SUPPLEMENT TO FAULT

CALCULATION

SYMMETRICAL FAULTS



George Mather
BA, Dip EE, C Eng, MIEE, AFIMA
































1998 George Mather
Published by the Electricity Training Association



















CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
2.1 Complex Numbers
2.2 Linear algebra
2.3 Current in an ac circuit

3 NETWORK ANALYSIS
3.1 Kirchhoffs Laws
3.2 Network reduction
3.2.1 Millmans Theorem
3.2.2 The Principle of Superposition
3.2.3 Thevenins Theorem
3.3 Star - Delta and Delta - Star transformations

4 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATIONS AND PER UNIT METHODS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Transformers
4.3 Ohmic Methods
4.4 Per Unit Methods

5 WORKED EXAMPLES

6 ANSWERS TO SELF TEST QUESTIONS

APPENDICES:

A MATRIX ALGEBRA
B USE OF SPREADSHEETS
C CURRENT IN AN RL CIRCUIT


Page 1 of 85

1.0 Introduction
This book is a supplement to Chapter 3 of the Power Systems
Protection correspondence course (PSPC) provided by the Electricity
Training Association. Fault Calculation in general and Chapter 3 of the
Power System Protection Course in particular have gained over the
years an awesome reputation with some PSPC students. The PSPC was
introduced in the early 1960s and in those days the course was directed
at engineers in the United Kingdom. Nowadays students come from a
wide variety of backgrounds both in academic attainment and
nationality. Sometimes difficulties are exacerbated due to students not
having help available to them locally.
Times have changed since the PSPC course books were written.
Probably all students now have access to a personal computer with
spreadsheet facilities which can make calculations much less tedious.
Used properly, spreadsheets should help students better understand the
basic material. Many early text books in electrical power engineering
concentrated on network reduction because it was a necessary process
when a slide rule was the most advanced tool available. Knowledge of
network reduction is still advantageous however in order to enable
students understand the behaviour of networks. There is also the
question of how much detail electrical engineers should know about
power system calculations when there are many good power system
analysis systems used in electrical utilities nowadays. It is most
important that engineers understand the output from these systems and
that understanding can only come from good theoretical knowledge
and experience.
Performance of protective gear is a very important aspect of power
system operation but safety is equally important and leads to issues
regarding of the make rating and break rating of switchgear. Protective
gear operating times have decreased on transmission systems as relays
based on digital electronics have been introduced. Faults are
sometimes cleared before the direct current component in the
disturbance has decayed to zero. The subject of initial fault conditions
is dealt with in chapter 2 and in appendix C in more detail. The
introduction of small generation plant connected at medium voltages
requires a good understanding of fault calculation by all design
engineers. The first international standard for calculation of fault
current IEC 909 [6] has been issued and this has been implemented in
the United Kingdom as ER G74 [7].
This Supplement has been prepared to give the student a firm basis in
understanding the techniques of network analysis and symmetical fault
calculations. It is a remarkable fact that the course text book contains
only two examples on symmetical faults with one of them being based
upon physical units (ohms and volts). This Supplement recommends
use of per unit quantities but their introduction is delayed until
chapter four after the mathematics and network analysis techniques
have been covered using physical values in chapters two and three.
Page 2 of 85


The supplement addresses such fundamental issues as:
why we use complex numbers in ac circuits
systematic ways of solving equations
the dc component and maximum offset in fault current
the best way to express fault rating
the need for a common base in per unit calculations
effects of tap change and load
(opionally) an introduction to matrix algebra in fault
calculations
use of spreadsheets
proofs and applications of Thevenins Theorem and
Network transformations


The first four chapters have self test questions ( exercises to the old
fashioned!) against which understanding can be tested.

Use of the supplement is optional but it will not make sense without the
course text book. It covers completely, with one exception - induction
motors , the fundamentals of symmetrical fault calculation and will
provide a sound basis for further study.

Users of the supplement may omit the following sections of the text
book - but will be recommended by the supplement to read parts of
them - 3.1.4, 3.2, 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.3.7, 3.3.8, 3.3.9 and 3.3.10.
Page 3 of 85
2 Fundamental Mathematics

The course text book assumes good knowledge of the mathematics of
complex numbers and linear equations but does little to help the
students overcome difficulties in these subjects. It is not necessary to
be clever at mathematics in order to do fault calculations but a good
working knowledge of complex numbers and linear equations is
necessary. This chapter provides an introduction to and review of these
subjects in the first two sections. The range of material covered is
adequate for the course but in each case these are only the tips of very
interesting icebergs and many students will wish to follow them up
through the bibliography. Those students who feel confident without
this material should at least try to the self test questions.

The third section of the chapter covers why we need to use complex
numbers in electrical circuits. It is worth noting at this stage that
complex numbers are not vectors but the myth that they are vectors was
advanced by some early textbooks. Is easy to see a complex number is
not a vector because a vector does not have a reciprocal whereas a
complex number does; furthermore modern electrical engineering
textbooks draw pseudo vector diagrams of rms quantities and call them
phasor diagrams.

Appendix A introduces matrix algebra and introduces its application to
fault calculation. This material should not be read without a good
understanding of Thevenins Theorem and Nodal Analysis covered in
chapter three.

A Microsoft EXCEL spreadsheet is provided with the supplement to
help with the linear algebra and the more complicated complex number
operations; details of use are provided in appendix B.


Appendix C covers the initial conditions following a fault and
illustrates why making duty of switchgear is very important. This
appendix basically consists of a proof which uses a first order
differential equation. Do not worry if you do not understand the proof
and if you have difficulty do not spend time trying to understand it. J ust
believe the result, use it , and return to it at your leisure.


Page 4 of 85
2.1 Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are used in many aspects of electrical power
engineering but they were not discovered by electrical engineers. This
section introduces complex numbers from a fundamental requirement
and then reviews the basic operations used by electrical engineers. More
information on the wide scope of complex numbers may be found in
Speigel[2].

There are no normal, i.e. real, numbers which satisfy the equation z
2
+1=0. This is because the equation requires z
2
=-1, but z= 1 does
not exist for real numbers. To get round this difficulty we introduce an
operator j which has the property that j
2
=-1 and we can then solve the
equation as z=j1.

Now consider the quadratic equation z
2
-2z +10=0. Using the well known
formula for the solution of quadratic equations of the form

az
2
+bz+c=0

i.e. z
b b a
a
c
2
4
2
= we find that z thus z=1+j3 and 1-j3
as possible solutions.
=
2 4 40
2

z is a known as complex number. Complex Numbers have a Real
component Re(z) and an Imaginary component Im (z). E.g. in the above
example Re(z)=1 and, for the first case, Im(z)=3. We may plot these
values on an Argand Diagram where we plot values of Re(z) along the
x-axis and Im(z) along the y-axis as shown in Fig 2.1.1. Real numbers
may be recognised as a special case of complex numbers having
Im(z)=0.



Fig. 1.1.1 Argand Diargam
x
y
z












We may represent complex numbers in Rectangular form as we have
just shown or we may represent them in Polar Form. Consider first
rectangular form. Addition, and hence subtraction, of complex numbers
Page 5 of 85
is carried out by summing the real components and the imaginary
components separately.
Thus if z=a+jb and w=c+jd then:
z+w =(a+c)+j(b+d) and z-w = (a-c)+j(b-d)
Multiplication zw is given by the expansion of (a+jb)(c+jd)
thus zw=ac+jad+jbc+j
2
bd but j
2
=-1
zw=(ac-bd)+j(bc+ad).

Example 2.1.1

Calculate z+w, z-w and zw if z=3+j4 and w=5-j7.
Answer:
z+w =(3+5) +j(4-7) =8-j3
z-w =(3-5)+j(4 - -7) =-2+j11
zw =(3x5 -4x(-7))+j(3x(-7)+4x5)=43-j1.

We use the complex conjugate to do division. The complex conjugate is
z*=a-jb i.e. we simply change the sign of Im(z).
It is clear that zz* =a
2
+b
2
.

Consider first the reciprocal of a complex number z=a+jb.
Now 1/z =z*/zz* =(a-jb)/ (a
2
+b
2
).


Division is now clearly z/w =z(1/w) hence
z/w=(a+jb)(c-jd)/(c
2
+d
2
).

Example 2.1.2
Calculate z/w when z=43-j1 and w=5-j7.
Answer:
z
w
j j
=
+
+
( )( 43 1 5 7
25 49
)


z
w
j
=
+ + ( ) ( 215 7 301 5
74
)


z
w
j
=
+ 222 296
74


=3+j4

which agrees with the result in example 2.1.1



Page 6 of 85
Example 2.1.3

If z=a+jb calculate z
2
/ 2z.
We should expect the answer to be z/2 just as it would be for real
numbers!.
Answer:
z
2
=(a
2
-b
2
) +j 2ab.

1
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
3 2 2 3
2 2
z
a jb
a b
z
z
a jb a b j ab
a b
a ab j a b b
a b
=

+
=
+
+
=
+ + +
+
( )
( )(( ) )
( )
( )
( )

but since
a (a
2
+b
2
) =a
3
+ab
2
and b ( a
2
+b
2
) =a
2
b+b
3
then
z
2
/2z =(a+jb)/2.
Another method:

z
z
z z
zz
z zz
zz
z
2
2
2
2 2
2
= = =
*
*
( *)
*

An obvious result but many students do not take the short cut!

Example 2.1.4

Calculate zw and z/w when z=jb w=jd.
In this case we should be able to ignore complex arithmetic but be aware
of the rules. Hence we should expect zw=-bd and z/w=b/d.
Answer:
Expanded zw=(0+jb)x(0+jd) hence zw=-bd+j0.
similarly z/w=(0+jb)x(0-jd)/d
2
=b/d
Example 2.1.5
An electric circuit has two inductive reactances w=j4 and v=j12 in
parallel. Calculate the impedance z (=wv/(w+v)) of the circuit.
Answer z=4x12/(4+12) =j3
Thus we can simplify the calculation by keeping in mind where we are
going.
Page 7 of 85



Complex numbers in polar form are written as z re
j
=

, Eulers
formula tells us that e j
j
= + cos sin . Engineers often write z =r
where r is the modulus and is the argument.
To convert from Rectangular form to Polar form r a b = +
2 2
and
=

tan
1
b
a

but note we must always be careful to check the sign of a and b in order
to calculate the angle according to table below

a b degrees
pos pos 0-90
pos neg 270-360
neg pos 90-180
neg neg 180-270


Example 2.1.6

Express z=3+j4 and w=-3+j4 in polar form.

answer:

The modulus of both z and w is 3 4
2 2
5 + =
For z = =

tan .
1
4
3
5313
For w =

tan .
1
4
3
12687
Note that the argument for w is (180-53.13)


Once again with z =r and w=s then zw= rs(+) and
z/w=r/s(-). We will now expand z and w using Eulers Formula and
calculate the quotient z/w. The product is left as an exercise for the
student.

z r j = + (cos sin ) w s j = + (cos sin )


z
w
r j
s j
rs j j
s
=
+
+
=
+
+
(cos sin )
(cos sin )
(cos sin )(cos sin )
(cos sin )




2 2 2

but since cos sin
2 2
1 + =

Page 8 of 85

z
w
r
s
j
z
w
r
s
j
= + +
= +
((cos cos sin sin ) (sin cos sin cos ))
(cos( ) sin( ))





z
w
r
s
= ( )

The reciprocal of a complex number z = r in polar form is simply
1/r

It can be seen easily that multiplication by complex numbers shifts the
resulting vector anticlockwise and division shifts the resulting vector
clockwise.

You always have to consider the best ways of doing multiplication and
division. This of course depends to some extent on how the problem is
specified. If you have rectangular form it is probably worth keeping them
in that form during the calculation.

1.1 Self Test Questions

1 Solve a
2
+a+1=0. Show that a
3
=1 and a
4
=a.
2 Do the indicated calculation in each of the following.
a) (3+j7)(4-j12) and express the result in polar form.
b) (3+j1)
2
express the result in rectangular form.

c)
+

6 2
1 8
j
j
express the result in polar form.
d)
( )(
( ) (
3 8 4 10
3 8 4 10
+ )
)
+
+ + +
j j
j j
express the result in rectangular form.
3 Find the modulus of
100
6 8 + j

4 Find the argument of the following complex numbers
a) -5+j0
b) -8-j4

5 Show that z*w =(zw*)* ; why does z*z =zz* ?
Page 9 of 85
2.2 Linear Equations
Linear equations are used extensively throughout power system
calculations; large systems of equations are solved in modern times by the
digital computer but nevertheless it is useful to be able to solve small
systems using only a pocket calculator or spreadsheet. In this section we
will look at simple methods of solving equations involving at most three
unknowns. The method used will also provide a powerful and systematic
tool for proving theoretical results. Appendix A will cover matrix algebra
which is used by computer methods of solving power system equations.
The methods introduced in this section will be used in proofs of network
theory to be covered in other sections.

Once understood the process of finding solutions to practical problems of
simultaneous equations is quite tedious. A spreadsheet for solving
equations of up to three variables is included with this supplement.
Description of the spreadshheet is covered in appendix B.

Consider the equations:

3x +4y =16
x +2y = 6

The most elementary method of finding the value of x is to subtract twice
the second equation from the first thus eliminating y:

3x +4y =16
2x +4y =12

giving x = 4 and, since x+2y =6, y=1;

This very simple method becomes messy when trying to solve, say,
equations involving complex numbers. Alternatively, to eliminate y we
could multiply the first equation by 2 and the second by 4 and then subract
again in the same way:

thus 6x +8y =32
4x +8y =24

hence 2x = 8 and x =4, y=1 as before.

This more systematic method leads to a general form.

Consider the system

A
11
x +A
12
y =B
1
A
21
x +A
22
y =B
2


Page 10 of 85
In this system the first suffix denotes a row and the second one denotes a
column. Using the method described above to eliminate y, multiply the
first equation by A
22
and the second one by A
12.

A
11
A
22
x +A
12
A
22
y =A
22
BB
1
A
21
A
12
x +A
22
A
12
y =A
12
BB
2

subtracting the second from the first:

(A
11
A
22
- A
21
A
12
)x =(A
22
BB
1
- A
12
B
2
B )

x
B A B A
A A A A
B A
B A
A A
A A
=

1 22 2 12
11 22 21 12
1 12
2 22
11 12
21 22



The array:

A
A A
A A
=

11 12
21 22


contains the coefficients of x and y in the original equations.

A
11
A
22
- A
21
A
12
is known as the determinant D of an array of dimension
2. It is the difference between the products of the two diagonals of the
array. More details may be found in textbooks on Linear Algebra [1].

