32 28 352
V
c,
cm
3
/mol 73.4 89.9 250
Z
c
0.288 0.290 0.272
av
canbe estimated using Lucas Corresponding states method
23
Solution Continue: D
UF6-air
( ) ( )
1 3
2 2
1
2
3
AB
12
2
AB AB D
3.03 0.98 / M 10 T
D
P
Wilke Lee Equat
M
ion

(

=
P 1.013 bar
T 314 K
T* 2.07
a 1.06 e 1.04
b 0.156 f 1.53
c 0.193 g 1.76
d 0.476 h 3.89
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
D b * * *
*
a c e g
exp dT exp fT exp hT
T
= + + +
A B
AB
;
2

+
=
AB A B
=
Specie

M
i
s
i
e
i
/k
W
D

D
AB

g/mol K cm
2
/s
A UF6 352.00 5.97 236.8
B Air 29.00 3.62 97
AB 53.59 4.79 151.6 1.062 0.09
24
Solution continued: Dimensionless
Numbers
B
3
5
A 4
2
kg
m
2.29 x10
Sc 0.905
D
2.8 x0.09 x10
s
kg m
s m
| |
|
\ .
| |
| |
| |
\
| |
|
| |
|
= = =
|
|
\ .
|
|
\ .
.
\ .
( )
5
3
m kg
m
s m
1223
kg
m s
0.01 x1 x 2.8
dv
Re
2.29 x10

| | | | | |
| |
= =
|
\ .
| | |
\ . \ .
|
=
| | |
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( )
0.5 0.31 av
av
Ab
0.5 0.31
av Ab
4 4
av
4
2
F
Sh 0.43 0.532 Re Sc
cD
F cD 0.43 0.532 x 1223 x 0.905
P 101.3
0.09 x10 x18.4 x0.09 x10 x18.4
RT 8.314 x314
kmol
6.52 x10
m s

= = +
(
= +

= =
=
4
A av
2
1 0 kmol
N F ln 2.021x10
27
m s
1
101.3
(
(
= =
(

(
(

To calculate the flux of A through B (stagnant)
The flux is based on the surface area of the cylinder;
2
3 2
2 d
S dl 3.3 x10 m
4

= + =
25
Solution continued: Dimensionless
Numbers
4
A av
2
1 0 kmol
N F ln 2.021x10
27
m s
1
101.3
(
(
= =
(

(
(

2
3 2
2 d
S dl 3.3 x10 m
4

= + =
To calculate the flux of A through stagnant B

The flux is based on the surface area of the
cylinder, S

The sublimation rate of the solid cylinder, W
A

4 3 4
A A A
kg
W N S M 2.021x10 x3.3 x10 x352 2.35 x10
s

= = =

26
Convective Mass Transfer Correlations
Mass transfer coefficients can be estimated based on
correlation deduced from analogy with heat transfer
Mass transfer coefficients can also be estimated based on
correlation developed from experimental data
These experimental data are usually obtained by blowing
gases over various wet with evaporating liquids, or causing
liquids to flow past solids which dissolve
The situations produces average coefficients rather than
local
For very dilute concentration, the k-type coefficients can be
obtained from F coefficient by assuming p
BM
/P, x
BM
=1
27
Mass Transfer Coefficient for Flat
Plates
Examples
Evaporation from a free liquid surface
Sublimation of a flat solid surface
The following correlation can be used:

or

Air
L
( )
( )
1
5
L
0.5
3
5
L L L
1
0.8
3
L L L L
Sh 0.664 Re Sc
Sh

0.036 Re Sc
Re 3 x10 Laminar
Re 3 x10 Tur bulent
<
=
=
0.6 Sc 2500 < <
( )
( )
0.5
D L
0.2
D
5
L
5
L L
Re 3 x10 Laminar

J 0.664 Re

J 0.036 Re Re 3 x10 Turbulent
=
=
<
28
Example
Liquid Benzene flows in a thin film down the outside surface
of a vertical plate, 1.5 m wide and 3 m long. The liquid
temperature is 300 K. Benzene-free nitrogen at 300 K and 1
bar flows across the width of the plate parallel to the surface
at a speed 5 m/s. Calculate the rate at which the liquid should
be supplied at the top so that the evaporation will just prevent
it from reaching the bottom of the plate. The density of liquid
benzene at 300 K is 0.88 g/cm
3
. The vapor pressure of
benzene at 300 K is 106 mmHg, the diffusion coefficient
D
benzene-Nitrogen
=0.0986 cm
2
/s and the viscosity benzene-
Nitrogen mixture is 161 P.

29
Solution
To prevent benzene from reaching the bottom of
the plate, the rate of benzene supply should equal
the rate of evaporation
Rate of evaporation of Benzene (A)=N
A
M
A
S
Since nitrogen (B) does not react with benzene
N
B
=0
This is a flow of A in stagnant B

1.5 m
3

m

N
2

2
1
A
A av
A
1 y
N F ln
1 y
(
=
(
(

30
y
A2
= 0
Nitrogen is free from benzene
y
A1
corresponds to the vapor pressure of benzene
at 300K (106 mmHg)
y
A1
=106/760=0.139
Average properties at the interface
can be estimated
F can be estimated based on
flat-plate correlations
.

Wall
benzene
Interface
Bulk Nitrogen
5
L
5
vL 1.26 x5 x1.5
Re 5.87 x10 ( Turbulent )
1.61x10

= = =
| |
5
4
AB
1.61x10
Sc 1.29
D 1.26 x0.
0.6 Sc 2500
099 x10
= < < = =
31
Solution Contd
For turbulent Flow:
1
0.8
3
L L L
Sh 0.036 Re Sc =
( ) ( )
1
0.8
5
3
L
Sh 0.036 5.59 x10 1.29 1610
= =
-4
4 L AB L AB
av
2
av
Sh cD Sh D 1617x1.26x0.099x10 kmol
F 4.23 x10
L M L 1.5 x31.4 m s

= = = =
2
1
A
4 5
A av
2
A
1 y
1 0 kmol
N F ln 4.25 x10 ln 6.34 x10
1 y 1 0.139 m s

(
| |
= = =
(
|

\ .
(

L
AB
F
Sh
c D
=

( )
5
A A A
kg
Total mass vaporation,W N SM 6.37 x10 x 3 x1.5 x78 0.022 1.34 kg / min
s
= = = =
32
Mass Transfer Coefficient for a Single
Sphere: No natural convection
General equation contains terms for molecular diffusion
and forced convection

For low Re, Sh approaches theoretical value of 2

For transfer into liquid stream (Brian and Hales)

For transfer into gases (Froessling and Evnochides and Thodos)

1
m
3
0
Sh Sh C Re Sc = +
1
m
3
Sh 2 C Re Sc = +
( )
1
2
2
3
D D
Sh P 4 1.21 e 0 P ; 0 e 10 0 < = +
1
3
D D
Sh 1.01Pe ; Pe 10000 > =
1
1
3 2
for 2 Re Sh 2.0 0. 12 552 Re S 000 and 0.6 Sc 2.7 c ; < < < < = +
33
Mass Transfer Coefficient for a Single
Sphere: with natural convection
Natural convection is negligible only when

For significant natural convection, the following
correlations are used
( )
0.62
1
2
nc
1 Re 300 Sh Sh 0.347 R 00 and 0.6 e S Sc 3200 c = +
( )
0.25
nc D
8
D
Sh 2.0 0. Gr 569 Gr S Sc 1 c ; 0 = < +
1 1
6 2
D
R e 0.4Gr Sc
( )
8
D
1
0.25
3
nc D
Sh 2.0 0.0254 Gr Sc Gr Sc S 1 c ; 0 + > =
34
Mass Transfer Coefficient for Single
Cylinders
Sublimation from solid cylinder into air flowing
normal to its axis
Dissolution of solid cylinders into turbulent water
(other liquids) stream
Bedingfield and Drew Correlation

0.4 G
M
400 Re
k PSc
0. 2500 281Re and 0. c
G
6 S 2.6
< < < < =

M
M
G is the molar mass velocity of the gas
G vc =
35
Example:
Estimate the mass transfer coefficient (F) for
sublimation of a cylinder of UF
6
(M= 352), 1.0
cm diameter and 10 cm long exposed to an air
stream that flows normal to the cylinder axis
at a velocity of 1.0 m/s. The surface
temperature of the solid is 303 K, at which
temperature the vapor pressure
of UF
6
is 27 kPa. The bulk air is
at 1 atm and 325 K

Solid
UF
6
A
i
r

Air
UF
6

1 2
36
Solution
This image cannot currently be displayed.
The properties are calculate at average temperature and average
concentration inside the stagnant film:

av
303 325
T 314 K
2
+
= = ( )
6
av
UF
27 0
p 13.5 kPa
2
+
= =
( )
( )
6
av
UF
A
av
p
13.5
y 0.133 ;
P 101.3
= = =
( )
av i i
i
M y M 0.133 x352 1 0.133 x 29 71.96 = = + =
3 av
av
av
PM 101.325 x71.96
2.8 kg / m
RT 8.314 x314
= = =
( ) ( )
0.618
rM M rM rM rM
0.807T 0.357 exp 0.449T 0.340 exp 4.058T 0.018 = = + +
1
i ci 6
cM i
M cM i ci cM cM rM 3 4
i cM i ci av cM
i
y Z
T T
0.176 ;T y T ; P RT ;T
T y V M P
(
= = = =
(

3
av
22.9 x10 cP

=
O
2
N
2
UF
6

Y
i
0.182 0.685 0.133
T
c
, K 154.6 126.2 5005.8
P
c
, abr 50.4 33.9 46.6
M, g/mol 32 28 352
V
c,
cm
3
/mol 73.4 89.9 250
Z
c
0.288 0.290 0.272
37

Compared to 6.52x10
-4
kmol/m
2
.s using analogy between
mass and heat transfer

0.4 G
M
k PSc
0.281Re
G
=
B
3
5
A 4
2
kg
m
2.29 x10
Sc 0.905
D
2.8 x0.09 x10
s
kg m
s m
| |
|
\ .
| |
| |
| |
\
| |
|
| |
|
= = =
|
|
\ .
|
|
\ .
.
\ .
( )
5
3
m kg
m
s m
1223
kg
m s
0.01 x1 x 2.8
dv
Re
2.29 x10

| | | | | |
| |
= =
|
\ .
| | |
\ . \ .
|
=
| | |
| |
\ . \ .
0.6 Sc 2.6 < <
400 Re 2500 < <
av
3
M
2
Av
2.8 kmol
G vc v 1 x 0.039
M 71.
m kmol
s m 96 m s
| | | |
| |
= = =
\ \ .
=
.
0.4 0.4 4 2 M
G
0.56
G 0.039
k P 0.281xRe x 0.281x1223 x 6.75 x10 kmol / m s
Sc 0.905

= = =
( )
( )
4 -04 2
y B ,M G B .M
1 1 0.266
F k y k P y 6.75 x10 x 5.81x10 kmol / m s
1
ln
1 0.266

= = = =
| |
|
\ .
38
Turbulent Flow in Pipes
Mass transfer from the inner wall of a tube to a moving
fluid (wetted wall towers)
Gilland and Sherwood correlation
Different fluids in air

The characteristic length is the tube diameter
The properties are evaluated at the bulk conditions
of the flowing gas stream
Best for gases only
Linton and Sherwood Correlation

Best for liquids and gases
Gas
0.83 0.44
2000 R
Sh 0.0
e 35
2
0
3 Re
00
0.6 Sc 2.5
Sc
< < (
(
< <

=
1
0.83
3
4000 Re 70000
0.6
Sh 0.0
Sc 3000
23 Re Sc
< < (
(
< <

=
39
Mass Transfer in Packed and Fluidized
beds
Packed and fluidized beds offer a dramatic increase
in surface area
Used in industrial mass transfer operations
Adsorption, ion exchange, chromatography, drying,
humidification, distillation, and catalytic reaction
For mass transfer of a species from the solid surface
of a packed bed to a flowing gas, or vise versa, use
the Sherwood et. al. correlation:

.

| |
0.415
D
10 J 1.17 Re Re 25000
< < =
y
y
p
p
d is the diamter of the spherewiththe same surface area as the particle
G is the gas mass velocity based ontotal cross section
d G
Re
area
=
40
Mass Transfer in Packed and Fluidized
beds
For mass transfer in both gas and liquid and fixed
and fluidized beds of spherical particles, use Gupta
and Thodos correlation:

