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lv
CONTENTS
1. KeynoteAddress
Deliveredat theSchool oITechnologyBiannual
2. Development oI anIntelligent DecisionSupport SystemIor HumanResourceManagement
By: Aderibigbe Ojo Stephen

3. Comparative PerIormance and EvaluationoI Fossil and Bio-Fuel Combustion
By: Onanuga O. K. and AtiladeA. O.
4. The Impacts oI Recreational Activities oI the Societal. By: Giwa F. F.
5. An Explicit Linear K-Step Method Ior Direct Solution oI Third Order Ordinary
DiIIerential Equation. By: O. M. Akinmoladun
6. Assessment oI Socio-EconomicBeneIits oI EyoCultural Festival totheLocal Communities
By: Tijani Nasiru Olawale (PHD) and Jammal TaiwoMosunmola
7. Zero Waste Integrated Solid Waste Management Model
By: Omotosho, Abayomi Josiah
8. The Proximate Analysis and Sensory Evaluation oI 'Okpa Prepared with Fluited
Pumpkin and scent leaves
By: Adumanya, G. A. and Nwachukwu P.C.
9. Future andProspect oI Food Packaging inEmergingEconomy
By: Ilesanmi Olusola Briget
10. On SomeVariation oI Opial`s Inequality
By: Y. O. Anthonco, O. R. Aderele and O. M. Akinmoladun
11. Investigation into Microbiological and Biochemical Characteristic oI Microorganisms
Isolated Irom Cassava Flour in Nigeria
By: Bolarinwa J. B.
12. The Growth Pattern, Food and Feeding Habit oI Elops Lacerta (Ten-Pounder) in the
Brackish Water Ponds oI Buguma, Rivers State oI Nigeria
By: Bolarinwa J. B.
13. Lorentz- EinsteinTransIormation:AVectorApproachusingthePrincipleoI Relativity
By: Aribike Emmanuel Ehui
14. LikelihoodRatioTest as anApproximatetoChi-SquareTest whentheSamplesizeinis large
By: AmalareA. A., Nurudeen T. S. and Adeniyi M. O.
15. Use oI Global Positioning System (GPS) Ior Cadastral Survey in Nigeria
By: OlowoIoyeku, Olukemi OyeIunke and Akinpelu Akinwunmi A.
16. Economic Depression - Its EIIect on the ProIitability oI Hotel Business inNigeria
By: T. A. Shonubi
17. Direct SolutionoI SecondOrder OrdinaryDiIIerential EquationwithOscillatorySolutions
By: O. M. Akinmoladun, D. A. Farinde and R. A. Ademiluyi
18. TheVitaminandMineral ContentsiI 'OkpapreparedwithIlutedpumpkinandScent leaves
By: Adumanya, O.C.U, Obi-Adumanya G. A. andChukwu M. O.
19. Heavy Metal Determination in Waste Water Irom Iour Chemical Industries Using Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer
By: Damazio Olarenwaju and Jaji Saheed
ConIerence, LagosStatePolytechnic, Ikorodu
By: Ayodeji Babatunde Iginla, Iipan
PAGES
1 - 2
3-7
8-13
14-16
17-21
22-25
26-30
31-34
35-41
42-49
50-60
61-67
68-71
72-76
77-81
82-87
88-93
94-97
98-102
v
20. Determination oI the Percentage Composition oI Aluminum and Other Associated
Metals in Cooking Pots. By: Damazio Olanrewajuand OshinTaiwo
21.
22. Revolutionizing the Teaching oI Mathematics in Nigeria Polytechnics A. Veritable Tool
Ior National Technological Development. By: C. IlumoandJ. I. Taylor
23. Fixed Point Theory Ior Generalized Non Expansive Mapping
By: C. Ilumo and I. A. Idowu
24. Artreneuship in Waste Management Ior Nation Building: Acase oI Recycling 'Waste
Plastics Mash Ior Paving Stones. By: Adenle John Oyewole
25. Application oI Atoms oI Element in Plastic Industries (Case Study oI Obelawo Plastic
Industry, Osogbo, Osun State). By: Engr. D. A. Folarin
26. ApplicationoI TwosidedUniIormlyMost PowerIul Test toNormal Distribution
By: D. A. Farinde, and O. M. Akinmoladun
27. Curbing Examination Malpractices with Multi-Modal Biometric Solution in Nigerian
Institutions
By: Adesanya, Sunday Adelaja, MSC, MNCS, MCPN, ICTIP
28. EIIectiveWaste Management and Environmental Control
By: Engr. SangotolaT. M.; Ladipo O. A. and AdeneyeA. A.
