PL10410: Political Ideologies

Week 2: Liberalism
Outcomes
Be able to define liberalism as a political ideology
Distinguish between different types of liberalism
Approach a political question in a liberal way
Critique liberalism

What is Liberalism?

Arguably the dominant ideology of our time, especially in the west.
Liberalism & Democracy have grown up alongside each other why?
John Locke Two Treatises of Government (argued that the Monarchy can be
justified secularly, not just by divine right)

Essentially about the individual core component of liberal ideology.
The way that the government shouldnt infringe, where the individual is more
important than the state.
The individual is paramount, and the rights and liberties of an individual serve to
delimit the area in which the state is entitled to act.

A. The Individual

Theoretically, the preservation of the individual and the attainment of individual
happiness are the supreme goals of a liberal political system [making a virtue of
selfishness]
Violence is prohibited in liberal ideology unless it is to protect liberal society, as
human life is sacrosanct.
It is assumed as individuals are rational
Politics is participatory and not authoritarian if you want to participate, so be it.
If not, then dont.
Locke: the laws of nature give man the right to preserve his property, that is
his life, liberty and estate. That is all a government should do, no more, no less.
The natural state is freedom, and the only thing government should do is to allow
man to maximise this freedom.
Liberals do not invoke ideas such as the common good to justify state
intervention it is about the maximisation of individual benefits.
Assumed as mutually indifferent sometimes this results in cooperation, other
times, conflict.

B. Contract & Consent

If individuals are free and rational, government can only occur with their
consent.
Locke hypothesised that government came about via disputes. Men needed a
impartial judge to arbitrate.
Liberals argue government can be removed for: destroying or enslaving
subjects, ruling by arbitrary decree, transferring powers to another, or taking
another mans property without consent.
Tacit v. Active consent - tacit: simply by living in xyz land, you consent to the
government doing abc.
Liberalism & Democracy do not need one another but democracy is
probably the best way to secure liberalism. It is not necessary for liberals to
choose democracy.

PL10410: Political Ideologies
Week 2: Liberalism
C. Constitutionalism and the Law

The constitution and the law run parallel in liberal theory
The constitution is there to prevent the government from transgressing
against the individual
The law is there to prevent individuals from transgressing against one another.
Classic liberals only want laws in a small number of areas (small gment)
Due process ensuring that people are all treated equally before the law.

D. Freedom as Choice

Freedom is paramount in liberalism, the means by which a rational individual
pursues their own interest.
Liberals associate freedom with humanity itself, not simply as a means to an
end, but a characteristic that is intrinsic to humans
Freedom is linked to choice (neo-liberal justification etc)
JS Mill focused on humanitarian aspects. People can do whatever they
want until it infringes on other peoples liberty.
Choice in politics requires a variety of doctrines to be on offer.

E. Equality of Opportunity

Liberalism evolved alongside capitalism, which has resulted in massive
inequalities of wealth and income.
Q: how do you reconcile the liberal idea of egalitarianism of humans with the
substantive inequality caused by capitalism?
A: equality of opportunity liberals attribute formal equality to all, such as
rationality, self-interest, rights etc i.e, that we all start life equally, and
ending somewhere different is your fault.
This assumption (myth) underlies liberal ideology.

F. Social Justice based on Merit

Merit: a neutral thing that simply occurs in society.
Individuals gain a reward in proportion to their talents and merits in exchange
for their contribution to society (assumed to be an approximate measure of
talent)
Society is organised to reward the most deserving, which implies that if you
get more, you (arguably) deserve more.
Linked to the idea of the just price/market price it doesnt reflect any sort
of intrinsic worth of something. (Classical economic ideas)
Liberal ideology argues that a given equality of opportunity, free enterprise
and competition produce a just distribution of income and other goods.
So basically, if the procedure is free, its free. The outcome does not matter.





G. Tolerance

Tolerance is the non-suppression of dissident on non-conformist views
PL10410: Political Ideologies
Week 2: Liberalism
Seen as a core good of liberal societies, and liberal countries tend to look
down on countries that do not practice it.
JS Mill argues that tolerance drives us towards truth. You have to allow the
collision of all opinions because that will bring you towards truth.