The surface are for packed and fluidized bed are expressed
in terms of a
The pressure drop across a packed bed, use Ergun
equation below
2
y
3
P
(1)(G )
P 150(1-)
1. (SI units, Z is the bed hei 75
Z Re
ght
d
)
| |
| |
= + |
|
|
\ .
\ .
| |
D
0.58
0.863
J 0.010
Re 0.483
1 Re 2100 < < = +
P P
d d
0.406 0.571 for 0.14 is thevoid fractionof t b
D D
he ed = +
( )
P
6 1
a
d

=
2/3 2/3 2/3
D D
Sh F
j St Sc Sc Sc
ReSc cv
= = =
41
Mass Transfer in Hollow-Fiber
Membrane Modules
Hollow-fiber membrane modules are the mass
transfer equivalent to tube and shell heat
exchangers
One fluid flows through the lumen (inside the fiber
bundle) the other flows through the shell. Mass is
transferred from one stream to the other across
the fiber wall
Mass transfer may involve both diffusion and
convection, depending on the
membrane type
42
Mass Transfer in Hollow-Fiber
Membrane Modules

Fiber bundle
43
Mass Transfer Coefficient for Hollow
Fiber Membrane
Bao et. al. Correlation (Liquid through Shell Side)

Flow through lumen corresponds to laminar flow inside a circular pipe
Constant wall concentration

Constant wall flux concentration

( ) | |
0.47
0.53 0.33
1
30 10
1
Sh 0.53 1 1.10 Re Sc 0 75 and 20 Re 350
( | |
< < < <
(
=
(

( |
\ .
L
AB
0
0
2 Rk
Sh ; R Fiber Radius ; Fiber packing fraction
D
2 Rv
Re ; v superficial velocity based onempty shell
=
=
( ) ( ) | |
1
3
1 1
i
3 3
D z
R e 210
d
Sh 1.62 Pe 1. 0 62 G
L
| |
= =
|
\ .
<
i L i
AB
i
z D
d k d v
Sh ; Re ; v average fluid velocity
D
d
G Graetz number Pe
L
= =
| |
=
|
\ .
44
Packed-Bed: Mass transfer from solid
surface to the gas stream
Wilke and Hougan reported the mass transfer in beds of granular
solids. Air was blown through a bed of porous celite pellets wetted
with water, and by evaporating this water under adiabatic conditions,
they reported gas-film coefficients for packed beds. In one run, the
following data were reported:
Effective particle diameter 5.71 mm
Gas stream velocity 0.816 kg/m
2
-s
Temperature at the surface 311 K
Pressure 97.7 kPa
k
G
=

4.415x10
-3
kmol/m
2
-s-atm
With the assumption that the properties of the gas mixture are the
same as those of air, calculate the gas film mass transfer coefficient and
compare the result with the value reported by Wilke and Hougan.
Assume the film viscosity, =1.91x10
-5
kg/m.s.
45
Solution
For packed bed and mass transfer
from solid surface to the gas
particle
water
Air
Air
| |
0.415
D
10 j 1.17 R Re 2500 e
< < =
y
p
y
p
d is the diamter of the spherewiththe same surface area as the particle
G is the gas velocity based ontotal cross section
d G
Re
area
=
p y
d G
Re 244
= =
0.415
D
j 1.17 Re 0.120
= =
2
3
D D
j St Sc =
2
3
D
D
j Sh
St
Re Sc
Sc
= =
AB
Sc
D
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
5 2
water Air
311 K
D 2.52 x10 m / s
=
46
Solution Continued

( )
3
3
air air
P 97.7 x10
cM M 28.8 28.8 0.0378 1.09 kg / m
RT 8.314 x311
= = = = =
-3 3
3
4.47x10 4.415 x10
%error x100 1.24%
4.415 x10
== = +
5
5
AB
1.91x10
Sc 0.697
D 1.09 x 2.52 x10
| |
= = =
|
\ .
2 2
3 3
D
D
j Sh 0.120
St 0.152
Re Sc
Sc 0.697
= = = =
( )
3
G 2
b ,M
F 25.84 kmol
k 4.47 x10
Py 97.7/101.3 x1 m s atn
= = =

P
D
AB
Fd
Sh St Re Sc 0.152 x 244 x0.696 25.84
D
= = = =
5
3 2 AB
3
p
cD 0.0378 x 2.52 x10
F Sh 25.84 4.31x10 kmol / m .s
d 5.71x10
= = =
Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,G

Equilibrium Relation
There are equations that describes the equilibrium
relation between the concentration of certain
component in the liquid and gas phase at certain
temperature and pressure
Raoults Law

Henrys Law (dilute solution)

Distribution-law (liquid-liquid)
A A A A A
p y P x P = =

A A A A
partial pressure Total pressure vapor pressure
a
A
ctivity coefficient
p y P x P = =
A A A
Hx P y p = =
2 , 1 , liquid A liquid A
Kc c =
Diffusion Between Phases
Consider the absorption of ammonia from a
mixture with air using liquid water, in a wetted
wall column
The ammonia-air mixture enters the column
from the bottom and flow upward and water
flow downward on the inner wall of the column
The concentration of the ammonia in the gas mixture
decreases as it flows upward
the concentration of the ammonia in water increases
as it flows downward
under steady state conditions, the concentration at
any point of the column does not change with time
NH
3
-Air
Water
NH
3
-H
2
O
Two-Resistance Theory
The ammonia (solute) diffuses from the gas
phase to the liquid through an interface
There is a concentration gradient in the
direction of mass transfer in each phase
On concentrations on the interface (y
A,I

and x
A,i
, are assumed to be in equilibrium)
This simply means the mass transfer
resistance is only in the fluid phase
and no resistance across the interface
Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,L

5
Phase Transfer Coefficients
N
NH3
can be expressed in terms of
k-type coefficients:

y
A,i
= f(x
A,i
)
( ) ( )
A y A,G A,i x A,i A,L
N k y y k x x = =
Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,G

( )
( )
A,G A,i
x
y
A,L A,i
y y
k
k
x x
y
A,G

x
A,i
x
A,L

A,i
A,i
y
y is the interface concentration in the gas phase side
x is the interface concentration in the liquid phase side
k

is the gas phase mass trans

fer
Wher
coe i
:

e
ffic
x
en
k is the liquid phase mass transfer coeffic
t
ient
Overall-Mass Transfer Coefficient
The interface concentration is
hard to accurately measure
The flux can be estimated in terms
of overall mass transfer coefficient
as follow

( ) ( )
* *
A y A,G A x A A,L
N K y y K x x = =
*
A A,L
*
A A,G
y is inequilibriumwith x
x is inequilibriumwith
re :
y
Whe
y
A,G

x
A
*

y
A
*
x
A,L

y
A,i

x
A,i

Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,L

y*
A

x*
A

Overall and individual Phase Coefficient
If the equilibrium relation is linear
Dilute solution where Henrys Law applies

( )
A,i A,i
y m x =
* *
A A,L A,G A
y m x ; y m x = =
( )
( )
*
A y A,G A
* *
A,i A,L
A,G A A,G A,i A,i A A,G A,i
y A A A A A
N K y y
m x x
y y y y y y y y
1
K N N N N N
=

= = + = +
y y x
1 1 m
K k k
= +
x y x
1 1 1
K mk k
= +
Similarly
y
y
1
k
Resistance in gas phase
1 Total Resistance in both phases
K
=
x
X
1
k Resistance in liquid phase
1 Total Resistance in both phases
K
=
Effect of the Gas Solubility in the Mass
Transfer Coefficients
For highly soluble gas (the slope of the equilibrium
line, m, is small)
The major resistance is in the gas phase

For low solubility gas (the slope of
the equilibrium line, m, is large)
The major resistance is in the liquid
phase
y
A

X
A
y y x y
1 1 m 1
K k k k
= +
x y x x
1 1 1 1
K mk k k
= +
Example
In an experimental study of the absorption of NH
3
by water in
a wetted-wall column, the value of K
G
was found to be
2.7510
-6
kmol/(m
2
-s-kPa). At one point in the column, the
composition of the gas and liquid phases were 8.0 and 0.115
mol% NH
3
, respectively. The temperature was 300 K and the
total pressure was 1 atm. 85% of the total resistance to mass
transfer was found to be in the gas phase. At 300 K, NH
3
-
water solution follows Henrys law up to 5 mol% NH
3
in the
liquid with m = 1.64 when the total pressure is 1 atm.
Calculate:
1. Flux of NH
3
2. Individual film coefficients
3. Interfacial Compositions (y
A,i
and x
A,i
)

10
Solution
Given
T=300 K; P=1 atm
K
G
= 2.75x10
-6
kmol/m
2
-s-kPa
y
A,G
=0.080; x
A,L
=0.00115
.
.

y y
1 1
0.85
k K
=
( )
*
A y A,G A
N K y y =
* 3
A A,L
y mx 1.65 * 0.00115 1.886 x10
= = =
( ) ( )
* 4 5 2
A y A,G A
N K y y 2.786 x10 0.08 0.001886 2.18 x10 kmol / m s

= = =
-6 -4 2
y G
K =K P = 2.75x10 x 101.3 = 2.786x10 kmol/m -s
Solution
.

.
.

.

y y
1 0.85
k K
=
5
A
A,i A,G
4
y
N 2.18 x10
y y 0.08 0.01362
k 3.28 x10
= = =
4
y
4 2
y
K
2.786 x10
k 3.28 x10 kmol / m .s
0.85 0.85
= = =
y y x
1 1 m
K k k
= +
x y y y y y
m 1 1 1 0.85 0.15
k K k K K K
= = =
( )
A y A,G A,i
N k y y =
A i
,i
3 ,
A
0.01362
8.
y
3 x
m
05 x10
1.64
= = =
6
y
3 2
x
mK
1.64 x 2.75 x10
k 3.05 x10 kmol / m .s
0.15 0.15
= = =
Local Mass Transfer Coefficients
For general case
Diffusion of more than one species
No equimolar counterdiffusion
The mass transfer rates are large
k-type or k-type diffusion coefficients cannot be
used
F-type diffusion coefficient has to be used

A,G A,i A,L A,L
A A,G G A,L L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
N F ln F ln
y x

( (
= =
( (

( (

A , L L
A ,G G
F
F
A,G A,i A,L A,L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
y x

(
=
(

(

Example
A wetted-wall absorption tower is fed with water as the wall
liquid and an ammonia air mixture as the central-core gas. At
a particular point in the tower, The ammonia concentration
in the bulk gas is 0.60 mole fraction and that in the bulk
liquid is 0.12 mole fraction. The temperature is 300 K and
the pressure is 1 atm. Ignoring the vaporization of water,
calculate the local ammonia mass-transfer flux. The rates of
flow are such that F
L
= 0.0035 kmol/m
2
-s. and F
G
= 0.0020
kmol/m
2
-s. The equilibrium-distribution data for the system
at 300 K and 1 atm is:

( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622 x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = +
Solution
Given
T=300 K; P=1 atm
y
A,G
=0.60; x
A,L
=0.12
F
L
= 0.0035 kmol/m
2
-s; . F
G
= 0.0020 kmol/m
2
-s
.
Although this is a diffusion or A through stagnant B, the
ammonia concentration is too high to use k-type mass
transfer coefficient, F-type coefficient must be used

( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622 x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = +
A,G A,i A,L A,L
A A,G G A,L L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
N F ln F ln
y x

( (
= =
( (

( (

A,G A,L
1 = =
A,i A,L
A G L
A,G A,i
1 y 1 x
N F ln F ln
1 y 1 x
( (
= =
( (

( (

( )
L
G
F
F
A,L
A,i A,G
A,i
1 x
y 1 1 y
1 x
(
=
(
(

Solution

Graphically or numerically
y
A,i
=0.49; x
Ai
=0.23

( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622 x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = +
A,i
A G
A,G
3
4 2
1 y
N F ln
1 y
1 0.49
2 x10 ln
1 0.6
0.4.7 x10 kmol / m s
(
=
(
(

(
=
(

=
( )
L
G
F
1.75
F
A,L
A,i A,G A,i
A,i A,i
1 x
0.88
y 1 1 y y 0.6
1 x 1 x
( (
= =
( (

( (

( )
A A A A A
y 10.51 x 0.156 0.622 x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 ( = +