29. Design and Construction oI A(0-30V) Variable Stabilised Power supply Incorporating
Short-Circuit Protection. By: Engr. OgundareAY? Ade Benson
30. Evolving AReliable Computational Grid Ior Cost EIIectiveAcademic Collaboration
By: Adelanwa S. O. A. CTIP, MBCS, CPN
31. Framework Ior the Development oI AScalable Fault Diagnosis In Computational Grid
Resources Using Intelligent Probing Technique
By: Adelanwa, S.O.A. CTIP, MBCS, CPN
32. Use oI Global Positioning System (GPS) Ior Cadastral Survey InNigeria
By: OlowoIoyeku, Olukemi OyeIunke
33. Roles, Contributions and Dagers oI Technological Development In Nigeria
By: Engr. SangotolaT. M. ; Olaitan I. O. ; Ladipo O. A. and Babarinde O. O.
34. Empirical and Neural Network ModelingoI The SorptionIsotherms oI AIricanCatIish
(Clarias Gariepenus). By: RuIus R. DinriIo
35. Microbial Quality oI Stored Yoghurt ProducedIrom CowanTiger Nut Milk Blend
By: Noah A. A. and Oduwobo O.
36. Agriculture and Nation Building: Do Students still Use the University Library? Case
Study oI University oI Ibadan Agricultural Economics Graduate Students
By: Ogunyemi O. I. & Ajayi T. B.
37. The Proximate Analysis and Sensory Evaluation 'Okpa Prepared with Fluited
Pumpkin and Scent Leaves
By: Adumanya O.C.U.; Obi-Adumanya; G. A. andNwachukwu P. C.
38. Further Remarks on the Dynamics oI Macrophages and TCell InIectionby HIV
By: S. A. Egbetade, Y. A. Fasasi; S. A. Ajibola; O. O. Olatunji
T. Ladipo-Aboduwa and F. M. Babalola
38. Causes, EIIect and Prevention NigeriaAs a Case Study. By: Engr. Fasanmade P. A.
39. Human Relations; AVital Tool For Organizational Productivity (Case Study oI Sheraton
Lagos Hotel & Towers) By: Olaniyan Sulaimon Olanrewaju; Metilelu Olumide Olusola
TheVariational Iteration Method: An Essential Tool Ior Science andEngineering
By: M. O. Adeniyi, A. A. Abdurasid and O. M. Akinmoladun
103-106
107-109
110-116
117-119
120-124
125-129
130-135
136-143
144-147
148-152
153-157
158-162
163-167
168-171
172-178
179-182
183-189
190-192
193-196
297-200
201-203
vl
40. StudyonTheParticipatoryRoleoI IsolatedOrganisms inBiodeteoriationoI CassavaFlour
By: Odetunde S. K. I. & L. O. Adebajo
41. SustainableTourism: ATool Ior National Development By: Mrs. Emun HelenOvouraini
43. GPS System Human TrackingASolution to Kidnapping. By: EboleAlpha F.
44. ICT For Development: A Tool Ior Marketing Artistic And Creative Expressions in An
Emerging Economy. By: Yomi Oguntoyinbo
46. Implication oI Dredging Lower River Niger onIts Environment. By: Hassan I. A.
47. Phytochemical Analysis oI AcalyphaWilkesiana LeaI (Copper LeaI)
By: Ajetunmobi Asibiallau Oladipupo
48. Agriculture and Nation Building: Do Students still Use The University Library? Case Study
oI UniversityoI Ibadan Agricultural Economics Graduate Students
By: Ogunyemi O. I. & Ajayi T. B.
49. E-Learning Security and Privacyin the NewMillenium
By: Aremu IdrisAbiodun, OkunadeTemitope Adijah & JimohIsholaTaylor
50. EIIect oII Storage Condition on QualityoI Malt Drinks Produced in Lagos.
By: Z. O. Apotiola
51. Human RelationsAVital Tool Ior Organizational Productivity (Case Study oI Sheraton Lagos
Hotel & Towers). By: MetileluOlumide Olusola & Olaniyan Sulaimon Olanrewaju
52. LikelihoodRatioTestAsAnApproximatetoChi-SquareTest whenTheSamplesizenisLarge
53. Production and EvaluationoI Fermented Millet As a Recipe in Composite Bread
By: O. O. Oguntoyinbo
54. SensitivityAnalysis onvaryingErlang-Parameters withApplicationtoACall CentreData
By: Ajala Bolarinwa Olumide
55. Solving Power Supply Problem in Nigeria using Nanotechnology Applications
By: Ogunji, B. Abdulrahaman and Atilade, A. OluwaIemi
56. Comparative Study oI ASolar Dryer with Open Air Dryer in Drying Unripe Plantain (musa

paradisiaca). By: Atilade, A. O.*, Onanuga, O. K. and Olaitan, H. M.
57. Comparative Study oI The Hypoglycaemic EIIects oI Ethanol and Aqueous Extract oI
Jatropha Curcas (Punging Nut Root) inAlloxan-induced HyperglycaemicWistar Rats
By: Akoro, Seide Modupe and Awe Omotunde
58. Criteria Ior Evolution oI Standard Nigerian English. By: Olaide Olapade
59. EIIect oI Partial Replacement oI Maize with Biscuit Waste on the Growth PerIormance oI
AIrican Giant CatIish(Clarias Gariepinus) By:FakunmojuF.A, Babalola O.A. and AnjolaA. O.
