1

Lecture Outline - Chapter 2

THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
I. Basic Chemistry
A. A basic k nowledge of chemistry is ess ential to understa nding anatomy
and physiology
B. All of the functions of the body are the result of chemical reactions.
1. Digestion, mus cle contrac tion, metabo lism and generation o f
nerve impulses can all be described as chemical reactions.
2. A re view of ba sic c hemic al pr incip les, term inolo gy an d sy mbo ls
w ill make anatomy and physiology more understandable.
II. Ma tter M ass and Wei ht
A. atte r and the !leme nts
1. Matter " anyth ing that occupies space and h as mas s.
2. Mass " the a m ount o f ma tter in an ob #ect
$. Wei ht " is t h e gra v ita tional force acti n g on an ob#ect of a
gi v en mass.
%. Eleme nts " simp lest f o rm of matt e r with un i&ue che m ical
proper ties a. 112 kno wn elements '(2 naturally occ urring)
*. At!m " the s m al lest par tic le of an elem e nt t h at has the che m ical
charac teris tics of that e leme n t and a r e the s m al lest u n its of matt e r
that can u n dergo c h emic a l cha n ge.
a. An element is composed of atoms of only one kind.
b. !ach element or atom is represented by a symbol
B. Atomic +tructure
1. ,hree ma#or subato m ic st r uctu r e s make up a toms
a. "eutr!ns#
'1) no electric cha rge, mass " 1 D alton
b. $r!t!ns -
'1) positive charge, 1 Dalton
c. Electr !ns
'1) negative charge
'2) e&ual in magnitude to positive charge of proton
'$) mass " 1.2/// Dalton
2. Atoms generally have e&ual numbers of protons a nd electron s thus
the c harg es c anc el ea ch o ther out le aving the a tom e lect rica lly
neut ral.
2
$. 0rotons a nd neutron s from the nucleus of the a tom.
a. the nucleus mak e up more tha n ((.(1 of the m ass .
%. !lectron are located o utside of the nucleus
a. ost of the volume of the atom is occupied by the
electron b. electron density diagram- predict where an
electron is most
likely to be found at any given moment.
2. At!mic "um%er and mass
1. at!mic num%er " the nu mbe r of pr!t!ns in its nucleus.
2. !ach proton or n eutron we ighs !ne at!mic mass uni t or Dalton
$. mass num%er " the numbe r of protons p lus the number of neutro
ns for an element.
%. !lectro n s determ ine the che m ical p r operties of the ato m.
*. 3hen the number of proto ns and numbe r of neutrons are e&ual, the
ato m is e lect rica lly neu tral.
4. Electr !n shells 5 !lectrons encircle the nucleus in electron shells
or energy levels.
a. Or%ita l 5 an e lect ron c an o ccu py a ny po sitio n in a c
erta in volum e of s pac e ca lled a n orb ital.
b. 6rbital is like a shell beyond which electrons don7t pass.
c. ,he inner mos t she ll can hold up to tw o electrons.
d. ,he oute rmos t she ll, holding the vale n c e electrons, can have
eight electron s .
D. Is!t!pes and At!mic Mass
1. Is!t!pes are two or more forms o f the same eleme nt that have the
same numbe r of protons a nd electrons but vary in the ir numbe r s
of neutron s.
a. Same at!mic num%er %ut di&&erent mass num%ers.
b. !g. $ isoto pes of hydro gen-
'1) hydrogen 5 / neutrons w ritten '
1
8) symbol w ith mass
numb e r
'2) deuterium 5 1 neutro n '
2
8)
'$) tritium 5 2 neutrons '
$
8).
2. All isotopes o f the same eleme nt behave the same che mically.
$
$. At!mic Mass
a. Individual atoms have very little mass.
'1) !g. 8ydrogen " 1.49 : 1/
52%
g.
b. ,o avoid us ing such small numbers w e use a s ystem of
relative atomic mass
'1) ;nified atomic mass units 'u) or Dalton 'D)
c. Each pr!t!n !r neutr!n has an at!mic mass !& ' (
'1) 2
12
is used as the sta ndard
'a) 6ne atomic mass unit !&uals 1 .12 the mass of 2arbon
'4 protons and 4 neutrons)
'2) ,he at!mic mass " the ave rage mas s of it s na tura
lly occurring isotop es taking into ac count the
relative abunda n ce of each isot o pe.