Material Balance
Consider steady state mass transfer
operation involving countercurrent
contact of two immiscible phases
V is total moles of phase V
Vs is moles of A-free V
L is total moles of phase L
L is moles of A-free L
y is mole fraction of component A in V
x is mole fraction of component A in L
Y is the moles of A per mole A-free V
X is mole of component A per mole A-
free L
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

y
Y
1 y
=
x
X
1 x
=
Material Balance: Counter Flow

Mole balance around the column

Using solute free basis

Mole balance around plane z

Using solute free basis

moles of Aentering moles of Aleaving
the column the column
( (
=
( (

1 1 1 1
V y Lx Vy L x + = +
1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
V y L x V y L x + = +
S 1 S 2 S 2 S 1
V Y L X V Y L X + = +
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
S 1 S S S 1
V Y L X V Y L X + = +
Material Balance: Counter Flow
The mole balance in terms of solute free basis

or

L, x, X V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
Transfer from phase V to
phase L (Absorption)
Transfer from phase L to
phase V (Stripping)
S 1
S 1
L Y Y
V X X
S 1 2
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X
Material Balance: Cocurrent Flow

Mole balance around the column

Using solute free basis:

Using the operating line approach:
moles of Aentering moles of Aleaving
the column the column
( (
=
( (

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
V y L x Vy Lx V y L x + = + = +
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
S 1 s 1 S S S 2 S 2
V Y L X V Y L X V Y L X + = + = +
S 1 2 1
1 2 S 1
L Y Y Y Y
X X V X X

= =

20
Material Balance: Cocurrent Flow
The mole balance in terms of solute free basis

L, x, X V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
Transfer from phase V to
phase L (Absorption)
Transfer from phase L to
phase V (Stripping)
S 1 2 1
1 2 S 1
L Y Y Y Y
X X V X X

= =

Material Balance
Masses, mass fraction, and mass ratio can be substitute
consistently for moles, mole fractions, and mole ratios in
the mass balance equations
Cocurrent flow

Counter Flow

Where the prime () indicates mass based property

' ' '
S 1 2
' ' '
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X
' ' '

S 1 2
' ' '
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X
Example: Adsorption of NO
2
on Silica
Gel
NO
2
produced by thermal process for fixation of nitrogen, is to be
removed from dilute mixture with air by adsorption on silica gel in a
continuous adsorber. The mass flow rate of the gas entering the
adsorber is 0.5 kg/s. It contains 1.5% NO
2
, by volume, and 85% of NO
2
is to be removed. Operation to be isothermal at 298 K and 1 atm. The
entering gel will be free of NO
2
. the equilibrium adsorption data at this
temperature are:

If twice the minimum gel rate is to be used, calculate the gel mass flow
rate and the composition of the gel leaving the process for:
i. Counter flow operation
ii. Cocurrent flow operation
p
NO2,
mmHg 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Solid conc. (m),
kg NO
2
/ 100 kg gel
0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.60 3.65 4.85
Solution:
1. Plot the equilibrium data
Since the equilibrium data is given in
terms of mass ratios, it is easier to use mass
based equation in this case
The partial pressure data have to be converted
to mass ratio data (Y)

Now the equilibrium data become:

2 2
NO NO
' i
i i
A
i
ir i A
i
i
i
ir
i
M kg
p 46
Y Y x
M 760 p 29
y p
Y
1 y P
kg
p
= =
= =

Gel+NO
2
Air /NO
2

Gel Air /NO
2

Cocurrent
Gel Air /NO
2

Gel/NO
2
Air /NO
2

Countercurrent
X
i
, kg NO
2
/ 100 kg gel 0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.60 3.65 4.85
Y
i
, kg
NO2
/ 100 kg
Air
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Minimum gel rate

When the operating line touches
(reaches) the equilibrium line
X
1
=0.037 (From graph)

2 2
NO NO ' 1
1 1
Air 1 Air
M kg
y 46 0.015 46
Y Y x * 0.0242
M 1 y 29 1 0.015 29 kg
= = = =

( )
2
NO
' '
2 1
Air
kg
Y 1 0.85 xY 0.15 * 2.42 0.0036
kg
= = =
' 2
2
kg NO
X 0.00
kg gel
=

( )
' ' '
S 1 2
' ' '
1 2 S'
' '
' ' ' 1 2
'
min
S S S ' '
1 2
' '
s 1 B1 '
1
'
S
' '
1 2
' ' '
1 2 S '
S
S
L Y Y
X X V
Y Y 0.0242 0.0036
L xV xV
0.037 0 X X
1 1
V V 0.5 x 0.5 0.488 kgAir / s
1 0.0242 1 Y
L 2 x0.268 0.536
L
kg gel / s
Y Y
(min) 0.268 kg gel / s
0.0
X X V 0.00 0.488 x
L

= =

= = = =
+ +
= =
= +
=
= +
2
24 0.0036
0.0186 kg NO / kg gel
0.536
=
Cocurrent Flow
Y
1
=0.024
Y
2
=0.036
X
1
=0.00
For (L
S
)
min
, (X
2
)max can be
found by drawing the
operating line reaching
the equilibrium line
(X
2
)
max
=0.0034

Gel+NO
2
Air /NO
2

Gel Air /NO
2

Cocurrent
Solution, continued

( )
'
' '
S 1 2
' ' '
1 2
S'
' '
'
' 1 2
min
S S
' '
2 ,max 1
'
S
' '
1 2
' ' '
2 1 S
'
S
2
L Y Y
X X
V
Y Y 0.0242 0.0036
L xV x0.488 2.957 kg gel / s
0.0034 0 X X
L 2 x 2.957 5.92 kg gel / s
Y Y
X X V
L
0.024 0.0036
0 0.488 x 0.00168 kg NO / kg gel
5.92

= = =

= =
= +
= + =
To reach the same degree of removal of NO
2
, countercurrent flow is
much more effect compared to cocurrent
The amount of gel needed for cocurrent flow (5.92 kg/s) is about 11
times of that needed if countercurrent flow is used (0.536 kg/s)
Equilibrium-Stage Operation
In many instances mass transfer devices are assembled by
interconnecting individual units (stages)
The material passes through each one of these stages
Two material streams moves countercurrently (cascades)
In each stage the two streams are contacted, mixed, and then
separated
As the stream moves between stage they come close to equilibrium
conditions
If the leaving streams from a certain stage is in equilibrium, this
stage is an ideal stage
If the stage are connected cocurrently they represent a single stage
Batch mass-transfer operations are also a single stage
Stage-Operations

The flow rate and composition of each stream are
numbered corresponding to the effluent from a stage
X
2
is the mole ratio in stream leaving stage 2

Y
N
is the mole ratio of stream leaving
For ideal stages, the effluents from each stage are in equilibrium
Y
2
is in equilibrium with X
2
and so on
The cascade has the characteristics of the countercurrent process with
operating line goes through points (X
0
, Y
1
) and (X
N
, Y
N+1
)
T h e c a s
Stage
N-1
Stage
N
Stage
2
Stage
1
V
1
V
S
Y
1

L
0
L
S
X
0

V
2
V
S
Y
2

L
1
L
S
X
1

V
N
V
S
Y
N

L
N-1
L
S
X
N-1

V
N+1
V
S
Y
N+1

L
N
L
S
X
N

n
Number of Ideal Stages
Number of ideal stages can be determined graphically
(for two component systems)
Number of Stages
For linear equilibrium line (Y
i
=mX
i
), analytical
solution is possible (Kremser):
Define Absorption factor (ratio of the slope of the
operating line to the slope of the equilibrium line):

S
S
L
A
mV
=
For transfer from L to V (Stripping)

( )
( )
0 N 1
N N 1
0 N
N N 1
X Y / m
ln 1 A A
X Y / m
N A 1
ln 1 / A
X X
N A 1
X Y
+
+
+
(
+
(
= =
For transfer from V to L (Absorption)

N 1 0
1 0
N 1 1
1 0
Y mX 1 1
ln 1
Y mX A A
N A 1
ln A
Y Y
N A 1
Y mX
+
+
( | |
+
( |
\ .

=
= =
1
CHEG351: Mass Transfer
Chapter 4
Equipment for Gas Liquid Mass Transfer Operations
Intimate contact between immiscible phase is required to
permit interphase diffusion
The rate of mass transfer is dependent on the interfacial area
exposed between the phases
Many operations require contact between a gas and a liquid
phase
Distillation, humidification, dehumidification, absorption, desorption
The equipment for gas liquid contact disperse either the gas or
the liquid in the other phase
Chapter 4
Gas-Liquid Operations: Liquid Dispersed
Liquid is dispersed into thin film or drops
Wetted-wall columns
Liquid flow downward inside a vertical pipe
Gas flow countercurrently, upward,
Spray and spray towers
Nozzle disperses the liquid into fine spray of drops
Can be used with countercurrent (vertical towers) or parallel
(horizontal spray chambers)
Packed towers
Vertical columns filled with packing materials
Provide continuous contact between liquid and gas

Chapter 4
Packed Towers
Provide continuous contact between liquid
and gas for countercurrent or cocurrent
flow
The liquid is distributed over, and trickle
down through the packed bed exposing
a large surface to contact the gas phase
Tower fill (packing) should;
Provide a large interfacial surface to contact
the liquid and gas
Ensure high void fraction, , to permit
passage of gas and liquid at relatively high
velocity with low pressure drop
Gas outlet
Mist eliminator
Liquid
distribution
Packing
Gas inlet
Packing support
Chapter 4
Tower Packing
Tower fill or packing should:
1. Provide a large interfacial surface for contact between
liquid and gas per unit volume of packed space
2. Ensure high void fraction, , to permit passage of gas
and liquid at relatively high velocity with low pressure
drop
3. Be chemically inert to the fluids being processed
4. Posses structural strength to permit easy handling and
installation
Material of Construction
Packed towers shall be constructed from wood, metals,
chemical stonewares, acidproof bricks, plastic- or glass
lined materials
Chapter 4
Tower Packing: 1. Random Packing
Dumped into the tower during installation and
allowed to fall at random
Made of metals, ceramics, or plastics
Types of Packings
Coke and broken glass and pottery
First generation
Raschig rings (d=6-100 mm)
Second generation
Pal rings
Third generation
Exotic shapes, saddles
Chapter 4
Tower Packing: 2. Regular (Structured)
Packing
Advantage:
Structured packings provide low pressure drop for the
gas and greater possible flow rates
Disadvantage:
More costly to install
Examples
Intalox high performance
Flexigrid
Wood grids

Intalox
Flexigrid
Chapter 4
0
0
1.0
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.8
1 2 3 4 5 6

Distance from wall, r*=r/d
p
Liquid Distribution
Initial distribution of liquid at the top of the packing is
very important
Part of the packing remains dry if liquid distribution
was Insufficient
For random packing, the packing density (number of
packing pieces per unit volume) varies across the
radial direction of the column
Leads to liquid segregation and gas channeling
The effect is less pronounced for
d
P
<
1
/
8
D, (d
P
<
1
/
15
D is recommended)
Liquid redistribution every 3-10 D
or at least every 6-7 m is provided
Chapter 4
Liquid Holdup
For random packings, the gas pressure drop is dependent on the gas and the
liquid flow rates
At fixed gas velocity, the pressure drop increases with the liquid flow rate
The free cross sectional area decreases
Loading point:
The maximum gas velocity at which the liquid holdup is reasonably
independent of the gas velocity
Preloading region
Below the loading gas velocity, the gas is the continuous phase
Above the loading point, the liquid accumulate in the column causing a
sharp increase in the gas pressure drop
The flooding point
The liquid becomes the continuous phase and the pressure drops increases
infinitely with the gas velocity
Chapter 4
Liquid Holdup
The specific liquid holdup, h
L
in the preloading zone can be estimated using
Billet and Scuhltes for different random and structured packing materials:

Where
h
L
= specific liquid holdup, m
3
holdup/ m
3
packed bed
Re
L
= liquid Reynolds number = v
L
L
/a
L

v
L

= superficial liquid velocity, m/s
a = specific surface area of packing, m
2
/m
3
Fr
L
= liquid Froude number = v
L
2
a/g
g = acceleration of gravity, m
2
/s
a
h

= hydraulic or effective, specific area of packing
a and C
h
are characteristic of the particular
packing type and size
The superficial liquid velocity must exceeds
the following values to ensure complete
wetting of the packing:

1
2
3
3
L H
L
L
Fr a
h 12
Re a
(
(
=
(
(

0.5 0.1 h
h L L L
0.25 0.1 h
h L L L
a
C Re Fr Re 5
a
a
0.85C Re Fr Re 5
a
= <
=
Type of Packings v
L
, min, mm/s
Ceramics 0.15
Oxidized/etched
metals
0.3
Bright metals 0.9
Plastics 1.2
Chapter 4
Liquid holdup: Example
A tower packed with 25-mm ceramic Raschig rings is to be used
for absorbing benzene vapor from a dilute mixture with inert
gas using wash oil at 300 K. the viscosity of the oil is 2.0 cP
and its density is 840 kg/m
3
. the liquid mass velocity is G
x
=2.71
kg/m
2
.s. Estimate the liquid holdup, the void fraction and the
hydraulic specific area of the packing.
Given Data:
T=300 K

L
=840 kg/m
3
;
L
=2.0 cP
G
x
=2.71 kg/m
2
.s
d
P
=25 mm
Required:
h
L
, , and a
h

Chapter 4
-3 x
L
G 2.71
v = = =3.226 x10 m / s
L 840
Solution

From table 4.1, for 25 mm ceramic Raschig rings:
a =190 m
2
/m
3
; C
h
=0.577; =0.680

-3
L L
L
3
L
v 3.226 x10 x840
Re = = 7.13
a 190 x 2 x10

=
( ) ( )
0.1
0.25
0.25 0.1 3 h
h L L
2 3
h
a
0.85C Re Fr =0.85 x 0.577 7.13 0.202 x10 0.342
a
a 0.342 x190 65 m / m
= =
= =
L
2
3
3
L
v a
3.226 x10 x190
Fr = 0.202 x10
g 9.81
= =
| |
1
2 1 / 3
3 3
3
2 / 3
3 3 L h
L
L
Fr a 0.202 x10
h 12 12 0.342 0.034 m holdup / m packed bed
Re a 7.13
( (
(
= = =
( (
(

dry L
= - h = 0.680 - 0.034=0.646
Chapter 4
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
Fl oadi ng
Gas Pressure Drop
Pa/m packing
50
200
400
Fl oadi ng
Pressure Drop at flooding
Sherwood correlated the
flooding data for counter-
current packed columns
based on the flow
parameter, X

Pressure drop at flooding:
0.5
G
L
L'
X=
V '
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
(
)
(
)
2
0
.
1
P
S
L
Y
=
F
C
( )
2
flooding
lnY 3.5021 1.028 ln X 0.11093 ln X
(
= + +

1
packing Factor
2
2 0.1 G
flooding P S L S G
L G
0.5
G
L
where :
Y F C ; C v
L'
X
V '
(
= =
(

| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
0.7
flooding P
P 93.9 F =
Chapter 4
Pressure Drop
Pressure drop at
conditions other than
flooding can be estimated
using Generalized
Pressure Drop Equation

0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
Fl oadi ng
Gas Pressure Drop
Pa/m packing
50
200
400
0.5
G
L
L'
X=
V '
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
(
)
(
)
2
0
.
1
P
S
L
Y
=
F
C

Chapter 4
Packed Column Sizing
Packed columns can be sized according to either
1. Fractional approach to flooding

2. Maximum allowable gas-pressure drop
Gas pressure drop through the packed bed
Absorber and strippers P~200-400 Pa/m of packed depth
Atmospheric fractionator P~400-600 Pa/m of packed depth
Vacuum stills P~80-40 Pa/m of packed depth
0.5
G
GF
4Q
D=
f v
| |
|
\ .
G
GF
D = diameter of the column
Q = volumetric flow rate of the gas
v the gas velocity at flooding =
Chapter 4
Pressure drop
The pressure drop can be predicted based on follow:
For dry column

For wet column
2
0 G G
0 3
W
P v a 1
Z 2 K
=
( )
P
W
P
0 p
0.08
G G
G p G W
G
G
Wall Factor;
Effective particle diamete
d 1 2 1
1 ;
K 3 1 D
1
d 6
a
64
r
Dry packing resistance coeff
1.8
C 1.8
Re Re
v d K
Re
ici n
1
e t

| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
=
1.5
L
0 L
Re P
exp
P h 200
| | | |
=
|
|

\ .
\ .
L L
L
L
v
Re
a
=
Chapter 4
Mass Transfer Coefficient
For mass transfer resistance mainly in the liquid phase:

For mass transfer resistance mainly in the gas phase:

C
L
and C
V
are empirical constants (Table 4.2)

0.5
L L
L L
L
D av
k 0.757C
h
(
=
(

( )
3 4
2
G G
3
y V G
W L
D P Re a
k 0.1304C Sc
RT K h
(
=
(
(

( )
G p G W
G
G
v d K
Re
1

Chapter 4
Gas-Liquid Operations: Gas Dispersed
Gas phase is dispersed into bubbles or foams
Sparged Vessels
Can be used for single stage and cocurrent
arrangement
May involve chemical reaction between the gas and
the liquid
Examples: bio-reactors, hydrogenation of vegetable
oils, fermentation,
Tray Towers
Liquid and gas are contacted in stepwise fashion on
trays or plates

Chapter 4
Sparged Vessels (Bubble Column)
A sparger is used to introduce stream of gas in the
form of small bubbles into a liquid
Can be an open tube (small-diameter columns) or
several orifices (large- diameter columns)
Size of the bubbles depends on:
Rate of gas flow through the orifices
The orifice diameter
The fluid properties
The extent of turbulence in the liquid

Chapter 4
Sparged Columns: Bubble diameter
For air-water system, the bubble size, d
P
, can be
estimated as follow

Gas Hold Up,
G
(volume of gas/volume of column):
Gas superficial velocity, v
G
Slip velocity, v
S
(relative velocity of gas and liquid)

1 1
3 2
P o o
0.05
o
P o o
d 0.0287 d Re for
d 0.0071 Re for
Re 2100
10000 Re 50000

=
=
o
G
o
o G
d orifice diameter
4 m
Re
d
=
=
G L
S
G G
G L
S
G G
v v
v cocurrent
1
v v
v countercurrent
1

=
= +

Chapter 4
Tray Towers
Vertical cylinders in which liquid and gas are contacted
in stepwise fashion on trays or plates
Liquid flows downward by gravity. On the way, it
flows across each tray and through a downcomer to
the tray below
The gas passes upward through openings of one sort
or another in the tray, bubbles through the liquid
forming a froth, disengages, and passes on to the next
tray above
The overall effect is a multiple countercurrent contact
of gas and liquid.
Each tray of the tower is a stage
Fluids are brought into intimate contact
Interphase diffusion occurs
Fluids are then separated
Chapter 4
Tray Towers
The number of equilibrium stages (theoretical trays)
depends on the difficulty of separation and is
determined by material balances and equilibrium
The stage efficiency, and therefore the number of
real trays, is determined by the mechanical design
used and the conditions of operation
Stage efficiency depend on the contact time between
the gas and the liquid
Deep liquid pool on each tray (long contact time)
and high gas velocity (large interfacial area and
mass transfer coefficients) are required for high
efficiency
However these conditions lead to some difficulties
Chapter 4
Tray Stability
Deep liquid contact increases pressure drop which
may cause flooding
High gas velocity
Low liquid velocity: entrainment
Foaming systems: Priming
High liquid velocity: flooding
Low gas velocity
Low liquid velocity: Dumping
High liquid velocity: Weeping
Low liquid velocity:
Coning
Gas rate
Satisfactory
Operation
L
i
q
u
i
d

r
a
t
e

weeping
Chapter 4
F
i
x
e
d

Tray Type
Sieve tray
Perforated tray deck with uniform hole
diameter of less than 1 mm to 25 mm
Most economical in terms of cost and
maintenance
Valve trays
Offers more flexibility over sieve trays
More expensive
Can be fixed or floating
Bubble cap trays
Provides the most flexibility
However, the most expensive tray
S
i
e
v
e

t
r
a
y

V
a
l
v
e

t
r
a
y
s

B
u
b
b
l
e

C
a
p

t
r
a
y

C
a
g
e
d

Chapter 4
Vapor Flow Through Tray
Sieve Tray Valve Tray Bubble Cap Tray
Chapter 4
Bubble Cap Tray
Chapter 4
Valve Tray
Chapter 4
Sieve Tray
Chapter 4
Sieve Tray Valve Tray Bubble Cap Tray
Chapter 4
Satisfactory Operation of Tray Towers
In order to have stable operation, the vapor and liquid
flows must be managed such that:
vapor should flow only through the open regions of the
tray between the downcomers
vapor should not be carried down the column in the
liquid
liquid should flow only through the downcomers
liquid should not weep through tray perforations
liquid should not be carried up the column entrained in the
vapor
vapor should not bubble up through the downcomers

Chapter 4
Tray column Design
Column internals
Tray layout
Downcomer area
Column diameter
Column height
Number of trays
Tray efficiency
Tray spacing
Vapor pressure drop
Froth
clear
liquid
clear
liquid
Gas Flow
Froth
Tray above
Tray below
Chapter 4
Column Internals
Weir
Plate
Froth
Vapor streams (shown in red) bubble up through froth.
Liquid stream flows through froth and over weir.
Chapter 4
Sieve Tray Layout
The holes are usually placed in the corners of
equilateral triangle at distances between the
centers (p`=2.5-5 d
o
)

p`
p`
p`
A
d

Lw
rw
L
w

r
w

h
W
inlet Downcomer
Downcomer area
weir
( )
2
o o h
a
d d A
= 0.907
A 4 sin 60 p' p'
( (
=
( (

Chapter 4
Flooding Velocity
Flooding occurs when the liquid flow rates inside the downcomer exceeds the downcomer
capacity due to small downcomer area (A
d
~ 10-20% of A
a
is sufficient) or Excessive entrainment
of liquid droplets by the vapor
The flooding gas velocity (v
GF
=Q
G
/A
n
) is related to the fluid densities by:
1 / 2
G L G
GF
n G
Q
v = = C
A

(
(

ST F HA F
Where:
C = Empirical constant depends on the tray design
C = F F F C
0.2
ST
F
H
h
a
a
A
h
F =Surface tension factor=
20
F Foaming factor =1 for nonfoaming systems
F =1.0
A
for 0.10
A
= 5 0.5
A
A
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
+
|
.
h
h
a
a

A
=ratioof vapor hole area on
A
t
for 0.06 0
ray acti
.10
ve ea
A
A
ar

( )
( )
F
0.5
G
L
1
C log
X
0.0744t 0.01173

0.0304t 0.015
L'
X flow param
t tray spacing
Use 0.1 for 0.01<X <0 eter .
G
1
'

| |
= +
|
\ .
= +
= +
| |
| |
= =
| |
\ .
\ .
=
gravity
buoyancy
drag
Chapter 4
Tray Diameter
The column diameter D is based on a specified fraction approach to
flooding, f
( )
0.5
G
GF d t
4Q
D =
f v 1- A A
(
(
(

d t
d
r
Where
A A is chosen based on the value of X
0.1 X 0.1
A X 0.1
= 0.1 0.1<X 1
A 9
0.2
+
X 1
( )
2
d
2
t
1
r sin
A sin
2
=
A 2 r

=
A
d
A
d
= -
r
2
r
2
sin

r
rw

r
A
d

Lw
rw
w W
1
L D sin ; r = cos
2 2 2
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Chapter 4
Tray Gas Pressure Drop
Vapor pressure drop in sieve tray is due to:
Friction for vapor flow through perforation (h
d
)
Holdup of the liquid on the tray (h
l
)

Surface tension (h
)
In terms of head loss, the tray pressure drop, h
t
is given
by:
where
t d l
h h h h
= + +
d
l
h dry tray head loss
h equivalent head for liquid in tray
h head loss due to surface tension
=
=
=
plate
vapor
o
d
Chapter 4
Dry Tray Head Loss
Dry tray pressure drop can be estimated using modified
orifice equation:
2 2
o W h
d G
o L a
v A
h 0.0051 1
C A
(
( | | (
( =
| ( (
(
\ .

o
W
2
o
o o o
tray thickness
v is hole velocity
is water density at the liquid temperature
d
C is the orifice coefficent, C 0.85032 0.04231 for d
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .

plate
o
d
Chapter 4
Clear Liquid Holdup Head Loss
2
3
L
l e W
W e
q
h h C
L
(
| |
(
= +
|
(
\ .
(