60. Antibacterial Activity oI Methanolic LeaI Extract oI Jatropha Curcas on Strains oI
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). By: Momoh Johnson
61. Hypoglycaemic EIIects oI Ethanol and Aqueous Extract oI Vernonia Amagdalina root (bitter
leaI root) inAlloxan-inducedHyperglycaemicWistar Rats. By: Akoro, Seide Modupe
62. Design, Construction and Comparative Analysis oI AMetal Solar Dryer with Electric Kiln
Dryer and OpenAir Dryer in Drying Unripe Plantain (musa paradisiaca)
By: Atilade, A. O., Onanuga, O. K. and Olaitan, H. M.
63. AStatistical Modeling oI Factors AIIecting Cancer Patients (Acase study oI Eko Hospital
Lagos andOAUTHIle-IIe). By: Arowolo T. O.
64. Dynamic Response oI An Elastically Supported Euler-bernoulli Beam on Variable Elastic
Foundation Under APartially Distributed Moving Load.

By: I.AIdowu, F.OAkinpelu, C. Iluno, O.TArowolo and R.AMustapha
65. Evaluation oI Storage Condition on Post Harvest Handling on Quality oI Palm Oil.
By: Y. O. Bankole, A. O. Tanimola, D. O. Samuel and O. A. Metilelu
204-210
211-214
215-219
220-223
224-226
227-228
229-235
236-239
240-248
249-251
252-257
258-264
265-276
277-280
281-286
287-291
292-298
299-302
303-307
308-313
314-318
319-331
332-338
339-342
KEYNOTEADDRESS
delivered at the
SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGYBIANNUAL
CONFERENCE, LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
by
AYODE1I BABATUNDE IGINLA, fipan
on
th
Tuesday, 19 1une 2012
INTRODUCTION
It is noteworthy that this is a ConIerence organised ina Polytechnic Ior practically-oriented participants.
The ConIerence will be an avenue Ior emphasising ICTas a tool Ior nation-building.
The theme can be viewed individually or nationally.
Choice oI sub-themes is opportune and very relevant.
This is a Iorum where current and Iuturistic use oI technology in the areas oI:
alternative sources oI energy; hospitality and tourism; Iood processing and preservation; waste management;
agriculture; engineering; management oI resources; development and sustenance oI the environment, can be
presented, discussed, and appropriate conclusions reached.
It is also possible, and sad, that during the course oI the ConIerence, some Asia-PaciIic countries (like Malaysia
st
etc, with which Nigeria was at par in the 1960s and with which she should be at par in the 21 century, but is not),
may be used as reIerence points in presentations by participants.
TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the making, usage and knowledge oI tools, machines, techniques, craIts, systems or methods oI
organisationin order to solve a problem or perIorm a speciIic Iunction.
It can also reIer to the collection oI such tools, machinery andprocedures.
Technologies signiIicantly aIIect the human abilityto control, and adapt to, the natural environment.
The use oI technology by humans began with the conversion oI natural resources into simple tools.
The discovery oI, and the ability to control, Iire increased available sources oI Iood, that necessity Ior human
survival.
The inventionoI the wheel helped humans in travelling andcontrollingtheir environment.
Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone and the Internet, have lessened
physical barriers to communication, and allowedhumans to interact Ireely on a global scale.
(Source: Wikipedia)
CATALYST
Acatalyst changes the rate oI a reaction by participating init without beingconsumed by the reaction itselI.
Acatalyst may participate in multiple chemical transIormations.
Catalysts that speed up reactions are called positive catalysts; negative catalysts slowdown reactions.
CCUN1k INDLLN
DLNCL
AkLA( Sq.
km.)
CULA1I
CN
GD(1C1A
L) USD
GD(Lk
CAI1A)
USD
1. nlCL8lA 1960 923,768 170,123,
740 (2012
esL.)
238,920b 1,490
2. MALA?SlA 1937 329,847 28,334,
133 (2010
census)
278,680b 9,699
1
Substances that increase the activity oI catalysts are
calledpromoters.
Substances that decrease the activity oI catalyts are
called inhibitors.
Substances that deactivate catalysts are called
catalytic poisons.
(Source: Wikipedia)
SELF-RELIANCE
SelI-reliance can be deIined as:
Reliance on one`s own capabilities, judgment or
resources;
Independence;
Freedom Irom control or inIluence oI another or
others;
Reliance on one`s own abilities, decisions etc.
(Source: Wikipedia)
EMERGING ECONOMIES
Emerging economies are those regions oI the world
that are experiencing rapid inIormationalisation
under condi t i ons oI l i mi t ed or part i al
industrialisation.
Emerging economies are non-industrialised nations
oI the world which are achieving unprecedented
e c onomi c gr owt h us i ng ne w e ne r gy,
telecommunication and inIormation technologies.