The method also leads quickly to Cramers Method for solving linear
equations. In Cramers method the column of coefficients of the unknown
to be found are replaced by those on the right hand side (the Bs).
Hence

x
B A
B A
A A
A A
=

1 12
2 22
11 12
21 22
and y
A B
A B
A A
A A
=

11 1
21 2
11 12
21 22



The method provides an expedient way of solving systems involving two
or three variables but is not recommended when there are more than three
variables.





Example 2.3.1 Solve original problem again using Cramers Method.
Page 11 of 85

D =

= =
3 4
1 2
6 4 2

=

=

= x
16 4
6 2
2
32 24
2
4 and y =

=

=
3 16
1 6
2
18 16
2
1

We are now in a position to investigate the benefits of the method. First
consider the equations:

3x +4y - 16z =0
x +2y - 6z =0

There are not enough equations to find the values of the variables which
satisfy them. There are an infinite number of solutions but this does not
prevent a relationship between the variables from being found. From the
example it is clear that by writing the equations as:

3x +4y =16z
x +2y = 6z

it is easily seen that x=4z and y=z.


Cramers Method can be applied to equations involving complex numbers.

Example 2.3.2
Solve: (2+j1)z +(4-j3)w =12+j16
(4- j7)z +(-3-j1)w = 39-j12

D =(2+j1)(-3-j1)-(4-j7)(4-j3) =(-5-j5)-(-5-j40) =0+j35


z
j j
j j
D
j j j
D
z
j j
D
j
j
j
w
j j
j j
D
j j j j
D
=
j
+

=
+
=

=
+
+
= +
=
+ +

=
+ +
12 16 4 3
39 12 3 1
12 16 3 1 39 12 4 3
20 60 120 165 140 105
0 35
3 4
2 1 12 16
4 7 39 12
2 1 39 12 4 7 12 16
( )( ) ( )(
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )(
)
)


w
j j
D
j
j
j =
+
=
+
+
= +
( ) ( ) 90 15 160 20 70 35
0 35
1 2


Example 2.3.2
Page 12 of 85

Solve the equations

j10z +j8w =82
j 4z +j6w =44

D =j
2
10x6 - j
2
4x8 =-28

z
j
j
xj xj j
j =

=
82 8
44 6
28
82 6 44 8
28
140
28
5


w
j
j
j x j x j
j =

=
10 82
4 44
28
10 44 4 82
28
112
28
4

Cramers rule is useful for proving theoretical results. Read the derivation
of the equations for the two phase to earth fault in paragraph d of section
3.4.4 of the textbook. The example quoted is the most difficult to solve of
the classic fault conditions but this systematic method makes the process
easier to understand.

Example 2.3.2

Fig 3.4.4E and equations 3.4.4.16 and 3.4.4.17 in the text book describe
the conditions at the point of fault for a Two phase to earth fault. We will
solve these equations using Cramers Method.

Answer:
This is one of the standard problems in the application of Symmetrical
component theory to unbalanced faults. It is not necessary to understand
symmetrical components for this answer but the solution to Self Test 2.1.1
is applied.

We are given I
a
=0 (Equation 3.4.4.16) and V
b
=V
c
=0 (3.4.4.17)

There are three equations and, as we shall see, three unknowns (I
1
, I
2
and
I
0
) but solving three equations simultaneously leads to quite complicated
manipulation. Instead we will use the voltage equations to obtain
relationships between the variables. We will then substitute these
relationships into the current equation to find direct expressions for the
currents.

Expanding for V
b
in symmerical component form

V
b
=a
2
E-a
2
I
1
Z
1
-aI
2
Z
2
-I
0
Z
0
=0
(This equation is printed incorrectly in some text books)
and V
c
=aE-aI
1
Z
1
-a
2
I
2
Z
2
-I
0
Z
0
=0
Page 13 of 85

Solve these equations for I
1
and I
2
in terms of E and I
0.
First write them in
the form


a Z I aZ I a E I Z
aZ I a Z I aE I Z
2
1 1 2 2
2
0 0
1 1
2
2 2 0 0
+ =
+ =

= D a a Z Z ( )
2
1 2
(since a
4
=a)


Using Cramers Method:


I
a E I Z aZ
aE I Z a Z
D
aEZ a I Z Z a EZ aI Z Z
D
1
2
0 0 2
0 0
2
2 2
2
0 0 2
2
2 0 0 2
=

=
+



collecting terms:

I
Z a a E I Z
Z Z a a
E I Z
Z
1
2
2
0 0
1 2
2
0 0
1
=
+

=
+ ( )( )
( )



Thus I
I Z E
Z
0
1 1
0
=



Similarly

I
a Z a E I Z
aZ aE I Z
D
Z E a Z I Z Z E aZ I Z
D
2
2
1
2
0 0
1 0 0 1
2
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
=

=
+


collecting terms I
Z Z a a I
Z Z a a
I Z
Z
I Z E
Z
2
1 0
2
0
1 2
2
0 0
2
1 1
2
=

= =
( )
( )




From Equation 3.4.4.16

I
1
+I
2
+I
0
=0

We can now find I
1
by substituting for I
2
and I
0
:

Page 14 of 85

I
I Z E
Z
I Z E
Z
giving
I Z Z I Z Z I Z Z EZ EZ
I Z Z Z Z Z Z E Z Z
I
E Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
1
1 1
2
1 1
0
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 2
1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 2
1
0 2
2 0 1 0 1 2
0 +

+

=
+ + = +
+ + = +
=
+
+ +
( ) (
( )
)
This time substituting to find I
2
:


E I Z
Z
I
I Z
Z
hence
I
Z E
Z Z Z Z Z Z
+
+ + =
=

+ +
2 2
1
2
2 2
0
2
0
2 0 1 0 1 2
0



and ,since I
2
Z
2
=I
0
Z
0 ,
it follows that

I
Z E
Z Z Z Z Z Z
0
2
2 0 1 0 1 2
=

+ +



2.1 Self test questions

1 Solve for x and y.

7x +y =26
5x+2y =25

2 Solve for z and w

4z +7w =40-3j
z +2w =11-j





Page 15 of 85
2.3 Current in an a.c circuit

This section investigates the fundamental relationship between voltage and
current in an a.c. circuit. The reasons why complex numbers are used for
representation of a.c. quantities are included. The section is quite technical and
includes two proofs which involve simple differential equations. You do not
need to read or understand these proofs (which are terminated by a symbol)
but they are provided for those students seeking a thorough understanding of
principles.

2.3.1 Fundamental Equations

We start with Lenzs Law:

Induced emfs e in a coil are always of such a polarity as to oppose the change
that generated them.

Mathematically we may write this as
e=-d/dt
where represents the flux linkages of the coil and t is time

The flux linkages are a function of the current I in the coil and the physical
characteristics such the number of turns and diameter etc.

Joseph Henry demonstrated later that

e=-LdI/dt

where L is the inductance of the coil. L has units of Voltseconds/amp and is
known as the Henry.

When a sinusoidal voltage V sin t is applied to an ideal coil (with no
resistance) then

I
V
L
t =

sin( ) 90 .

Proof:

L
dI
dt
V = sint

hence
dI
dt
V
L
t
I
V
L
tdt
=
=
sin
sin

Page 16 of 85
= I
V
L
t

cos

but -cos t =sin (t-90)=sin t cos 90-sin 90.cos t
thus I
V
L
t =

sin( ) 90

The current lags the voltage by 90.

Note that V and I are peak and NOT rms values.

Resistance R in the circuit adds further complication, in this case

I
V
R X
t e
Rt
L
=
+
+

2 2
[sin( ) ] where =

tan
1
X
R


cos =
+
R
R X
2 2
, sin =
+
X
R X
2 2
, and X=L and is known as reactance.

R X
2
+
2
is the impedance Z of the circuit.

The proof of this expression is given in appendix C. The ratio R/L is known as
the time constant of the circuit. Figure C.1 of appendix C shows the
maximum value the current in an ac circuit can rise to following switch on.
This is important for switchgear where making duty is an important safety
design feature. The decay of dc current is also quite important as the fault
clearance times of modern transmission equipment reduce.

It is also clear R and X are mutually perpendicular and because of this may be
represented by complex numbers. Thus we may write impedance in polar or
rectangular form.

I lags V by an angle This is written as I-. I and V may be either peak or
rms values. We will use rms values unless otherwise stated.

There are 3 ways of calculating the power S in the circuit and we can do this
either in rectangular or in polar form. Usually S=(P+jQ) where P is real power
and Q is reactive power. Q is positive when the reactive power is inductive
and negative when it is capacitive.

(a) S=I*V. where I* is the complex conjugate of I.
In rectangular form:

Let I = I (cos +j sin ) and I* =I ( cos - j sin )

Let V =V ( cos +j sin )

Page 17 of 85
S=VI ( cos cos +sin sin +j ( sin cos - cos sin )

S =VI ( cos (-) +j sin (-))

note that the sign convention results in lagging vars being treated as positive
ie when >.

In Polar Form: S V =VI- x I =

b) S=|I|
2
Z

In rectangular form: Let I=a+jb and Z=R+jX, then

S =I*V=I*I Z =(a+jb)(a-jb)(R+jX)=(a
2
+b
2
)(R+jX) =|I|
2
Z

In Polar Form I
2
Z where is the impedance angle.

(c) S
V
Z
=
2
*

In rectangular form: Let V=u+jw and Z=R+jX

S VI
VV
Z
u jw u jw
R jX
u w
R jX
V
Z
= = =
+

=
+

= *
*
*
( )( )
*
2 2
2


and in polar form S
V
Z
=

2

2.3.2 Series and Parallel circuits

For two impedance Z
1
and Z
2
in series then I
V
Z Z
=
+
1 2
hence Z =Z
1
+Z
2

in this case of course I flows through both impedances.

Thus V
1
=IZ
1
hence V
1
=
+
VZ
Z Z
1
1 2
and this represents a potential divider

For two impedances Z
1
and Z
2
in parallel the total current I is given by:

I
V
Z
V
Z
V
Z Z
Z Z
= + =
+
1 2
1 2
1 2
( ) hence the impedance of the circuit is Z
Z Z
Z Z
=
+
1 2
1 2


Alternatively we may use Admittance conveniently for the parallel circuit.

Admittance Y =1/Z. Thus I=VY
1
+VY
2
=V(Y
1
+Y
2
)=VY.

Page 18 of 85
By comparison of the impedance form and the admittance form it is evident
that

Y Y
Z Z
Z Z
1 2
1 2
1 2
+ =
+



If we know I the easiest method to calculate the current in each impedance
branch is:

I
IZ
Z
IZ
Z Z
1
1
2
1 2
= =
+
and I
IZ
Z
IZ
Z Z
2
2
1
1 2
= =
+



Example 2.3.2.1

A circuit consists of two impedances Z
1
= (1+j8) and Z
2
=(3+j4)
connected in parallel and series impedance Z
s
=(1.625+j1.125). The circuit
is connected to an ac voltage E =100v rms.

Calculate (a) the total impedance of the circuit (b) the total current (c) the
current flowing in Z
1
and Z
2
(d) the voltage across Z
s
and (e) the power and
the reactive power in the circuit.



Answer

Z
s
Z
1
Z
2
E









(a) First finding the impedance Z
p
of the parallel combination.

Z
Z Z
Z Z
j j
j j
j
j
j j
j
j
Z Z Z j j j
p
s p
=
+
=
+ +
+ + +
=
+
+
=
+
=
+
= +
= + = + + + = +
1 2
1 2
1 8 3 4
1 8 3 4
29 28
4 12
29 28 4 12
160
220 460
160
1375 2875
1625 1125 1375 2875 3 4
( )(( )
( ) ( )
( )(
( . . )
( . . ) ( . . ) ( )

)




Page 19 of 85
(b) Total Current I =V/Z

I
j
j
j =
+
=

=
100
3 4
100 3 4
25
12 16
( )
( A ) =20-53.13 A

(c) Current in Z
1
and Z
2



I
IZ
Z Z
j j
j
j A
I I I j A
1
2
1 2
2 1
12 16 3 4
4 12
25 75 79 7156
95 85 1275 4182
=
+
=
+
+
= =
= = =
( )( )
( . . ) . .
( . . ) . .

(d) Voltage across Z
s

V
s
= =
+
+
= =
VZ
Z
j
j
j V V
s
100 1625 1125
3 4
375 125 3943 1843
( . . )
( . . ) . .

(e) Power

S=|I|
2
Z =(12
2
+16
2


)

(3+j4)=(1200+j1600)VA


2.3 Self Test Questions

1 A circuit consists of a combination of two impedances Z
1
=(1+j5) and
Z
2
=(7+j3) connected in series in parallel with an impedance Zp=(4+j8).
The circuit is connected to an ac voltage E =50v rms.

Calculate (a) the total impedance of the circuit (b) the total current (c) the
current flowing in Z
1
and Z
2
(d) the voltage across Z
1
and (e) the power and
the reactive power in the circuit.



Z
1
Z
2
E
Z
p










2 A 132kV circuit breaker with breaking duty of 25kA rms is designed for use
on a 50 hertz system with an X/R ratio of 11.8. Calculate the highest peak
kiloampere making duty of the circuit breaker.
Page 20 of 85
3 Network Analysis

Understanding of fault calculations requires a good understanding of
network analysis; methods of network reduction beyond simple series
and parallel element reductions are based on network theorems. In this
chapter we shall begin with the axioms of Kirchhoffs Laws to analyse
networks and then, using these results as basis, we proceed to cover the
Parallel Generator Theorem; the Principle of Superposition; a direct
consequence of this, Thevenins Theorem which is the basis of most
methods of fault calculation, and; finally star-delta and delta-star
transformations. Proofs are provided but may be omitted if you are
short of time. Most of the chapter has been written around two
networks so that the advantages of the different approaches maybe
identified. In order to keep the focus on understanding principles most
calculations are based on resistive ohmic networks. Your spreadsheet
may be used to solve equations but masochists may wish to solve them
longhand!

3.1 Kirchhoffs Laws

We will treat these as axioms for which there is no proof. Kirchhoffs
Current Law states that the currents in branches terminating at a
junction sum to zero. Alternatively we may say the sum of currents
entering the junction equals the sum of currents leaving the junction.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law states that the voltages around any closed
path sum to zero.

Some authors refer to these as KCL and KVL respectively [5].

