Department of Civil Engineering

College of Engineering, UNITEN

Assoc Prof Ir Dr Lariyah Mohd Sidek
E-mail: lariyah@uniten.edu.my
Lecture Notes
CEWB223
Hydrology & Hydraulic Engineering
Chapter 8
Hydraulic Structures
Weir
Gates
Spillways
Dams
Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering, UNITEN
What is Hydraulic Structures?
Hydraulic structures are used to regulate,
measure and/or transport water in open
channels.
These structures are called control
structures when there is a fixed
relationship between the water-surface
elevation upstream or downstream of the
structure and the flow rate through the
structure.
Type of Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic structures can be group into
three categories:
(1) flow measuring structures, such as
weirs;
(2) regulation structures, such as gates;
and
(3) discharge structures, such as
culverts.
1. Spillway
crest/bay
2. Pier
3. Spillway
4. Stilling Basin
5. Armored
Scour
Prevention
bed
6. Section
7. Power
Station
WEIRS
Weirs are elevated structures in open
channels that are used to measure flow
and/or control outflow elevations from
basins and channels.
There are two types of weirs in common
use:
(1) sharp-crested weirs, and
(2) broad-crested weirs.
Sharp Crested Weir
Sharp-Crested Weirs, or thin-plate, weirs consist
of a plastic or metal plate that is set vertically and
across the width of a channel.
The main types of sharp-crested weirs are
rectangular and V-notch weirs.
In suppressed (uncontracted) weirs, the
rectangular opening spans the entire width of a
channel;
In unsuppressed (contracted) weirs, the
rectangular opening spans only a portion of a
channel.
Rectangular Weirs
Flow over a Sharp-Crested Weir
DERIVATION OF WEIR EQUATION
Assuming that the head loss is negligible along a streamline crossing Section 1,
at elevation z
1
and leaving Section 2 at elevation z
2
, then
DERIVATION OF WEIR EQUATION
The estimated flow rate, , across Section 2 can be calculated by integrating the flow rates across element of area b dz
2
,
where b is the width of the rectangular weir. Therefore
Assumptions
Their weir equation was derived with the following theoretical
discrepancies:
(1) the pressure distribution in the water over the crest of the weir is not
uniformly atmospheric;
(2) the water surface does not remain horizontal as the water
approaches the weir; and
(3) viscous effect that cause a non-uniform velocity and a loss of energy
between Section 1 and Section 2 have been neglected.
The error in the flow rate resulting from these theoretical discrepancies
is handled by a discharge coefficient, C
d,
defined by the relation
Eq. 1
It can shown by dimensional analysis that ( Franzini and Finnemore, 1997)
where Re is a Reynolds number,
We is a Weber number and
H
w
is the height of the crest of the weir above the bottom of the channel.
Experiments have shown that H/H
w
is the most important variable affecting C
d
, with We only important at low heads;
Re is usually sufficiently high that viscous effect can be neglected. An empirical formula for C
d
is (Rouse, 1946; Blevins, 1984)
Which is valid for H/H
w
< 5, and is approximate up to H/H
w
= 10. For H/H
w
> 15, the discharge can be
computed from the critical flow equation by assuming y
c
= H (Chaudhry, 1993). It is convenient to
express the discharge formula,
where C
w
is called the weir coefficient and is related to the discharge coefficient by
Eq. 3
Eq. 2
Taking C
d
= 0.62 in Equation 2 yields C
w
=
1.83, and Equation 1 becomes
which gives good result if H/H
w
< 0.4, which is within the
usual operating range (Franzini and Finnemore, 1997 ).
Eq. 3.1
Example 8.1
A weir is to be installed to measure flows in the
range of 0.5-1.0m
3
/s. If the maximum (total)
depth of water that can be accommodated at the
weir is 1 m and the width of the channel is 4 m,
determine the height of a suppressed weir that
should be used to measure the flow rate.
SOLUTION EXAMPLE 8.1
The flow over the weir is illustrated in Figure 2,
where the height of the weir is H
w
and the flow
rate is Q. The height of the water over crest of the
weir, H, is given by
Assuming that H/H
w
< 0.4, then Q is related to H
by Equation 3.1 where
Taking b = 4m, and Q = 1 m
3
/s (the maximum flow rate will
give the maximum head, H) then
SOLUTION EXAMPLE 8.1
The height of the weir, H
w
, is therefore given by
The initial assumption that H/H
w
< 0.4 is therefore validated and height of
the weir should be 0.735 m.