These economies are: India, China, Indonesia,
South AIrica, Kenya, Egypt and Brazil.
Several research organisations have their own lists
oI emergingeconomies or markets:
Columbia University Emerging Market
Global Players (EMGP)
Financial Times & Stock Exchange Int. Ltd.
(FTSE)
Morgan Stanley Capital International
(MSCI)
Standard & Poor
DowJones
Frontier Strategy Group (FIO)
BBVA Research (Banco Bilbao Vizcaya
Argentaria SA)*
Emerging Markets Index|
BBVAis the only organisation that mentioned (not
listed) Nigeria as an emerging economy oI the
Iuture.
(Source: 2008 Emerging Economy Report, courtesy oI
The Center Ior Knowledge Societies).
CONCLUSION
This ConIerence should be one oI the many eIIorts
needed to prepare the ground, and to establish the
Iramework, Ior the inclusion oI Nigeria in the
several organisational lists oI emerging economies
inthe world.
The Book oI Proceedings Irom the ConIerence must
Iind its way to the relevant government tables in the
Federation Ior consideration.
I SUBMIT.
Thank you.
2
DEVELOPMENT OFAN INTELLIGENT DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
FOR HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.
By: ADERIBIGBE O1O STEPHEN
Computer Science Dept., Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
aderibigbe_stevoyahoo.com 08032803505
ABS1RAC1
This study identified and classified parameters used for human resource evaluation. A mathematical model for
performance evaluation and a decision model were formulated. This was with a view to enhancing techniques for
determiningthe relationship between parameters for human resource evaluations.
Parameters for human resource evaluation were gathered from practitioners and literature. Analytical model
was developed using data gathered to accurately determine the performance of employees using valid predictors such
as competency and performance dimensions using multiple regression models. The decision model for determining the
training needs of each employee, promotion, and employee needs of the organisation was developed using decision
trees which was based on performance evaluation data and general results obtained from the regression models. The
systemwas implemented with interactive software to be developed using Jisual Basic 6.0, Microsoft Access 2000 and
Crystal Report 8.0. The results obtained were compared with existing human resource performance evaluations and
conclusions drawn.
In conclusion, the Intelligent Decision Support System provided an obfective approach to Human Resource
evaluation and also provided necessary reports that may assist management of organisation in human resource
decisionmaking.
Keywords. Intelligent, Decision Support System, Human Resource.
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background
In recent years there has been exponential growth in the
use oI Human Resource Consulting Companies and
organisations are establishing human resource
departments. Also, management oI organisations began
to realise that people are organisation's most important
asset. To ensure the sustained success oI human resource
management, it is imperative that both the employee and
employer receive a high quality oI service. Conventional
techniques Ior human resource management have not
yielded maximum result due to the challenges posed by
modern human resources management requirements
such as, changing mix oI workIorce, increased level oI
Iormal education, changing value oI workIorce,
changing demand oI employers, technological changes
and improvement, and changing demand oI government.
Also the evolution oI inIormation technology
applications makes it an absolute obligation on behalI oI
the decision maker to make the best decision in the
shortest possible time. (Hamidahet al.,2010).
These necessitate the use oI modern techniques Ior
human resource management such as, the Intelligent
Decision Support Systems to Iacilitate managerial
decision-making process. Intelligent decision support
system is an interactive system, Ilexible, adaptive and
speciIically developed to support the solution oI a non-
structured management problem Ior improved decision
making (Quintero et al., 2005).
1.1 Statement of Research Problem
Diverse perIormance evaluation parameters employed
by Human Resource Managers, and the inability to
determine the relationship between these parameters,
and also problems that are associated with
performance appraisal.These are some oI the
problems Iacing Human Resource Management
Systems. This study seeks to proIIer solution to these
problems.
1.2 Goal of the Project
The main objective oI this research is to design
an intelligent decision support system model Ior human
resources management using analytical models and
implementing it using interactive soItware.
1.3 Objectives of the Project
The speciIic objectives oI the study are to
(a) identiIy and classiIy the parameters Ior human
resource evaluations;
(b) Iormul at e a mat hemat i cal model Ior
perIormance evaluation; and
(c) test the model Iormulatedin (b).
2.0 Existing DSS Models
Existing human resources management DSS
includes the online personnel placement DSS, initially
built by Master oI Management Science students at
University College Dublin (McNamara and Phelan,
2003). The problem with this system is that it does not
establish relationship between the selecting criteria,
thereby makingthe process to be subjective.
3
2.1 Data gathering
The population oI this research was human resource
executives oI both public and private sector. The
research was conducted in Lagos State because most oI
the headquarters oI public and private sector are
located in Lagos State, and their human resource
departments are located in their headquarters.
