Dog

This article is about the domestic dog. For related

species known as dogs, see Canidae. For other uses,
see Dog (disambiguation).
The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is a member of
the Canidae family of the mammalian order Carnivora.
The term domestic dog is generally used for both of
the domesticated and feral varieties. The word dog can
also refer to the male of a canine species as opposed to the
word bitch, which refers to the female of the species.
[2]
The dog was the rst domesticated animal
[3][4]
and has
been widely kept as a working, hunting, and pet compan-
ion. In 2001, there were estimated to be 400 million dogs
in the world.
[5]
1 Etymology and related terminol-
ogy
Dog is the common use term that refers to members of
the subspecies Canis lupus familiaris (canis, dog"; lupus,
wolf"; familiaris, of a household or domestic). The
term can also be used to refer to a wider range of related
species, such as the members of the genus Canis, or true
dogs, including the wolf, coyote, and jackals, or it can
refer to the members of the tribe Canini, which would
also include the African wild dog, or it can be used to refer
to any member of the family Canidae, which would also
include the foxes, bush dog, raccoon dog, and others.
[6]
Some members of the family have dog in their common
names, such as the raccoon dog and the African wild dog.
A few animals have dog in their common names but are
not canids, such as the prairie dog.
The English word dog comes from Middle English
dogge, from Old English docga, a powerful dog
breed.
[7]
The term may possibly derive from Proto-
Germanic *dukkn, represented in Old English nger-
docce (nger-muscle).
[8]
The word also shows the fa-
miliar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga frog,
picga pig, stagga stag, wicga beetle, worm, among
others.
[9]
The term dog may ultimately derive from the
earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary, reect-
ing the role of the dog as the earliest domesticated ani-
mal.
[10]
In 14th-century England, hound (from Old English:
hund) was the general word for all domestic canines,
and dog referred to a subtype of hound, a group includ-
ing the masti. It is believed this dog type was so
common, it eventually became the prototype of the cat-
egory hound.
[11]
By the 16th century, dog had become
the general word, and hound had begun to refer only to
types used for hunting.
[12]
Hound, cognate to German
Hund, Dutch hond, common Scandinavian hund, and
Icelandic hundur, is ultimately derived from the Proto-
Indo-European *kwon- dog, found in Sanskrit kukuur
( ),
[13]
Welsh ci (plural cwn), Latin canis, Greek
kn, and Lithuanian u.
[14]
In breeding circles, a male canine is referred to as a
dog, while a female is called a bitch (Middle English bic-
che, from Old English bicce, ultimately from Old Norse
bikkja). A group of ospring is a litter. The father of
a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the
dam. Ospring are, in general, called pups or puppies,
from French poupe, until they are about a year old. The
process of birth is whelping, from the Old English word
hwelp (cf. German Welpe, Dutch welp, Swedish valpa,
Icelandic hvelpur).
[15]
The term whelp can also be used
to refer to the young of any canid, or as a (somewhat ar-
chaic) alternative to puppy.
2 Taxonomy
See also: Subspecies of Canis lupus
In 1753, the father of modern biological taxonomy, Carl
Linnaeus, listed among the types of quadrupeds famil-
iar to him, the Latin word for dog, canis. Among the
species within this genus, Linnaeus listed the fox, as Ca-
nis vulpes, wolves (Canis lupus), and the domestic dog,
(Canis canis). In later editions, Linnaeus dropped Canis
canis and greatly expanded his list of the Canis genus of
quadrupeds, and by 1758 included alongside the foxes,
wolves, and jackals and many more terms that are now
listed as synonyms for domestic dog, including aegyptius
(hairless dog), aquaticus, (water dog), and mustelinus (lit-
erally "badger dog"). Among these were two that later
experts have been widely used for domestic dogs as a
species: Canis domesticus and, most predominantly, Ca-
nis familiaris, the common or familiar dog.
[16]
By 1995 with advancements in molecular biology, the
DNA analysis of extant (i.e. living today) Canidea
species indicated that the wolf and the domestic dog were
so genetically similar that the wolf may have been the an-
cestor of the dog.
[17]
By 1999, further genetic analysis
indicated that the domestic dog may have emerged from
1
2 3 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION
multiple wolf populations.
[18][19]
Based on these indica-
tions, the domestic dog was reclassied in 2005 as Ca-
nis lupus familiaris, a subspecies of the Gray Wolf Ca-
nis lupus in a professional reference.
[20]
Based on these
pieces of research and the reference reclassication, ca-
nis lupis familiaris is the name for the taxon listed by
ITIS.
[21]
However, canis familiaris is also accepted due to
a nomenclature debate regarding wild and domestic sub-
species.
[22]
3 History and evolution
Domestic dogs are descended from wolves.
Main articles: Origin of the domestic dog and Gray wolf
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors from their
wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters
with complex body language. These sophisticated forms
of social cognition and communication may account for
their trainability, playfulness, and ability to t into human
households and social situations, and these attributes have
given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled
them to become one of the most successful species on
the planet today.
[23]
Recent studies of well-preserved remains of a dog-like
canid from the Razboinichya Cave in the Altai Moun-
tains of southern Siberia concluded that a particular in-
stance of early wolf domestication approximately 33,000
years ago did not result in modern dog lineages, possi-
bly because of climate disruption during the Last Glacial
Maximum.
[3][24]
The authors postulate that at least sev-
eral such incipient events have occurred. A study of
fossil dogs and wolves in Belgium, Ukraine, and Rus-
sia tentatively dates domestication from 14,000 years ago
to more than 31,700 years ago.
[25]
Another recent study
has found support for claims of dog domestication be-
tween 14,000 and 16,000 years ago, with a range between
9,000 and 34,000 years ago, depending on mutation rate
assumptions.
[26]
Although experts largely disagree over the details of dog
domestication, it is agreed that human interaction played
a signicant role in shaping the subspecies.
[27]
Domesti-
cation may have occurred initially in separate areas, par-
ticularly Siberia and Europe. It is thought that the current
lineage of dogs were domesticated between 15,000 years
and 8,500 years ago. Shortly after the latest domestica-
tion, dogs became ubiquitous in human populations, and
spread throughout the world.