( )
( )
0.91
e s
1
2
G
s a
L G
a
l
effective relative froth density (height of clear liquid/froth height) =exp -12.55 K
K capacity parameter , m / s v
v sperficial gas velocity based ontray active area
C 50.12 43.89 exp 1.378

| |
=
|
\ .
= + ( )
w
h
The equivalent height of clear liquid holdup depends on
weir height (h
W
), liquid and vapor densities and rates,
and downcomer length:
plate
Chapter 4
Head loss due to surface tension is given by the
difference between the pressure inside the bubble and
that of the liquid according to the theoretical relation:

Here we assume that the maximum bubble size is taken
as the perforation diameter
Typical vapor pressure drop for sieve tray is 0.3-1.0
kPa/tray

L o
6
h
g d
=
Chapter 4
Weeping and Entrainment
Weeping and liquid entrainment degrade the tray
efficiency
Weeping ( the drain of liquid through the tray
perforation) must be very low compared To the liquid
flow over the weir and into the downcomer
Weeping is caused by low vapor velocity and/or high
liquid rates
Weeping is significant (substantially reduce tray
efficiency) if :

0.5
2
G o
o
L l
v
Fr 0.5
g h
| |
=
|
\ .
Chapter 4
Entrainment of liquid is due to carry up of suspended
liquid droplets by rising vapor or throw up of liquid
particles by vapor jets formed at tray perforation
At high vapor rates entrainment becomes significant and
decreases tray efficiency

k 1.1 0.5
2
L l
G 2
h
h Liquid entrainment mass flow rate
E =0.00335
Upward gas mass flow rate t h
| | | | | |
= | | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
2
1.85
2
o s l
e l h
e
a
l
s
o
t tray spacing
h height of two-phase region on the tray
d k h
= 7.79 1 6.9
h A
g
A
h
k 0.5 1 tanh 1.3 ln 0.15
d
=
=
(
| |
( + +
|
| |
(
\ .

|
\ .
( | | | |
= ( | |
|
( \ . \ .
Chapter 4
Weeping and liquid entrainment degrade the tray
efficiency
Weeping ( the drain of liquid through the tray
perforation) must be very low compared To the liquid
flow over the weir and into the downcomer
Weeping is caused by low vapor velocity and/or high
liquid rates
Weeping is significant (substantially reduce tray
efficiency) if :

0.5
2
G o
o
L l
v
Fr 0.5
g h
| |
=
|
\ .
Chapter 4
Entrainment of liquid is due to carry up of suspended
liquid droplets by rising vapor or throw up of liquid
particles by vapor jets formed at tray perforation
At high vapor rates entrainment becomes significant and
decreases tray efficiency

k 1.1 0.5
2
L l
G 2
h
h Liquid entrainment mass flow rate
E =0.00335
Upward gas mass flow rate t h
| | | | | |
= | | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
2
1.85
2
o s l
e l h
e
a
l
o
t tray spacing
h height of two-phase region on the tray
d K h
= 7.79 1 6.9
h A
g
A
h
k 0.5 1 tanh 1.3 ln 0.15
d
=
=
(
| |
( + +
|
| |
(
\ .

|
\ .
( | | | |
= ( | |
|
( \ . \ .
Chapter 4
Tray Efficiency
Number of theoretical stages can be calculated based on mass
transfer and equilibrium data
This number of stages carry the assumption that streams reach
equilibrium
This assumption is rarely justified
Number of stages must be adjusted with a stage efficiency to
correct for not reaching equilibrium on the tray or stage
Tray Efficiency is a fractional approach to an equilibrium attained
by the real tray
efficiency require measuring the approach to equilibrium of all the
vapor and the liquid from the tray

. ( )
( )
number of theoretical stages trays
Efficiency
number of actual stages trays
=
Chapter 4
Point Efficiency
The composition of the vapor and liquid stream
across the tray varies. Therefore, the approach
to equilibrium varies across the tray as well
The local (point) efficiency can is calculated
based on the composition of the liquid and
vapor stream at certain point on the tray
The liquid flow in downcomer from tray n-1 (x
n-
1
) to tray n
Consider a vapor coming pencil coming from
tray n+1 (y
n+1,
local) to try n exchange mass with
liquid on tray n (x
n
, local) and leave with
concentration y
n
, local
The point efficiency E
OG
can be estimated as
follow:

.
y
n+1
, local
Tray above
(n-1)
Tray below
(n+1)
Tray n
x
n
, local
y
n
, local
x
n-1

x
n

n.local n 1 , local
OG
*
local n 1 , local
*
loacl local
y y
E
y y
y is the concentration in equilibrium with x
+
+

Chapter 4
Point Efficiency
For a gas molar flow rate is G
M
and interfacial surface between
the gas and the liquid a (area/volume of liquid-gas froth)
As the gas rises a differential height dh
l
, the area of contact is adh
l

per unit active area of the tray and the gas concentration changes
by dy
The rate of solute transfer can be given by:

And therefore the point efficiency can be estimated based on the
mass transfer coefficient:

.

( )
*
M y l local n 1 , local
G dy K adh y y
+
=
n , local
n 1 , local
y
y
l *
M local n 1 , local y
K a
dy
dh
G y y
+
+
=

*
local n , local y l
*
M local n 1 , local
y y K ah
ln
G y y
+
( )
local
n ,local n 1 , local y l
OG *
M n 1 ,local
y y K ah
ln 1 ln 1 E
G y y
+
+
| |
= = |
|
\ .
y l
OG
M
K ah
E 1 exp
G
| |
=
|
\ .
Chapter 4
Point Efficiency
The point efficiency can also be estimated based on
correlation:

where
( )
2 3
1
a a
a l h
OG Fe
o a
G e G
L h
L
a
h A 0.0029
E 1 exp Re
d A
D 1 c
1 m
c A
D
A
| |
|
|
|
| | | |
|
=
| |
|
\ . \ .
|
+
| | |
| |
|
\ .
\ .
G o l
Fe
G e
1
2
3
G L
G L
v h
Re
a 0.4136
a 0.6074
a 0.3195
m local slope of the equilibriumcurve
c ,c molar concentrationof gas and liquid, respectively
D , D diffusivity of gas and liquid , respectively

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
( )
1
2
0.91 G
e s s a
L G
=exp -12.55 K ; K v

| |
=
|
\ .
Chapter 4
Tray Murphee Efficiency
The efficiency of the entire tray (Murphee Efficiency)
can be estimated based on the bulk average
concentration of the gas:

The relation between E
MG
and E
OG
can be derived by
integrating the local E
OG
over the surface of the tray

n n 1
MG
n 1
n
y y
E
y * y
y * is in equilibrium with the concentration of the liquid leaving the tray , x
+
+

Chapter 4
E
MG
versus E
OG

Based on the degree of mixing of the vapor and the
liquid phases, the relations between E
MG
and E
OG
are
given by:
1. Liquid is completely backmixed and the vapors
entering the tray is perfectly mixed

2. Liquid is in plug flow (no mixing) but vapors entering
the tray is perfectly mixed
MG OG
E E =
( )
MG OG
1
E exp E 1
mV
L
( =

=
Chapter 4
E
MG
versus E
OG
3. Vapor is well mixed but liquid is partially mixed

for <3.0 the previous equation can be approximated as:

( )
( )
( ) L
MG
OG
L
L
L
1
2
OG L
L
1 exp Pe exp 1 E
E
Pe
1
Pe 1
Pe
4 E Pe
1 1
2 Pe

( +

= +
| | ( ( +
+
+ + | ( (
| +

\ .
(
| |
(
= +
|
(
\ .
(

N
OG
MG
L
E
1 1
N
E
Pe 2
N
2
(
+
(

=
+
=
2
L w
L
a l E ,L
0.5
3
E ,L 2
4q r
Pe
A h D
D 0.1 gh liquid eddy diffusivity
=
( =

Chapter 4
E
MG
versus E
OG
4. Both Vapor and Liquid are only partially mixed

The degree of vapor mixing can be estimated based on Pe
G:

the vapor is considered unmixed if

Pe
G
>50 or h
2
/h>=0.1

OG
N
OG
1.073 2.518 0.175
MG L
L
E
1 1
N
E x 1 0.0335 E Pe
Pe 2
N
2
(
+
(

( =

+
=
Chapter 4
Effect of Entrainment on E
MG
Effect of entrainment on tray efficiency can be
estimated as follow:

1.543
OG
MGE MG
0.8 E E
E E 1
m
(
=
(

Chapter 4
Example:
A dilute aqueous solution of methanol is to be stripped with steam in a sieve-
tray tower. The conditions chosen for design are in the following table:
The equilibrium data at this
concentration indicate that m=2.5.
Design as suitable cross-flow sieve tray
for such a tower. Take d
o
=6.0 mm on
equilateral-triangle pitch 12 mm between
hole centers, punched in stainless steel
sheet 2 mm thick. Use a weir height of
50 mm. Design for 80% approach to the
flooding velocity.
Report details respecting tower diameter, tray spacing, weir length, gas
pressure drop, and entrainment in the gas. Check for excessive weeping.
Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for that design.
Liquid Vapor
T, K 368
P, kPa 101.3
Rate, kmol/s 0.25 0.1
composition 15 mass% 18 mole%
Density, kg/m
3
961 -
, dyne/cm 40 -
Diffusivity, cm
2
/s 5.70x10
-5
0.213
cm
2
/s
Viscosity, cP 0.3 125x10
-4

Foaming Factor 1 -
Chapter 4
Solution: 1. Flooding velocity

To get F
HA
we need A
h
/A
a
Liquid Vapor
T, K 368
P, kPa 101.3
Rate, kmol/s 0.25 0.1
composition 15 mass% 18 mole%
Density, kg/m
3
961 -
, dyne/cm 40 -
Diffusivity, cm
2
/s 5.70x10
-5
0.213 cm
2
/s
Viscosity, cP 0.3 125x10
-4

Foaming Factor 1 -
1 / 2
G L G
GF
n G
Q
v = = C
A

(
(

( )
( )
G ,av
G
G ,av methanol steam
3
G
PM
RT
M yM 1 y M
0.18 x32.04 ( 1 0.18 x18 20.53
101.3 x 20.53
0.68 kg / m
8.314 x368
=
= +
= + =
= =
H
2
O+Methanol (rich)

Steam

Steam +methanol

1
2
N1
N

H
2
O /methanol (lean)

y=0.18 (mol) x=0.15 (mass)
ST F HA F
C = F F F C
2 2
o h
a
h
HA
a
d A 6
0.907 0.907 0.23
A p' 12
A
0.1 F 1
A
( (
= = =
( (

> =
0.2 0.2
ST
40
F 1.15
20 20
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
Chapter 4
Flood Velocity
C
F
depends on the flow parameter (X) and tray
spacing (t)
The tray spacing depends on the tray diameter
At this stage we assume tray spacing of 0.5 and we
recheck once the tower diameter is calculated
F
0.5 0.5
G G L
L G L
1
C log ; assume tray spacing , t=0.5 m
X
0.0744t 0.01173 0.0744 x0.5 0.01173 0.049
0.0304t 0.015 0.0304 x0.5 0.015 0.030
LM L' 0.25 x19.27
X
G' GM 0.1x 20.53

| |
= +
|
\ .
= + = + =
= + = + =
| | | | | |
| | | |
= = =
| | | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ . \ .
0.5
F
0.68
0.066
961
1
C 0.049 log 0.030 0.079
0.1
| |
=
| |
\ .
| |
= + =
|
\ .
ST F HA F
C = F F F C 1.15 x1x1x0.09 0.091 = =
1 / 2
0.5
G L G
GF
n G
Q 961 0.68
v = = C 0.103 3.42m / s
A 0.68

( (
= =
(
(

Chapter 4
Column Diameter
The column diameter is estimated based on a fractional
approach to flooding as follow:

( )
0.5
G
GF d t
4Q
D =
f v 1- A A
(
(
(

d t
based onthe value of X (0.062), A A =0.1
( ) ( )
0.5
0.5
G
GF d t
G'
0.1x 20.53
4
4 x
0.68
D = 1.25 m
0.8 x3.42 x 1 0.1 f v 1- A A

( | |
( | |
( |
| (
\ . \ . (
(
= =
(
(
(
(
(

D, m t, m
1 or less 0.50
1-3 0.60
3-4 0.75
4-8 0.9
1< D < 3; recommended tray spacing is 0.6 m
Now assume t = 0.6
Recalculate (0.056) and (0.033)
Recalculate C
F
(0.09) and C (0.103)
Recalculate v
GF
(3.87 m/s)
D =1.17 m (t=0.6 m is valid assumption)
Chapter 4
Pressure Drop
1. Dry pressure drop

2. Clear Liquid head presure drop
G
o
h
Q 3.02
v 15.36 m / s
A 0.2
= = =
2 2
o
o
d 6
C 0.85032 0.04231 =0.85032 0.04231 0.74
2
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
2 2
o W h
d G
o L a
v A
h 0.0051 1
C A
(
( | | (
( =
| ( (
(
\ .