Questionnaire was designed and developed with
adequate information related to human resource
performance evaluation in order to collect data for
anal ysi s. The quest i onnai re was t i t l ed
~EMPLOYEE'S APPRAISAL. It comprises of 65
questions. The questionnaires were personally
administered by the researcher by visiting human
resource department of various private and public
organisations in Lagos State. 100 questionnaires
were distributed, 98 were retrieved and 97 were
properly filled. To ensure the validity oI the data used,
the data was classiIied using a 5.0 likert scale and the
questionnaire obtained was used Ior employee's
evaluation.
2.2 The Decision Support System Architecture
The intelligent decision support system consists oI the
user interIace/user, database management system,
model management system and the knowledge base as
shown in Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1: Architecture oI the Intelligent Decision
Support System Model Ior Human Resource
Management.
Table 2.2: Employee's Rating and
Recommendation
8|N PERF0RHAN6E CRA0E RE60HHEN0AT|0N
RAT|NC(50}
1 10 ard aoove A (Prorol|or (E0))- Excepl|ora||y
qua||l|ed lor prorol|or.
2 35-39 8 (Prorol|or (R0))- Ready lor
prorol|or
3 30-31 C (Prorol|or (PP))- las
prorol|or polerl|a|s.
1 25-29 0 (Prorol|or (NR))- Nol ready lor
prorol|or.
5 20-21 E (Relra|r|rg (RT)) - Needs lo oe
relra|red.
8e|oW 20 F (Layolls (L0))- las reac|ed l|e
||r|l ol ||s/|er capao|||ly.


Decision Tree AnaIysis of the
decision modeI
Make recommendations based on
knowIedge in the database.

User/user
interface
ModeI Management
Visual Basic programs
that uses analytical model
and expert knowledge to
give recommendations
AnaIyticaI ModeI
Uses multiple regression model to
determine employee Performance
Evaluation
ModeI and Data
VisuaIization
Data
Management
KnowIedge Base
2.0 Classification of Results
The data used was classified using a likert 5.0
scale to ensure the validity of the data. To obtain
the actual questionnaires used. This gives a total
number oI twenty-eight questions on which the
employees rating was based. The modalities Ior
obt ai ni ng quest i onnai res Ior empl oyee' s
perIormance rating are discussed below. The
questions are labelled Q1 to Q65, the number oI valid
questionnaires is labelled Total, since a 5.0 scale
likert scale was used; which is classiIied as Iollows:
(i) Strongly Disagree (ii) Disagree (iii) Not Sure (iv)
Agree (v) Strongly Agree The parameters were rated
by human resource practitioners using a 1-to-5 rating
scale. This rating is based on how Iavourable each
item is with respect to human resource perIormance
evaluation. The total number oI response Ior each
category is recorded as Count (CNT) and the
percentage oI the response based on the total number
oI valid Questionnaires returned (PCT). The
questionnaire obtained was used Ior employee's
evaluation and the results obtained in table 3.3 were
used to obtain the analytical model.
3.1 Analysis of the Model
The predictor variables were entered simultaneously
since the Enter Method was used. All requested
variables entered were: (a) job assessment/general
ability (X ), Character trait (X ), Work Habit (X ),
1 2 3
and Leadership PerIormance (X ), (b) Dependent
4
VariableY.
Table 3.3 shows the coeIIicients oI the variables. The
t and Sig (p) values give a rough indication oI the
impact oI each predictor variable a big absolute t
value and small p value suggests that a predictor
variable is having a large impact on the criterion
variable. From column B on the table, we can write
the regression equation oI total points (Y), job
assessment/general ability (X ), Character trait (X ),
1 2
Work Habit (X ) and Leadership PerIormance (X ):
3 4
Y-0.0069 + 0.298 X +0.300 X +0.295 X +0.297 X
1 2 3 4
. . (1)
3.2 Analysis of the architecture of the
Intelligent Decision Support System
The architecture oI the intelligent decision support
system is based on its components which are:
user/user interIace, database management system,
analytical model, model management system and the
knowledge base.
4
Table 3.1: Final Result of Likert Scale Questionnaire'sAnalysisArranged in Orderof Questions.
