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Lecture 6

Geog 305: Theory and Practice of Geography


The role of laws, theories and models in geography
Scientific Laws in explanation
When a hypothesis, which refers to a proposition, is found to be true, it is accorded the
status of a scientific law. Laws are defined based on two criteria: the first is that a scientific
law is a generalization of universal reach. Also, a scientific law must have a relationship
with other laws which all fit into a whole collection of statements which themselves form a
scientific theory. A law is an integral component of a theory. Laws are statements that are
universally true, independent of time and place. They represent the constant conjunction of
the form if ! then "#$ given certain antecedent conditions, a particular conse%uence will
necessarily follow.
Laws differ from factual statements which refer to specific events in times and places
only, through their generality. They are produced by the empirical testing of hypotheses
and are lin&ed together in coherent theories. A hypothesis is a provisional statement which
guides empirical wor&. A hypothesis is an empirical statement not yet accepted as true. The
purpose of science is to test the veracity of these hypotheses to establish the statement#s
truth through empirical validation. 'ypotheses derived from a body of theory should be
general in its application and not refer to specific place or event.
Laws should be unrestricted in both spatial and temporal perspectives. They are
universal statements of unrestricted range. This means that laws cannot ma&e specific
reference to proper names. (sing these criteria, laws cannot be developed in many
disciplines. A proposition cannot be shown to be empirically universally true even in
physics. )t is therefore important to state from the start definitions of terms and an accurate
measurement of the limits within which it is supposed to hold. *ormal statements in a
scientific theory +laws,, which are abstract analytic statements, are universally true. When
they are deduced into theorems and translated into empirical statements, which can be
verified, they may lose their universality.
A statement may be accorded the status of scientific law when it uses an e-isting
theory. A statement using tenets of the central place theory can be adjudged a law because
of its relationship with other statements that ma&e up the theoretical structure in the central
place theory. A major criterion for determining whether a statement is a law or not, is the
relationship of that statement to the system of statements that constitutes a theory.
.
A scientific law may be interpreted rigidly as a generalization, which is empirically
universally true, and one, which is also an integral part of a theoretical system in which we
have supreme confidence. Laws play a vital function in scientific e-planation by:
o /roviding a powerful verifiable e-planation to events as distinct from mere
facts of life.
o Translating abstract a-iomatic statements in theories into real world or
empirical statements that have relevance for understanding a wide range of
relationships between phenomena.
o /roviding new &nowledge on events and phenomena hitherto difficult to
understand using the myriads of facts available on them. Laws sieve these facts
into refined classes and lin& them with abstract terms using the te-t of theories
thereby ma&ing sense of the jumble of information.
o Laws provide more powerful e-planatory forms than descriptive empirical
science. The principle of universality and relationship to a unified theoretical
structure increases the validity of scientific laws.
Scientific Theories
The %uest for e-planation is a %uest for theory. The development of theory is at the heart of
all e-planation, and most writers doubt if observation or description can be theory free.
Theories are 0free creations of the human mind0. 1peculative fantasies are theories of a sort,
but do not possess the status of scientific theory. The success of scientific e-planation lies
mainly in the way it has ta&en such speculations and transformed them from badly
understood and uncomfortable intrusions upon our powers of 0pure0 objective description
into highly articulate systems of statements of enormous e-planatory power.
A theory may simply be regarded as a set of connected statements used in e-planation.
)t comprises a set of hypotheses and constraining conditions which if validated empirically,
assume the status of LAW1. Theory structures the understanding of the relevant portion of
the empirical world. A theory may be regarded as a language for discussing the facts the
theory is said to e-plain and comprises a system of statements. These lin&ed coherent
statements which are assumed to be universal in their application, stimulate future
research: deduction and speculation from the &nown validated theory to the un&nown or
hypothesis and guide the production of future &nowledge.
/ropositions are lin&ed to empirical phenomena by a set of interpretative sentences
called te-t# or set# of corresponding rules#. The te-t performs 2 functions. .
st
it provides
a translation from a completely abstract theoretical language to the language of empirical
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observation. This provides the empirical support for the theory. 1econdly, it also identifies
the domain of a theory. The domain of a theory may be regarded as the section or sections
of reality which the theory ade%uately covers. Theory itself is simply an abstract set of
relations, the te-t states how and under what circumstances such an abstract system may be
applied to actual events.