Emigrants from Siberia likely crossed the Bering Strait
with dogs in their company, and some experts
[28]
sug-
gest the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the
success of the waves that entered North America roughly
12,000 years ago,
[28]
although the earliest archaeological
evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from
about 9,400 years ago.
[29][30]
Dogs were an important part
of life for the Athabascan population in North America,
and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs also car-
ried much of the load in the migration of the Apache and
Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack ani-
mals in these cultures often persisted after the introduc-
tion of the horse to North America.
[31]
The current consensus among biologists and archae-
ologists is that the dating of rst domestication is
indeterminate,
[27][31]
although more recent evidence
shows isolated domestication events as early as 33,000
years ago.
[32][33]
There is conclusive evidence the present
lineage of dogs genetically diverged from their wolf
ancestors at least 15,000 years ago,
[34][35][36][37][38]
but
some believe domestication to have occurred earlier.
[27]
Evidence is accruing that there were previous domestica-
tion events, but that those lineages died out.
[39]
It is not known whether humans domesticated the wolf
as such to initiate dogs divergence from its ancestors,
or whether dogs evolutionary path had already taken a
dierent course prior to domestication. For example,
it is hypothesized that some wolves gathered around the
campsites of paleolithic camps to scavenge refuse, and
associated evolutionary pressure developed that favored
those who were less frightened by, and keener in ap-
proaching, humans.
[40]
The bulk of the scientic evidence for the evolution of
the domestic dog stems from morphological studies of
archaeological ndings and mitochondrial DNA studies.
The divergence date of roughly 15,000 years ago is based
in part on archaeological evidence that demonstrates the
domestication of dogs occurred more than 15,000 years
ago,
[23][31]
and some genetic evidence indicates the do-
mestication of dogs fromtheir wolf ancestors began in the
late Upper Paleolithic close to the Pleistocene/Holocene
boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago.
[41]
But
there is a wide range of other, contradictory ndings that
make this issue controversial. There are ndings begin-
ning currently at 33,000 years ago distinctly placing them
as domesticated dogs evidenced not only by shortening of
the muzzle but widening as well as crowding of teeth.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the latest point at
which dogs could have diverged from wolves was roughly
3.1 DNA studies 3
Tesem, an old Egyptian sighthound-like dog.
15,000 years ago, although it is possible they diverged
much earlier.
[23]
In 2008, a team of international scien-
tists released ndings froman excavation at Goyet Cave in
Belgium declaring a large, toothy canine existed 31,700
years ago and ate a diet of horse, musk ox and reindeer.
[42]
Prior to this Belgian discovery, the earliest dog bones
found were two large skulls from Russia and a
mandible fromGermany dated fromroughly 14,000 years
ago.
[23][36]
Remains of smaller dogs from Natuan cave
deposits in the Middle East, including the earliest burial
of a human being with a domestic dog, have been dated
to around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.
[36][43]
There is a
great deal of archaeological evidence for dogs through-
out Europe and Asia around this period and through the
next two thousand years (roughly 8,000 to 10,000 years
ago), with specimens uncovered in Germany, the French
Alps, and Iraq, and cave paintings in Turkey.
[23]
The old-
est remains of a domesticated dog in the Americas were
found in Texas and have been dated to about 9,400 years
ago.
[44]
3.1 DNA studies
A basenji, one of the earliest domesticated breeds.
DNA studies have provided a wide range of possible di-
vergence dates, from15,000 to 40,000 years ago,
[36]
to as
much as 100,000 to 140,000 years ago.
[45]
These results
depend on a number of assumptions.
[23]
Genetic studies
are based on comparisons of genetic diversity between
species, and depend on a calibration date. Some esti-
mates of divergence dates from DNA evidence use an es-
timated wolfcoyote divergence date of roughly 700,000
years ago as a calibration.
[46]
If this estimate is incorrect,
and the actual wolfcoyote divergence is closer to one
or two million years ago, or more,
[47]
than the DNA ev-
idence that supports specic dogwolf divergence dates
would be interpreted very dierently.
Furthermore, it is believed the genetic diversity of wolves
has been in decline for the last 200 years, and that the
genetic diversity of dogs has been reduced by selective
breeding. This could signicantly bias DNA analyses to
support an earlier divergence date. The genetic evidence
for the domestication event occurring in East Asia is also
subject to violations of assumptions. These conclusions
are based on the location of maximal genetic divergence,
and assume hybridization does not occur, and that breeds
remain geographically localized. Although these assump-
tions hold for many species, there is good reason to be-
lieve that they do not hold for canines.
[23]
Genetic analyses indicate all dogs are likely descended
from a handful of domestication events with a small num-
ber of founding females,
[23][41]
although there is evidence
domesticated dogs interbred with local populations of
wild wolves on several occasions.
[36]
Data suggest dogs
rst diverged from wolves in East Asia, and these do-
mesticated dogs then quickly migrated throughout the
world, reaching the North American continent around
8000 BC.
[36]
The oldest groups of dogs, which show
the greatest genetic variability and are the most similar
to their wolf ancestors, are primarily Asian and African
breeds, including the Basenji, Lhasa Apso, and Siberian
Husky.
[48]
Some breeds thought to be very old, such
as the Pharaoh Hound, Ibizan Hound, and Norwegian
Elkhound, are now known to have been created more
recently.
[48]
A great deal of controversy surrounds the evolutionary
framework for the domestication of dogs.
[23]
Although it
is widely claimed that man domesticated the wolf,
[49]
man might not have taken such a proactive role in the
process.
[23]
The nature of the interaction between man
and wolf that led to domestication is unknown and con-
troversial. At least three early species of the Homo genus
began spreading out of Africa roughly 400,000 years ago,
and thus lived for a considerable time in contact with ca-
nine species.
[23]
4 4 ROLES WITH HUMANS
Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a dogs head, made
by Brygos, early 5th century BC. Jrme Carcopino
Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria
Despite this, there is no evidence of any adaptation of ca-
nine species to the presence of the close relatives of mod-
ern man. If dogs were domesticated, as believed, roughly
15,000 years ago, the event (or events) would have coin-
cided with a large expansion in human territory and the
development of agriculture. This has led some biologists
to suggest one of the forces that led to the domestication
of dogs was a shift in human lifestyle in the formof estab-
lished human settlements. Permanent settlements would
have coincided with a greater amount of disposable food
and would have created a barrier between wild and an-
thropogenic canine populations.