V-Notch Weir
A V-Notch weir is a sharp-crested weir that has a V-shaped opening
instead of a rectangular-shaped opening.
These weirs, also called triangular weirs, are typically used instead of
rectangular weirs tend to be less accurate.
V-notch weirs are usually limited to flows of 0.28 m
3
/s (10cfs) or less.
The basic theory of V-notch weirs is the same as the rectangular weirs,
where the theoretical flow rate over the weir, , is given
V-Notch Weir
Where b is the width of the V-notch weir at elevation z
2
and is given by
Eq. 4
Discharge Coefficient in V-
Notch Weirs
Figure 1
V-Notch Weir
The vertex angles used in V-notch weirs are usually between 10 and
90.
Values of C
d
for variety of notch angles, , and heads, H are plotted in
Figure 1.
The minimum discharge coefficient correspondent to a notch angle of
90, and minimum value of C for all angles is 0.581.
According to Potter and Wiggert (1991) and white (1994), using C
d =
0.58 for engineering calculations is usually acceptable, provided that
20 < < 100 and H > (2 in.). For H < 50mm, both viscous and
surface-tension effects may be important and a recommended value
of C
d
is given by (White, 1994)
Eq. 5
Example 8.2
A V-notch weir is to be used to measure channel flows in
the range 0.1 to 0.2 m
3
/s. What is the maximum head of
water on the weir for a vertex angle of 45?
Solution:
The maximum head of water results from the maximum
flow, so Q = 0.2 m
3
/s will be used to calculate the
maximum head. The relationship between the head and
flow rate is given by Equation 4., which can be put in the
form
Example 8.3
The discharge coefficient as a function of H for = 45 is given in Figure 1, and
some iteration is necessary to find H. These iterations are summarized in the
following table
Therefore, the maximum depth expected at the V-notch weir is 2.16ft = 0.66m.
Gates
Gates are used to regulate the flow in open channels.
They are designed for either over flow or underflow operation, with
overflow operation appropriate for channels in which there is a
significant amount of floating debris.
Two common types of gates are vertical gates and radial (Tainter)
gates.
Vertical gates are supported by vertical guides with roller wheels, and
large hydrostatic forces usually induce significant frictional resistance
to raising and lowering the gates.
A radial (Tainter) gate consists of an arc-shaped face plate supported
by radial arms that are attached to a central horizontal shaft that
transmit the hydrostatic force to the supporting structure. Since the
vector of the resultant hydrostatic force passes through the axis of the
horizontal shaft, only the weight of the gate need to be lifted to open
the gate.
Tainter gates are economical to install and are widely used in both
underflow and overflow applications. Structural design guidelines for
several types of gates can be found in Sehgal (1996).
Gates
Gates
Applying the energy equation to both vertical and Tainter gates, yields
Where Section 1 and 2 are upstream of the gate, respectively and energy
losses are neglected. In terms of the flow rate, Q, leads to
Gates
The depth of flow downstream of the gate, y
2
, is less than the gate opening, y
g
,
since the streamlines of the flow contract as they move past the gate. Denoting the
ratio of the downstream depth, y
2
, to the gate opening, y
g
, by the coefficient of
contraction, C
c,
where
Gates
The form of the discharge equation expresses the discharge in terms of an office-flow velocity,
times the flow area through the gate, by
g
, times a discharge coefficient, C
d
, to account for deviations
from the orifice-flow.
The discharge coefficient depends on the amount of the flow contraction as measured by C
c
and y
g
/y
1
.
In the case of a vertical sluice gate, it has been found that (Chadwick and Morfett, 1993)
Whenever 0 < y
g/
E
1
< 0.5 where E
1
is the specific energy of the flow upstream of
the
Tainter Gate
0 < y
g/
E
1
< 0.5
Vertical Sluice Gate
Gate
In cases where the discharge through the gate opening is supercritical
and the depth of flow downstream of the gate exceeds the conjugate
depth of the gate opening, there is the possibility that the outflow will be
submerged and the discharge equation will not be applicable.