Importance of developing formal theory
The creation of a formal structure for a theory ensures that the law statements we use in
e-planation are consistent with respect to each other. 3enefits to be derived from the
formal statement of a theory include:
o )t eliminates ine-actness, and as conse%uences of this, ensures complete
certainty as to the logical validity of the conclusions. 3ut this process involves
idealization which imposes a gap between idealized subject 4 matter and the
subject 4 matter being idealized. Lin&ing the abstract world to the real world is
one of the difficult tas&s a scientist must face.
o 5laborating a formal theory produces new ideas, prove unsuspected
conclusions and indicate new empirical laws
o *ormal theory has universal applicability since spatial and temporal
dimensions are eliminated. The te-t will then have to lin& these universal
propositions to empirical events.
o It creates the logical structure, which ensures that law statements used in
e-planations are consistent with each other.
o Theory can be stated in abstract form, which ma&es it more universal rather
than empirical laws that depend on temporal and spatial attributes to ma&e
them true.
o The development of general theory including the reduction of some concept
may enable more precise definitions of certain idealizations and hence
facilitate the statement of an appropriate te-t for some of the theories
developed in the social sciences.
Models in Explanation
6odels are undeniably beautiful, and a man may justly be proud to be seen in their
company. 3ut they may have their hidden vices. The %uestion is, after all not only whether
they are good to loo& at, but whether we can live happily with them7 8aplan, .9:;, p.2<<.
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6odels have several functions and this ma&es it difficult to define. A model can be defined
as theory, or a law, or a relation, or a hypothesis, or an e%uation or a rule. A model can be
used as a noun implying a representation, as an adjective implying a degree of perfection,
or as a verb implying to demonstrate or to show what something is li&e.
The world is too comple-$ hence, man tries to simplify this comple-ity by creating a
simplified and intelligible picture of the world. The mind decomposes the real world into a
series of simplified systems and thus achieves in one act an overview of the essential
characteristics of a domain. 6odels are pictures that contain what is considered as relevant
to the purpose of the study rather than representing everything. 1electivity is the most
important criterion. 6odels are therefore subjective appro-imations in that they do not
include all associated observations or measurements. 6odels are always in need of
improvement as new information of reality appear and lead to different models. Thus,
models are selective appro-imations, which, by the elimination of incidental detail, allow
some fundamental relevant or interesting aspects of the real world to appear in some
generalized form.
6odels help scientist in research procedures through two ways in which formal theory
may be developed, that is, through a posteriori and a priori models. In a posteriori models,
we show what is already &nown through observation and data classification. This model is
simply to represent something, which is already &nown. This model form allows easier
manipulation of relationships and facilitates testing procedures. >n the other hand, a priori
models are abstract formulations, which need real4world interpretations. 'ence a model is
an analytic construct, which is applied to reality, whereas a theory grows out of e-perience
of the real world. A priori models are open to doubt since it is not possible to &now in what
respects the model represents a theory.
The functions of !odels include:
They are necessary because they constitute a bridge between the observational and the
theoretical levels$ and are concerned with simplification, reduction, concretisation,
e-perimentation, action, e-tension, globalisation, theory formation, and e-planation.
6odels play psychological functions by enabling some group of phenomena to be
visualised and comprehended which could otherwise not be because of its magnitude
or comple-ity.
;
6odels have in addition to an organisational function with respect to data, also a
fertility in allowing the ma-imum amount of information to be s%ueezed out of the
data.
6odels play a logical function by helping to e-plain how a particular phenomenon
comes about. 5-planation consists of analysing our complicated systems into simpler
systems.
6odels play a systematic function in that reality is viewed in terms of interloc&ing
systems.
6odels have constructional function in that they form stepping stones to the building
of theories and laws.
)t is intellectually more profitable, satisfying and productive to view phenomena of the real
world in terms of their set characteristics# rather than to concentrate upon their individual
deviations from one another. This is proposing a nomothetic view of &nowledge which
tries to search for order in a seeming orderless world. The search for order is more useful
than the simple registration of facts.
'owever, a model should be used to model theories rather than repeat them. A model
is therefore a formalized e-pression of theory. The models provide interpretation for theory
in the sense that every sentence appearing in the theory is giving meaning. 6odels serve to
transfer the theory into realms which are more familiar, more understandable, more
controllable, or more easily manipulated.
Idealization in Model Building
6an reacts to the comple-ity of the world by ma&ing a simplified and intelligible picture
of the world. This simplification re%uires both sensual and intellectual creativity. An ideal
type is a theoretical device for generalizing beyond a particular situation, but one which
accepts the comple-ity of social relations. )deal types are used as organizing devices
through which we establish the patterns of activity involved across social and economic
institutions. )deal types are simplistic and e-aggerated categories providing a yardstic&
against which it is possible to compare and contrast empirical evidence.
A model is thus a simplified structure of reality which presents supposedly significant
features or relationships in a generalized form. 6odels are highly subjective appro-imation
in that they do not present all associated observations or measurements, but as such they
are valuable in obscuring incidental detail and in allowing fundamental aspects to appear.
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6odels are different from reality in that they are appro-imations of it. A model must
be simple enough for manipulation and understanding by its users, representative enough
in the total range of the implications it may have, yet comple- enough to represent
accurately the system under study. )t is an analogy. @eplication is a pre4re%uisite for
models in the empirical sciences.
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