'a) Ie. 2arbon has the isotopes
12
2,
1$
2 and
1%
2.
'b) ,he atomic mass of 2arbon is 12./1 D
'c) +lightly a bov e 12 bec aus e of s mall am ounts of
1$
2
and
1%
2.
!. Electr !ns and che mical %
!ndin
1. ,he chemical beha vior of an atom is de termined largely by
its outermost electro n s ' )alence electr!ns ).
2. A chemical bond is an attrac tion between ato ms usually to form
sta ble v alen ce s hells
a. An a tom is mos t sta ble w hen t he va lenc e sh ell is fu
ll.
$. 2hemical bonding occurs w hen the outermost electrons a re
tran s fer r ed or sha r e d between atoms.
%. ,he number of bonds an atom can make depends on the number of
elec tron s in its oute rmos t orb ital.
*. 2hemical bonding can be grouped into three categories
a. Ionic , co vale nt, a nd me tallic
4. I!nic B!nd in
a. If an at!m l!se s !r ains electr!n s it is no longe r ele ctric
ally neutral 'carries a charge) and is called an i!n(
'1) I!ns are charged par ticles.
'2) !g. If an atom of <a loses an electron it becomes
%
positively charged '<a= ). 6r if an atom o f 2l gains and
electron it will become negatively charged '2l5).
*
b. cati!ns - 0ositively charged ion s ' have lost an e lectron)
c. ani!ns - <egatively cha rged ion s are called'have gained
an electron)
d. 6pposite ly cha r ged mo lecul e s are at tracted to each ot h er
and tend to remain close to each other.
e. I!nic %!ndin occurs w hen one or mo re valence e lectrons
from one atom a re complete ly transferred to a second atom.
'1) electrons are not shared
'2) !g. <a = a nd 2 l5 ions are held toge ther by io nic
bon ding t o for m an a rray of ion s ca lled < a2 l or ta
ble salt.
'a) <a 5 11 e 5 '2 = > = 1
) 'b) 2l5 19 e5 '2= > = 9)
f. 2ommon ions found in the body
include- '1) 2a == , < a= , ?= , 8= ,
6 85, 2l5
g. Ionic compounds readily form crystals.
h. Ionic bon ds a re w eak bec aus e ion s te nd to diss ocia te
in water.
9. C!)ale nt B!ndin
a. C!)ale nt %!ndin results when atoms share one or
more pairs of valence electron s to form stable valence
shells. '1) ,he resulting structure is called a molecule.
b. !g. ,wo hydr o gen m o lecu le s from a molecule. 858
'1) !ach 8 has one electron, as the two 8 move close
together the p ositive nucleus is attra cted to the neg.
electrons.
'2) At an optimal dista nce the tw o 8 atoms begin sharing
electrons.
'$) ,he two atoms are now held to gether by a c
ovalent bond.
c. sinle c!) alent %!nd is formed whe n one elec tron pair
is shared b etwee n two ato ms
d. A d!u%le c!) alent %!nd is formed whe n two atoms s hare %
electro n s, two from each atom
'1) !g. 6"6, 26
2
'6"2"6)
e. $!lar and n!n p!lar c!)alent %!nds
'1) n!np!lar c!) alent %!nd is formed whe n electrons are
4
shared e*ually betwe en atoms
'2) p!lar c!)alent %!nds are formed when the electrons
are not s hare d e& ually but a re a ttra cte d mo re s tron
gly by one nucleus than the other.
'a) !g. 8
2
6 @ oAyg en a ttra cts elec tron s mo re s tron
gly than 8. 'oAygen side of molecule is more
negative)
'b) 6Aygen, nitroge n and phos phorus have a strong
tendency to pull electrons toward themselves.