There are two basic ways of using these laws directly to solve network
problems. One way, known as mesh current analysis, is to specify the
voltages around meshes and calculate the mesh currents using KVL
and from this deduce the branch currents using KCL. The other way,
known as nodal voltage analysis, is to specify the currents injected at
nodes to calculate the voltages at them using KCL and from this
deduce the branch currents.

3.1.1 Mesh Current Analysis.

Mesh current analysis is illustrated by the following example:

Example 3.1.1.1 Calculate the currents in the following network.





80V
20
130V
8
30




Page 21 of 85

There are two meshes. Let the current round each loop be I
1
and I
2
.



20
30
8
80V 130V
I
1
I
2







Using KVL around mesh 1 we can write the equation:

80-20I
1
- 8(I
1
+I
2
) =0 rearranging to become

80 =28I
1
+8I
2


Following a similar procedure around mesh 2 we can write:

130 =8I
1
+38I
2

The solution of these equations using Cramers Method:

Det =(28 x 38) - (8 x 8) =1000

I
Det
A
1
80 8
130 38
2 = = and I
Det
A
2
28 80
8 130
3 = =


I
1
=2A and I
2
=3A.

Thus the current in the 8 resistor =5A.

Read section 3.2.1 of your text book up to This simple example has
been solved and noting:

There is a printing error in equations 3.2.1.7 and 3.2.1.9 in some
textbooks. The right hand side in both equations should read 100+j0.

The equation set 3.2.1.6 and 3.2.1.7 are branch current equations but
those in the set 3.2.1.8 and 3.2.1.9 are really mesh current equations.

The solution given is unclear; it is better to use Cramers Method:
Det= (2+j4)(3+j5)-(1+j0)(1+j0)=-15+j22

:
Page 22 of 85

I
j j
j j
Det
j A
I
j j
j j
Det
j A
1
2
118 34 1 0
100 0 3 5
17707 18164
2 4 118 34
100 0 100 0
9932 10499
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
+ +
+ +
=
. .
. .


Branch current analysis should not be used in general because elimination of
redundant information such as I
3
in the above textbook example is confusing.
Mesh current analysis provides a more sound basis for creating a
mathematical model but we need to know how many equations are needed
and how to set them up. To determine how many equations are necessary
first short circuit all voltage sources; the number of equations required is the
number of impedance elements e minus the number of nodes v excluding the
reference node. Thus in example 3.1.1 above the number of equations is 3-
1=2! simple. Setting them up just requires including each impedance element
in at least one mesh; each mesh current flows in every element round the
mesh with currents in adjacent meshes being added or subtracted. Fig
3.2.2A in the textbook shows a good example where the number of equations
required is three i.e. e =6 and v =3.

Example 3.1.1.2

Find the current flow in Fig 3.1.1.2.











There are 5 impedance elements and 2 nodes. We therefore need three
equations.













5
10
20
100V 100V 2
2
I
1
I
2
I
3
5
10
20
100V 100V
2
2
Fig 3.1.1.2
Page 23 of 85

The equations for each mesh are:
Mesh 1 25I
1
- 20I
2
=100
Mesh 2 -20I
1
+32I
2
+2I
3
=0
Mesh 3 2I
2
+4I
3
=100;

From which:
I
1
=5.6A , I
2
=2A and I
3
=24A.

The current flow in each impedance element may then be deduced
easily.

3.1.2 Nodal Voltage Analysis

The objective in nodal voltage analysis is to calculate the voltage at
each node and then deduce the branch currents.
Consider the circuit in Fig 3.1.2.1



Y
1
Y
2
Y
4
E
1
E
2
Y
5
Y
3
V
2
V
1






Fig 3.1.2.1


There are two nodes 1 and 2. We know from KCL that the current
flowing into a node sum to zero.

For node 1:

(E
1
-V
1
)Y
1
+(V
2
- V
1
) Y
2
+(0 - V
1
) Y
4
=0.

rearranging:

E
1
Y1 =(Y
1
+Y
2
+Y
4
) V
1
- Y
2
V
2

Similarly we can write for node 2:

E
2
Y
3
=-Y
2
V
1
+(Y
2
+Y
3
+Y
5
)V
2

Noting that E
1
Y
1
and E
2
Y
3
both represent current we can solve the
equations to find V
1
and V
2
.




Page 24 of 85

These equations may be represented by the figure 3.1.2.2:



Y
2
Y
3
+Y
5









Fig 3.1.2.2 has been developed from fig 3.1.2.1 by replacing voltage
sources with constant current source. The constant current source is the
short circuit current at the terminals of the source. i.e.








and; parallel elements Y
1
and Y
4
have been combined and so have Y
3

and Y
5
.

Example 3.1.2

Find the current flowing in each branch of fig 3.1.1.2 using nodal
voltage analysis.

Answer:
.
E
1
=100V, E
2
=100V, Y
1
=0.2 mho, Y
2
=0.1mho, Y
3
=Y
5
=0.5 mho

and Y
4
=0.05mho.

Thus
20 =(0.2+0.1+0.05) V
1
- 0.1V
2


20 =0.35 V
1
- 0.1V
2


and 50 =-0.1V
1
+(0.5+0.5+0.1) V
2

50 =-0.1V
1
+1.1V
2

Note these equations are written in a systematic form for solution by
Cramers Rule from which V
1
=72V and V
2
=52V.


E
Z
is equivalent to..
Y EY
Y
1
+Y
4

E
2
Y
3 E
1
Y
1
Fig 3.1.2.2
Page 25 of 85




The branch currents are then:

1 (100-72) 0.2 =5.6A

2 (72-52) 0.1 =2A

3 (100-52) 0.5 =24A

4 (72-0) 0.05 =3.6 A

5 (52-0)0.5 =26A

Thus agreeing with the earlier result!

The rules for setting up nodal current equations are quite simple. An
equation is needed for every node. For each node equation the voltage
coefficient of the corresponding node is the sum of all admittances
connected to the node and for other nodes the voltage coefficient is the
negative of the admittance between them. If two nodes are not connected
directly by a branch the voltage coefficient of the remote node is zero.

Read sections 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 of your text book.
Comments:
The paragraph commencing .. The choice between .. is misleading. In
practice most electrical networks have many more nodes than meshes (e.g.
radial distribution networks); the example quoted is not typical. The nodal
voltage method is easier to program than mesh current method.

Modern computer facilities spare you from needing to know advanced
methods of solving equations but references 1 and 4 in the bibliography of
this supplement provide better mathematical background than those quoted
in the textbook.

Self Test Question

Calculate the current in the following circuit:



180V
20
120V
5
20
Page 26 of 85
3.2 Network Reduction Methods

In this section we cover proofs and examples of four network reduction
methods.

3.2.1 The Parallel Generator Theorem

This is sometimes known as Millmans Theorem. It follows as a direct
consequence of nodal voltage analysis and is useful for reducing
voltage sources. Consider the network shown in Fig 3.2.1:

V
E Y E Y E Y
Y Y Y
=
+ +
+ +
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3



E
1 E
2
E
3
Fig 3.2.1
V
Y
1
Y
2
Y
3









Proof

Applying nodal voltage analysis to the common busbar V:

(E
1
- V) Y
1
+(E
2
- V) Y
2
+(E
3
- V) Y
3
=0

E
1
Y
1
+E
2
Y
2
+E
3
Y
3
=V( Y
1
+Y
2
+Y
3
)

V
E Y E Y E Y
Y Y Y
=
+ +
+ +
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3


Example
Consider again example 3.1.1, repeated here for convenience:









20
30
8
80V 130V
Node 1

We will use the parallel generator theorem to calculate the voltage V.
at node 1

Page 27 of 85
Now V x =
+ +
+ +
= = =
80
20
130
30
0
8
1
20
1
30
1
8
250
30
25
120
250
30
120
25
40V

It is now a simple matter to calculate the current in each element.

Notice that the 8 resistor has been included to calculate V; the zero
voltage element in the numerator would normally be omitted but has
been shown here to clarify the method.

Suppose now the 8 resistor was removed. The voltage is now:

V V =
+
+
= =
80
20
130
30
1
20
1
30
250
30
5
60
100


The parallel generator theorem can be used to prove a fundamental
principle of fault calculations that:

I
V
Z
fault
prefault
bus
=


where Z
bus
is the system impedance of the busbar.

For node 1 in the above example, Z
bus
=1/( Y
1
+Y
2
+Y
3
)

and V
E Y E Y
Y Y Y
prefault
=
+
+ +
1 1 2 2
1 2 3


hence I
fault
= E
1
Y
1
+E
2
Y
2

Calculating the fault current for node 1 in the network of example 3.1.1
is easy. We can see that I
fault
is 80/20 +130/ 30 =250/30 A. Using the
principle we would expect this result irrespective of the presence of the
8 resistor because it is short circuited; but the prefault voltage
conditions are different. We will check both conditions:

First the 8 resistor present: V
prefault
=40V ; and
Z
bus
=1/(1/8 +1/20+1/30) =120/25, thus I
fault
=40x25/120=250/30A

Second without the 8 resistor: V
prefault
=100V; and
Z
bus
=1/ ( 1/20 +1/30) =12, thus I
fault
=100/12=250/30 A

As we should expect!

Page 28 of 85
This rule applies to any network as we shall see later. In practice fault
level varies marginally with load changes; most networks are operated
in a way to keep the voltage within a small tolerance of a target
voltage and system control devices like generators, transformers and
capacitors are adjusted as the load changes.

3.2.2 The principle of Superposition

This is sometimes quoted in text books as a theorem but as we shall see
it is derived directly from Kirchhoffs laws. Formally it states that:

The voltage and current response of a linear network to a number of
independent sources is the sum of responses obtained by applying each
source once with all other sources set to zero.

Applying this principle to the example 3.1.1.1 using mesh analysis we
have:


20
30
8
80V 130V
I
1
I
2






First find the current flow with only the 80V source present:










The mesh current equations are :

28I
1
+8I
2
=80
8I
1
+38I
2
=0

From which I
1
=3.04A and I
2
=-0.64A

The current flow could be calculated without solving equations; in this
case the impedance Z seen from the 80V source is:

Z
x
= +
+
= 20
8 30
8 30
500
19


and I
1
=80x19/500=3.04A.
30
20
8
80V
I
2
I
1
Page 29 of 85

I
2
may be calculated by current sharing hence:

I I x
2 1
8
30 8
304
8
38
064 =
+
= = . . A

note the reversal of sign when compared with the diagram.

Considering now the 130V source acting alone:


20
30
8
130V
I
1
I
2







With equations

28I
1
+ 8I
2
=0
8I
1
+38I
2
=130

from which I
1
=-1.04A and I
2
=3.64A

Adding together the solutions:

I
1
= 3.04 - 1.04 =2A
I
2
= -0.64 +3.64 =3A

The current direction convention was kept constant to preserve
consistency. The method when written like this is equivalent to the
mesh current analysis with just one voltage coefficient on the right
hand side at each stage.

It is not necessary to solve equations but network reduction methods
may be applied provided all impedances in the system (including those
of voltage sources for which the voltage has been set to zero) are
included.

The principle of superposition may also be applied to nodal analysis. In
this case all injected currents except one are set to zero and each
current injection is considered separately.

The nodal voltage equations of example 3.1.2 were:

0.35V
1
- 0.1V
2
=20
-0.1V
1
+1.1V =50

Treating each current source individually:
Page 30 of 85

0.35V
1
- 0.1V
2
=20
-0.1V
1
+1.1V
2
=0

from which V
1
=176/3 V and V
2
=16/3 V

and

0.35V
1
- 0.1V
2
=0
-0.1V
1
+1.1V
2
=50

from which V
1
=40/3 V and V
2
=140/3 V

Summing the two results gives our earlier result:

V
1
=(176+40)/ 3 =72V and V
2
=(16+140)/3 =52V

It is not necessary to solve equations in order to calculate these
voltages. It could be done by injecting current into the reduced network
but this is left as an exercise for the student.

It should be noted that it is not normal practice to solve problems using
the Superposition method in conjunction with the nodal voltage method
but it has been included here to show the general properties of the
superposition method.


3.2.3 Thevenins Theorem

This provides a very powerful method for calculating simple
equivalent networks and load current or fault current in an element of a
network. Thevenins Theorem states:

The current flowing through an impedance Z
L
connected between any
two points A and B in a network (see fig 3.2.3.1) is given by E/(Z+Z
L
).
E is the open circuit voltage when Z
L
is removed and Z is the
impedance of the network as seen from points A and B calculated by
assuming all voltage sources have been short circuited.


B
A
Network
Z
L
Fig 3.2.3.1




Thevenins Theorem is a special case of the principle of superposition.


The proof of the Theorem abstract. Instead, we will demonstrate it
using the Principle of Superposition and a familiar example. The
Page 31 of 85
objective will be to find the current in the 8 resistor in the network of
fig 3.1.1 which is reproduced below with a voltage source E in series
with the 8 resistance. First find the value of E which makes the
current in the 8 resistance equal to zero.

20
30
8
80V
130V
I
1
I
2
E








Since E opposes the other two sources we can write equations:

80-E =28I
1
+ 8I
2

130-E = 8I
1
+38I
2


There are three unknowns. In order to make the current in the 8
resistor equal to zero it is necessary for I
2
=-I
1.


Thus 80 = 20I
1
+E
130 =-30I
1
+E

from which I
1
=-1A , E=100V, and I
2
=1A.

Now remove and short the original voltage sources; keeping the same
sign convention we can write equations:

-100 =28I
1
+8I
2

-100 = 8I
1
+38I
2
Hence

I
1
=-3A and I
2
=-2A

Thus the current in the 8 resistor is 5A but in the opposite direction to
the normal result. Thus when E acts alone the current in the 8 resistor
is -5A but when acting with other voltages the current is zero. This is
because E =100V opposes exactly the current from the other sources
according to the Principle of Superposition; Thus we conclude that with
E removed a current of 5A will flow in the 8 resistor and E =100V is
the open circuit voltage across the 8 resistor (which could be
removed).

We then have from Thevenins Theorem:

I
E
Z Z Z
L
=
+
=
+
=
100
8
5 thus Z =12

Page 32 of 85
Z must be the equivalent impedance of the network. It is clear from the
situation when E acted alone that Z is the impedance of the network
viewed from node 1. Thus we can represent the circuit as:









The equivalent network is defined by the 100V and the 12 resistor.
The 8 resistor is equivalent to a load.