STRONGLY DISAGREE NOTSURE AGREE STRONGLY
QUESTIONS TOTAL DISAGREE AGREE
VALID CNT PCT CNT PCT CNT PCT CNT PCT CNT PCT
Q1 95 10 10.53 11 11.58 13 13.68 12 12.63 49 51.58
Q3 94 6 6.38 10 10.64 11 11.70 19 20.21 48 51.06
Q5 93 8 8.60 12 12.90 3 3.23 13 13.98 57 61.29
Q9 94 6 6.38 11 11.70 9 9.57 17 18.09 51 54.26
Q11 93 2 2.15 6 6.45 5 5.38 26 27.96 54 58.06
Q12 96 1 1.04 5 5.21 2 2.08 24 25.00 64 66.67
Q16 93 6 6.45 12 12.90 4 4.30 23 24.73 48 51.61
Q17 96 3 3.13 5 5.21 6 6.25 31 32.29 51 53.13
Q19 95 7 7.37 11 11.58 5 5.26 26 27.37 46 48.42
Q22 95 5 5.26 6 6.32 7 7.37 33 34.74 44 46.32
Q24 96 4 4.17 8 8.33 5 5.21 18 18.75 61 63.54
Q25 93 5 5.38 11 11.83 12 12.90 19 20.43 46 49.46
Q28 96 6 6.25 4 4.17 2 2.08 29 30.21 55 57.29
Q30 91 4 4.40 8 8.79 4 4.40 19 20.88 56 61.54
Q33 94 2 2.13 6 6.38 2 2.13 27 28.72 57 60.64
Q35 95 9 9.47 8 8.42 8 8.42 22 23.16 48 50.53
Q37 93 3 3.23 8 8.60 6 6.45 26 27.96 50 53.76
Q39 94 4 4.26 7 7.45 7 7.45 25 26.60 51 54.26
Q40 95 5 5.26 8 8.42 4 4.21 31 32.63 47 49.47
Q42 95 9 9.47 9 9.47 8 8.42 16 16.84 53 55.79
Q43 95 2 2.11 6 6.32 2 2.11 33 34.74 52 54.74
Q49 96 4 4.17 6 6.25 3 3.13 27 28.13 56 58.33
Q51 93 7 7.53 8 8.60 5 5.38 26 27.96 47 50.54
Q53 96 8 8.33 10 10.42 6 6.25 24 25.00 48 50.00
Q55 91 3 3.30 8 8.79 4 4.40 23 25.27 53 58.24
Q57 96 9 9.38 12 12.50 0 0.00 21 21.88 54 56.25
Q61 96 4 4.17 6 6.25 3 3.13 27 28.13 56 58.33
Q64 93 7 7.53 10 10.75 4 4.30 21 22.58 51 54.84
CNT- Numberof response.
PCT-Percentage of response based on total numberof valid questionnaires.
3.2.1 Evaluation of the userinterface/user
The user interIace creates the medium Ior inputting human resource data input, employee's appraisal inIormation input.
It also allows necessary reports to be generated.
Table 3.2: Employee Performance Evaluation Data from a Manufacturing Company.
EMPLOYEES GENERAL CHARACTER WORK LEADERSHIP
S TOTAL ABILITY RTRAIT HABIT(X2) PERFORMANCE
1 2 3 4
POINT(Y) (X ) (X ) (X ) (X )
A1001 43.75 74 30 22 21
A1002 41.67 70 30 20 20
A1003 35.42 64 24 15 16
A1004 25.00 42 18 12 12
A1005 19.64 38 12 8 8
A1006 44.64 75 31 22 22
A1007 23.21 40 16 12 10
A1008 32.44 52 26 16 15
3
A1009 16.67 30 12 6 8
A1010 34.82 56 26 16 19
A1011 38.10 68 26 16 18
A1012 30.36 48 24 16 14
A1013 44.94 76 31 22 22
A1014 33.93 61 23 15 15
A1015 19.35 35 14 8 8
A1016 34.51 58 24 18 16
A1017 35.12 59 26 17 16
A1018 45.88 77 33 22 22
A1019 40.81 70 28 19 20
A1020 35.75 57 26 17 20
A1021 30.68 50 22 16 15
A1022 38.14 66 27 17 18
A1023 40.23 69 27 17 18
A1024 45.28 75 32 22 23
A1025 16.68 29 11 8 8
A1026 19.36 33 12 8 12
A1027 26.82 45 20 12 13
A1028 21.45 38 14 11 9
A1029 32.18 55 24 16 13
A1030 40.81 67 30 21 19
Table 3.3: Coefficient of theVariables
Coefficients
Unstandardised Standardised
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Beta t Sig.
Error
1 (Constant) -6.90E-03 .004 -1.593 .137
X .298 .000 .487 1396.999 .000
1
X .300 .001 .213 397.051 .000
2
X .295 .001 .160 378.720 .000
3
X .297 .001 .157 298.172 .000
4
a. DependableVariable: Y
3.2.2 Evaluation of the database management system
The database management system comprises relevant data Ior the decision making process, it manages employee data,
which comprises oI all employees' inIormation; the system allows regular update oI employee's inIormation and also
allows newemployee's record to be keyed into the system. It also stores employee perIormance appraisals inIormation
that will be usedIor generating necessary reports. It stores knowledge that will be used by the inIerence engine.
3.2.3 Evaluation of the analytical model
This model is obtained using multiple regression analysis, this is achieved by using the results oI perIormance
appraisal obtained Irom the database shown in Table 3.2 andanalysed toobtain tables 3.3that gives the model below.
Y0.00690.298 X 0.300 X 0.295 X 0.297 X . . (1)
1 2 3 4
3.2.4 Evaluation of the model management system
This comprises oI Visual Basic programs that uses analytical model to determine the perIormance oI employees based
on staII appraisal data using rated Iactors which include: job assessment/general ability(X ), character traits(X ), work
1 2
habit(X ) and leadership attainment(X ). These values will be substituted into the model to determine the actual
3 4
perIormance(Y) oI each employee. The perIormance (Y) obtained Irom the analytical model will be used by the
knowledge base to determine the appropriate decision that will be recommended as regards each employee rated.