[23]
In 2013 Thalmann, Krause and coworkers revised the
view that dog ancestors came from East Asia and showed
using DNA analysis that all dogs living today go back
to four genetic lineages, all of which originate in Eu-
rope.
[50]
Their data indicated that bonding between hu-
mans and dog occurred between 19,000 and 30,000 years
ago, likely in the context of hunting.
[50]
The Zarzian cul-
ture, an archaeological culture of late Paleolithic and
Mesolithic (18,000-8,000 years BC) in Iraq, Iran, Central
Asia is associated with remains of the domesticated
dog.
[51]
4 Roles with humans
A Siberian Husky used as a pack animal
A German Shepherd with a football
The dogs value to early human hunter-gatherers led
to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cul-
tures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as
hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting po-
lice and military, companionship, and, more recently,
aiding handicapped individuals. This impact on human
society has given them the nickname "mans best friend"
in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs
are also a source of meat.
[52][53]
4.1 Early roles
Wolves, and their dog descendants, would have derived
signicant benets from living in human campsmore
safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more
chance to breed.
[54]
They would have beneted from hu-
mans upright gait that gives themlarger range over which
to see potential predators and prey, as well as color vi-
sion that, at least by day, gives humans better visual
4.2 As pets 5
discrimination.
[54]
Camp dogs would also have benet-
ted from human tool use, as in bringing down larger prey
and controlling re for a range of purposes.
[54]
Humans would also have derived enormous benet from
the dogs associated with their camps.
[55]
For instance,
dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food
scraps.
[55]
Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred
to in the Australian Aboriginal expression three dog
night (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have
alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers,
using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.
[55]
Anthropologists believe the most signicant benet
would have been the use of dogs sensitive sense of smell
to assist with the hunt.
[55]
The relationship between the
presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often men-
tioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the
wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and with-
out a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that
the benets of cooperative hunting was an important fac-
tor in wolf domestication.
[56]
The cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly
improved the chances of survival for early human groups,
and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the
key forces that led to human success.
[57]
4.2 As pets
A British Bulldog shares a day at the park.
The most widespread form of interspecies bonding oc-
curs between humans and dogs
[55]
and the keeping of
dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long
history.
[58]
(As a possible example, at the Natuan cul-
ture site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the
remains of an elderly human and a four-to-ve-month-
old puppy were found buried together).
[59]
However, pet
dog populations grew signicantly after World War II as
suburbanization increased.
[58]
In the 1950s and 1960s,
dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be
A young male border terrier with a raccoon toy.
today
[60]
(using the expression in the doghouse to de-
scribe exclusion from the group signies the distance be-
tween the doghouse and the home) and were still primar-
ily functional, acting as a guard, childrens playmate, or
walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been
changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased
role of dogs in the emotional support of their human
guardians.
[61]
People and dogs have become increasingly
integrated and implicated in each others lives,
[62]
to the
point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and
home are experienced.
[63]
There have been two major trends in the changing sta-
tus of pet dogs. The rst has been the 'commodica-
tion' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expec-
tations of personality and behaviour.
[63]
The second has
been the broadening of the concept of the family and the
home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines
and practices.
[63]
There are a vast range of commodity forms available
to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.
[64]
The
list of goods, services and places available is enormous:
from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to
dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog
cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines
and cemeteries.
[64]
While dog training as an organized
activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the
last decades of the 20th century it became a high pro-
le issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking,
jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, ghting, and urine
marking became increasingly incompatible with the new
role of a pet dog.
[65]
Dog training books, classes and tele-
vision programs proliferated as the process of commodi-
fying the pet dog continued.
[66]
The majority of contemporary people with dogs describe
their pet as part of the family,
[63]
although some am-
bivalence about the relationship is evident in the pop-
ular reconceptualization of the doghuman family as a
pack.
[63]
A dominance model of doghuman relation-
ships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as
on the television program Dog Whisperer. However it
6 4 ROLES WITH HUMANS
A pet dog taking part in Christmas traditions
has been disputed that trying to achieve status is char-
acteristic of doghuman interactions.
[67]
Pet dogs play an
active role in family life; for example, a study of conver-
sations in doghuman families showed how family mem-
bers use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talk-
ing through the dog, to mediate their interactions with
each other.
[68]
Another study of dogs roles in families showed many
dogs have set tasks or routines undertaken as family mem-
bers, the most common of which was helping with the
washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher, and
bringing in the newspaper fromthe lawn.
[63]
Increasingly,
human family members are engaging in activities cen-
tered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in
which the dog is an integral partner, such as Dog Dancing
and Doga.
[64]
According to statistics published by the American Pet
Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet
Owner Survey in 20092010, it is estimated there are
77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United States.
[69]
The same survey shows nearly 40% of American house-
holds own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one
dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs.
There does not seem to be any gender preference among
dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number
of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several pro-
grams are undergoing to promote pet adoption, less than
a fth of the owned dogs come from a shelter.
The latest study using Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) to humans and dogs together proved that dogs
have same response to voices and use the same parts of
the brain as humans to do so. This gives dogs the abil-
ity to recognize emotional human sounds, making them
friendly social pets to humans.
[70]
4.3 Work
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many
roles that they have earned the unique nickname, mans
best friend,
[71]
a phrase used in other languages as well.
They have been bred for herding livestock,
[72]
hunting
(e.g. pointers and hounds),
[73]
rodent control,
[74]
guard-
ing, helping shermen with nets, detection dogs, and
pulling loads, in addition to their roles as companions.
[74]
In 1957, a husky-terrier mix named Laika became the
rst animal to orbit the Earth.
[75][76]
Book of the Hunt, Gaston III, Count of Foix, 138788.
Service dogs such as guide dogs, utility dogs, assistance
dogs, hearing dogs, and psychological therapy dogs pro-
vide assistance to individuals with physical or mental
disabilities.