If it is necessary to calculate the current distribution in the network the
easiest method to understand is that by which the voltages are
calculated, for example we know that the voltage across the 8 resistor
is 40V; this is the basis of fault calculation used by computer programs
as shown in appendix A. There is a more obscure method by which
the distribution of the 5A in the network is added to the conditions
prevailing during the open circuit condition. It is clear that the 5A
would flow as 3A in the 20 resistor and 2A in the 30 resistor;
adding the results :











Now suppose the load is included in the network and that we want to
calculate the fault current when the 8 resistor is short circuited. The
voltage at node 1 before the short circuit is applied was calculated in
section 3.1, using the parallel generator theorem, to be 40V and the
impedance Z is given by:



Z =
+ +
= = = =
1
1
8
1
20
1
30
1
25
120
120
25
24
5
48 .
20
30
8
80V
130V
12
100V
8
I
1
=3 -1 =2 I
2
=2+1 =3
5
Page 33 of 85


The network with the 8 resistor incorporated is now equivalent to fig 3.4.1:








We can now put any new load, including a short circuit, across the
open terminals and obtain the current and voltage conditions. The short
circuit current is the same with or without the load.

Thevenins Theorem is sometimes written based on fig 3.4.2 as:

v =E - iZ

Fault conditions are clearly defined by v=0.

Read Example 2 in section 3.3.10 of the textbook from the paragraph
following Fig 3.3.10I and commencing It should be noted that.. .

Comment: The author makes the explanation of Thevenins Theorem in
the Paragraph commencing Knowing the fault current.. difficult to
understand. The following points will now be clear to you:
E
f
is the prefault voltage ( or the open circuit voltage for
a fault) and is a property of E
st
and the loaded network
It is not necessary to reverse the sign of E
f
in diagram B
this is a version of the obscure method ,mentioned above;
it is used only to get the current flowing in the correct
direction.
The author fails to mention the real benefit of the method; we could
substitute any value of generator impedance into the network without
needing to recalculate the driving voltage.


Thevenins Theorem can be used to simplify parts of networks;
consider the problem of finding the current in the 10 resistor in the
following example :









E
Z
i
4.8
40V
v
Fig 3.4.2
Fig 3.4.1
5
10
20
100V
2
2 100V
Fig 3.4.3
Page 34 of 85

We can break the problem in to three parts; first remove the 10
resistor; then find the equivalent networks for each source and; then
find the current in the 10 resistor. The following network stages are
then found:















Replacing the 10 resistor we can find the current....








The current flowing is seen easily to be 2A. (i.e. (80-50)/ 15A)

It is now possible to calculate the current in the rest of the network:








Round the left hand loop we can write:

100 =5I
1
+20 (I
1
-2) thus I
1
= 5.6A

For the right hand loop:

100 = 2I
2
+2 ( I
2
+2) thus I
2
=24A
This result is the same as example 3.1.1.2, as we should expect, but the
method used here is more simple.
4
80V 50V
1
4
80V 50V
1 10
5
20
100V 100V 2
2
I =2A
5
20
100V 100V
2
2
i.e. 20x5/25=4
i.e. 100x20/25=80
I
2
I
1
Page 35 of 85
Read Example 1 section 3.3.9 in the textbook.
Comment.
There are more efficient methods now available for us to use. Starting
from Fig 3.3.9B, the equivalent of which is reproduced below we
calculate the current flow throughout the network.








As in the previous example first remove the 6.9+j39 element....









Next calculate the Thevenin equivalents for the remaining network.
For the left hand side:


V
x j
j
j
Z
j x j
j
j
=
+
+
=
=
+
+
= +
80800 46 26
46 792
26710 3142
532 46 26
46 792
2069 17585
( . )
. .
. ( . )
. .
. .


For the right hand side:


V
x j
j
j
Z
j x j
j
j
=
+
+
=
=
+
+
= +
80800 23 13
23 93
11340 1718
80 23 13
23 93
1701 11225
( . )
.
( . )
.
. .


Following the previous example the current in the 6.9+j39 element is:


I
j j
j j
I j A
=

j

+ + + + +
=
( ) ( )
( . . ) ( . . ) ( . )
. .
26710 3142 11340 1718
2069 17585 1701 11225 69 39
14314 224421


Note that I flows from left to right in the diagram. The current in the
left and right hand loops can now be calculated.
j 53.2
4.6+j26
80.8kV 2.3 +j13
j80
80.8kV
j 53.2
6.9+j39
4.6+j26
80.8kV 80.8kV
j80
2.3 +j13
Page 36 of 85

For the left hand loop let I
A
be the unknown current.

80800 =j53.2I
A
+(4.6+j26)x(I
A
- (14.314-j224.421))

I
A
=55.06-j 1092A

For the right hand loop let I
B
be the unknown current:

80800 =j80I
B
+(2.3+j13)x(I
B
+(14.314-j224.421))

I
B
=24.237-j836.493A

The current in the 4.6+j 26 element is 40.746-j 867.088A (I
a
-I)

The current in the 2.3+j13 element is 38.551-j1061A (I
B
+I)

I
A
and I
B
are the machine currents at end A and B respectively and the
fault current =I
A
+I
B
=79.297- 1928A.

Note the small discrepancy from minor errors in the textbook
calculation
Page 37 of 85
3.3 The Star-Delta and Delta-Star Network Transformations

The Star-Delta and Delta-Star network transformations are very useful
tools for simplifying networks. In this section we will first state and prove
the transformations and then give some examples which will highlight a
common error made by many students.



Z
a
Z
b
Z
c
Fig 3.3.1











Z
2
Z
1
Fig 3.3.2
Z
3








Star- Delta Transformation

The two networks in Figs 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 are equivalent if:

Z
1
=Z
a
+Z
c
+Z
a
Z
c
/Z
b
;
Z
2
=Z
a
+Z
b
+Z
a
Z
b
/Z
c;

Z
3
=Z
b
+Z
c
+Z
b
Z
c
/Z
a

Delta- Star Transformation

The two networks in Figs 3.3.2 and 3.3.1 are equivalent if:

Z
a
=Z
1
Z
2
/(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
);
Z
b
=Z
2
Z
3
/(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
);
Z
c
=Z
1
Z
3
/(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
)

Proof:

It is a remarkable fact that the solution of the mesh- current problem of the
star network in fig 3.3.1 is equivalent to the coefficients of the nodal
voltage analysis equations of fig 3.3.2. Likewise the solution of the nodal
voltage problem of fig 3.3.2 is equivalent to the coefficients of the mesh
current analysis of fig 3.3.1.
Page 38 of 85



Z
a
Z
b
Z
c
Fig 3.3.1.a
I
2
, V
2
I
1
, V
1








Applying mesh current analysis to the network in Fig 3.3.1.a:


V
1
=(Z
a
+Z
c
) I
1
+Z
c
I
2
1.1
V
2
=Z
c
I
1
+( Z
b
+Z
c
) I
2
1.2

Solving these equations by Cramers Rule:

Det =(Z
a
+Z
c
) (Z
b
+Z
c
) - Z
2
c
= Z
a
Z
b
+Z
a
Z
c
+Z
b
Z
c



I
Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
I
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
b c
a b a c b c
c
a b a c b c
c
a b a c b c
a c
a b a c b c
1 1
2 1
13
14
=
2
2
+
+ +

+ +
=

+ +
+
+
+ +
......... .
......... .





Y
2
Y
1
Fig 3.3.2a
Y
3
I
2
, V
2
I
1
, V
1









Using Fig 3.3.2a, in which admittances are used for convenience, we can
write the nodal voltage equations:

I
1
=(Y
1
+Y
2
) V
1
- Y
2
V
2
2.1

I
2
= - Y
1
+(Y
2
+Y
3
) V
2
2.2

Before solving these equations it is possible to obtain the delta- star
transformation. If the networks are equivalent then the coefficients of V
2
in
equations 1.3 and 2.1 must be equal i.e.
Page 39 of 85

Y
Z
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
c
a b a c b c
a b
a b
c
2
2
2
1
= =
+ +
= + +


Formulas for Z
1
and Z
2
may be derived in a similar manner by subtracting
the equivalence of Y
2
from the coefficients of V
1
in equation 1.3 and V
2
in
equation 1.4 respectively. This is left as an exercise for the student.


Solving the nodal 2.1 and 2.2 equations by Cramers method we find:



V
Y Y
YY YY Y Y
I
Y
YY YY Y Y
I
V
Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y
I
Y Y
YY YY Y Y
I
1
2 3
1 2 1 3 2 3
1
2
1 2 1 3 2 3
2
2
2
1 2 1 3 2 3
1
1 2
1 2 1 3 2 3
2
23
24
=
+
+ +
+
+ +
=
+ +
+
+
+ +
.............. .
............. .


Comparing the coefficients of I
2
in equations 1.1 and 2.3 it is clear that:


Z
Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y
Z
Y Y
Y Y
Y
Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
c
c
c
c
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
2
1 2 1 3 2 3
1 3
1 3
2
1 3
2
1 3
1 3
1 2 3
1
1
1 1


Formulas for Z
a and
Z
b
may be derived from this result and this too is left
as an exercise.

Example 3.3.1

Find the current flow in the following network.









80V
20
130V
8
30
First transform the network to a delta.
Page 40 of 85


130V
80V
125
33.3 50








It must be noted that the network inside the box is only an equivalent of
the original. The current in each element is easily calculated:

50 element =130/50 =2.6A
125 element = (130-80) / 125 =0.4A
33.3 element =80/33.3 =2.4A

The current from the 130V source =2.6+0.4 =3A
The current from the 80V source = 2.4-0.4 =2A

These values agree with earlier methods of solving this problem.

Example 3.3.2

A 50km double circuit 132kV overhead line with impedance
0.1814+j0.3920 per kilometre has a fault 20km from a termination and in
the network reduction procedure it is necessary to convert the delta to an
equivalent star network.


C
A
B


Answer:
There are two ways of doing this type of calculation. One is very tedious
and the other very efficient! First the tedious method (followed by 95% of
students and engineers) goes like this:

Impedance AB = 50*(0.1814+j0.3920) =9.069+j19.602.
Impedance AC = 20*(0.1814+j0.3920) =3.628+j 7.841
Impedance BC = 30*(0.1814+j0.3920) =5.442+j11.761

Finding the star element corresponding to AB and AC:


Z Z Z j
Z
j j
j
j
j
Z j
AB BC AC
an
an
+ + = +
=
+ +
+
=
+
+
= +
18138 39204
9069 19602 3628 7841
18138 39204
120795 142219
18138 39204
1814 392
. .
( . . )( . . )
. .
. .
. .
. .
Page 41 of 85

The student completes two other similar calculations to find:

Z
cn
=1.088+j2.352 and Z
bn
=2.721+j5.881

The efficient methods takes advantage of the fact that all the components
in the calculation have the same X/R ratio. Thus we can convert in terms of
length:

The denominator is twice the line length.

Z j
an
= + =
50 20
100
018138 039204 1814 392
*
*( . . ) . . j +

With an immense saving in computation!

Other equivalent lengths are L
B
=15km and L
c
=6km.

The last example of this section illustrates a common error made by users of
delta-star transformations.

Example 3.3.3

Find the current flow in the 100 and 40 elements in following network:

C













An error made by many students faced with type of problem is first to
transform the delta ABC to a star equivalent; then calculate the current
flow in the resulting parallel circuits and; then to assume that the current
flow thus calculated represents the solution to the problem. We will do this
calculation. First converting the delta ABC to star:

Z
AN
=40x100/200 =20 and likewise Z
CN
=30 and Z
BN
=12
A
B
350V
10 100
60
12 40
Page 42 of 85



The transformed network is now..

C
I
1












The total resistance of the network is easily seen to be 35.
Hence I =10A. Thus I
1
=24x10/64 =3.75A and I
2
=6.25A

Clearly, the network now between terminals ABC is an equivalent and so
we need the current in the original delta. It is easy to see that V
c
=37.5V
and V
B
=75V. We can now calculate the current in the original delta:
I
AB
=(350-75)/40 =6.875A; I
AC
=(350-37.5)/100 =3.125A and;
I
BC
=(75-37.5)/60 =0.625A.

There is a better method of finding the current in the elements of the delta
which avoids the very small differences in voltage which occur in practice
.This method find the mesh current in the delta:










100I
d
+60(I
d
-3.75) +40(I
d
- 10) =0

from which I
d
=(60x3.75+40x10)/200 =3.125A

I
d
is of course the current in the 100 element.

A
B
350V
20
30 10
12 12
I
I
2
3.75A
I
d
40
60
100
6.25A
Page 43 of 85
4.0 FAULT CURRENT CALCULATIONS AND PER UNIT METHODS

4.1 Introduction

We shall investigate the nature of fault conditions and examine best ways of
calculating fault current. All fault calculations would be very simple if there
were no transformers in the power system so basically we need a method
which makes them transparent in the calculation. Ohmic methods are
advocated by some authors [3] whilst per-unit methods are used in the PSP
course and are used widely. We will also examine how we should express the
fault current since modern international standards quote them as kiloamperes.
This section covers sections 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.3.7 of the textbook.

4.2 The transformer model

We will first examine the transformer. Assume a ratio of n:1 that is to say the
voltage on the primary side of an ideal transformer winding =V
p
and the
voltage on the secondary side =V
s
. It is well known that:

V
p
I
p
=V
s
I
s
but V
p
=n V
s
and therefore I
s
=n I
p
.

Now consider the effect of impedance.
Let us assume Fig 4.2.1 and Fig 4.2.2 represent equivalent systems in so far
that the voltage at the load terminals V is the same in both cases:




E
Z
n:1
L
O
A
D
I
I/n I
I/n
n:1
E
L
O
A
D
V
V
z








Fig 4.2.1
Fig 4.2.2


In each case the load current is I amps and the load voltage V volts; thus the
two circuits have equal input and output quantities.

In Fig 4.2.1 E - IZ/n =nV

In Fig 4.2.2 E =n (V +I z) or E - nIz =nV

Thus E - IZ/n =E - nIz

Therefore for the circuits to be equivalent we require Z =n
2
z.

Page 44 of 85
In general any network element of impedance Z operating at voltage V can be
referred to as an equivalent Z
l
for a chosen base voltage V
base
by the relation:

Z Z
V
V
base
'=

2

We are now able to exploit this result which allows us to swap transformers
and impedances around in order to simplify calculations.

4.3 Ohmic Methods

In this method the basic process consists of finding the equivalent impedances
as referred to one reference voltage which in our case will be the voltage level
of the fault.