6
3.2.5 Evaluation of the knowledge base
The knowledge base uses Decision Trees, since Decision Trees are predictive models, used to graphically organise
inIormation about possible options, consequences and end value. This uses perIormance(Y) oI each employee
obtained by the model management system to determine the appropriate recommendations Ior the management that
will enable the management to determine employees to be promoted, those that can cope with higher or additional
responsibility, those that needs to be retrained Ior better perIormance and those to be laid oII based on the criteria
shown in Table 2.2.
3.3 Operations of the Intelligent Decision Support System
The Intelligent Decision Support System's main menu consists oI the employee's Record section. This section allows
new employees record to be entered into the system database, and also updating existing records. The system allows
employee's perIormance appraisal to be done.
Figure 3.3: Sample Performance Evaluation
4.0 Discussion of Results
Comparing the results obtained with the results oI
existing system, the Intelligent Decision Support System
provides an objective approach to human resource
evaluation, as adequate numbers oI predictors were used
and analytical method was used to establish the
relationship among the parameters. Necessary reports
that may assist management oI organisation in human
resource decision making are also provided as shown in
Iigure 3.3.
4.1 Conclusion
The decision support system takes care oI the problems
associated with the existing human resources
management systems since it uses valid parameters as
predictors Ior the various human resources area covered
in this research work. Also the use oI analytical models
provides an objective approach to human resources
management thereby assisting human resources
managers tomake timely and eIIective decision.
REFERENCES
Hamidah, J, Abdul, R .H and Zulaiha, A. O. (2010).
Intelligent Techniques Ior Decision Support
System in Human Resource Management,
Decision Support Systems Advances in, Ger
Devlin (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-069-8,
I N T E C H ,
http://sciyo.com/articles/show/title/intelligent
-techniques-Ior-decision-support-system-in-
human-resource-management. (Accessed 12-
04-2010).
McNamara, C. and Phelan, M. (2003). Personnel
Assignment Decision Support System, MIS
Department University College Dublin,
Dublin, pp. 1-3.
Quintero, A, Konare, D and Pierre, S. (2005). Proto
typing an intelligent Decision Support System
Ior i mprovi ng urban i nIrast ruct ors
management. European Journal oI Operation
Research, 162(3): 654-672.
7
COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCEAND EVALUATION
OF FOSSILFUELAND BIO-FUELCOMBUSTION
Onanuga, O. K. and Atilade, A. O.
Science Laboratory Technology Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The growing gap between the demand for fossil fuel and its availability coupled with the scarcity and increase in price
of fossil fuel and thermal performance and emission of carbon II oxide (CO) caused by the traditional stoves as a result
of combustion in appropriate mass content (dried cow dung, dried saw dust and kerosene) calls for an alternative
energy source and methodology. This research work is based on the performance of alternative energy source frombio
fuel (dried cow dung and dried saw dust) compared with the energy derived from fossil fuel (kerosene). To achieve
these, the bio-fuels were subfected to combustion together with fossil fuel simultaneously in an enclosure for the
purpose of cooking the same quantity of mai:e, beans, groundnut, potato and cocoyam respectively. Lime water was
suspended in the enclosure to absorb the CO emitted from the combustion. The results show that the thermal
performances and time profile of kerosene and cow dung are closely related with an average time difference of 10
minutes. Also, the thermal efficiency of cowdung and kerosene is almost equal with a difference of approximately 10.
Keywords: Temperature ProIile, Fossil Iuel, Bio-Iuel, Thermal EIIiciency, COEmission.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In most part oI the rural areas in Nigeria, Iuel-wood has
been their traditional way oI cooking which has led to
erosion, deIorestation and increase in global warming.
The Iuel wood stove consist oI three stoves put together
such in a way that the cooking pots maintain equilibrium
position with its Iire place underneath. Farming is the
occupation oI most Iamilies in the rural and there is need
to cultivate their Iarm in readiness Ior planting.