An approximate analysis of the submerged flow condition assumes that all
head losses occur in the flow downstream of the gate, between Section 2
and 3, in which case the energy equation can be written as
Gate
Where y is the depth of flow immediately downstream of
the gate. Between Sections 2 and 3, the momentum
equation can be written as
And flow rate, Q, can be estimated by simultaneous solution of
Equations above where y
1
and y
3
are usually known and y
2
is
estimated by C
c
y
g
Example 8.3
Water is ponded behind a vertical gate to
a height of 4 m in a rectangular channel of
width 7 m. Calculate the gate opening that
will release 40m
3
/s through the gate. How
would this discharge be affected by a
downstream flow depth of 3.5 m?
Spillway?
1. The majority of impounding reservoirs are formed as a result of
the Construction of a dam
2. By its very nature, the stream flow which supplies a reservoir is
variable
3. It follows that there will be times when the reservoir is full and
the stream flow exceeds the demand.
4. The excess water must therefore be discharged safely from
the reservoirs.
5. In many cases to allow the water simply to overtop the dam
would result in a failure of structure.
6. For this reason carefully designed overflow passages known
as spillways are in corporate as part of the dam design.
1. Spillway
crest/bay
2. Pier
3. Spillway
4. Stilling Basin
5. Armored
Scour
Prevention
bed
6. Section
7. Power
Station
Spillway?
7. The spillways capacity must be sufficient to accommodate the
largest Flood discharge (The probably maximum flood or 1 in
10000 years Flood) likely occur in the life of the dam.
8. Basically spillway is an open channel with large slopes that
allows the excess water to flow over it at super critical
velocities.
9. The ideal longitudinal profile of an overflow spillway should
flow along the same curve as the underside of the tree-falling
water nappe to minimize the pressure on the spillways surface.
10. However, caution must be exercised to avoid any negative
pressure on the surface
11. Negative pressure is caused by separation of the high-speed
flow from the spillway surface, resulting in a ponding action
that can cause significant damage to the spillway structure.
Types of Spillway
Chute Spillway
Types of Spillway
Ogee Spillway
Without Spillway Weir
Types of Spillway
Bell Mouth/Morning Glory Spillway
Types of Spillway
Service Spillway
Types of Spillway
Auxiliary Spillway
Types of Spillway
Emergency Spillway
Stilling Basin
Stilling basin is a structure
Without Spillway Weir
Stilling Basin
Stilling Basin
Stilling Basin
Baffle Piers
Dams
Definition of Dams
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Dams
Classification of Dams
Types of Dams
Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering, UNITEN
Dams
What is a Dam?
A dam is a structure built across
a stream, river or estuary to
retain water.
Dams are made from a variety
of materials such as rock, steel
and wood.
1. Spillway
crest/bay
2. Pier
3. Spillway
4. Stilling Basin
5. Armored
Scour
Prevention
bed
6. Section
7. Power
Station
Advantages of Dam
Irrigation
Water Supply
Flood Control
Hydroelectric
Recreation
Navigation
Disadvantages of Dam
Dams detract from natural settings, ruin nature's work
Dams have inundated the spawning grounds of fish
Dams have inhibited the seasonal migration of fish
Dams have endangered some species of fish
Dams may have inundated the potential for
archaeological findings
Reservoirs can foster diseases if not properly
maintained
Reservoir water can evaporate significantly
Some researchers believe that reservoirs can cause
earthquakes
Classification of Dams
Storage Dam
Detention Dam
Diversion Dam
Coffer Dam
Debris Dam
Classification based on function
Typical Storage Dam
Srinagarind Dam
Vajiralongkorn Dam
Typical Storage Dam
Maeklong Dam
Tha Thung Na Dam
Classification of Dams
Classification based on hydraulic design
Classification based on material of construction
Overflow Dam/Overfall Dam
Non-Overflow Dam
Rigid Dam
Non Rigid Dam
Classification of Dams
Classification based on structural behavior
Gravity Dam
Arch Dam
Buttress Dam
Embankment Dam
Gravity Dam
Gravity dams are dams which resist
the horizontal thrust of the water
entirely by their own weight.
Concrete gravity dams are typically
used to block streams through
narrow gorges.
Gravity Dam
Cross Section
Plain View
Arch Dam
An arch dam is a curved dam
which is dependent upon arch
action for its strength.
Arch dams are thinner and
therefore require less material than
any other type of dam.
Arch dams are good for sites
that are narrow and have strong
abutments.
Arch Dam
Cross Section
Plain View
Buttress Dam
Buttress dams are dams in which the
face is held up by a series of
supports.