Consider the following problem of finding I:


E
X
n
I/n
I
Y









Fig 4.3.1

The result above allows the network to be reduced almost by inspection to:


E/n
X/n
2

I

Y









Fig 4.3.2


Thus I
E
n
X
n
Y
=
+ ( )
2




Page 45 of 85



Proof :

It is clear from fig 4.3.1 that:

E
IX
n
nIY
E
IX
n
nIY
E
n
I
X
n
Y
=
= +
= +
0
2
( )

I
E
n
X
n
Y
=
+ ( )
2

Example 4.3.1

A 33kV generator of impedance 4.5 feeds an 11kv feeder of impedance
0.71 via an ideal transformer. Find the 11kV fault current assuming that the
impedances are reactive only.

Answer:
Choosing 11kV as the base voltage the transformation ratio is 3.
The equivalent generator voltage is therefore 33kV/3 and phase voltage is
11000/3V.
The generator impedance referred is 4.5/9 =0.5.

Thus the fault current I =11000/3/(0.5+0.71) =5248.64A
The accuracy is preserved for later use!

The result of this example will be explored later but consider first the problem
of finding the current flowing in the following network with two generators of
different voltages.



E
1
X
n:1
I
1
/n









This network has the following equivalent.
I
1
Y
1:m
I
2
/m
I
2

W
I
1
+I
2
Fig 4.3.3
E
2
Page 46 of 85

I
1

E
1
/n
E
2
/m
X/n
2
Y
W/m
2
I
1
+I
2
I
2







Example 4.3.2
An 11kV circuit having impedance j0.45 is supplied by a nominal 33kV
generator having an impedance of j18 and a 132kV generator having an
impedance of j76 in a network similar to Fig 4.3.3. Calculate the 11kV
fault current for voltages of (a) 33kV and (b) 34kV for the 33kV generator.
Assume ideal transformers.

Answer:
Choosing 11kV as base voltage. The transformation ratios are 12 for
132kV and 3 for 33kV

The equivalent impedances of the 132kV generator is 76/144 =0.5278
and the equivalent impedance of the 33kV generator is 18/9=2.

(a) Because the equivalent voltages are equal they can be treated as one
behind two impedances in parallel. The parallel combination is thus:

.
.
.
.
2 05278
2 5278
04176
x
+
=


I
x
A =
+
=
11000
3 04176 045
7320
( . . )
(b) We will do two methods as illustration first Thevenins Theorem and then
the parallel generator theorem.

Thevenins Theorem

The equivalent voltage of the 33kV machine is now 34/3=11.333kV thus
a current I=333/3/j2.5278A =-j76.05A flows from it towards the 132kV
generator. The open circuit voltage at the common terminal is therefore
11.333/3- (j2 x -j76.05) =6391V.

The Thevenin impedance of the network is given by the two generator
impedances in parallel. ie 0.4176 (from above). Hence:
Page 47 of 85
I A
f
=
+
=
6391
045 04176
7366
. .

Using the Parallel Generator Theorem we can calculate the voltage across
the 11kV feeder directly.
From previous work:
V
E Y E Y E Y
Y Y Y
=
+ +
+ +
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
in this case E
3
=0 but Y
3
=1/0.45 (the 11kV
impedance)
now V V =
+
+ +
=
11000
305278
11333
32
1
05278
1
2
1
045
331484
. .
. .
.
I
f
=
331484
045
.
.
=7366A
Returning to reconsider the simple series example No. 4.3.1 there are a few
points worth noting:
The fault MVA supplied by the generator is given by 3VI where V
and I are expressed in kilovalues. ie 3 x 33 x 1.7495 =100MVA.
Of this 100MVA 3I
2
X was dissipated in the generator windings ie 3
x (1749.5
2
) x 4.5 = 41.322MVA. and 3x (5248.64
2
) x 0.71 =
58.677MVA is dissipated in the 11kV circuit. Thus the fault current
is 5248A the generator output is 58.677MVA but the total
generated magnetic energy =100MVA of which 41.322MVA is lost
in the machine.
It is clear that Fault Level means the total magnetic energy lost in a
system during a fault. Modern International standards avoid
ambiguity by quoting fault current in amperes. [6]
Note that phase values are always used when calculating fault
currents. This also applies to the per-unit system which is covered
below.
The percentage voltage dropped in the generator is 41.322% and
58.677% is dropped across the 11kv circuit. As we shall see, the
similarity between these values and those above is no coincidence!
Read sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 of the textbook.
Page 48 of 85
4.4 PER UNIT METHODS

Read section section 3.3.7 of your text book up to the end of the paragraph
following equation 3.3.7.11.

Comments:
V
base
is always a phase voltage in three phase systems.
I
base
is always a phase (or line ) current.
Taken in stages the proof of equation 3.3.7.3 is, starting from equation
3.3.7.1:


V IZ
V
V
IZ
V
V
V
IZ
V
I
I
V
V
I
I
ZI
V
V
V
I
I
Z
Z
V I Z
base base
base base
base
base
base base
base
base
base base base
pu pu pu
=
=
=
=
=
=
.


The values of V and V
base
in equation 3.3.7.9 are not necessarily line to line
values, the equation is equally valid if phase to neutral values are used. Use
of phase to neutral voltage makes the derivation of equation 3.3.7.11 much
clearer; viz:
Z
Z
Z
ZI
V
ZS
V
pu
base
base
base
base
base
= = =
3
2


This is not very useful because the equation can apply only to impedances
operating at the base voltage. In section 4.2 we have developed a method of
referring impedances Z operating at other voltages V to Z operating at the
voltage base V
base
.

Then:
Z
ZS V
V V
ZS
V
pu
base base
base
base
L
' = =
2
2 2 2
3


but since V is a phase voltage 3V
2
is the square of the operating line voltage
V
L
.

There are three points worth noting about the expression above:
It is combining two functions of referring to a common voltage base and
giving the Z
pu
in one simple operation.
It is not quite the same as equation 3.3.7.11 in the textbook which has Z
pu
on the left hand side. It is normal to use Z instead of Z but we have not
quite finished with Z.
Page 49 of 85
The expression is evaluated easily if S
base
is quoted in MVA and V
l
is
quoted in kV. eg for a 33kV circuit of 0.5445 at a base of 100MVA
then Z
pu
=0.5445 x 100/ 33
2
=0.05pu.


Now we are able to calculate the per unit impedance for any operating
voltage but we need another common reference. The textbook states that a
common MVA base should be used without justifying it.
Now we know
Z
ZS
V
pu
base
' =
3
2
and Z Z
V
V
base
'=
2
2


then
Z
Z
S
V
pu
base
base
'
'
=
3
2


As we are going to manipulate per unit impedances in different combinations
it is necessary to keep the ratio constant for all impedances. The only way to
do this of course is to use the same S
base
for all components. This is because
V
base
will always be determined by the point of fault. The benefit being that
we are no longer limited to a single V
base
ie we may consider faults at
different voltage levels in the same network without considering the base
voltage provided we calculate Z
pu
for every component using the same S
base
and the operating voltage. This is fundamentally different from the stong
emphasis placed on base voltage in the textbook.

We can now drop Z
pu
and from now on we will use only Z
pu
. It also
follows that every network theorem is just as valid for per unit values as they
are for ohmic values. Having established the outline principle there are just a
few manipulations we need to cover:

4.4.1 Converting from ohmic to per unit impedance

From above Z
ZxS
kV
pu
base
L
=
2


where S
base
is the Base MVA and kV
L
is the line operating voltage in
kilovolts.

Proof:
Z
Z
Z
Zx
I
V
Zx
S
V
x
V
ZxS xV
V V
ZxS
V
pu
base
base
base
base
base
base base
base
base
L
base
= = = = =
3
1
3
2
2 2 2


If S is expressed in units of MVA and V
L
in kV the ratio is maintained and
the result follows.


Example 4.4.1 Convert 0.1 operating at 66kV to per unit at a base of
50MVA.

Page 50 of 85
Answer:

Z
x
pu
pu
= =
01 50
66
0001147
2
.
.

4.4.2 Changing the base MVA

Plant impedances for transformers and generators are quoted in test data and
on nameplates on the plant rating. It is therefore necessary to refer all plant to
a common base.

Essentially this is covered by equation 3.3.7.13 in the textbook.
Proof:


Z
ZS
V
Z
V Z
S
Z
V Z S
V S
Z S
S
pu
pu
pu
pu pu
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
1 2
1
=
=
= =


Thus changing base is a simple ratio calculation.


Example 4.4.2

A 240MVA 400/132kV transformer has a nameplate impedance of 20%.
Calculate the per unit impedance to a 100MVA base.

Answer
Zpu on a base of 100 MVA =20/100*100/240 =0.08333pu.


4.4.3 Voltage conversion

It is often necessary to change the voltage base of a quoted per unit
impedance. Typically this is necessary when an overhead line designed for
operation at 132kV is actually operated at, say, 33kV.

In this case Z
Z V
V
pu
pu
2
1 1
2
2
2
=

Where V
1
is the voltage of the quoted per unit impedance Z
1pu
and V
2
is the
operating voltage.

Example 4.4.3

Page 51 of 85
10km of 132kV overhead line has a per unit impedance to a 100MVA base
of (0.0104 +j 0.0225) pu and is operated at 33kV. Calculate the pu
impedance at 33kV.


Answer:

Z
33pu
=(0.0104+j0.0225) x 132
2
/33
2
=(0.1664+j 0.36)pu


4.4.4 Per Unit Losses

It is often useful to calculate the power losses in a circuit. The per unit
system provides a very convenient way to calculate them.

L
pu
=I
2
pu
Z
pu

Proof

( )
= = = = = L
L
S
I Z
S
I ZS
S
x
V
V
IV
S
x
ZS
V
I Z
pu pu pu
3 3 3
3
3
3
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2


Example 4.4.4
An 11kV circuit of resistance 0.726 carries 10MVA. Calculate the losses in
the circuit.



Answer: (First by ohmic and then by per unit methods)

1 Ohmic.


I A
Losses x x MVA
= =
= =
10
311000
5248
3 5248 0726 06
7
2
.
.
. . .


2 Per Unit. Using a base of 100MVA

Z
pu
=0.726 x 100/11
2
=0.6
pu
I
pu
=0.1

L
pu
=0.1
2
x 0.6 =0.006
pu
=0.6MVA

4.4.5 Conversion of a specified fault level to Z
pu

Fault levels at source busbars are often quoted in MVA. It is therefore
necessary to convert them to impedance in order to compute downstream
fault levels.

We have V
pu
=I
pu
Z
pu

Page 52 of 85

thus Z
V
I
pu
pu
pu
= or, when the fault level is quoted: Z
V
S
pu
pu
pu
=
2


Normally the fault level is quoted as MVA without reference to the prefault
voltage. In this event nominal voltage is assumed.

Example 4.4.5

A 132kV infeed busbar operating at 138kV has a short circuit fault current
of 20kA. What is the infeed impedance for a 200 MVA base?

Answer:
S
pu
=3 x138x20/200=23.903
pu
V
base
=132kV, V
pu
= 138/132 =1.0454pu
Z
pu
=1.0454
2
/23.903 =0.04572pu.

Alternatively:
I
base
=200x10
3
/ 3 / 132 =874.773 A thus I
pu
=20000/874.773 =22.863
pu
Z
pu
=V
pu
/ I
pu
=1.0454/ 22.863 = 0.04572
pu


4.4.6 Load Impedance

It is often necessary to convert load to a per unit impedance.

Let the voltage at the load be V and the power S using the convention that
lagging vars are positive.

S
pu
=S/S
base
and V
pu
=V/ V
base

then Z
V
S
pu
pu
pu
=
2
*
.

Proof:

For a three phase system Z
V
I
V
S
phase phase
= =
3
2
*


since I =V
*
/ S
*
and VxV
*
=V
2


and Z
V
I
V
S
base
base
base
base
base
= =
3
2


Hence Z
Z
Z
V
V
S
S
V
S
pu
base
phase
base
base
pu
pu
= =

=
2
2
* *


Example 4.4.6

Page 53 of 85
Calculate the per unit impedance on a 200MVA base for a load of 150MVA
at 0.85 power factor on a 132kV system operating at 138kV. This example
is taken from example 2 in section 3.3.10 in the textbook.

Answer: (by two methods)

The load angle is arcos (0.85) =31.788

V
pu
=138/132 =1.04545.
S
pu
=150/200=0.75= 0.75( 0.85 +j sin 31.788) = 0.6375+j 0.3951

Method I load angle

Z
pu
=V
2
pu
/S
*

pu
=1.04545
2
/ 0.75 =1.4573
Thus Z
pu
=1.4773 (0.85+j sin 31.788) =1.2387 +j 0.7677
pu


Method II Complex load

Z
pu
=V
2
pu
/S
*

pu
= 1.04545
2
/ (0.6375 - j 0.3951) =1.2387 +j0.7677
pu


4.4.7 Transformer impedances

Transformers present two types of problem. The first is caused by them
having tap change equipment; the second is caused by non - standard ratios.

First assume a transformer is operating at an off nominal tap ratio a:1.

For example, most 132/33kV transformers in the UK have tap changers of
ratio range -20% to 10% fitted to the HV side.
When the tap position is -20%. the per unit terms the ratio a =0.8

Assuming that 1
pu
current flows in the secondary and the secondary voltage
is V
pu
then the corresponding values on the HV side are 1/a
pu
and aV
pu
.
The impedance Z
pu
viewed from the HV side is then:


v
i
aV
a
a V a Z
pu
= = =
1
2 2



The transformer test engineer needs to guard against the possibility of this
result distorting the measurement of the true impedance of the transfomer. A
transformer impedance is determined by circulating the exact full load
current in a short circuited secondary winding and measuring the voltage on
the primary winding required to produce the current. The result is known as
impedance voltage and is normally quoted as a percentage of the test
supply voltage; it is easily converted to a per-unit value by dividing by 100
but it must be noted this is based upon the rating of the transformer. However
when the transformer is at the off nominal tap ratio a:1 the secondary
voltage is transformed to aV in the primary winding ; the test engineer avoids
ambiguity by expressing the impedance voltage as a percentage of aE (where
Page 54 of 85
E is the nominal voltage of the primary when a=1); thus keeping the volts per
turn constant. Any variation of transformer impedance from the test is then
a true measure of variation caused by the design of the transformer and the
tap changer.

In accurate power system studies it is necessary to take account of the tap
changer effect (ie a
2
Z above) and also sometimes necessary to change the
transformer impedance Z. Students are recommended to obtain a full test
certificate for a transformer within their company to see how Z varies with
tap position.

Transformers with non - standard ratios are used sometimes for voltage
control purposes. Typical among these are 33/11.5kV transformers
operating on nominal 33/11kV medium voltage distribution networks.
Methods outlined paragraph 4.4.3 can be used in such a cases.