>. Me talic %!ndin
a. In metalic bonding the oute r most s h ell of e lectro n s is
s h ared e&ua lly a m ong a ll of the a toms in the sa m ple.
b. ,he electro ns form a Bs ea of electro ns
c. !lec tron s mo ve fre ely b etw een nucle i of at oms . Co r
this reason me tals are eAc ellent conducto rs of
electricity.
C. olecules and 2ompounds
1. M!le cule 5 two or mo r e at!ms chemically combined form a
mole c ule.
2. M!le cular &!r mula+s 5 symbol of atom and subscript number
of that specific atom in the molecule.
a. !g. 2
4
8
12
6
4
'sugar)
b. olecule ca n be made of tw o atoms of the same kind '6
2
or
8
2
) or of different kinds
$. C!mp !und 5 is a s ubs tanc e co mpo sed of two or mo r e di&&er
ent
types of a toms that are chemically combined.
a. 8
2
is not a molecule because it is not made or two or more
dif f erent k ind s of atoms.
b. 8
2
6 is a co mpound
D. Interm!lecular &!rces
1. Eesult form w eak elec trostatic attra ctions betw een the
oppos itely charged pa rts of different molecules o r betwe en
ions and molecules
a. ,hese forc es are muc h weaker than t h e chemical bond s we
have #ust talked a bout
9
b. olec ules with polar c ovalent bond s have po sitive and negative
>
ends.
'1) ,he pos itive end of one molec ule will be attracte d to
the negative end of another. '!g. 826)
2. Hydr!en %!nds are formed w hen oppo sitely charged e nds of
one pola r mole cule are attr act ed t o an othe r po lar mo lecu le
a. A wea k hydrogen b ond forms be tween the slightly positive
hydrogen of one molecule and the slightly negative oAygen
or nitrogen portion of another.
b. 8ydrogen b onds are important for maintaining the
three5dimensiona l structure of large, b iologically important
molecules.
8. S!lu%ility and ,iss!c iati!n
1. ,he ability of a substance to dissolve is called solubility.
a. 2harged and polar s ubstance s ' <a= , 2l5, glucose
dissolve readily in water.
b. <onpolar substances such as oils do not dissolve.
2. Ionic compounds dissolve in water because their ions dissociate or
separate from each other
a. ,here cations are attracted to the negative ends of water
molecules
b. ,here anions are attracted to the positive ends of the water
molecule.
$. 2ovalent c ompounds generally remain intact in wa ter even though
they are surrounded by water.
B+24% Fect. % 2h 2 2hem
= 5
(
CHEMICAL -EACTIO"S
I. Atoms, Ions molecules compounds interact to form or break
chemical bonds.
1. Eeac tants- substa nces that e nter a reac tions
2. 0roducts - result
G
ing products o f a reactions
a. Eeactants
H. Synthesis -eac ti!ns
0roducts
1. 2 or more c hemical com
G
bine to form new and larger produc ts
a. !g. 2 amin
G
o
acids
dipeptide = 8
2
6 ' dehyd ration)
b. AD0 = 0
i
A,0
2. +ynthesis reactions within the body are refereed to as anabolic.
'Anabolism).
?. ,ec!m p!siti!n -e acti!ns
1. Farge reacta n ts are c h emic a l ly broken down i n to two or m ore sma ller
product s .
a. !g. Disacharide = 8
2
6
G2 : glucose '8 ydrolysis).
2. cata%!lism 5 Decomp osition reactions that occur in the body a re
refereed to as .
$. All of t he a nab olic a nd c ata bolic rea ctio ns in t he b ody colle ctive ly
are defined as Meta%!lism
F. O.idati!n - - educti!n - eacti!ns
1. 2hemical rea ction that results from the eAchange o f electrons
a. 6Aidat io n 5 loss of an elec tron by an ato m.
b. Eeductio n 5 gain of an electron b y an atom.
2. Becaus e the loss o f an electron by o ne atom is ac companied by
the gain of an electron in another atom these reactions are called
6Aidation 5 Eeduction Eeactions.