H. Private & Public Life

There is tension in liberal through between the private and public, based on
Lockes distinction of society and government.
Locke implies that government should not pervade every area of social life,
which is a separate sphere, which gave rise to the idea of civil society.
[Institution protected by the rule of law, but immune from state interference]
Mill argues citizens gain most satisfaction from the private, which differs from
ancient Greek ideas about the public realisation of citizens)
Liberals do not like anything close to compulsion in politics (i.e, compulsory
voting), however, is there a risk of a total lack of political power for most
people?

Taking them together:

They combine to make a coherent model of society in abstract.
Some liberal writing assumes the value of liberty and individual is timeless,
not time-bound, or culture-bound.
This means that liberalism is to some extent ahistorical and hazy about the
future [end of ideology/end of history?]
The liberal model is of society as a voluntarily and rationally constituted
aggregate of self-interested individuals.
Based on these assumptions, this is seen to have arisen spontaneously,
based on human desires and interests.

Why do liberals value individuals so highly?

Ancient Greek thought saw individuals only in terms of their social function
and the Middle Ages saw the same as society was hierarchical in nature.
The idea that the individual is uniquely valuable is relatively new, seeded by
Christian ideas that all souls are equal in the eyes of God.
Politics voting is voluntarily, Economics people can decide what to buy,
and a general culture of rights.
Individual rights have sprung up quite a lot in the past 200 years at the
expensive of collective rights.
What does the individual need to do themselves v. what the state should do
for you.
The idea that egoism is the natural state. The idea that human desires are the
most important thing for pursuing human good.
Liberals have a problem with the collective good/the general will. The idea of
the social whole is a false aggregate and could go against the individual
interest.
Liberals value the sanctity of the human life. (You cant pursue self-interest if
youre dead).
Broadly right to life unclear about right to decent life

How could I possibly know what my best interests are? Do I need to be
conscious of them? Is it okay to allow the government to automatically look
after my interests?
PL10410: Political Ideologies
Week 2: Liberalism

Rational self-interest is a key ingredient of liberalism people somehow know
their interests and can pursue them.
Must we know our interests consciously?
JS Mill if you dont know your interest, you cant want it.
Should we ignore perverse wants there are things that we want but are not
good for us.
Is there a right to impose real interests that would benefit people even if they
do not consciously want them? [terrible, infringes on individual liberty they
dont like that]
Politically: people express their interests when they vote. Economically:
consumer choices show their revealed preferences
The problem here is that there are limitations on the freedom of choice
which is a core tenant of liberalism
a. affordability in economic terms [budget constraint]
b. political choice is there a full range of choices on offer? What about
those who do not vote?
Is it right to take peoples interests at face value?
Liberals justify governments pursuing our interests in (1) individuals are likely
to focus on short-term, not long-term, so government is simply helping them
pursue their interests, just long-term ones.
Individuals are likely to run counter to one another, so government is there to
protect the majoritys interest when required (i.e, police x strike)
Free rider problem? what if it is not in your interest to contribute to a
collective endeavour (voting), because you will benefit regardless? (tax
evaders etc)
Liberal argument is that it is in the individuals interest to participate.

How can liberals justify the existence of a welfare state?

Welfare state: an interventionist state which goes beyond minimal state
functions of providing defence and security of property, which legislates to
peoples well-being.
Three main arguments against the welfare states:
1. They interfere with individual freedom: individuals are forced to
contribute to the maintenance of services they may not want to.
2. They interfere with individuals lives for their own good, sometimes
against their interest. Individuals cannot define their self-interests. //
People have a right to life and a right to decent living
3. They are too paternalistic if someone cannot support themself, they
should not be supported by the state. // People have a right to life and a
right to decent living
Hobhouse (1911) liberal thinking & the welfare state. The welfare state
brings about equality of opportunity.


Libertarianism

An anti state ideology the logical extreme of liberalism.
Lockean, Nozick, Hayek
The state is an agent of coercion and the foremost violator of liberty.
Libertarian arguments attack liberal governments for incursions into individual
freedom, socialist ideas for suggesting that an extension of the state is
necessary to create gender equality