Example 4.4.7.1

A 33/11.5kV 24MVA transformer having impedance voltage 10% is
operated in a nominal 33/11kV network. Determine the per unit impedance
to be used for doing 11kV fault calculations with a tap changer position of
- 10%.

Answer:

First without the tap changer effect:

Z = (11.5/11)
2
x 10 / 100 =0.1093
pu

Taking account of the tap changer .

It should be noted first that when viewed from the 11 kV side the
transformer will have an output voltage of 11.5kV when on the nominal tap.
ie there is an equivalent ratio b = 11/11.5 = 0.9565:1 and this correction
is required throughout the range of the tap changer. The modified a is then

a=(100-10)/100 x b =0.9x0.9565=0.8609 ; a
2
=0.741

Z =a
2
Z =0.741x0.1093 =0.081
pu


Clearly we have rebased the impedance by a factor (11.5/11)
2
and then
corrected this by modifying the tap changer with the reciprocal! It is
necessary because we need to model the tap changer correctly for voltage
control and the impedance is adjusted to compensate.

The next example illustrates the effect in fault calculation.

Example 4.4.7.2

Page 55 of 85
Using the transformer in example 4.4.7.1 calculate the fault level in
MVA and the fault current for a fault on the 11kV busbars if the
transformer is operating on its highest tap ( ie raising voltage) and it is
supplied by a circuit of impedance of 0.1
pu
( on base of 24MVA) from a
33kV source of negligible impedance.

Consider the diagram:



0.1
pu
0.081
pu
a:1
1
pu
I/a
pu
I
pu








Using 11kV as the base voltage a=0.8609.

V
pu
prefault =1/a .

The total impedance should be referred to the lv side hence Z
pu
=0.181/a
2

Then I
pu
= 1/a / (0.181/a
2
) =4.756
pu
The fault MVA
pu
=I
pu
x V
pu
=5.524
pu

The fault MVA is thus 5.524 x 24 =132.6MVA

Checking that the fault MVA appears as losses we find:

(I/a)
2
pu
x Z =(4.756/0.8609)
2
x 0.181 =5.524
pu

The same fault MVA would have been obtained if 11.5kV had been used
as the reference voltage with a=0.9 and students should check this for
themselves. A choice of voltage base may not always be convenient if there
is 11kV plant on the lower voltage level.




Looking again at example 4.3.1 this time using per unit methods:

A 33kV generator of impedance 4.5 feeds an 11kv feeder of impedance
0.71 via an ideal transformer. Find the 11kV fault current assuming that the
impedances are reactive only.

Answer Using a 200MVA base.

Noting that Z
ZxS
kV
pu
base
L
=
2
we have

Page 56 of 85
The generator Z
pu
=4.5 x 200/33
2
=0.826446pu

The 11kv feeder Z
pu
=0.71 x 200/11
2
=1.173553pu

Total Z
pu
=2pu. Therefore since V
base =
11/3 then V
pu
=1
pu.

I
pu
=1/Z
pu
=1/2 =0.5pu.

I
base
= 10,497.28A I =0.5 x 10,497.28 =5248.64A.

Fault level =200 x 0.5 =100MVA.

Losses in the generator are 0.5
2
x 0.82644 =0.206611pu =41.322MVA.

Losses in the feeder are 0.5
2
x 1.17355 =0.293388pu = 58.677MVA.

Voltage dropped in the generator =0.5 x 0.82644 =0.41322pu

Voltage dropped in the feeder =0.5 x 1.17355 =0.58677pu.

We are now ready to study some examples of fault calculations by drawing
together all the work done so far but first there are some self test questions to
try.

4.4 Self Test Questions

1 Calculate Z
pu
for an impedance of 0.1 if operating at voltages of 11kV ,
33kV and 132kV for base MVA values of 50, 100 and 200MVA.

2 Find Z
base
(in ohms) for a base MVA of 100 at 11kV, 33kV , 132kV and
400kV.

3 A load of 400MW at 0.8pf is connected to a 400kV system. Calculate the
per unit impedance in complex rectangular form for a base of 100MVA if
the voltage at the load terminals is 420kV. Calculate the per unit conductance
and susceptance.

4 A network consists of a generator with a Z
pu
=0.01 on a 100MVA base and a
line. The fault level at the remote end of the line is 2625MVA and the
prefault voltage is 1.05per unit. What are the losses in the generator and in
the line during the fault. Assume the line has zero resistance.

Page 57 of 85
5.0 Worked examples of symmetrical fault calculation

5.1 The transformer feeder.

A 33/11kV substation B is equipped with two 12MVA 33/11kV transformers
which are supplied from a 132/33kV substation A by 33kV overhead lines as shown
in fig 5.1.1. The overhead line are each 15km long with impedance per phase of
0.091+j0.316. The fault level at the 33kV busbar at substation A is 800MVA. The
transformers at substation B are 12% impedance on rating. Calculate:
The current for fault at the high voltage side of a transformer.
The voltage at the busbar at substation A during the fault.











Use a base MVA of 100.

We will do the calculation two ways, first including resistance and then ignoring it.

First find the per unit impedance of the overhead lines:

Z
j x x
j
L pu
=
+
= +
( . . )
. .
0091 0316 15 100
33
01253 043526
2


The source fault level is 800MVA thus S
pu
=800/100 =8
pu
.
The grid infeed impedance Z
s
is then 1/8 =j0.125
pu

The transformer impedance Z
T
is 100/12 x 12/100 =1
pu

Assuming the prefault voltage is 33kV and V
base
=33/3. E=1
pu.

The fault diagram is:











B
800MVA
A
Fig 5.1.1
Z
L
Z
T
Z
T
Z
L
Z
s
E
Page 58 of 85


Reducing the parallel path:

Let Z
A
=Z
L
+2 Z
T
=0.1253+j 2.4353

Let Z
B
=Z
L
then the parallel path

Z
Z Z
Z Z
j j
j j
j
P
A B
A B
pu
=
+
=
+ +
+ + +
= +
( . . )( . . )
( . . ) ( . . )
. .
01253 24353 01253 04352
01253 24353 01253 04353
00929 03719

The total impedance to the fault =Z
F
=Z
P
+Z
s
=0.0929+j 0.4969
pu

I
F
=1/Z
F
=0.3634 - j 1.9446 the modulus of which is 1.9782
pu

1
pu
(or base ) current at 33kV is 10
5
/(3x 33) =1749.5A

I
F
=1749.5 x 1.9782 =3461A

The voltage at A is calculated using the voltage divider VZ
p
/(Z
P
+Z
s
) hence


V
j
j
j k
A
= V
+
+
= =
3300929 03719
00929 04969
24978 1499 25023
( . . )
. .
. . .

Note the direct use of the 33kV line voltage in the calculation for V
a

Now, ignoring resistance we can drop the use of the j operator.

Z
p
=2.4353 x 0.4353/ (2.4353+0.4353) =0.3693

Z
F
=03693 +0.125 =0.4943 hence I
F
=2.0232
pu
=3540A

V
A
=33x Z
p
/ (Z
p
+Z
s
) =33 x 0.3693/ 0.4943 =24.65kV

Page 59 of 85


5.2 The transformer feeder and the embedded generator

This example is based on the circuit of example 5.1 with a few complications
added:

A 10MVA 11.5kV generator with 0.2pu subtransient reactance is connected
to the 11kV busbar.
The output of the generator is 5MW and 3MVAr.
The load at the busbar is 8MW at 0.97 pf.
The busbar operates at 11.4KV
The transformers are 33/11.5kV ratio running on tap -1.25% (ie reducing
voltage)
The fault is on the 11kV busbar.

Calculate the fault current at the 11kV busbar.



A
Fig 5.2.1
800MVA
L
O
A
D
GEN









Comment
This example illustrates the value of Thevenins Theorem in fault calculations. At
first sight it may be thought that the load impedance is short circuited by the fault
and therefore can be neglected. Unfortunately this is not true because the presence
of the load helps to determine the tap change position.

In those circumstances where the load impedance is known but the busbar voltage
is not known it would be necessary to determine the driving voltage behind the
generator and use , say, mesh analysis to find the fault current. This procedure is
not necessary in this case because we know the prefault voltage at the busbar. The
process used here applies the fundamental principle of fault calculation covered in
section 3.2.1. It is only necessary to find the impedance to the fault from the three
parallel paths: The overhead circuits and transformers in parallel; the load; and the
generator.
Another small complication arises from the colloquial use of the term 11kV
busbar when all the plant connected to it is rated at 11.5kV and it is operated at
11.4kV. There are options to rebase all the plant values or to use the common
voltage of 11.5kV as the base voltage (strictly we should say 11.5/3)


The per unit voltage is thus 11.4/11.5 =0.9913
pu
Using a base MVA S
base
=100:
Page 60 of 85

The transformer impedances are now modified by the tap changer to be
Z
pu

=1.0125
2
x 1 =j 1.02515
pu
.

The overhead line impedance is from example 5.1 =0.1253+j0.4356
pu
.

Thus the line and transformers in series ZOHT=0.1253 +j1.4604
pu

The parallel transformer feeder circuits =ZOHT/2 =0.0627+j0.7302
pu


The total impedance of the path from the source =ZOHT/2 +j 0.125 =
0.0627+j0.8552

Using the procedure of example 4.4.6 the load impedance is calculated as:

S
pu
=8/(0.97 x 100) =0.0825
pu
thus ZL
pu
=V
pu
2
/ S
pu
= 11.9485

The load angle is arcos (0.97) =14.07

Thus ZL =11.9485 ( 0.97+j sin 14.07) =11.59+j 2.9

The generator impedance to 100MVA base =j0.2x10 =j2
pu

There are now three parallel paths to combine.
First combining the load and the generator:

ZT
j x j
j j
j =
+
+ +
= +
20 1159 29
20 1159 29
02927 1876
. ( . . )
. . .
. .

and, combining this with the source path:


ZF
j j
j j
IF
V
ZF j
j
IF
pu
pu
=
+ +
+ + +
= +
= =
+
=
=
( . . )( . . )
. . . .
. .
.
. .
. .
.
02927 1876 00627 08552
02927 1876 00627 08552
00582 05883
09913
00582 05883
01652 16711
1679


I
base
at 11.5kV =10
5
/3 11.5 =5020A

Thus the Fault current =5.02 x 1.679 =8.43kA

Fault current with the load disconnected would be 8.37kA. due to different tap
change and voltage conditions. The fault impedance is influenced by the amount of
load and the effect this has on the tap changer.
Page 61 of 85
Example 5.3 Parallel Generation

The power system shown in fig 5.3.1 consists of two generating stations
connected by a 100km 132Kv double circuit overhead line of impedance
0.069+j0.406/ km per circuit and which develops a three phase fault 40km from
end A . The fault infeed from the grid connection at end B is 1500MVA.
Determine:
The fault current flowing into the faulted circuit.
The current that would flow into the circuit if a line circuit breaker at end A
were to trip.
Ignore resistance. The prefault voltage at the fault is 132kV. Transformers are on
nominal tap.













Comment
A
B
75MVA
12.5%
75 MVA
17.5%
1500MVA
125MVA
28%
125MVA
18%
fig 5.3.1
This type of problem can be solved by many of the methods covered in chapter 3.
Most students calculate the fault current first and then find the current sharing
between circuits for the intact system. Having completed that phase they next
remove an element and repeat the process. Quite often delta-star transformation is
used involving the circuits of interest as we have covered in example 3.3.3.
This example will be done in three ways using :
Thevenins Theorem
Mesh current analysis
Delta star transformation (for the die-hards!)

First some housekeeping..
A base 75MVA will be used throughout. Since all impedances are wholly reactive
the j operator is unnecessary. I
base
(75 MVA at 132kV) =328.04A

The plant at end A is rebase to (0.28+0.12)x 75/125 =0.24
pu

The line impedance to a 75MVA base =0.406 x 75/ 132
2
=0.00175
pu
per km

Thus the line impedances are : A-F =40 x 0.00175 =0.007
pu

B-F =60 x 0.00175 =0.0105
pu

A-B =100 x 0.00175 =0.175
pu

The grid fault infeed current at substation B =1500/75 =20
pu
The grid infeed is impedance Z
G


is

thus V
pu
/I
pu
=1/20 =0.05
pu
Page 62 of 85
The generator and transformer at end B do not need re-basing thus the equivalent
of the grid and the plant at end B is 0.05x0.3/0.35 =0.0429
pu
. The fault diagram is
thus:


0.24
pu
0.175
pu
0.0429
pu
0.07
pu
0.105
pu
1
pu
1
pu










Method (a) Thevenins Theorem

First find the current in the healthy circuit (the 0.175
pu
impedance).
Remove it and find the equivalent voltages and imedances at end A and B.
End A
Z
A
=0.24 x 0.07 / 0.31 =0.0542
pu
V
A
=0.07/0.31 = 0.2258
pu

Z
B
=0.105 x 0.0429 / 0.1479 =0.0304
pu
V
B
=0.105/0.1479 =0.7101
pu

The equivalent circuit is now:











The current in the healthy line is thus:
.2258
pu
0.0304
pu
.7101
pu
Fig 5.3.2
Fig 5.3.3
0.0542
pu

I
AB pu
=

+ +
=
07101 02258
00542 00304 0175
18655
. .
. . .
. flowing from B to A.


Let I
A
be the machine current at end A. Then we can write for the local mesh in
fig 5.3.2:

1 =0.24I
A
+0.07 ( I
A
+1.8655) from which I
A
=2.8406
pu

similarly I
B
= 8.0881
pu


Page 63 of 85
The currents in the faulted circuits are thus I
AF
=1.8655+2.8406 =4.67
pu
=1532A
and I
BF
=8.0881-1.8655 =6.2226
pu
=2041A.

We are also ready to deal with the line A-F outage. Clearly, with the line
removed, the left hand side of fig 5.3.3 now has V
A
=1 and Z
A
=0.24. Thus

I
AB pu
=

+ +
=
1 07101
024 00304 0175
06507
.
. . .
. from A to B .

So round the local loop at end B in fig 5.3.2 we can write:

1 =0.0429I
B
+0.0105 ( I
B
+0.6507) from which I
B
=6.3012
pu
The current in the circuit B-F =6.3012+0.6507 =6.9519
pu
=2280A

Method (b) Mesh current.