Buttress dams can take many
forms - the face may be flat or
curved.
Buttress Dam
Cross Section
Plain View
Embankment Dam
Embankment dams are massive
dams made of earth or rock.
They rely on their weight to
resist the flow of water.
Embankment Dam
Cross Section
Plain View
Types of Dam
Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam
A Narrow V-Shaped Valley : Arch Dam
A Narrow or Moderately with U-Shaped
Valley : Gravity/Buttress Dam
A Wide Valley : Embankment Dam
Topography-Valley Shape
Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam
Solid Rock Foundation : All types
Gravel and Coarse Sand Foundation :
Embankment/Concrete Gravity Dam
(H15 m)
Silt and Fine Sand Foundation :
Embankment/Gravity Dam (H8 m)
Non-Uniform Foundation : -
Geology and Foundation Condition
Types of Dam
Factors governing selection
of types of dam
Climate conditions
Availability of construction materials
Spillway size and location
Environmental considerations
Earthquake zone
Overall cost
General considerations
Hydropower Plant
Inside
Hydropower plant
Hydropower Plant
Hydropower Plant
Generator
Turbine
P
E
= n. .Q.H
T
------------------(9.1)
P
E
= Power (kW)
n = Efficiency (%)
= Specific Weight of Water (9.81 kN/m
3
)
Q = Water Discharge (cms)
H
T
= Head (m)
E = P
E
.T ------------------(9.2)
E = Energy (kWh)
T = Time (h)
Hydropower Energy Calculation
Three Gorges Dam
Three Gorges Dam
Type: Concrete Gravity Dam
Cost: Official cost $25bn - actual
cost believed to be much higher
Work began: 1993
Due for completion: 2009
Power generation: 26 turbines on
left and right sides of dam. Six
underground turbines planned for
2010
Power capacity: 18,000
megawatts
Reservoir: 660km long,
submerging 632 sq km of land.
When fully flooded, water will be
175m above sea level
Navigation: Two-way lock system
became operational in 2004.
One-step ship elevator due to
open in 2009.
Three Gorges Dam
Three Gorges Dam
Shipping Locks
Shipping Locks
CASE STUDY : The Malaysia Mega Project Bakun
Hydroelectric Project (Bakun HEP) in Rejang River
Basin, Sarawak.
The Bakun dam is a 205-meter-high Concrete Face Rockfill Dam
(CFRD), with a length of crest of 740 meters, a base width of 560
meters and a crest width of 12 meters. It can generate 2400MW
(max). This makes it one of the highest rockfill dams in the world
after China. It will flood 69,640 hectares of land, an area as size of
Singapore.
Diversion Inlet
Diversion Outlet
Auxiliary Cofferdam
Reservoir
Engineering contribution to Bakun HEP
This project is fully contributed by latest technology with the
knowledge and experience of engineers.
Mechanical Engineers
turbine design
water flow (penstock)
Control gate
Electrical Power Engineers
transformer
Generator
Power line
Civil Engineers
Designing
Mixture of concrete
The strength of tunnel
Positive Impact to the project
Regulation of river flow
Generates economy
Mitigation of floods
Reduces fossil fuel consumption
Reducing CO2 emissions
Carbon Dioxide Emission and Contribution To Global Warming
Source Environmental & Natural
Resource Implications
Carbon Dioxide
Emission(g/mj)
1
Relative Ratio of Contribution to
Global Warming
Hydro Clean and renewable 7.1 1
Natural Gas Moderately clean and depletable 171-188 24-26
Fuel Oil Polluting and depletable 204 29
Coal Polluting and depletable 831-1938 117-273
Negative Impact to the project
Highly cost more than RM 11.36 billions (1994)
Destroying the rainforest affecting 105 species of animals protected
under Malaysian wildlife legislation and innumerable plant species.
Resettlement - All the 15 affected communities will be resettled in
areas near the Belaga River, about 30 kilometres from the Bakun dam
site
Reservoir water quality - Decay of submerged forests can upset the
ecological balance of the area, leading to loss of water quality
Pergau Hydroelectric Scheme
Kuala Yong Dam
Type of Dam: Earthfill
Year of Completion: 1996
Crest Length: 750m
Height of Dam: 75m
Photo courtesy of En. Mohd Khanil
Taib
Power Intake After Reservoir Filling
Kuala Yong Spillway