. -e)e rsi%le r eacti!ns
1. 2hemical rea ctions in which the re action can p roceed from reactants
to produc ts
G
and pro ducts to re actants
a. A = B 2 = D
b. !&uilibrium the point at which p roduct formation is e &ual to the
rate of the reve rs
G
e reac tion
G
.
c. !g. 26
2
= 8
2
6 8
2
26
$
8 = 826
$
5
'1) 8
2
26
$
5 carbonic acidI 826
$
5 bicarbona te
<. Eate o f 2hemical Ee actions
1. Eate is influenced by several factors-
a. -eacta nts 5 differ in their ability to undergo chemical
reactions. b. C!ncentr ati!n 5 gre ate r co nce ntra tions of re act
ants gene rally
cause reac tions to proceed faster.
c. Temperature 5 reaction speed increases with higher temps.
'olecules move faster 5 bump into each other more.
d. Catalys ts 5 substance that increases the rate at which a
chemical reaction proceeds.
'1) En/ymes 5 are prote in molecules that ac t as cata lysts in the
body.
III. E"E-01
A. !nergy is defined as the capacity to do work.
B. ,wo forms of energy-
1. 0otential energy 5 s tored ene rgy
a. eg. coile d sp ring 5 h as p ote ntial t o do wo rk b ut no wo
rk is accomplished.
2. ?inetic energy 5 form of energy that actually does work.
a. eg. uncoiling spring pushing an o b#ect.
2. !nergy can neither be created or destroyed
1. 8owever potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy and
vice versa.
D. !nergy can take several forms.
1. Electric Enery 5 movement of ions o r electrons
a. !g. nervous impulse 5 movement of ions across a membrane.
2. Electr!manetic Enery 5 energy that move s in waves 'pebble in a
pond)
a. elec trom agne tic w ave s ar e dis turb anc es o f elec tric o r mag
netic fields.
b. variety of wave types de pending on w avelength.
'1) :5 r ay, ultra viole t, vis ible lig ht, in frare d, m icro wa ve,
rad io waves.
$. Chemical Enery 5 result from the relative po sitions and interac tions
among charged subatomic particles.
a. +imilarly charged particle close together have high
potential energy.
b. 6ur bod ies use che mical energy in the form of food. ,he
potential energy between food and waste products is used for
growth rep air movement and heat prod ution within the body.
c. etabolism 5 in metabolism ionic and covalent chemical
bonds are formed and broken .
'1) ,he relative positions of electrons and nuclei
changes producing cha nges in chemical ene rgy.2FI0
2(''3
'a) Cormation of chemical bonds results in a increase of
potential energy and re&u
G
ires the input of
energy.
i) AD0 = 0
i
= energy A,0
ii) energy comes from the chemical bonds in food.
'2) Breaking a chemical bond results in an decrease of potential
energy and
G
results in the release of energy.
'a) A,0 AD0 = 0
i
= energy
d. 0ho tos ynthe sis 5 pro ces s by whic h pla nts c apt ure e nerg
y in sunlight and incorporate it into chemical bonds
%. Mechanical enery5 energy resulting form the po sition or movement
of an ob#ec t.
a. In the body, chemical energy is converted into mechanical
energy that res ults in body moveme nt ie. walking, be ating
heart.
*. Heat enery
a. 8eat is the energy that flows between ob#ects that are at
different temperatures.
b. 8eat is always transferred from a hotter ob#ect to a cooler
ob#ect c. All other forms of energy c an be co nverted to he at
energy.
'1) 3hen a moving ob#ect comes to rest the kinetic energy of
the ob#ec t is converted to heat ene rgy by friction.
'2) 0otential energy in chemical bonds can also be released as
heat energy during chemical reactions.
IJ. I"O-0A"IC CHEMIST-1
Inorganic chemistry 5 d eals with thos e substa nce that do not contain ca rbon
6rganic chemistry 5 the study of carbon5containing substances
!Aception s - carbon monoAide and carbon dioAide are considered inorganic.
A. 3ater
1. 491 of body is water
a. 3ater is a polar molecule and forms hydrogen bonds.
b. ,hese hydrogen bonds organiKe water molecules into a
lattice that holds the was ter molecules together.