This is the fastest method because we can use the spreadsheet to solve the
equations which can be written by inspection. Looking again at the fault diagram:


0.24
pu
0.175
pu
0.0429
pu
0.07
pu
0.105
pu
1
pu
1
pu
I
1

I
2
I
3










Fig 5.3.4
The mesh equations are

0.31I
1
+0.07I
2
=1
0.07I
1
+0.35I
2
- 0.105I
3
=0
-0.105I
2
+0.1479I
3
=1

from which I
1
=2.8046 I
2
=1.8655 and I
3
=8.0881 check these using your
spreadsheet.

Clearly the line currents are I
AF
= 4.67
pu
and I
BF
=6.2226
pu


Modelling of the line outage provides an even more simple system of equations to
solve. From fig 5.3.5:

1 =0.52 I
1
+0.105 I
3

1 =0.105 I
1
+0.1479 I
3



Page 64 of 85











From which I
1
=0.6507
pu
and I
3
=6.3012

Thus the current in the remaining circuit is 6.9519
pu


Method (c) delta - star transformation

In this method the delta comprising the sources and the healthy line circuit is
converted to an equivalent star; as we are seeking to find the currents in the faulty
sections of line this approach avoids the complications of example 3.3.3. Voltage
sources can be paralleled because they have the same value of voltage.

Starting from the fault diagram the reduction goes as follows:



























0.24
pu
0.175
pu
0.0429
pu
0.105
pu
I
1
I
3
1
pu
1
pu

fig 5.3.4
0.24
pu
0.175
pu
0.0429
pu
0.07
pu
0.105
pu
1
pu
1
pu
fig 5.3.5

0.24
pu
0.175
pu
0.0429
pu
0.105
pu
0.07
pu
1
pu
Page 65 of 85






0.0917
pu
0.0225
pu
0.0164
pu
0.07
pu
0.105
pu
1
pu









The impedance of the parallel branch is easily seen to be 0.0693
pu
and the total
fault impedance is 0.0918
pu
Thus I
f
=1/0.918 =10.8926
pu
.

The current in the top element, which includes explicitly the 60km line B-F, is
given by:

I x
BF pu
=
+
+ +
= 108926
00917 007
00164 0917 175
62226 .
. .
. . .
. and I
AF
=4.6701
pu
as before.

The calculation of fault current without the 40km section of circuit follows as a
direct consequence but most people start the calculation again! Consider this:




0.0917
pu
0.0225
pu
0.0164
pu
0.105
pu
1
pu















It should be noted that the equivalent circuit has not changed. Changes have only
affected the external elements.

I
f
=1/(0.0225+0.0164+0.0105) =6.9519
pu


Agreeing with earlier methods.
Page 66 of 85
Example 5.4 A power station

The network shown in fig 5.4.1 represents part of a power station
auxiliary system for a 500MW generator. Calculate the fault current
flow through the system for a three phase fault on the 11kV busbar
based on the transient reactance of the generator. The transient reactance
of the generator is 0.3pu (based on its rating of 625MVA) and its
terminal voltage is 13.8kV. The grid infeed at the 400kV busbar has a
fault level of 10000MVA (wholly reactive). Assume all plant is running
at its nominal voltage. The 400/132kV autotransformers are rated at
120MVA with impedance 10%. All impedances are quoted on the
component rating.


11kV
132kV
62.5MVA 12%
station transformer
50MVA 16%
unit transformer
625MVA 15%
Generator transformer
GRID
400kV
13.8kV
fig 5.4.1














Comment
Similar to example 5.3, but with more variation in plant rating and
voltages, this problem can be solved efficiently by methods outlined in
chapter three. The worked examples will cover use of nodal voltage
analysis and then the principle of superposition. Note there is no need
to calculate the total fault current first and then follow this with
calculation of the flow. If it is necessary to find the fault level/current or
/impedance these will follow directly from the current flow calculation.
As there is no resistance specified for any component all the calculation
can be done using real numbers.

First the housekeeping

Rebase all the plant to a common value. The best common factor is
125MVA.

The grid infeed is 10000/125 =80
pu
ie Z
g
=V
2
pu
/ S
pu
=1/80 =0.0125
pu

Each Auto transformers Z
at
=
10 125
100 120
01042
x
x
pu
= .


Page 67 of 85

The generator transformer Z
gt
=
15 125
100 625
003
x
x
pu
= .

The generator Z
gen
=
030 125
625
006
.
.
x
pu
=

The unit transformer Z
ut
=
16 125
100 50
04
x
x
pu
= .

The station transformer Z
st
=
12 125
100 625
024
x
x
pu
.
. =

The 132kV busbar which has no part in the calculation can be eliminated
by a series equivalent of the auto transformers and the station
transformers. ie Z
ast
= Z
at
/2 +Z
st
= 0.1042/2 +0.24 =0.2921
pu

The fault diagram is thus:





Z
g
Z
gt
Z
gen
Z
ast
Z
ut
1 1
pu pu





Method (a) nodal analysis

In order to set up the nodal equations it is necessary to convert the
sources to constant current generators.
The grid equivalent current I
g
=1/Z
g
= 80
pu

The generator equivalent I
gen
=1/Z
gen
=16.67
pu

Following the methods of chapter three the fault diagram is modified as:

80
pu
V
2
16.7
pu

Y
ut
Y
gen
Y
gt
V
1
Y
g
Y
ast








Using symbols for illustration, the two nodal equations for nodes 1 and
2 are:

80 = (Y
g
+ Y
ast
+Y
gt
) V
1
- Y
gt
V
2

16.67= -Y
gt
V
1
+( Y
gen
+Y
ut
+Y
gt
) V
2
Page 68 of 85




Putting values into these equations gives:

80 =116.7570V
1
- 33.3333V
2

16.667 = -33.3333V
1
+52.5000V
2


From which: V
1
=0.9476
pu
and V
2
=0.9191
pu


Knowing these voltages allows current flow in each element to be found
by multiplying the voltage across the element by its admittance:

I
grid
=(1-0.9476) x 80 =4.1936
pu
; at 400kV = 108.2x4.1936=453.7A
(note the 108.2 value is 1
pu
current at 400kV)

I
generator
=(1- 0.9191) x16.667 =1.3484
pu
; at 13.8kV =3137.8 x 1.3484
=4231.0A

I
gen trans
= (0.9476 - 0.9191)x 33.33 =0.9494
pu
; at 400kV =102.7A

I
unit trans
=0.9191 x 2.5 =2.2977
pu
at 11kV =9044.8A

I
stat trans
=0.9476 x 3.4237 = 3.2442
pu
; at 11kV =12770.7A

The total fault current =21.815kA
The fault level =(2.2977+3.2442) x 75 = 415.6 MVA
The fault impedance is thus 1/ 5.5419 =0.1804
pu


Method (b) the principle of superposition.

This method is no doubt the most tedious of all. The calculation will only
be summarised.

Starting again with the fault diagram with impedance values added:







0.0125
pu
0.03
pu
0.06
pu
0.2921
pu
0.4
pu
1
pu
1
pu





First remove the generator voltage but leave its impedance in circuit:

Page 69 of 85


compute the current flowing:









Now follow a similar process for the generator with the grid voltage
removed.













Current flow during the fault is given by the adddition of these values ie











The remainder of the answer is shown in method (a)










13.0495
pu
10.1843
pu
0.0125
pu
0.03
pu
0.06
pu
0.2921
pu
0.4
pu
1
pu
8.8559
pu
2.8652
pu
1.3284
pu
0.0125
pu
0.03
pu
0.06
pu
0.2921
pu
0.4
pu
1
pu
9.2349
pu
8.8559
pu
10.2042
0.9693
pu
0.3790
pu
0.0125
pu
0.03
pu
0.06
pu
0.2921
pu
0.4
pu
1
pu
0.9494
pu
4.1936
pu
1.3484
2.2977
pu
3.2442
pu
1
pu
Page 70 of 85
Example 5.5 Voltage of an embedded generator.

An 8MVA 11kV generator with a subtransient reactance of 20% (on
rating) and output of 5MW at 0.97 lagging power factor is connected to
the 11kV busbars of a 33/11kV primary substation by an 11kV overhead
line of impedance (36.8 +j123.95)%. A 3-phase fault occurs on an
adjacent 11kV feeder which has impedance (67.68 + j93.72)%. The
33kV substation is equipped with two 33/11.5kV transformers each of
reactance 100% and is supplied by 2 circuits with impedance (25 +
j46.3)% from a bulk supply substation. All impedances except the
generator are given to a 100MVA base. The fault level at the 33kV
source is 1000MVA. A load of 10MVA at 0.95 lagging power factor is
connected to the 11kV busbars at the primary substation but there is no
load connected to the faulted feeder. The prefault operating voltage of
the primary substation is 11.285kV and the voltage at the generator
terminals is 11.622kV; The 33kV source busbar is operating at 34kV
and the transformers are on tap -2.5% ( ie reducing voltage). The
arrangement is shown in fig 5.5.1. Calculate:

The fault current
The voltage at the generator terminals at the instant of
fault.






11kV
GRID
1000MVA
0.25+j0.463
0.368+j1.2395 0.25+j0.463
0.6768+j0.9372
33kV



fig 5.5.1 Impedances shown are pu values

Comment

This problem is best solved using Thevenins Theorem because we are
given the prefault voltage. Before we can apply the theorem there is a
need to re-base the voltages. We are faced with 11.5kV transformers
feeding a nominal 11kV network and we are faced with a choice of
either re-basing the 11kV circuits and the generator to 11.5kV or re-
basing the transformer infeed. Clearly there is not much work to do to
rebase three 11kV components to 11.5kV. We need also to establish the
angle between the generator terminal voltage and the 11kV primary
busbar in order to find the generating voltage ie the internal voltage.
After using Thevenins Theorem to find the fault current we will use the
voltage divider principle to find the voltage at the generator terminals at
the start of the fault.

Let the base MVA =100 and the base voltage =11.5kV.

Page 71 of 85
Using 11.5kV as base voltage (noting we should strictly use phase
voltage) the per unit prefault voltage E
p
=11.285/11.5 =0.9813
pu
.

E
p
will be used as reference in the fault calculation.

The generator terminal voltage E
g
is similarly 11.622/11.5 =1.0106
pu

The generator output current I
g
per unit =
.
. .
.
05
097 10106
0051006
x
pu
=

Noting that S =VI
*
the generator current angle is referred to the
terminal voltage ie

cos
-1
0.97 =-14.07 thus I
g
= 0.051006-14.07 (see Fig 5.5.2)

Re-basing the 11kV circuits to 11.5kV using methods of section 4.4.3:

The re-basing factor =(11/11.5)
2
=0.9149

Hence the generator circuit is Z
gp
=(0.368+j1.2395) x 0.9149
Z
gp
=0.3367 +j 1.1340
pu
=1.1829
pu

and the faulted circuit is Z
fc =
(0.6768 +j 0.9372) x 0.9149
Z
fc
=0.6192 +j 0.8575
pu

The generator needs converting both to a 100MVA base and 11.5kV:
Z
g
=
100
8
02 09149 22873 x x j
pu
. . . = ; Z
gc
=Z
g
+Z
gp
=0.3367 +j3.4214
pu

Using the cosine law we can next calculate the angle between the
primary busbar and the generator busbar. For convenience here use the
generator busbar as reference. See Fig 5.5.2


E
st

I
g
Z
g
Fig 5.5.2

I
g
E
g
I
g
Z
gp







E
p


Using the cosine law we have:

(IgZ
gp
)
2
=E
p
2
+E
g
2
- 2E
p
E
g
cos

(0.051006 x 1.1829)
2
=0.9813
2
+1.0106
2
- 2 x 0.9813 x 1.0106 cos

Page 72 of 85
from which: cos =0.05294 thus =3.03

Still using E
g
as reference we can find E
st
the internal voltage of the
generator using methods described in section 3.3.6 of the textbook.

E
st
=E
g
+I
g
Z
g
= 1.0106 + 0.051006-14.07 x 2.289390

E
st
= 1.0390 +j 0.1131
pu
=1.045156.21

E
st
now needs to be referred to the reference voltage of the system which
we have chosen as E
p
hence
E
st
=1.04515 (6.21+3.03) =1.04515 9.24 =1.03157 +j 0.16799
pu

Having dealt with the initial conditions of the generator it remains to
consider the load and the grid infeed circuits. First the load. Using
methods of section 4.4.6 :

The load angle is cos
-1
0.95 =18.19.
Thus the load is (9.5 +j 3.12)MVA

Z
V
S j
j
L p
= =

= +
2 2
09813
0095 00312
91481 30068
*
.
. .
. .
u


Now the grid and feeding circuits.
The voltage base is 33kV but the operating voltage is 34kV. V
pu
=
34/33 =1.0303. The fault level in MVA is 10pu. thus Z
grid
= V
pu
2
/ S =
1.061/10 =0.1061
pu

The transformers operate at pu ratio a =1.025: 1 thus the impedance
Z
T
=1.025
2
x 1 =1.0506
pu

The circuits are given as 0.25 +j 0.4630
pu
thus the total impedance
from the 33kV feed busbar to the 11kV busbar at the primary substation
is (0.25 +j ( 0.4630 + 1.0506) ) /2 =0.125 +j0.7568
pu
; adding in the
grid infeed impedance the total supply infeed is

Z
in
=0.125+j 0.8629
pu

Now from work in section 4.4.7 we need to divide Z
in
by the pu ratio
squared. ie Z
in
= (0.125 +j 0.8629) / (1.025)
2
= 0.1190 +j 0.8214
pu

Note that we converted Z
T
by the tap changer ratio and then back
again as part of a circuit. This was done only for convenience. The grid
infeed and the circuit could have been treated separate from the
transfomer. Students may want to explore this approach themselves.

We now have all the information necessary for the calculation. See
diagram 5.5.3 which shows the equivalent network for use with
Thevenins Theorem.

Page 73 of 85














The three impedances in parallel Z
in
, Z
gc and
Z
L
reduce to
Z
in
=0.119+j0.8214
Z
gc
=0.3367+j 3.4214
Z
L
=9.1481+j 3.0068
Z
fc
=0.6192+j0.8575
0.9813
Fig 5.5.3 Thevenin equivalent network

0.1285 +j 0.6354
pu
thus the total fault impedance
Z
f
=0.7450 +j 1.4929
pu


I
f
=V
pu
/Z
f
=0.9813/ ( 0.7450 +j 1.4929) =0.2626 -j 0.5262
pu

1
pu
current at 11.5kV =5020.4Amps

The fault current =2953Amps

The per - unit voltage at the primary busbar during the fault is given by
the product of the fault current and the impedance faulted circuit i.e.