[77][78]
Some dogs owned by epileptics have
been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows
signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance
of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medica-
tion, or medical care.
[79]
Dogs included in human activities in terms of help-
ing out humans are usually called working dogs. Dogs
of several breeds are considered working dogs. Some
working dog breeds include Akita, Alaskan Malamute,
Anatolian Shepherd Dog, Bernese Mountain Dog, Black
Russian Terrier, Boxer, Bullmasti, Doberman Pinscher,
Dogue de Bordeaux, German Pinscher, German Shep-
herd,
[80]
Giant Schnauzer, Great Dane, Great Pyrenees,
Great Swiss Mountain Dog, Komondor, Kuvasz, Masti,
Neapolitan Masti, Newfoundland, Portuguese Water
Dog, Rottweiler, Saint Bernard, Samoyed, Siberian
Husky, Standard Schnauzer, and Tibetan Masti.
4.4 Sports and shows
See also: Conformation show
People often enter their dogs in competitions
[81]
such
4.6 Health risks to humans 7
as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing,
sledding and agility competitions.
In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows,
a judge familiar with the specic dog breed evaluates in-
dividual purebred dogs for conformity with their estab-
lished breed type as described in the breed standard. As
the breed standard only deals with the externally observ-
able qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement,
and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as
ability or health) are not part of the judging in confor-
mation shows.
4.5 As a food source
Main article: Dog meat
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, in-
Gaegogi (dog meat) stew being served in a Korean restaurant
cluding Korea, China, and Vietnam, a practice that dates
back to antiquity.
[82]
It is estimated that 1316 million
dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year.
[83]
The
BBC claims that, in 1999, more than 6,000 restaurants
served soups made from dog meat in South Korea.
[84]
In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the
nureongi (), diers from those breeds raised for pets
that Koreans may keep in their homes.
[85]
The most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also
called bosintang), a spicy stewmeant to balance the bodys
heat during the summer months; followers of the custom
claimthis is done to ensure good health by balancing ones
gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version
of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boil-
ing dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations
of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While
the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of
the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef,
chicken, and pork.
[86]
A CNN report in China dated March 2010 includes an
interview with a dog meat vendor who stated that most
of the dogs that are available for selling to restaurants are
raised in special farms but that there is always a chance
that a sold dog is someones lost pet, although dog pet
breeds are not considered edible.
[87]
Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian
Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. How-
ever, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern
cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as
taboo. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of
Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties
being good for the lungs for instance.
[88]
Dog meat is also
consumed in some parts of Switzerland.
[89]
4.6 Health risks to humans
Main article: Dog attack
It is estimated that 4.7 million people are bitten by dogs
Pet waste station at a government building.
each year.
[90]
In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17
fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased
to 26.
[91]
77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or
friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the
dogs legal owner.
[91]
A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe
than bites in adults.
[92]
The incidence of dog bites in the
US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5
to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover,
children have a much higher chance to be bitten in the
face or neck.
[93]
Sharp claws with powerful muscles be-
hind them can lacerate esh in a scratch that can lead to
serious infections.
[94]
In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog
8 4 ROLES WITH HUMANS
attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost
in sick leave.
[95]
In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more
than 86,000 falls each year.
[96]
It has been estimated
around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals
are domestic accidents. The same study found that while
dog involvement in road trac accidents was dicult to
quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury
more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.
[97]
Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces
can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about
10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in hu-
mans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. pop-
ulation is infected.
[98]
In Great Britain, 24% of soil
samples taken from public parks contained T. canis
eggs.
[99]
Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal dam-
age and decreased vision.
[99]
Dog feces can also con-
tain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in
humans.
[100][101][102][103]
4.7 Health benets for humans
A human cuddles a Doberman puppy.
The scientic evidence is mixed as to whether compan-
ionship of a dog can enhance human physical health
and psychological wellbeing.
[104]
Studies suggesting that
there are benets to physical health and psychologi-
cal wellbeing
[105]
have been criticised for being poorly
controlled,
[106]
and nding that "[t]he health of elderly
people is related to their health habits and social supports
but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a com-
panion animal. Earlier studies have shown that people
who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and phys-
ical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to
the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than
non-guardians.
[107]
A 2005 paper states recent research has failed to sup-
port earlier ndings that pet ownership is associated with
a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use
of general practitioner services, or any psychological
or physical benets on health for community dwelling
older people. Research has, however, pointed to sig-
nicantly less absenteeism from school through sickness
among children who live with pets.
[104]
In one study, new
guardians reported a highly signicant reduction in minor
health problems during the rst month following pet ac-
quisition, and this eect was sustained in those with dogs
through to the end of the study.
[108]
In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more
physical exercise than those with cats and those with-
out pets. The group without pets exhibited no statisti-
cally signicant changes in health or behaviour. The re-
sults provide evidence that keeping pets may have pos-
itive eects on human health and behaviour, and that
for guardians of dogs these eects are relatively long-
term.
[108]
Pet guardianship has also been associated with
increased coronary artery disease survival, with human
guardians being signicantly less likely to die within one
year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did
not own dogs.
[109]
Gunnar Kaasen and Balto, the lead dog on the last relay team of
the 1925 serum run to Nome.
The health benets of dogs can result from contact with
dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets.
For example, when in the presence of a pet dog, people
show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psy-
chological indicators of anxiety.
[110]
Other health bene-
ts are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating mi-
croorganisms, which, according to the hygiene hypoth-
esis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune dis-
eases. The benets of contact with a dog also include
social support, as dogs are able to not only provide com-
panionship and social support themselves, but also to act
as facilitators of social interactions between humans.
[111]
5.1 Senses 9
One study indicated that wheelchair users experience
more positive social interactions with strangers when they
are accompanied by a dog than when they are not.
[112]
The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of
therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals
were introduced into mental institutions to help social-
ize patients with mental disorders.
[113]
Animal-assisted
intervention research has shown that animal-assisted ther-
apy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as
smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimers
disease.
[114]
One study demonstrated that children with
ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an ed-
ucation program with dogs and other animals showed in-
creased attendance, increased knowledge and skill ob-
jectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior
compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted
program.