2. 3ate r has prop erties that are well suited for many functions in living
organisms-
a. +tabiliKing body temperature
'1) 3ater has a high specific heat
'a) A relatively large amount o f heat is re&uired to change
the temperature.
'b) ,ends to resist large temperature fluctuations.
'2) 3a ter e vap ora tes 'cha nging fr om a li&uid to a gas ) 5
this re&uires heat '*%/ c alories. gram)
'a) !vapora tion of swea t therefore effec tively rids
the body of eAc ess hea t.
b. 0rotection
'1) 3ate r is an effective lubricant
'a) 0revents damage due to friction 'eg. eye against
eyelid)
'b) 0rovides a cushion around organs 'eg 2 +C and bra in)
c. 2hemical rea ctions
'1) 3ate r is an eAcellent so lvent.
'a) any reacting molecules must be dissolved in water
within the body b efore they ca n react.
'2) Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions re&uire water.
d. iAing medium
'1) 3ater can miA with other solutions to form solutions,
suspensions and colloids
'a) s!luti!ns- any li&u id that conta ins di s solv e d substa n ces
'eg. +weat contains <a2l etc.
'b) suspens i!ns- a l i&uid that co n tai n s non 5 disso lved
mate rials that set tle o ut of o f the li& uid un less s it
is
cont inua lly s h ake n. '!g. Blood)
'c) c!ll!id- a li&u id tha t co ntain s no ndis solv ed m ate
rials that do n ot s ettle out o f li&uid . '3a ter and pro
teins inside the cell).
B. +olution 2onc entrations
1. +olutions are made up of a solvent 'the li&uid portion) and
solutes
'substances dissolved in the solvent).
2. ,he concentration of a solution can be eApressed in a number of
different ways-
a. As a percentage 'ie. A 1/1 solution e&uals 1/ g of solute in 1//
ml of solution etc. )
b. As a osmolarity '1 osmole " 1 mole 'Avegadros7s L of particles)
in 1 kilogram of water)
'1) 6smolarity is a re flection of the number of pa rticles in
a solution and not the type of particle in a s olution.
'2) ,he osm olar ity of b ody fluids is imp orta nt be cau se
it influences the movement of water in and out of
cells.
'$) <ote- difference between molality and osmolality is that
osmolality takes into acount the number of particles a
molecule breaks into when it goes into solution. 'A 1
molar solution of <a2F " a 2 osmoler solution of <a2F
because the <a= and 2 l5 are separated in water.)
2. Acids and Bases
1. Acid - defi ned as a proton dono r.
a. A 8ydrogen atom without its electron is a proton doner
'8=)@any substance tht releases 8= ion is therefore considered
and acid.
G
'1) eg. 82 l
8
=
= 2l5 '82l is an acid because it gives up 8=
when put into solution.)
2. Base# defi n ed as a proton acceptor
a. Any substance t
G
hat binds to hydrogen ions
G
is a base.
'1) eg. <a68 <a
=
= 685 685 = 8
=
8
2
6 'hydroAide
ions are proton acceptors)
$. ,he more freely the aci
G
d or base dissociates the stronger it is.
a. +tro ng ac id - 82
l
8= 2l5
G
'1) dissociates almost completely and therefore is a strong acid.
=
b. 3eak Acid - Acetic acid 28
$
2668 28
$
2665 = 8
'1) +ome diss ociates a nd some d oes not.
'2) An e&uilibrium is reached betwe en the ions and the
undissociated weak acid.
%. The pH Scale
a. ,he p8 s cale is a me ans of refe rring to the 8 = co ntent of
a solution.
b. 0ure water is defined as neutral and has a p8 of 9.
'1) 8as an e &ual conce ntration of 8= a nd 685
ions
c. +olutions with a p8 less than 9 are acidic 'have a
higher concentration of 8= than 6 85)
d. +olutions wtih a p 8 greater tha n 9 are ba sic or alkaline '
have lower conce ntration of 8= compared to 685).
e. p8 stands for the power or 8 concent r atio n.
'1) logarithmic scale 5 a change of p8 by one unit represents a
1/ fo ld cha nge in t he c onc entra tion o f 8
=
.