2
2
d
15.36 961
h 0.0051 0.68 1 0.23 1.48 cm liquid
0.74 1000
( (
( = =
( (

2
3
L
l e W t
W e
q
h h C
L
(
| |
(
= +
|
(
\ .
(

( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1
2 2
2
G G G
s a
L G a L G
0.91
e s
l w
Q 3.02 0.68
K v 0.09
A 0.87 961 0.68
=exp -12.55 K 0.24
C 50.12 43.89 exp 1.378 h 50.12 43.89 exp 1.378 x5 50.16

| | | |
| |
= = =
| | |

\ .
\ . \ .
=
= + = + =
( )
2 2
3 3
L
l e W t
W e
0.2 x19.27 / 961 q
h h C 0.24 5 50.16 2.19 cm liquid
L 0.85 x0.24
( (
| | | |
( (
= + = + =
| |
( | (
\ . \ .
( (

Chapter 4
3. Head loss due to surface tension

Total Tray gas Pressure drop

L o
6
h
g d
=
L o
6 6 x40
h 0.004 m 0.4 cm liquid
6
g d
9.8 x961x
1000
= = = =
t d l
t t L
h h h h 1.48 2.19 0.4 4.09
4.09
P h g * 961* 9.81 386 Pa / tray
100

= + + = + + =
= = =
Chapter 4
Entrainment and Weeping
Entrainment:

Weeping:

weeping will not degrade tray efficiency significantly

0.5
0.5
2
G o
o
L l
v 0.68x15.36
Fr = = 0.61 >0.5
4.61 g h
9.8x961x
100
| |
|
| |
= | |
| \ .
|
\ .
1.85
1.85
2
o s l
2
e l h
e
a
l
o
d K h 0.0409 6
h 7.79 1 6.9 = 7.79 1 6.9 0.3 m
h 0.24 40.9 A
g
A
h 40.9
k 0.5 1 tanh 1.3 ln 0.15 0.5 1 tanh 1.3 x ln .015 0.
d 6
(
(
| |
| |
( = + + + + = (
| |
| | \ . ( ( \ .

|
\ .
( | | ( | | | | | |
= = = ( | | ( | |
|
\ . \ . ( \ . \ .
044
k 1.1 0.5
2
L l
G 2
h
h
E 0.00335
t h
| | | | | |
= | | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
k 1.1 0.5
1.1 0.5 0.007
2
L l
G 2
h
h 0.3 961 0.0409
E 0.00335 =0.00335 0.06 6%
t h 0.6 0.68 0.3
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
= = = | | | | | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ . \ . \ .
1
Chapter 4
Separation processes in which a gas
mixture is contacted with a liquid
(absorbent or solvent) to selectively
dissolve one or more component
(absorbate) by mass transfer from the
gas to the liquid
It is used to separate gas mixtures,
remove impurities, pollutants, or catalyst
poisons from a gas, or recover valuable
chemicals
Absorption and Stripping
Separation processes in which a liquid
mixture is contacted with a gas (stripper)
to selectively dissolve one or more
component (adsorbate) by mass transfer
from the liquid to the gas
It is used to separate liquid mixtures,
remove impurities, pollutants, or catalyst
poisons from a liquid, or recover valuable
chemicals
Absorption (Scrubbing) Stripping (Desorption)
Chapter 4
Equipment for Absorption and Stripping
Packed Column
Column diameter < 60 cm
Low pressure drop (vacuum service)
Corrosion concerns
Low liquid holdup
Tray columns
Low liquid/gas ratio
Frequent cleaning is required
Other equipment
Spray towers
Sparged (bubble) columns
Centrifuge contactors
Liquid in

Vapor in

Vapor out
Liquid out
1
2
N1
N

Bubble column Spray column Centrifugal Contactor
Liquid in

Vapor in

Vapor out

Liquid out

P
a
c
k
e
d

C
o
l
u
m
n

T
r
a
y

T
o
w
e
r
s

Chapter 4
Countercurrent Multistage Equipment
Tray towers provide stepwise
contact of the liquid and the gas
They are counter current
multistage cascades
Number of theoretical (ideal)
stages can be estimated graphically
on an XY diagram by plotting the
operating and the equilibrium
curves (lines)
The nearer the operating line is to
the equilibrium curve, the more
stages will be required
Should the two curves touch at any
time corresponds to minimum
L
S
/V
S
Y
X
N,
Y
N+1
X
equilibrium curve
X
0,
Y
1
X
0
X
1
X
3
Y
N+1
Y
3
Y
2
Y
1
Chapter 4
Tray Efficiency and Actual (Real) Number of Trays
Actual number of trays can be estimated based on the
theoretical number of trays and the Murphee tray
efficiency
The actual number of trays can also be estimated
graphically
By drawing a line (dashed line)
where:

The dashed line represent the
real effluent from the trays
The number of stages is the
actual number of trays

B
C
x
y
3
2
1
A
MGE
AB
=E
AC
Chapter 4
Analytical Determination of Number of Ideal Stages
Dilute solution (the equilibrium curve is straight line) and
the operating line straight
Number of ideal stages can be estimated based on
absorption factor,
Absorption factor, A, may vary from one end to the other end
of the Colum
Geometric average absorption factor (A=(A
1
A
2
)
0.5
)

maybe
used
L
A
mV
=
( )
( )
0 N 1
N N 1
0 N
N N 1
x y / m
ln 1 A A
x y / m
N A 1
ln 1 / A
x x
N A 1
x y
+
+
+
(
+
(
= =
N 1 0
1 0
N 1 1
1 0
y mx 1 1
ln 1
y mx A A
N A 1
ln A
y y
N A 1
y mx
+
+
( | |
+
( |
\ .

=
= =
Modified Kremser equations

Absorption Stripping
Chapter 4
Ideal Number of Stages
The theoretical number of trays can be estimated using
Modified Kremser Equations

IF E
MGE
is constant for all trays, an overall tray efficiency
(E
O
) can be estimated:
MGE
O
1
1 E 1
Equilibriumtrays A
E ln
1 Actual trays
ln
A
( | |
+
| (
\ .
(
= =
( | |
| (
\ .
( )
( )
0 N 1
N N 1
0 N
N N 1
x y / m
ln 1 A A
x y / m
N A 1
ln 1 / A
x x
N A 1
x y
+
+
+
(
+
(
= =
N 1 0
1 0
N 1 1
1 0
y mx 1 1
ln 1
y mx A A
N A 1
ln A
y y
N A 1
y mx
+
+
( | |
+
( |
\ .

=
= =
Stripping Absorption
Chapter 4
Example (Problem 5.3)
A tray tower with six equilibrium stages is used for
stripping ammonia from a wastewater stream by
means of countercurrent air at 1 atm and 300 K.
Calculate the concentration of ammonia in the exit
water if the inlet liquid concentration is 0.1 mole%
ammonia, and 1.873 standard cubic meter of air are
fed to the tower per kilogram of wastewater. The
equilibrium data for this system, in this range of
concentrations and 300 K, can be represented by
y
A,i
=1.414x
A,i
Chapter 4
Solution
P=1atm; T=300 K
x
0
=0.1
y
N+1
=0
(M
L,av
)
0
=0.1*17+0.9*18=17.9

V/L=(1.873x100/22.4)/(1/17.9)
= 1.5 mol Air/mol Liquid
m =1.414
A =L/mV=1/1.5/1.414=0.472

Substitute A, x
0
, y
N+1
, N you get x
N
=0.00059 by mole
L
0
(H
2
O+NH
3
)
V
N+1
(air)

V
1
(air+NH
3
)
L
N
(H
2
O)
6
5
2
1
Stripping
( )
( )
0 N 1
N N 1
x y / m
ln 1 A A
x y / m
N A 1
ln 1 / A
+
+
(
+
(

=
Chapter 4
Countercurrent Continuous Contact Equipment
Packed column operates in a continuous manner, unlike
tray towers (cascades)
Design equation for packed column can be developed
using differential mass balance
For unimolecular transfer of component A (
A,G
,
A,L
=1)

Both V and y varies along the column
V
S
is constant

G
h
i
h
S=cross-section area of the tower
a
1-y d(Vy)

=effective

s
=F a ln
pecific area of

Sdz 1
the packi
y
g
-
n
(
(

V, y
z+dz
Gas
z
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
S S S
2
V y V dy V dy Vdy
d Vy =d =
1 y 1-y 1-y 1 y
1-y
| |
= =
|

\ .
Chapter 4

Where

If arithmetic mean average is used

( )
( ) ( )
My
i i i
G h G h G h
G dy d Vy
Vdy
dz= = =
1 y 1 y 1 y
SF a ln SF a 1 y ln F a 1 y ln
1 y 1 y 1 y
( ( (

( ( (

( )
1
2
y
My
y i
G h
G dy
Z=
1 y
F a 1 y ln
1 y
(
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
i
i
i.,M
i
1 y 1 y
1-y = logarithmic mean average of 1 y , 1 y
1 y
ln
1 y

| |
|
|
\ .
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
y
My
i ,M
G h i y
G 1 y dy
Z=
F a 1 y y y
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

1 1
2 2
tG
y y
My i ,M i ,M
tG tG tG
G h i i y y
height of gas phase number of gas phase
transfer unit transfer unit
constant
H
1 y dy 1 y dy
G
Z= H H N
F a 1 y y y 1 y y y

| |
= =
|

\ .

1
2
y
2 1
tG 2
i 1 y
1 y dy
N ln approximate value
y y 1 y
| |
= +
|

\ .

Chapter 4
Based on Gas Phase

tL tL
height of liquid number of liquid
Z= H N =
Mx
tL
L h
G
H =
F a
2
1
x
2 1
tL 2
i 1 x
1 x dx
N = ln
x x 1 x
| |
+
|

\ .

tG tG
height of gas phase number of gas phase
Z= H N
1
2
y
2 1
tG 2
i 1 y
1 y dy
N ln
y y 1 y
| |
= +
|

\ .
My
tG
G h
G
H =
F a
approximate value
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
y
i ,M
tG
i y
1 y dy
N =
1 y y y
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
x
i ,M
tL
i x
1 x dx
N =
1 x x x
Based on Liquid Phase

Chapter 4
Dilute Solutions: Henrys Law
For dilute solution when Henrys law applies, the
equilibrium curve and operating line are straight lines
It is convenient to use overall mass transfer coefficient
Height of the packed column can be estimated by:

1
2
My
tL
tOG tG
y h
y
2 1
tOG 2
1 y
1 2
2 2
G
H
H H
K a A
1 y dy
N ln
y y * 1 y
y mx 1 1
ln 1
y mx A A
1
1
A
= = +
= +

( | |
+
( |
\ .