[115]
4.8 Shelters
Main article: Animal shelter
Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats en-
ter US animal shelters.
[116]
The Humane Society of the
United States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4
million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the
United States.
[117]
However, the percentage of dogs in US
animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed
from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased
since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average
of 40% among reporting shelters
[118]
(and many shelters
reporting 6075%).
[119]
5 Biology
Main article: Dog anatomy
Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millen-
Lateral view of a dogs bone structure.
nia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and phys-
ical attributes.
[74]
Modern dog breeds show more varia-
tion in size, appearance, and behavior than any other do-
mestic animal. Nevertheless, their morphology is based
on that of their wild ancestors, gray wolves.
[74]
Dogs are
predators and scavengers, and like many other preda-
tory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wrist
bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprint-
ing and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.
Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The small-
est known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood
only 6.3 cm (2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in
length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113
grams (4.0 oz). The largest known dog was an English
Masti which weighed 155.6 kg (343 lb) and was 250
cm (98 in) from the snout to the tail.
[120]
The tallest dog
is a Great Dane that stands 106.7 cm (42.0 in) at the
shoulder.
[121]
5.1 Senses
5.1.1 Vision
Dogs visual colour perception compared with humans.
Like most mammals, dogs are dichromats and have color
vision equivalent to redgreen color blindness in humans
(deuteranopia).
[122][123][124][125]
So, dogs can see blue and
yellow, but have diculty dierentiating red and green
because they only have two spectral types of cone pho-
toreceptor, while normal humans have three. And dogs
use color instead of brightness to dierentiate light or
dark blue/yellow.
[126][127][128][129]
Dogs are less sensitive
to dierences in grey shades than humans and also can de-
tect brightness at about half the accuracy of humans.
[130]
The dogs visual system has evolved to aid procient
hunting.
[122]
While a dogs visual acuity is poor (that of a
poodle's has been estimated to translate to a Snellen rat-
ing of 20/75
[122]
), their visual discrimination for moving
objects is very high; dogs have been shown to be able
to discriminate between humans (e.g., identifying their
human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 m,
however this range decreases to 500600 m if the object
is stationary.
[122]
Dogs have a temporal resolution of between 60 and 70
Hz, which explains why many dogs struggle to watch tele-
vision, as most such modern screens are optimized for
10 5 BIOLOGY
humans at 5060 Hz.
[130]
Dogs can detect a change in
movement that exists in a single diopter of space within
their eye. Humans, by comparison, require a change of
between 10 and 20 diopters to detect movement.
[131]
As crepuscular hunters, dogs often rely on their vision in
low light situations: They have very large pupils, a high
density of rods in the fovea, an increased icker rate, and
a tapetum lucidum.
[122]
The tapetum is a reective sur-
face behind the retina that reects light to give the pho-
toreceptors a second chance to catch the photons. There
is also a relationship between body size and overall diam-
eter of the eye. A range of 9.5 and 11.6 mm can be found
between various breeds of dogs. This 20% variance can
be substantial and is associated as an adaptation toward
superior night vision.
[132]
The eyes of dierent breeds of dogs have dierent
shapes, dimensions, and retina congurations.
[133]
Many
long-nosed breeds have a visual streaka wide foveal
region that runs across the width of the retina and gives
them a very wide eld of excellent vision. Some long-
muzzled breeds, in particular, the sighthounds, have a
eld of vision up to 270 (compared to 180 for humans).
Short-nosed breeds, on the other hand, have an area cen-
tralis": a central patch with up to three times the density
of nerve endings as the visual streak, giving themdetailed
sight much more like a humans. Some broad-headed
breeds with short noses have a eld of vision similar to
that of humans.
[123][124]
Most breeds have good vision, but some show a genetic
predisposition for myopia such as Rottweilers, with
which one out of every two has been found to be
myopic.
[122]
Dogs also have a greater divergence of the
eye axis than humans, enabling themto rotate their pupils
farther in any direction. The divergence of the eye axis
of dogs ranges from 1225 depending on the breed.
[131]
Experimentation has proven that dogs can distinguish be-
tween complex visual images such as that of a cube or
a prism. Dogs also show attraction to static visual im-
ages such as the silhouette of a dog on a screen, their own
reections, or videos of dogs; however, their interest de-
clines sharply once they are unable to make social contact
with the image.
[134]
5.1.2 Hearing
The frequency range of dog hearing is approximately 40
Hz to 60,000 Hz,
[135]
which means that dogs can detect
sounds far beyond the upper limit of the human auditory
spectrum.
[124][135][136]
In addition, dogs have ear mobil-
ity, which allows them to rapidly pinpoint the exact lo-
cation of a sound.
[137]
Eighteen or more muscles can tilt,
rotate, raise, or lower a dogs ear. A dog can identify a
sounds location much faster than a human can, as well as
hear sounds at four times the distance.
[137]
The physiology of a dog ear.
Transformation of the ears of a huskamute puppy in 6 days
5.1.3 Smell
The wet, textured nose of a dog
While the human brain is dominated by a large visual
cortex, the dog brain is dominated by an olfactory cor-
tex.
[122]
The olfactory bulb in dogs is roughly forty times
bigger than the olfactory bulb in humans, relative to to-
tal brain size, with 125 to 220 million smell-sensitive
receptors.
[122]
The bloodhound exceeds this standard
with nearly 300 million receptors.
[122]
Consequently, it has been estimated that dogs, in gen-
eral, have an olfactory sense ranging from one hundred
thousand to one million times more sensitive than a hu-
mans. In some dog breeds, such as bloodhounds, the ol-
factory sense may be up to 100 million times greater than
a humans.
[138]
The wet nose, or rhinarium, is essential
for determining the direction of the air current contain-
5.3 Types and breeds 11
ing the smell. Cold receptors in the skin are sensitive to
the cooling of the skin by evaporation of the moisture by
air currents.
[139]
5.2 Physical characteristics
Main article: Dog anatomy
5.2.1 Coat
Main article: Coat (dog)
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: double
A heavy winter coat with countershading in a mixed-breed dog
being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating
from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and
a soft down hair, or single, with the topcoat only.