'2) p8 of 4 has a 1/ times as many 8= ions than a solution
with a p8 of 9 and 1// times as many 8= ions as p8 >.
*. Salts
a. A salt is compound consisting of a cation other than 8= and an
anion other than a hydroAide ion.
b. ,ypically, when salts such as <a2 l dissociate in ater hey form
positively and negatively charged ions.
4. Bu&&ers
a. ,he che mical n ature of man y mole cules cha nges as t he p 8
of a solution in which they are dissolved changes.
'1) eg. ost enKymes work within a narrow p8 range.
'2) +urv ival o f an o rgan ism d epe nds on its abilit y to m ainta
in it p8 level within a narrow range.
b. ,he body uses buffers to regulate p8 levels.
c. Bu&&er# solu tion o f a co n#uga ted acid 5ba se p air in w hich t he a
cid compone n t and the base co m ponent occur in si m i lar
concentra tion s .
'1) A con#ugate base is a ll that remains of an acid a fter the
hydrogen ion 'pro ton) is lost.
'2) A co n#uga te a cid is forme d w hen a hydr oge n ion
is transfered to the con#ugate base.
'$) ,wo s ubstance s related in this w ay make up a con#ugate
= 5
acid 5ba se p air
'a) eg. 2a rbo nic a cid 'con#u
3
gate acid) and bicarbona te
con#ugate base ) 8
2
26
$
8 = 826
$
D. O.yen
'b) reversible rea ction results in an e& uilbrium.
'%) ,he con#ugated acid base pair can resist changes in p8
because of this e&uilibrium.
'a) If an acid is add ed to the b ufferM 8= comb ine with the
base component N the concentration of 8= ions does
not increase s as much a s it would w ithout this
reaction.
'b) If a b ase is ad ded to th e bu fferM , he c on#u gate acid
can release 8 = which combines w ith the 685 to form
water. ,he net result is that the 8= ion concetration
stays within a normal range.
'c) ,he greate r the buffer conce ntration the more e
ffective it is at resisting changes in the p8.
'd) Important buffers in the body Include-
bicarbonate, phosphates, amino acids, and
proteins.
1. Another important inorganic molecule is oAygen.
2. 6Aygen co nsists of two oAygen atoms bound by a double co valent
bond.
$. 6Ay gen is re& uired in the final s tep s of c hang ing foo d into usa
ble energy in our bodies.
!. Car%!n di!.ide
1. 6ne carbon and two oAygen
2. 0roduce when organic molecules are metaboliKed
$. 26
2
is elim inate d fro m the cell, trav els t hrou gh the bloo d an d the
n is eAhausted through the lungs.
%. 26
2
accumulation in cells is toAic.
J. O-0A"IC CHEMIST-1
56rganic chemistry is carbon based.
52arbo ns ability to form covalent b onds w ith other atoms ma kes po ssible the
formation of large diverse complicated molecules '2arbon forms the backbone
of many large molecules).
5Cou r ma# or gr oup s of o rgan ic mo lecu les a re e sse ntial t o living orga nisms -
carboh y drates
lip ids
proteins
nucle ic acid s.
A. Car%!hydrates
1. 2haracteristics
a. 2omposed of carbon, hydrogen, and oAygen
b. range in siKe from very s mall 'simple sugars) to ve ry large
'polysaccharides)
c. Cor each c arbon there are genera lly 2 8= and 1 6 atom.
d. 2arb o 5 hydr a te s " carbon = watered
'1) ie be cau se t hey c onta in so much oAyg en th ey a re s olub le in
water.
2. M!n!saccharides
a. ono saccha rides or simple s ugars are the building blocks for
large carbohydrates.
'1) 2ommonly contain $, %, *
or 4 carbons.
'2) +uffiA -ose denotes a sugar
mole cule
b. 2ommon 4 ca rbon sugars
'heAose) such as glucose, fruc tose
and galac tos e are isomeres
'1) Is!meres are molecules
with the same che m ical
formula but differ in the
arrangemen t of those
chemicals.