=

tOG toG
Overall height of gas overall number of gas
phase transfer unit phase transfer unit
Z H N =
( )
Mx
tOL
x h
1
2
1
1
toL
G
H
K a
y
x
m
ln 1 A A
y
x
m
N
1 A
=
(
(
+
(
(
(

=

tOL tOL
Overall height of liquid overall number of Liquid
phase transfer unit phase transfer unit
Z H N =
Absorption Stripping
Chapter 4
Thermal Effects during Absorption and Stripping
For dilute gas mixtures and liquid solution mixtures it
is safe to assume isothermal operation
When large quantity of solute gas are absorbed from
concentrated solution, absorption processes are
usually exothermic
The equilibrium solubility of the solute may be reduced
due to increase of the temperature
Stripping is usually an endothermic process
Energy balance is required to account for the thermal
effects during absorption or stripping

Chapter 4
Example
Carbon Disulfide (CS
2
), used as a solvent in a chemical plant, is
evaporated from the product in a dryer into an inert gas (N
2
) in order
to avoid explosion hazard. The CS
2
-N
2
mixture is to be scrubbed with
an absorbent hydrocarbon oil (C
18
H
38
). The gas will flow at the rate
of 0.4 m
3
/s at 297 K and 1 atm. The partial pressure of CS
2
in the
original gas is 50 mm Hg, and the CS
2
concentration in the outlet gas
is not to exceed 0.5%. The oil enters the absorber essentially pure at
1.5 times the minimum, and solution of oil and CS
2
follow Raoults
law. Design a column packed with 50-mm ceramic Hiflow rings
(C
h
=1.0). Assume isothermal operation. The gas pressure drop do not
exceed 175 Pa/m of packing. Calculate the tower diameter, packed
bed height and total gas pressure drop.
The liquid and vapor properties are:
Moil=254
Density =810 kg/m
3
CS
2
vapor pressure = 346 mm Hg

L
= 4 cP
V
= 1.75x10
-5
kg/m-s
D
L
= 0.765x10
-5
cm
2
/s D
V
= 0.114 cm
2
/s

Chapter 4
Adiabatic Operation of a Tray Absorber
For adiabatic operation of a countercurrent tray
absorber, the temperature of the streams leaving the
column will generally be higher the entering
temperatures
The design of such absorber requires
by calculating tray by tray from the
bottom of the column
For ideal tray equilibrium with respect
to both temperature and composition
is assumed
L
0

V
N+1
V
1

L
N

N

n
1
Absorber
L
n

V
n+1

Chapter 4
Adiabatic Operation of a Tray Absorber
Solute balance around an envelope from the bottom of
the absorber up to tray n are:
Overall Molar Balance

Individual (solute) molar balance

Energy Balance

Energy balance around the entire column

To get T
N
the temperature of the gas leaving tray 1 is
initially assumed and checked when the calculations reach
the top tray

L
0

V
N+1
V
1

L
N

N

n
1
Absorber
L
n

V
n+1

n N 1 N n 1
L V L V
+ +
+ = +
n n N 1 N 1 N N n 1 n 1
L x V y L x V y
+ + + +
+ = +
n L ,n N 1 V ,N 1 N L ,N n 1 V ,n 1
L H V H L H V H
+ + + +
+ = +
0 L ,0 N 1 V ,N 1 N L ,N 1 V ,1
L H V H L H V H
+ +
+ = +
Chapter 4
Example:
One kmole/s of a gas consisting of 75% methane and 25%
n-pentane at 300 K and 1 atm is t be scrubbed with 2
kmole/s of a non-volatile paraffin oil entering the absorber
free of pentane at 308 K. Estimate the number of ideal
trays for adiabatic absorption of 98.6% of the pentane.
Neglect the solubility of methane in oil, and assume
operation to be at constant pressure. The pentane forms
ideal solutions with the paraffin oil. The average
molecular weigh of the oil is 200, heat capacity is 1.844
kJ/kg. The heat capacity of methane over the range of
temperatures to be encountered is 35.6 kJ/kmole-K; for
liquid pentane is 177.5 kJ/kmole-K; for pentane vapor is
119.8 kJ/kmole-K. the latent heat of vaporization of n-
pentane at 273 K is 27.82 MJ/kmol.
Chapter 4
Solution
1. Enthanlpy
Take a reference temperature of 273 K

2. Equilibrium
Raoults law

L
0

V
N+1
V
1

L
N

N

2
1
Oil Methane
C
1
+C
4
Oil+C
4
( ) ( ) ( )
5
L p ,oil oil L p ,C L solution
H 1 x c M T 273 xc T 273 H = + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
L L
L
1 x 1.884 200 T 273 x 177.5 T 273
T 273 376.8 199.3 x kJ / kmole
= +
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 5
V p ,C G p ,C G vap
G G
G
H 1 y c T 273 y c T 273 H
1 y 35.6 T 273 y 177.5 T 273 278200
T 273 35.6 84.2 y 27820 kJ / kmole
(
= + +

( = + +

= + +
A i
i i
P x
y mx
P
| |
= =
|
\ .
A
2477.07
P exp 13.8183 from Antoine equation
T 40
(
=
(

( )
2477.07
exp 13.8183
T 40
m T
101.3
(

=
Chapter 4
Solution Continued
3. Flow rates:
Calculate required liquid flow to achieve 98.6%
removal of pentane
Pentane entering with the incoming gas
Pentane absorbed
Methane in the outgoing=methane in the incoming gas

kmol kmol
=1 x 0.25=0.25
s s
| |
|
\ .
kmol kmol
=0.25 x 0.986=0.2465
s s
| |
|
\ .
S
kmol
V =1 -0.25=0.75
s
1 N+1
kmol
V =V - Penatne absorbed=1-0.24651=0.7535
s
1
1
1
pentane in V stream 0.25-0.2465
y = = =0.0046
V 0.7535
N 0
kmol
L =L + Penatne absorbed=2+0.24651=2.24651
s
N
N
Penatne absorbed 0.24651
x = = =0.1097
L 2.24651
Chapter 4
Solution
Enthalpy of the two streams entering the column (V
N+1
and L
0
)

To estimate the enthalpy of the other two streams,
assume T
1
=308.5

To get the enthalpy of the liquid leaving the column
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
L ,0 0 0 0
H T 273 376.8 199.3 x 308 273 376.8 199.3 x 13190 kJ / kmole = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
V ,N 1 N 1 N 1
H T 273 35.6 84.2 y 27820 300 273 35.6 84.2 x.25 27820 8480 kJ / kmole
+ + +
= + + = + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
V ,1 1 1
H T 273 35.6 84.2 y 27820 308.5 273 35.6 84.2 x0.0046 27820 81405 kJ / kmole = + + = + + =
0 L ,0 N 1 V ,N 1 N L ,N 1 V ,1
L H V H L H V H
+ +
+ = +
L ,N
L ,N
2 x13190 1x8480 2.2465 H 0.7535 x1405
H 15050 kJ / kmole
+ = +
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
L ,N L ,N N L
N
H T 273 376.8 199.3 x T 273 376.8 199.3 x0.1097 15050 kJ / kmole
T 315.4 K
= = =
=
Chapter 4
Solution
The flow rate and composition of streams V
N
and L
N-1

Repeat the same steps for the next tray
and so on till you reach y
n
=< 0.0046
where n is the number of trays

N N N
N
2477.07 2477.07
y mx exp 13.8183 x xp 13.8183 0.1097 0.135
T 40 315.4 40
(
(
= = = =
(
(

S
N
N
V 0.75
V 0.867 kmole / s
1 y 1 0.135
= = =

L
0

V
N+1
V
1

L
N

N

2
1
Oil Methane
n
L
N-1

V
N

N N N N 1
L V L V 0.867 2.2465 1 2.144 kmole / s
+
= + = + =
Tray #
Tn,
K
x
n
y
n

N=4 315.3 0.1091 0.1340
N-1=3 312.0 0.0521 0.0568
N-2=2 309.8 0.0184 0.0187
N-3=4 308.5 0.0046 0.0045
Chapter 4
Adiabatic Operation of a Packed-bed Absorber
The release of energy due to latent heat and heat of solution
during absorption process leads to
Increases the interface temperature above the bulk liquid
Change the physical properties
Change the mass transfer coefficient
Change the equilibrium concentration
This also may lead to solvent evaporation in the warm parts of
the tower (three components (A, B, and C) maybe present in
the gas phase)
Design of packed column under these conditions require
simultaneous mass and energy transfer calculation and
balances

Chapter 4
Design of Packed Column: Mass Transfer
Mass transfer
N
A
= molar flux of component A
N
B
= 0 (component B does not transfer)
N
C
= rate of evaporation/condensation of solvent
The molar flux ratio

The molar flux of A and C are

Molar flux in terms of Mass velocity of component B (G
M, B
)

.
Gas
A+B
A+ B
C+B
Solvent
C
dz
C A
A C A C
A C A C
N N
= ; = ; + =1
N +N N +N

( )
( )
( )
( )
A A,i
A A G, A
A A
C C ,i
C C G, C
C C
2
2
- y
N = F ln
- y
- y
N = F ln
mole

- y
m s
mole

m s
( )
( )
( )
( )
A A,i
M,B A A h A G, A h
A A
C C ,i
M,B C C h C G, C h
C C
- y
-G dY =N a dz = F a ln dz
- y
- y
-
mole

G dY =N a dz = F a ln dz
-
s
mo e
s y
l

C A
A C
B B
V V
Y = ; Y =
V V
Chapter 4
Design of Packed Column: Energy Transfer
.
q
G
is heat flux kJ/m
2
-s
h
G,c
is gas phase convective heat transfer coefficient corrected for
mass transfer
At Steady State
dL=dV
V=V
B
+V
A
+V
C
=(V
B
+Y
A
V
B
+Y
C
V
B
)=V
B
(1+Y
A
+Y
C
)
dL=dV=V
B
(dY
A
+dY
C
)
The temperature profile as well as the concentration
of the solvent inside the column as function of column
height can be estimated
( )
G h G,c h G L
q a dz =h a T T dz
Chapter 4
Change of Temperature and y
c
T, K
Mole
Fraction
Height of Packing
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
F

x
W

x
y
x
D

1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
F

x
W

Partial vaporized
x
y
Saturated vapor
Superheated vapor
Subcooled liquid
Saturated liquid
x
D

m
W
x
W

m+1
N
L
m
x
m

V
m+1
y
m+1

L
N
x
N

V
N+1
yN+1

V
N
y
N

B
y
W

1
L
0
x
0
=x
D

D
x
D
2
n
L
1
x
1

V
2
y
2

L
n
x
n

V
n+1
Y
n+1

V
n
y
n

V

y
1

Chapter 6
Method to separate the components of solution
depending on the distribution of substances between a
liquid and a gas phase
All components will be present in both phases
Unlike absorption, desorption or extraction no need for
external components to create
a second phase
Energy requirement is usually
higher
Carried out in tray columns
(packed columns can also be used
for cases where pressure drop
and/or corrosion are major
considerations)

Condenser

Overhead
vapor

Boilup

N

2

1

Reflux
drum

Rectifying section

Stripping section

Feed Stage

Bottoms

Reboiler

Reflux

Distillate

Feed

Distillation
Chapter 6
Flash Vaporization
Single-Stage Operation
Liquid mixture is partially vaporized
Vapor is allowed to equilibrate with liquid
The residual liquid and the resulting vapor are
separated and removed from the apparatus
The product D is richer in the volatile components
The bottom W is richer in the least
volatile components
F
l
a
s
h

D
r
u
m

Feed
Vapor
Liquid
Heat
Exchanger
Valve
Q kW
Chapter 6
Flash Vaporization
Material balance

Energy balance

Solving the energy and material Balance
equations

F
l
a
s
h

D
r
u
m

F moles/s
z
F
H
F

D moles/s
y
D
H
D

W moles/s
x
W
H
W

Q kW
F D W
F D W
F z D y W x
= +
= +
F D W
F H Q D H W H + = +
D F
D F
W F
W F
Q
H H
y z W F
Q D x z
H H
F
| |
+
|
\ .
= =
| |
+
|
\ .
Chapter 6
Example
A liquid mixture containing 50 mole% n-heptane (A), 50
mole% n-octane (B) at 303 K is to be continuously flash-
vaporized at a pressure of 1 atm to vaporize 60 mole% of
the feed. What will the composition of the vapor and
liquid and the temperature in the separator, if it behaves
as an ideal stage?
The VLE relationship that applies under Raoults law. The
vapor pressure of the two components is related to
temperature through Wagners equation:

The parameters in this equation are:

.
1.5 3 6
j j j j j j j j j
j
c , j j c , j
P A B C D
T
ln ; 1
P 1 T

| | + + +
= = |
|

\ .
Component T
c
, K P
c,
bar A B C D
N-heptane 540.3 27.4 -7.675 1.371 -3.536 -3.202
N-octane 568.8 24.9 -7.912 1.380 -3.804 -4.501
Chapter 6
Solution
1.5 3 6
j j j j j j j j
j c , j
j
A B C D
P P exp
1

| | + + +
= |
|
\ .
Component T
c
, K P
c,
bar A B C D
N-heptane 540.3 2.74E+06 -7.675 1.371 -3.536 -3.202
N-octane 568.8 2.49E+06 -7.912 1.38 -3.804 -4.501
x
F
0.5
P 101325 Pa
D/F 0.6
W/F 0.4
W/D 0.667

1.5 3 6
j j j j j j j j j
j
c , j j c , j
P A B C D
T
ln ; 1
P 1 T

| | + + +
= = |
|

\ .
( )
( )
heptane
Octane Octane
D W octane octane W
heptane heptane octane
Octane octane
D octane W heptane W
P
P P
y x ; y x 1 x
P P P
P P P
P P
y y x 1 x x 1
P P P P
= = =
| |
+ = + = + = |
|
\ .
octane
W
heptane octane
P P
x 1
P P P
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
heptane
D W
P
y x
P
=
D F
W F
y z W
D x z