Domestic dogs often display the remnants of
countershading, a common natural camouage pat-
tern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring
on its upper surfaces and light coloring below,
[140]
which
reduces its general visibility. Thus, many breeds will
have an occasional blaze, stripe, or star of white fur
on their chest or underside.
[141]
5.2.2 Tail
See also: Docking
There are many dierent shapes for dog tails: straight,
straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many
canids, one of the primary functions of a dogs tail is
to communicate their emotional state, which can be im-
portant in getting along with others. In some hunting
dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid
injuries.
[142]
In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bour-
bonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at
all.
[143]
5.3 Types and breeds
Main article: Dog breed
Further information: Dog type
Most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred
Cavalier King Charles Spaniels demonstrate within-breed varia-
tion.
years old, having been articially selected for particu-
lar morphologies and behaviors by people for specic
functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the
dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and
shows more behavioral and morphological variation than
any other land mammal.
[144]
For example, height mea-
sured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres (6.0
in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish
Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usu-
ally called blue) to black, and browns from light (tan)
to dark (red or chocolate) in a wide variation of pat-
terns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-
like, straight, curly, or smooth.
[145]
It is common for most
breeds to shed this coat.
While all dogs are genetically very similar,
[36]
natural
selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain
characteristics in certain populations of dogs, giving rise
to dog types and dog breeds. Dog types are broad cate-
gories based on function, genetics, or characteristics.
[146]
Dog breeds are groups of animals that possess a set of in-
herited characteristics that distinguishes them from other
animals within the same species. Modern dog breeds
are non-scientic classications of dogs kept by modern
kennel clubs.
Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguish-
able from purebred dogs of other breeds,
[48]
but the
12 5 BIOLOGY
means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystem-
atic. Systematic analyses of the dog genome has re-
vealed only four major types of dogs that can be said to
be statistically distinct.
[48]
These include the old world
dogs (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), Masti"-type (e.g.,
English Masti), herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie),
and all others (also called modern"- or hunting"-
type).
[48][147]
5.4 Health
Main articles: Dog health and CVBD
Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and
poisons, some of which can aect humans. To de-
fend against many common diseases, dogs are often
vaccinated.
There are many household plants that are poisonous
to dogs, begonia and aloe vera.
[148]
Poinsettia is often
claimed to be toxic but this is untrue. The LD50 for
rats was determined to be greater than 25g/kg.
[149]
This
would mean that a 50 pound dog would have to eat 500-
600 leaves to have a 50% chance of death.
Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ail-
ments such as elbowor hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness,
pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two se-
rious medical conditions particularly aecting dogs are
pyometra, aecting unspayed females of all types and
ages, and bloat, which aects the larger breeds or deep-
chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can
kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as
eas, ticks, and mites, as well as hookworm, tapeworm,
roundworm, and heartworm.
Dogs are highly susceptible to theobromine poisoning,
typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is
toxic to dogs because, although the dogs metabolism is
capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so
slow that even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal,
especially dark chocolate.
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health
conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and
heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and
arthritis.
[150]
5.4.1 Mortality
Main article: Aging in dogs
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds,
but for most the median longevity, the age at which half
the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive,
ranges from 10 to 13 years.
[151][152][153][154]
Individual
dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed.
The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for
A mixed-breed terrier. Mixed-breed dogs are generally healthier
than pure-breds.
which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable
sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a me-
dian longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds,
including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, and
Irish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median
longevities of 6 to 7 years.
[154]
The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles,
Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels,
have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.
[154]
The me-
dian longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average
of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of pure-
bred dogs when all breeds are averaged.
[152][153][154][155]
The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is
"Bluey", who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5
years old at the time of his death; however, the Bluey
record is anecdotal and unveried.
[156]
On 5 December
2011, Pusuke, the worlds oldest living dog recognized
by Guinness Book of World Records, died aged 26 years
and 9 months.
[157]
5.4.2 Predation
Although wild dogs, like wolves, are apex predators, they
can be killed in territory disputes with wild animals.
[158]
Furthermore, in areas where both dogs and other large
predators live, dogs can be a major food source for big
cats or canines. Reports from Croatia indicate wolves
kill dogs more frequently than they kill sheep. Wolves in
Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In Wiscon-
sin, more compensation has been paid for dog losses than
livestock.
[158]
Some wolf pairs have been reported to prey
on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy
brush where the second animal waits in ambush.
[159]
In
some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacter-
istic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attack-
ing dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten o or
killed.
[160]
5.6 Reproduction 13
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs.
Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection
for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume
them regardless of the dogs size or ferocity.
[161]
Tigers
in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are re-
puted to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards.
[162]
Striped Hyenas are major predators of village dogs in
Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus.
[163]
Reptiles such
as alligators and pythons have been known to kill and eat
dogs.
5.5 Diet
See also: Dog food
Despite their descent from wolves and classica-
Golden Retriever gnawing a pigs foot
tion as Carnivora, dogs are variously described in
scholarly and other writings as carnivores
[164][165]
or
omnivores.
[74][166][167][168]
Unlike obligate carnivores,
such as the cat family with its shorter small intestine, dogs
can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent
on meat-specic protein nor a very high level of protein
in order to fulll their basic dietary requirements. Dogs
will healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegeta-
bles and grains, and can consume a large proportion of
these in their diet.
[74]
Compared to their wolf ancestors,
dogs have adaptations in genes involved in starch diges-
tion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a
starch-rich diet.
[169]
5.5.1 Foods toxic to dogs
A number of common human foods and household in-
gestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids
(theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate,
sulfoxide or disulde poisoning),
[170]
grapes and raisins,
macadamia nuts, xylitol,
[171]
as well as various plants and
other potentially ingested materials.
[172][173]
The nicotine
in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can get it by scav-
enging in garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes.
Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating
cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal
pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death. To solve,
soothe the stomach irritation by giving charcoal tablets.
For severe signs, get immediate veterinary attention.
[174]
5.6 Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen
around age six to twelve months for both males and
females,
[74][175]
although this can be delayed until up to
two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at
which female dogs will have their rst estrous cycle. They
will experience subsequent estrous cycles biannually, dur-
ing which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak
of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being men-
tally and physically receptive to copulation.