'2) Dlucos e is the ma#or carb
in blood
'$) Cructose a n d galactos e are found in foods.
'%) Important 4 C suars include ribose and deo A yribos e found in
E<A and D< A. Ee spectively
$. ,isaccharides
a. 2o mpo sed of tw o sim ple
sugars co mbined through a
deh ydra t
F
ion s
ynthe sis reaction
'1) 0luc!se 5 &ruct!se
6 sucr!se 'tab le
sugar) = wa ter.
'2) 0luc!se 5 alact!se
6 lact!se 'milk
sugar)
%. 0olysaccharides
a. 2onsist o f many monosac
charides b ound together to
form long chains.
b. ,hese chains are can be either straight or branched
c. 0lyc!en 5 compos ed of many glucos e molecules 'impo rtant
storage molecule.
'1) highly branched
'2) Dluc ose for mu scle con trac tion is gene rally s tore d as glyco gen
in the liver or muscle.
d. Starch and cellul!se 'tw o ot her im por tant poly sac cha ride s) fo
und in plants.
'1) composed of long chains of glucose.
'2) fewer bra nches than glyco gen.
'$) humans have the necess ary enKymes to break down s tarch but
lack the enKymes to break down cellulose.
'%) broken d own by a hydr!lys is reac ti!n.
14
B. LI$I,S 5 the seco nd ma#or group of organic molecules common in living
things.
1. 2omposed mainly of 2, 6 and 8 ,
a. like carbohydrates h!7e)er the propor tion of 6Aygen is m u ch lower
'1) less po la r than carbs
'2) inso luable in wa te r .
'a) soluable in nonpolar organic solvents such as alcohol
or acetone.
b. Fip ids dif f er in c h emical struct u re but are p u t in to the l ipid catego r y
by virtue of a common physical property 5 they are insoluble in water.
c. 0hospho r us and n it r oge n are also minor components of
lipids. d. 2ategories of lipids-
'1) Fats
'a) broken down by hydrolysis reactions in the cell to
release energy.
'b) eAcess chemical energy is stored as fat in the body
'c) fat provides p rotection and padding of orga ns, also p revents
F
heat loss.
'2) Triacyllycer!ls 2trilycerides3
'a) constitute (* 1 of the fat in the human b ody.
'b) made up of glycerol and fatty acids.
'c) 0lyce r!l 5 three carbo n molecule with hydroA y l
gro u ps attached to each
carbon a tom.
i) describe d acco rding to
the number of fatty
acid chains attatched
to them. @
mono acy lglyce rol,
diacylglycerols etc.
'd) Fatty acids - straight
chains of carb on atoms
with a carb oAyl group
at one end '52668)
i) the carboAyl group is responsible for the acidic
nature. ii) differ in the degree of saturation of their
carbon chains.
a) +aturated 5 only single covalent bo nds betw een carb
ons 'beef, po rk, butter, e ggs, coc onut oil contain a high
percentage of saturated fat.)
b) ;nsaturated 5 one or more double bonds
c) mono unst urat ed 5 'one dou ble b ond ) olive oil, p ean ut
oil d) 0olyunsaturated 5 'two o r more double bond s)
safflower,
corn, fish 5don7t contribute to heart disease.
'$) $h!sph!lipids
'a) +imilar to triacyl5 glycerols e.cept one fatty acid cha in
is replaced by a molecule c ontaining
phospha te and us u al ly n itrog e n .
'b) polar at one end
'phosphate end)
and nonpolar at
the other 'carbon
chain).
i) polar end5
hydr oph
ilic
ii) nonpolar end 5
hydr oph obic
'c) Important
com pon ent o f
cell membranes
i) +tructure allows the formation of micelles and lipid bilayer.
'%) Ster!ids
'a) % ring like structures
i) $5 4 carb on rings and 15 * carbon ring.
'b) non soluble in water and therefore catagoriKed as lipids.
'c) includ es- cholestero l, estrogen, te stostero ne, proge
sterone
and bi le salts.
'd) Ch!leste r!l is an impo rtan t be cau se-
i) other stero id molecules are synthesiKed from it.
ii) component of cell membranes 'fluidity).