Chapter 6
Solution
Assume T
Calculate
hepatne
,
octane
, P
octane,
P
octane
Calculate x
W
Calculate y
D
Calculate W/D
Using Goal Seek function in excel the value of T that
give W/D of 0.667 can be estimated

T 385.89

hep
0.286

oct
0.322
P
hep
1.514 Pa
P
oct
0.699 Pa
x
w
0.39
y
d
0.58
-(W/D)
estimate
-0.67
D F
D F
W F
W F
Q
H H
y z W F
Q D x z
H H
F
| |
+
|
\ .
= =
| |
+
|
\ .
Chapter 6
Batch Distillation
Continuous distillation is the most efficient distillation
method
Batch distillation is preferred for:
Small capacity
Separation is to be done only
occasionally
Separation is preparative to produce a new product
Upstream operations are batchwise or feedstocks vary
with time or from batch to batch
Feed materials are not appropriate for a continuous flow
system

condenser

v
a
p
o
r

Distillate

L, x
Q
B

dD, y*

Chapter 6
Batch Distillation
Material balance

The composited distillate composition, y
D,av
can be
estimated as follow:

( )
F
W
x F
W x
Rearranging and intergrati
dL dD
0 y * dD d Lx Ldx xdL
y * dL Ldx xdL
dL F dx
ln
L W y
ng
Rayleigh Equati n
*
o
x
=
= = +
= +
= =

F
W
F is the moles of charge of composition x
W is the moles of residual liquid of compositio
w ere
n x
h
F W
D ,av
Fx Wx
y
D
=
condenser

v
a
p
o
r

Distillate

D(t), y=y
D
=x
D
W, x
w Q
B

dD, y*

Chapter 6
Example
A liquid mixture containing 50 mole% n-heptane (A),
50 mole% n-octane (B) were subjected to batch
distillation at atmospheric pressure, with 60 mole% of
the liquid distilled. Compute the composition of the
composited distillate and the residue
The VLE relationship that applies under Raoults law.
The vapor pressure of the two components is related
to temperature through Wagners equation:

The parameters in this equation are:

.
1.5 3 6
j j j j j j j j j
j
c , j j c , j
P A B C C
T
ln ; 1
P 1 T

| | + + +
= = |
|

\ .
Component T
c
, K P
c,
bar A B C D
n-heptane 540.3 27.4 -7.675 1.371 -3.536 -3.202
n-octane 568.8 24.9 -7.912 1.380 -3.804 -4.501
Chapter 6
Solution:
D/F = 0.60
W /F= 1-0.6 = 40
x
F
= 0.5

Start with y* = z
f
Find x
W
by using goal seek function in excel and adjusting T to yield y*

Change y* and repeat the last step
Make a table for y*, x
w
Plot 1/(y*-x
w
) versus x
w
Curve fit the plot using polynomial fit
Integrate the equation
Evaluate the integration at x=zF and another lower value
Estimate the difference of the integration at zf and the other x value
Adjust the difference to be ln(F/W) i.e. 0.916 by changing x
This is the final x
w
Find y
D,ave
=(Fz
F
-Wx
W
)/D
W
0.5
x
1 dx
ln 0.916
0.40 y * x
| |
= =
|

\ .

F
W
x
x
F dx
ln
W y * x
=

Chapter 6
Solution Continued
x
F
0.5
P 1.0132739
D/F 0.6
W/F 0.4
W/D 0.667
T 387.89334

hep
0.282

oct
0.318
P
hep
1.597
P
oct
0.742
x
w
0.317
y* 0.50
Component T
c
, K P
c,
bar A B C D
N-heptane 540.3 2.74E+01 -7.675 1.371 -3.536 -3.202
N-octane 568.8 2.49E+01 -7.912 1.38 -3.804 -4.501
386.593 385.2 383.831 383 382 380.8
0.284 0.287 0.290 0.292 0.292 0.295
0.320 0.323 0.325 0.327 0.328 0.331
1.543 1.488 1.432 1.392 1.375 1.318
0.714 0.685 0.657 0.636 0.628 0.598
0.361 0.409 0.460 0.499 0.516 0.58
0.55 0.60 0.65 0.69 0.70 0.75
Use Goal Seek Function to adjust y* by changing T
Chapter 6
Solution, Continued
From the plot

Using Goal-Seek
x
W
=0.327

y = 22.544x
2
- 18.968x + 9.214
R = 0.9996
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 0.600
(
y
*
-
x
w
)
-
1

x
W
( )
w W W
2
0.5 0.5 0.5
2 3 2
x x x
1
22.54 x 18.96 x 9.214
y * x
dx 22.54 18.96
0.916 22.54 x 18.96 x 9.214 dx x x 9.214 x
y * x 3 2
= +
= = + = +

3 2
W W W
22.54 18.96
3.18 x x 9.214 x 0.916
3 2
+ =
F W
D ,av
F z W x 1x0.5 0.4 x0.327
y 0.615
D 0.6

= = =
Chapter 6
Continuous Rectification-Binary Systems
Continuous distillation (fractionation) is a multistage,
countercurrent distillation operation
For binary solutions, it is possible to separate the solution into
its components
Distillation system components
Column, total condenser, partial
reboiler, and reflux drum
Sections
Rectifying section (tray f to tray 1)
Stripping section (tray N to tray f)
Streams
Feed (F, z
F
)

Distillate (D, x
D
)
Bottoms (W, x
W
)
Internal streams (reflux & boilup)
Feed stage
Top stage
Bottom stage N
1
f
Boilup
Partial reboiler
Bottom
Feed
Distillate
Reflux
Reflux Drum
Total Condenser
R
e
c
t
i
f
y
i
n
g

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

S
t
r
i
p
p
i
n
g

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

z
F

x
W

x
D

Chapter 6
McCabe-Thiele Method for Tray Towers
Approximate graphical method to estimate the
number of equilibrium stages and the amount of
reflux required to a desired degree of separation
The operating lines on the xy diagram can be
considered straight for each section of a fractionator
This is true only if the total molar flow rates of liquids
and vapors do not vary from stage to stage
Component A and B have equal constant molar latent heats of
vaporization
Enthalpy changes and heat mixing are negligible compared to
latent heat of vaporization
Heat losses are negligible
Pressure is uniform throughout the column
Chapter 6
Rectifying Section
Material Balance:

For constant molar overflow:

1
L
0
x
0
=x
D

D
x
D
2
n
L
1
x
1

V
2
y
2

L
n
x
n

V
n+1
y
n+1

V
n
y
n

V

y
1

n 1 n
n 1 n 1 D n n
n
n 1 n D
n 1 n 1
V D L
V y D x L x
L D
y x x
V V
+
+ +
+
+ +
= +
= +
= +
n 1 n
n 1 n D
V constant V and L constant =L
L D
y x x
V V
+
+
= = =
= +
0
n 1 n D n D
L L
Reflux Ratio, R
D D
L D L / D D / D
y x x x x
L D L D L / D D / D L / D D / D
+
= =
= + = +
+ + + +
n 1 n D
R 1
y x x Operating line for rectifying section
R 1 R 1
+
= +
+ +
Chapter 6
Rectifying Section-Number of Stages
1
L
0
x
0
=x
D

D
x
D
2
n
L
1
x
1

V
2
y
2

L
n
x
n

V
n+1
Y
n+1

V
n
y
n

V

y
1

1
2
3
4
5
Chapter 6
Stripping Section
Material Balance:

For constant molar overflow:

m
W
x
W

m+1
N
L
m
x
m

V
m+1
y
m+1

L
N
x
N

V
N+1
yN+1

V
N
y
N

B
y
W

m m 1
m m W m 1 m 1
m
m 1 m W
m 1 n 1
L W V
L x W x V y
L W
y x x
V V
+
+ +
+
+ +
= +
= +
=
m 1 st m st
st
m 1 m W
st st
V constant V and L constant =L
L W
y x x
V V
+
+
= = =
=
st st
B
st st
m 1 m W m W
st st st st
V L W
Boilup Ratio, V
W W
V W V / W W / W W W / W
y x x x x
V V V / W V / W
+
= =
+ +
= = +
B
m 1 m D
B B
V 1 1
y x x Operating line for Stripping section
V V
+
+
= +
Chapter 6
Stripping Section

Chapter 6
Feed Stage
Material Balance around the feed stage

Energy Balance

Assuming that the enthalpy of all vapor
streams are identical and the enthalpy of all liquid
streams are identical ( )

St st
F L V V L + + = +
( ) ( )
st L ,f st G ,f F
L L H V V H FH = +
f-1
f
L

xf-1

V

y
f

L
st
x
f

V
st
y
f+1

F
z
F

f+1
G ,f 1 G ,f L ,f L ,f 1
H H and H H
+
= =
( )
G ,f F
st
G ,f L ,f
the energy required to convert 1 mol of the feed to saturated vapor
H H
L L
q
F H H
= =
F L ,f 1 st G ,f 1 G ,f st L ,f
FH LH V H VH L H
+
+ + = +
Chapter 6
Feed Stage and q-line
Feed Condition q-Value
Subcooled Liquid >1
Saturated liquid 1
Partially vaporized 0 < q < 1
Saturated Vapor 0
Superheated vapor < 0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
F

x
W

Partial vaporized
x
y
Saturated vapor
Superheated vapor
Subcooled liquid
Saturated liquid
x
D

F
z q
y x
1 1 q 1
=

q-line equation
The intersection of the operating
lines locates the feed stage
Chapter 6
Limiting Conditions
For a given specification, a reflux ratio can be selected
anywhere from R
min
to an infinite value (total reflux)
As the reflux ratio increases the operating line of both
sections of the tower moves towards the 45 line until
they coincide
Because the operating line is located as far as possible
from the equilibrium curve, a minimum number of
stages is required

Chapter 6
Minimum Number of Stages

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
F

x
W

x
y
x
D

1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
F

x
W

x
y
x
D

1
2
3
4
5
Chapter 6
Minimum Reflux Ratio
As the reflux ratio decreases from the limiting case of
total reflux ratio, the intersection of the two
operating lines and the q-line moves to from the 45
line towards the equilibrium curve
The number of ideal stages increases because the
operating line moves closer to the equilibrium curve
A limiting condition is reached when the point of
intersection is on the equilibrium curve
To reach the feed stage either from the rectifying or
the stripping section requires infinite number of ideal
stages
The point of intersection (P) is called the pinch point

Chapter 6
Minimum Reflux Ratio
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
y
x
Chapter 6
Optimum Reflux Ratio
To reach a specific separation
any reflux ratio between
minimum and infinity can be
used
The corresponding number of
theoretical stages will vary
from infinity to a minimum
number
The total cost of the operation
(the sum of the fixed and the
operating cost) will be
minimum at R
opt

R
opt
is usually 1.2-1.5 R
min
A
n
n
u
a
l

C
o
s
t
s
,

$
/
y
e
a
r

Reflux ratio, R
R
min
R
opt
Chapter 6
Use of Open Steam
For distillation of aqueous solution, steam can be used
to provide the heat required instead of using reboiler
Using steam would result in increasing number of
stages
N
1
f
F
z
F

V
st
y=0
D
x
D

L
st
=W
x
W

st
F D w
F V D W
Fz Dx Wx
+ = +
= +
Chapter 6
Tray Efficiencies
Overall efficiencies E
O
can be estimated if the
Murphee efficiency of all trays are the same and the
operating and equilibrium lines are both straight over
the concentration range

Alternatively, empirical correlation such as OConnel
correlation can be used to estimate the overall
efficiency EO:

( ) ( )
2
O 10 L 10 L
L
E 0.5782 0.27511 log 0.044923 loh
0.1cP 10 cP

(
= +

L
where :
viscosity of the feed as liquid at the average temperature of the tower, cP
= avaerage relative volatility, the ratio of the equilibrium concentration ratio

=
( )
( )
of A and B in one phase to that in the other
y * 1 x

x 1 y *
1
ln 1 1
1
ln
MGE
O
E
A
E
A
| | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
=
| |
|
\ .

CHEG351 Spring 2008-Mass Transfer-Ahmed A Abdala

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CHEG351 Spring 2008-Mass Transfer-Ahmed A Abdala

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Dr. Ahmed A. Abdala

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