[74]
Because
the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a
week after ovulation, it is possible for a female to mate
with more than one male.
[74]
25 days post conception fertilization occurs, 1416
days embryo attaches to uterus 2223 days heart beat is
detectable.
[176][177]
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after
fertilization,
[74][178]
with an average of 63 days, although
the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists
of about six puppies,
[179]
though this number may vary
widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs
produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while
much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.
Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective
breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male French
Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the fe-
male. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be
articially inseminated in order to reproduce.
[180]
5.6.1 Neutering
Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually
by removal of the males testicles or the females ovaries
and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procre-
ate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation
of dogs in some countries, many animal control agen-
14 6 INTELLIGENCE AND BEHAVIOR
A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing her four puppies
cies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not in-
tended for further breeding should be neutered, so that
they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later
be euthanized.
[181]
According to the Humane Society of the United States,
34 million dogs and cats are put down each year in the
United States and many more are conned to cages in
shelters because there are many more animals than there
are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep over-
population down.
[182]
Local humane societies, SPCAs,
and other animal protection organizations urge people to
neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters in-
stead of purchasing them.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality,
especially in male dogs.
[183]
Spayed female dogs are less
likely to develop some forms of cancer, aecting mam-
mary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.
[184]
However, neutering increases the risk of urinary in-
continence in female dogs,
[185]
and prostate cancer in
males,
[186]
as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma,
cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus
in either sex.
[187]
5.7 Communication
By the age of four weeks, the dog has developed the ma-
jority of its vocalizations.
[188]
The dog is the most vocal
canid and is unique in its tendency to bark in a myriad of
situations.
[188]
Barking appears to have little more communication func-
tions than excitement, ghting, the presence of a human,
or simply because other dogs are barking.
[188]
Subtler
signs such as discreet bodily and facial movements, body
odors, whines, yelps, and growls are the main sources of
actual communication.
[188]
The majority of these subtle
communication techniques are employed at a close prox-
imity to another, but for long-range communication only
barking and howling are employed.
[188]
6 Intelligence and behavior
6.1 Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
The domestic dog has a predisposition to exhibit a social
The Border Collie is considered to be one of the most intelligent
breeds.
[189]
intelligence that is uncommon in the animal world.
[122]
Dogs are capable of learning in a number of ways, such
as through simple reinforcement (e.g., classical or operant
conditioning) and by observation.
[190][122]
Dogs go through a series of stages of cognitive develop-
ment. As with humans, the understanding that objects not
being actively perceived still remain in existence (called
object permanence) is not present at birth. It develops as
the young dog learns to interact intentionally with objects
around it, at roughly 8 weeks of age.
[122]
Puppies learn behaviors quickly by following examples
set by experienced dogs.
[122]
This form of intelligence is
not peculiar to those tasks dogs have been bred to per-
form, but can be generalized to myriad abstract problems.
For example, Dachshund puppies that watched an expe-
rienced dog pull a cart by tugging on an attached piece
of ribbon in order to get a reward from inside the cart
learned the task fteen times faster than those left to solve
the problem on their own.
[122][191]
Dogs can also learn by mimicking human behaviors. In
one study, puppies were presented with a box, and shown
that, when a handler pressed a lever, a ball would roll out
of the box. The handler then allowed the puppy to play
with the ball, making it an intrinsic reward. The pups
were then allowed to interact with the box. Roughly three
quarters of the puppies subsequently touched the lever,
and over half successfully released the ball, compared to
only 6% in a control group that did not watch the hu-
man manipulate the lever.
[192]
Another study found that
6.2 Behavior 15
handing an object between experimenters who then used
the objects name in a sentence successfully taught an ob-
serving dog each objects name, allowing the dog to sub-
sequently retrieve the item.
[193]
Sergeant Stubby wearing his uniform and medals. Stubby partic-
ipated in four oensives and 17 battles.
Dogs also demonstrate sophisticated social cognition by
associating behavioral cues with abstract meanings.
[122]
One such class of social cognition involves the under-
standing that others are conscious agents. Research has
shown that dogs are capable of interpreting subtle social
cues, and appear to recognize when a human or dogs at-
tention is focused on them. To test this, researchers de-
vised a task in which a reward was hidden underneath
one of two buckets. The experimenter then attempted
to communicate with the dog to indicate the location of
the reward by using a wide range of signals: tapping the
bucket, pointing to the bucket, nodding to the bucket, or
simply looking at the bucket.
[194]
The results showed that
domestic dogs were better than chimpanzees, wolves, and
human infants at this task, and even young puppies with
limited exposure to humans performed well.
[122]
Psychology research has shown that humans gaze instinc-
tively moves to the left in order to watch the right side
of a persons face, which is related to use of right hemi-
sphere brain for facial recognition, including human facial
emotions. Research at the University of Lincoln (2008)
shows that dogs share this instinct when meeting a hu-
man being, and only when meeting a human being (i.e.,
not other animals or other dogs). As such they are the
only non-primate species known to do so.
[195][196]
Stanley Coren, an expert on dog psychology, states that
these results demonstrated the social cognition of dogs
can exceed that of even our closest genetic relatives, and
that this capacity is a recent genetic acquisition that dis-
tinguishes the dog from its ancestor, the wolf.
[122]
Studies
have also investigated whether dogs engaged in partnered
play change their behavior depending on the attention-
state of their partner.
[197]
Those studies showed that play
signals were only sent when the dog was holding the at-
tention of its partner. If the partner was distracted, the
dog instead engaged in attention-getting behavior before
sending a play signal.
[197]
Coren has also argued that dogs demonstrate a sophisti-
cated theory of mind by engaging in deception, which he
supports with a number of anecdotes, including one ex-
ample wherein a dog hid a stolen treat by sitting on it until
the rightful owner of the treat left the room.
[122]
Although
this could have been accidental, Coren suggests that the
thief understood that the treats owner would be unable to
nd the treat if it were out of view. Together, the empiri-
cal data and anecdotal evidence points to dogs possessing
at least a limited form of theory of mind.
[122][197]
Similar
research has been performed by Brian Hare of Duke Uni-
versity, who has shown that dogs outperform both great
apes as well as wolves raised by humans in reading human
communicative signals.