'e) +eA ste roid s-
i) important in reproductive behaviors and
functions. ii) 0roduce secondary seA characteristics.
iii) ,estosterone 5 increases muscle and bone mass
a) side effects 5 me ntal problems, bloating face, violent
mood swings, depression, liver damage, increase in blood
cholesterol leading to serious cardiovascular
problems, reduced seA drive, infertility.
e. 0rostiglandins.
'1) fatty acid with a cyclic head group.
'2) Eegulatory functions
'a) regulate blood vessel diame ter, ovulation, uterine c ontraction,
inflamation, blood clotting.
C( $r!teins 5 the third ma#or group of organic molecules common in living
things.
1. Biological polymer made up of amino acids.
2. Se)en c lasses !& $r!te ins-
a. +tru c tural
b. 2o ntra
ctile c.
+torage
d. Defensive
e. ,ranspor t 5
f. +ig n a l 5
g. !nKy m e s 5
$. 0roteins 2ontain- carbon, hydro gen, oAygen and nitrogen 'some sulfur)5
a.
%. 0rotein +tructure
a. ade up of amino ac id s .
'1) amino acids c ontain-
'a) car%!.y l r!up '5266 8) and an amine r!up '5
<82). '2) ,here are 2/ different amino acids
'a)
'$) ,he amino ac ids form long chains held to gether by
peptide %!nd s - covalent bond formed by dehydrat ion
synt h esi
'%) $r!teins are polypeptides composed of hundreds of a.a.
'*) ,here are 2/ di f fere n t a.a . therefore the potential number
of different protein molecules is enormous.
b. 0roteins shape determ ines its f unct ion
'1) !ach 0roteins molecule has a specific three dimensional
shape determined by its amino acid se&uence,
'a) ,enatur ati!n 5unraveling of protein chain 5
i) loss of s h ape resul ts in loss of f u nctio n.
c. 0roteins can have &!ur di&& erent str uctural le) els
'1) 0rimary structure 5
'a)
'2) +econdary structure 5
'a)
'b)
'$) ,ertiary structure 5
'a)
'b)
'c)
i) ,isul&ide %!nds-
ii) interacti!n 7ith 7ater
'%) Ouaternary structure
'a)
'b)
'c)
'd)
D. "8CLEIC ACI,S- D<A and E<A
1. De oAyr ibon ucle ic ac id 'D <A )5 the gene tic ma teria l of the cell
2. Eibonucleic acid 'E<A)
a. +tructurally related to D<A
b. ,hree types
'1)
'2)
'$)
c. ea ns of translating the gene tic message from D<A to
protein.'2hapter $)
$. <ucleic acids
a. Farge molecules composed of 2 8 6 < 0
b. D<A and E<A composed of basic building blocks called <ucleotides.
'1) Cigure 2.2%
'2)
'$)
'%) ,he organic bases are-
'a) thymine9 cyt!sine9 uracil 'single ringed pyrimidines3
'b) uanine and adenine 'double ringed purines3
'*) <ucleotides are #oined in a chain to form the nucleic
acids. c. D<A
'1)
'2)
'$) Adenine binds only to ,hymine 5 allows 2 hydrogen
bonds '%) 2ytosine binds only to guanine 5 allows $ hydrogen
bonds '*) chr!ma tin "
'4) Hist!nes "
'9) chr!m!s!mes "
d. E<A
'1)
'2)
'$) uracil su% stitutes &!r
thymine
e. ,he se& uence of orga nic bases in D<A s tores gene tic information.
'1) ,he se& uence of orga nic bases in D<A ultimately dicta tes
the
se&uence of a.a. found in protein molecules.
'2) Becaus e enKymes are prote ins5 D<A ultimately determines the
rate and type of ch emic al re act ions in the cell.
!. Adenos ine ,riphospha te
1. 2onsists of adenosine and three phosphate groups. Cig. 2.29
2.
$.
%.
*.
4.
9. 6nce produced A,0 can be used to provide energy to other chemical
reactions
G
a. A,0 AD0 = 0 = ene rgy