E
pf
= (0.2626 - j 0.5262) x (0.6192 +j 0.8575) =0.6139 - j 0.1007
pu

The voltage at the generator terminals is now calculated by a simple
voltage divider between E
st
and E
pf
.

ie E E
E E Z
Z
gf pf
st pf gp
gc
= +
( )



E
E j
gf
gf pu
j
j j x
j
=
=
+
+ + +
+
06139 01007
10316 01680 06139 01007 03367 1134
03367 34214
07725 003711
. .
( . . . ) ( . . )
. .
. .
j


E
gf
=0.7736
pu
=8.89kV

Note this is a starting condition for a generator dynamics problem. In practice the
machine voltage will fall further but this is beyond the scope of this course.

Page 74 of 85
6.0 Answers to self test questions

2.1
1 a j =

=
1 1 4
2
1
2
3
2


a=1120 or a=1-120 hence a
3
=1 and a
4
=a
2 (a) 96 -j8 =96.33-4.76
(b) 8+j6
(c) 0.7845-115.5
(d) 1.7158+j4.445
3 10
4 (a) 180 (b) 206.57

2.2
1 x=3 , y=5
2 z=3+j, w =4-j


2.3
1 (a) 2.88+j4.16
(b) 9.88-55.3 A
(c) 3.125-j3.125 A or 4.4194-45
(d) 22.53V
(e) 281.25 +j406.25 VA

2 62.446kA I x e = +

25 2 1
118
(
.

) at 10milliseconds


3.2 10A in 5 element 3.5A of which is from 120V source and
6.5A from 180V source.

4.4
1
50 100 200
11 0.0413 0.0826 0.1652
33 0.00459 0.0005 0.0020
132 0.00028 0.00057 0.00114


2 11kV=1.21, 33kV =10.89
132kV =174.24 and 400kV =1.6K

3 Z=0.1764+j0.1323 Y=3.6281-j2.7211

4 Total Z =0.042
pu
I =25
pu
L
gen
=625MVA
L
line
=2000MVA.

Page 75 of 85
Appendix A

A.1 Matrix Algebra

Matrix algebra is not part of the PSP course but nevertheless plays a major role in
the modelling of power systems. Almost every computer model of power systems
makes use of matrix algebra so it is worth gaining some understanding. As you
might expect matrix algebra is a wide subject and this appendix can cover only a
few basic operations; students wanting to extend their knowledge may find
reference [1] helpful.

The appendix will cover representation, multiplication and inversion of matrices;
matrix algebra can be tedious so the operations described will be carried out using
personal computer spreadsheet programs. Instructions for Microsoft EXCEL and
Lotus 1-2-3 are provided in appendix B.

A2 What is a matrix?

A matrix is an array. Consider again the problem first considered at the beginning
of section 2.2:

3x +4y =16
x

+2y =6

Do not be concerned if you do not understand this section; it is only an example;
techniques used are explained in later sections. These could be written in matix
form as:


3 4
1 2
16
6

x
y


The advantage of matrix lies in its facility to allow us express the unknown
quantities in terms of the Right Hand Side (RHS) of the equation:


x
y

1 2
05 15
16
6
4
1 . .


from which we can see that x=4 and y=1. We will explain the derivation below.
Looking at the original equations we have a square matrix of coefficients A ,a
column matrix x known usually as a vector and a RHS vector b.

ie in the example A= , x=
3 4
1 2

x
y

and b=
16
6

Matrices and vectors symbols are usually written in bold type in technical
publications. In symbolic terms we may write Ax=b to represent the equations.But
of course we can represent nearly every system of linear equations because all we
need is a systematic way of solving them.

Page 76 of 85
Using general terms all 2 x 2 square matrices can be represented as:

A=
a a
a a
11 12
21 22

A.3 Multiplication

Matrix multiplication will be illustrated by the product of two matrices A and B.
If A.B =C then any element of C for example c
12
is found by multiplying all the
elements in the first row of A by the corresponding elements in the second
column of B and summing them. Thus:


a a
a a
b b
b b
a b a b a b a b
a b a b a b a b
11 12
21 22
11 12
21 22
11 11 12 21 11 12 12 22
21 11 22 21 21 12 22 22

=
+ +
+ +

The only requirement for matrix multiplication to be possible is that the number of
columns in the first matrix must be the same as the number of rows in the second.
The acronym CARB (Columns in A equals Rows in B ) may be useful to help
remember the method.

Example A.3.1


1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
1 5 2 7 1 6 2 8
3 5 4 7 3 6 4 8
19 22
43 50

=
+ +
+ +

x x x x
x x x x


Matrix operations are tedious! These methods would have no benefit at all if we
were restricted to systems of 2 x 2 matrices! Use of a spreadsheet is recommended
(see appendix B) and is used for the next example.

Example A.3.2


1 4 3
2 2 0
1 3 2
3 4 2
1 5 3
2 4 2
13 4 20
4 18 2
10 3 15

In general matrices are not commutative like real numbers. Put simply this means
that AB BA, but there is one powerful exception which will be dealt with below.
For example the two matrices in the above example multiplied together in reverse
order give the result:


3 4 2
1 5 3
2 4 2
1 4 3
2 2 0
1 3 2
13 10 13
6 23 9
0 18 10

A.4 The Inverse Matrix
Page 77 of 85

Going back to the original example A =
3 4
1 2

suppose we multiplied it by a
matrix

B= but BA= . The matrix
1 2
05 15

. .
1 0
0 1

1 0
0 1

is known as an identity
matrix I.

Now we have BA=I and for this special case B is known as the matrix inverse of
A and is written as A
-1
.

So, going back to our first example we have:

Ax=b

A
-1
Ax = A
-1
b

x =A
-1
b.

This sounds simple, all we need to do is compute the inverse and multiply by the
RHS vector. However calculation of the inverse has been tedious but use of
speadsheets makes it now a practical proposition.

Not all matrices have inverses. Any matrix which has rows (or columns) which can
be expressed as a combination of other rows (or Columns) is known as a singular
matrix and does not have an inverse. All non-singular matrices have inverses.
The number of rows of a non-singular matrix is known as the rank of the matrix.
Rank is a powerful concept throughout linear algebra and is dealt with in the
literature [1].

Matrices of rank 2 can be inverted easily by manual means.

If A = then A
a b
c d

-1
=
1
ad bc
d b
c a

Matrices of rank 3 may be inverted manually but it is quite tedious and prone to
error. It is better to use the spreadsheet.

Example A.4.1

Find the inverse of which from the spreadsheet is
3 2 1
2 1 0
2 2 1

1 0 1
2 1 2
2 2 1

.




Page 78 of 85
A.5 Application to Electrical Networks.

We may write for a single component Z that E=ZI or conversely I=YE. It turns
out we can also do this for systems of equations; in this case E =ZI and I =YE
respectively. Mesh current analysis and nodal voltage analysis were introduced in
chapter 3.

In mesh current analysis the impedances and voltages around loops are known but
mesh currents are unknown. In terms of matrix algebra we do the following
operations:

E =ZI therefore using the inverse from section A4 Z
-1
E =Z
-1
ZI
thus I =Z
-1
E =YE.

Z is known as the loop impedance matrix and Y is known as the loop admittance
matrix.

Repeating example 3.1.1.2 the equations written in matrix form are


100
0
100
25 20 0
20 32 2
0 2 4
0 08267 0 05333 0 02667
0 05333 0 06667 0 03333
0 02667 0 03333 0 26667
100
0
100
56
2 0
24
1
2
3
1
2
3

I
I
I
I
I
I
. . .
. . .
. . .
.
.


The mesh current example has been done for illustration only it is not used for fault
calculations in practice due to the advantages of the nodal analysis method. Before
moving on to nodal analysis it is worth observing that there were zeros in the loop
impedance matrix but none in the loop admittance matrix. In practice there would
be many zeros in the loop impedance matrix but none in the inverse loop
admittance. Space management techniques avoid explicit use of inverses in order to
keep computer storage requirements to a minimum. This is a vast subject in itself.
A similar difficulty arises with nodal analysis.

In nodal analysis we start from the opposite side of the problem with nodal
equations and write:

I =YE and solve to find E . Hence Y
-1
YE =E =Y
-1
I but Y
-1
=Z hence E =ZI.

As an example use the equations of example 3.1.2.


20
50
035 01
01 11
29333 02667
02667 09333
20
50
72
52
1
2
1
2

. .
. .
. .
. .
V
V
V
V


In this case Y is known as the node admittance matrix and Z as the noe impedance
matrix. The result is the same as in chapter three but there is some valuable
Page 79 of 85
information within the Z matrix. It turns out that the elements on the diagonal are
the impedances of the nodes to the neutral (or ground). Hence in a practical case
these would be the fault impedances. The student is invited to check this from fig
3.1.1.2.

For fault condtions we know the voltage at the fault is zero. The above calculation
has given us prefault values. Taking a further step we can write

E
fault
=E
prefault
- ZI
fault
where E
fault
is the voltage vector during the fault and
I
fault
is a vector representing the fault current. In this case it would have a single
element at the faulted node. Expanding the equations for a fault at only node 1 we
can write knowing that E
1
=0 and during the fault E
2
is unknown.


0 72
52
29333 02667
02667 09333 0
2
E
I
f

. .
. .

.
The matrix equation tells us by multiplication of elements that:
0 =72 - 2.9333I
f
hence I
f
=72/ 2.9333 =24.54A

This analysis is essentially Thevenins Theorem where it is necessary to find the
prefault voltage and the nodal impedance. The method is described in Stagg and El
Biad [4] . The student is invited to verify this calculation by reconsideration of fig
3.1.1.2.

It is clear that the systematic approach using matrix algebra provides an efficient
method if the inverse can be computed easily.




Page 80 of 85



Appendix B


Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet based upon Microsoft EXCEL is provided to help with
complex number operations and linear algebra. This appendix provides
a basic outline of the spreadsheet; detailed instructions are included in
the data. The filename of the spreadsheet is LINEARC.XLS. The file
may be processed as a LOTUS file but LOTUS users must be aware
that matrix multiplication and inverses may not be computed
automatically as described below. The LOTUS manual will need to be
consulted.

B1 Complex numbers

The spreadsheet accepts two numbers A and B in rectangular form and
provides the results AxB ; A/B and; an l parallel electrical combination
of A and B

B2 Linear Algebra

The spread sheet provides solutions to systems of real valued linear
equations in two and three unknowns. The solution method is based on
Cramers Rule.

A Matrix multiplication facility is provided for 2 by 2 and 3 by 3
matrices.

Similarly matrix inversion facilities are provided for matrices of rank 2
or 3.

For both multiplication and inversion the spreadsheet changes its
product as data is entered. If the matrix to be inverted is singular at any
stage the spreadsheet will indicate an error; ignore the error and
complete the data changes .




Page 81 of 85
Appendix C

Short circuit currents in an RL circuit.

This appendix covers derivation of the general expression for the current
in a circuit consisting of a resistance and an inductance connected in
series when energised from a sinusoidal voltage source.


R L
i


Vsin t



Under these conditions i is given by:

i
V
R X
t e
Rt
L
=
+
+

2 2
[sin( ) ] where X=L, =

tan
1
X
R

t is time after switch closure

and R X
2
+
2
is the impedance Z of the circuit.

Proof:

Now V sin t-Ri -Ldi/dt=0.
Ri+Ldi/dt=V sin t

This is a first order differential equation which may be solved by the
integrating factor method.

Ri+Ldi/dt =V sin t

thus R/L i +di/dt=V/L sin t

The most efficient way to solve this equation is to invoke Eulers Formula
shown in section 2.1 ie

sin Im( )

t e
j t
=

Thus we solve the differential equation


R
L
i
di
dt
V
L
e
j t
+ =



and then take the imaginary component of the result.

Page 82 of 85
The integrating factor is
Rt
L
e
.

(since
d ie
dt
Ri
L
e
di
dt
e
Rt
L
Rt
L
Rt
L
( )
= + )

then
d ie
dt
e
V
L
e
Rt
L
Rt
L
j t
( )
. =



Integrating this equation:

ie
V
L
e d
Rt
L
Rt
L
j t
=
+

t

ie
V
L
R
L
j
e
Rt
L
Rt
L
j t
=
+
+
+
( )

A where A is the integration constant

i
V
R j L
e Ae
j t
Rt
L
=
+
+

i
V R j L
R L
e Ae
j t
Rt
L
=

+
+

( )
( )

2 2


Using Eulers Formula, multiplying and then taking the imaginary
component:



i
V R t L t
R L
Ae
i
V
R L
t t
i
V
R L
t Ae
Rt
L
Rt
L
Rt
L
=

+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
Ae

( sin cos )
( )
( )
(cos sin sin cos )
( )
sin( )

2 2
2 2
2 2


i =0 at time t=0; thus enabling the expression for A to be derived. The
maximum value of A will occur when the value of sin (t
o
-) =-1 ie
when (t
o
-) =-/2.Under these conditions at t =0:
thus
0
2 2
2 2
=

+
+
=
+
V
R L
A
A
V
R L
( )
( )

Page 83 of 85

Writing L as X for inductive reactance the full solution of the equation
for time t after switch closure is

i
V
R X
t e
Rt
L
+
+ =

2 2
[sin( ) ] where =

tan
1
X
R



cos =
+
R
R X
2 2
and sin =
+
X
R X
2 2


R X
2
+
2
is the impedance Z of the circuit.

The e
Rt
L

term in the expression for i represents a decaying direct

current. Figure C.1 shows a typical current waveform following
energisation of an RL circuit.

0 20 40 60 80 100
10
0
10
20
milliseconds
A
m
p
s
I( ) t
t


Fig C.1 Current in an RL circuit at switch on

The conditions shown represent maximum offset. That is to say that the dc
component and the first peak of the alternating current are the maximum
possible. This is the most onerous condition for switchgear when closing
on to a fault.


Page 84 of 85
Bibliograghy

1 Linear Algebra G Hadley (Wiley) or
Linear Algebra D Towers (Macmillan)

2 Complex Variables Murray Speigel (Mcgraw Hill)

3 Electricity Distribution Network Design 2nd Edition
E Lakervi and E J Holmes (Peter Peregrinus)

4 Computer Methods in Power Systems Analysis
G Stagg and A El Biad (Mcgraw Hill)

5 Circuit Analysis Cunningham and Stuller (Mcgraw Hill)

6 Calculation of Fault Current in Three Phase AC Power Systems
IEC standard 909 1988

7 Procedure to Comply with IEC standard 909
Engineering Recommendation G74
UK Electricity Association 1994
Page 85 of 85