[198][199]
A study found a third of dogs suered from anxiety when
separated from others.
[200]
A border collie named Chaser has learned the names for
1,022 toys after three years of training, so many that
her trainers have had to mark the names of the objects
lest they forget themselves. This is higher than Rico,
another border collie who could remember at least 200
objects.
[201]
6.2 Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
Although dogs have been the subject of a great deal of
behaviorist psychology (e.g. Pavlovs dog), they do not
enter the world with a psychological blank slate.
[122]
Rather, dog behavior is aected by genetic factors as
well as environmental factors.
[122]
Domestic dogs exhibit
a number of behaviors and predispositions that were in-
herited from wolves.
[122]
Given that dogs abilities to use human social cues origi-
nated during the process of domestication, it is likely that
individual dogs that were able to use social cues to predict
the behavior of humans more exibly than could their last
common wolf ancestor were at a selective advantage.
[194]
Properly socialized dogs can interact with unfamiliar dogs of any
size and shape and understand how to communicate.
The existence and nature of personality traits in dogs
16 7 DIFFERENCES FROM WOLVES
have been studied (15329 dogs of 164 dierent breeds)
and ve consistent and stable narrow traits iden-
tied, described as playfulness, curiosity/fearlessness,
chase-proneness, sociability and aggressiveness. A fur-
ther higher order axis for shynessboldness was also
identied.
[202][203]
The average sleep time of a dog is said to be 10.1 hours
per day.
[204]
Like humans, dogs have two main types of
sleep: Slow-wave sleep, then Rapid eye movement sleep,
the state in which dreams occur.
[205]
Dogs prefer, when they are o the leash and Earths mag-
netic eld is calm, to urinate and defecate with their bod-
ies aligned on a north-south axis.
[206]
6.3 Dog growl
A new study in Budapest, Hungary, has found that dogs
are able to tell how big another dog is just by listening to
its growl. A specic growl is used by dogs to protect their
food. The research also shows that dogs do not lie about
their size, and this is the rst time research has shown an-
imals can determine anothers size by the sound it makes.
The test, using images of many kinds of dogs, showed a
small and big dog and played a growl. The result showed
that 20 of the 24 test dogs looked at the image of the ap-
propriately sized dog rst and looked at it longest.
[207]
7 Dierences from wolves
Some dogs, like this Tamaskan Dog, look very much like wolves.
7.1 Physical characteristics
Further information: Wolf
Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20%
smaller skulls, 30% smaller brains,
[208]
as well as pro-
portionately smaller teeth than other canid species.
[209]
Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. It is
thought by certain experts that the dogs limp ears are a
result of atrophy of the jaw muscles.
[209]
The skin of do-
mestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with
some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as cloth-
ing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh
weather.
[209]
7.2 Behavioral dierences
Dogs tend to be poorer than wolves at observational learn-
ing, being more responsive to instrumental condition-
ing.
[209]
Feral dogs showlittle of the complex social struc-
ture or dominance hierarchy present in wolf packs. For
example, unlike wolves, the dominant alpha pairs of a
feral dog pack do not force the other members to wait
for their turn on a meal when scavenging o a dead un-
gulate as the whole family is free to join in. For dogs,
other members of their kind are of no help in locating
food items, and are more like competitors.
[209]
Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies show-
ing that unlike their wild cousins, they are poor ungulate
hunters, having little impact on wildlife populations
where they are sympatric. However, feral dogs have
been reported to be eective hunters of reptiles in the
Galpagos Islands,
[210]
and free ranging pet dogs are more
prone to predatory behavior toward wild animals.
Domestic dogs can be monogamous.
[211]
Breeding in feral
packs can be, but does not have to be restricted to a domi-
nant alpha pair (such things also occur in wolf packs).
[212]
Male dogs are unusual among canids by the fact that they
mostly seem to play no role in raising their puppies, and
do not kill the young of other females to increase their
own reproductive success.
[210]
Some sources say that dogs
dier from wolves and most other large canid species by
the fact that they do not regurgitate food for their young,
nor the young of other dogs in the same territory.
[209]
However, this dierence was not observed in all domestic
dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females for the young
as well as care for the young by the males has been ob-
served in domestic dogs, dingos as well as in other feral or
semi-feral dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females and
direct choosing of only one mate has been observed even
in those semi-feral dogs of direct domestic dog ancestry.
Also regurgitating of food by males has been observed in
free-ranging domestic dogs.
[211][213]
7.3 Trainability
Dogs display much greater tractability than tame wolves,
and are, in general, much more responsive to coercive
techniques involving fear, aversive stimuli, and force than
17
wolves, which are most responsive toward positive condi-
tioning and rewards.
[214]
Unlike tame wolves, dogs tend to
respond more to voice than hand signals.
[215]
8 Cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs
8.1 Mythology
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as
watchdogs.
[216]
In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watch-
dog who guards the gates of Hades.
[216]
In Norse mythol-
ogy, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards
Helheim.
[216]
In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs
guard the Chinvat Bridge.
[216]
In Philippine mythology,
Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is re-
sponsible for lightning. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is
guarded by Cn Annwn.
[216]
In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death owns two
watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch
over the gates of Naraka.
[217]
Hunter god Muthappan
from North Malabar region of Kerala has hunting Dog as
his mount. Dogs are found in and out of the Muthappan
Temple and oerings at the shrine take the form of
bronze dog gurines.
[218]
In Judaism and Islam, dogs are viewed as un-
clean scavengers.
[216]
In Christianity, dogs represent
faithfulness.
[216]
In Asian countries such as China, Korea,
and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.
[216]
The
role of the dog in Chinese mythology includes a position
as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent
years (the zodiacal dog).
8.2 Gallery of dogs in art
9 See also
Animal track
Argos (dog)
Dog in Chinese mythology
Dogs in art
Dog odor
Dognapping
Ethnocynology
Hachika notable example of dog loyalty
Lost pet services
Wolfdog
Lists:
List of dog breeds
List of ctional dogs
List of individual dogs
List of most popular dog breeds
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Fdration Cynologique Internationale (FCI)
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View the dog genome on Ensembl
25
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26 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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13.2 Images 29
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