Moreover, trees are usually cut or trim down when
practicing shiIting cultivation which can be used Ior Iire
wood. The use oI Iorest resources as their only source oI
energy Ior cooking becomes diIIicult to discourage
them Irom using it because oI their poor background and
also, they cannot aIIord the use oI gas or kerosene. More
so, there is a gradual Iocus on the need Ior more energy
related research to reduce costs through energy
conservation with a viewoI preventing possible Iolding
up oI the industry due to reduced availability oI energy
resources (Bamgboye and JekayinIa, 2006). The
decreasing availability oI Iuel wood, coupled with the
ever-rising prices oI kerosene and cooking gas in
Nigeria, draw attention to the need to consider
alternative sources oI energy Ior domestic and cottage
level industrial use in the country (Lucas and Akinoso,
2001) such energy source should be renewable and
should be accessible to poor. As rightly noted by Stout
and Best (2001), a transit to a sustainable energy system
is quickly needed in the developing countries such as
Nigeria. Traditional, wood in Iorm oI Iuel wood, twigs
and charcoal has been the major source oI energy in
Nigeria, accounting Ior about 51 oI the total annual
energy consumption (Olorunnisola, 2007). The use oI
dry cowdung, dried sawdust and charcoal as alternative
Ior Iuel in cooking process made them valuable rather
than regarding them as both agricultural and plant
wastes. These alternative sources Ior Iuel are suIIicient
and readily available with less cost compare to the scarce
Iossil Iuel (kerosene) at high cost and these Bio mass
should be encouraged. The aims oI this study are as
Iollows:
- To discourage the use oI Iuel-wood and to accept the
use oI Bio Iuel instead. Bio Iuel stoves or cooking
stoves that burn biomass Iuel such as Iirewood, crop
waste dung cake, or saw dust cater to the cooking
energy needs oI over 110 million rural household in
India (Kohli andRavi, 2004);
- To determine the quality oI Iood cooked with bio Iuel
and time taken tobe done;
- Using kerosene as experimental control over the
mentioned bio Iuel and compare the cooking time oI
bioIuel stoves with kerosene stoves;
- To clean-up the saw-mill oI sawdust and transIorm it
to Iuel energy.
- To reduce the scout Ior scarce kerosene as a result oI
non-Iunctional reIineries.
- To limit the consumption oI Iuel-wood.
- To reduce deIorestation.
- Comparison oI cooking time oI stove as control over
cowdung, charcoal, sawdust.
- To evaluate the time taken tocook oneach.
This research work was to make Biomass technology Ior
home as a substitute Ior Iuel-wood and scarce/non-
availability oI kerosene.
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
The Iollowing were materials usedIor the research:
Top load balance, Thermometer and Stopwatch were
collected Irom the Physics Laboratory oI Lagos State
Polytechnic, Ikorodu, while a set oI Iour pots oI the same
size, mass and speciIic heat capacity, matches and Iood
items like Potato, Cocoyam, Maize, Beans, Groundnut,
were bought Irom the Sabo Market, Ikorodu. The
8
Biomass (cow dung) was collected Irom the Cow Pen,
LASPOTECH, and dried until it's Iree Irom moisture and
likewise the saw dust was collected Irom the saw mill
beside the 3rd gate oI the Polytechnic, Ikorodu Campus.
The three samples were used during the experiments.
The tests were as Iollows:
i. Water boiling test;
ii. ControlledIood cooking and
iii. Organoleptic assessment oI cooked Iood.
EXPERIMENTALSETUP
Samples oI sawdust and cowdung were locally sourced
and sun dried adequately to remove moisture. The
experimental location was where the tree stand as shelter
and lime hang on the tree to reduce the carbon-monoxide
produced Irom the smoke. The measured Iuel (i.e. the test
samples) was introduced in turn into the Y-shaped stoves
and cone-shaped kerosene and Iired until the cooking is
done, immediately the weights are noted aIter cooking
Ior both the kerosene stove and the Y-shaped stoves. Air
supply to the loaded Y-shaped stoves with Biomass to
support combustion oI the natural convection by
orienting the air inlet and outlet in the direction oI the
airIlow. The position oI the Y-shaped biomass stoves
were not permanent.
Firstly, water boiling test were carried out to determine
the time rate oI energy needed Irom each kerosene stove,
sawdust stove and cowdung stove with equal amount oI
water placed on each stove. These Tower pots made oI
Aluminum have same speciIic heat capacity and equal
volume oI water made available inside the pot and
subjected to same environmental condition. The initial
temperature oI water on each stove with time were set
and the pots were monitored on the stoves as soon as
o
burning commenced. The temperature was set Ior 100 C
Ior each Biomass and time to reach the set temperature
Ior all the stoves. The initial and Iinal mass oI water
noted toknowthe quantity oI evaporated water.
Secondly, the Iood were prepared using the three stoves
namely; kerosene, saw dust (dried) and cow dung dried
oI Y-shaped and cone shape stoves. The same quantity oI
Iood was replicated 3 times, the Ioods are maize (dry),
potatoes, cocoyam, beans and groundnut. The quantity
oI Iood cooked, temperature at done, time spent cooking
them are noted.
The following calculations were done on performance
indices and efficiency of the cook condition.
i. Fire power (P) is the time rate oI energy given by
burningBioIuel.
Where m Mass oI water
w
c CaloriIic value oI water
w
? Temperature diIIerence
T Time taken (minute)
i. Standard speciIic consumption, SSC is the ratio oI
BioIuel consumed to the amount oI water
evaporated.
i. Percentage heat utilized is the index that shows the
percentage oI heat released Irom the Iire that is
absorbedby water inthe pot.
Where m mass oI unburnt BioIuel
c
c caloriIic value oI BioIuel
w
c caloriIic value oI unburnt BioIuel
c
Table 1
PerIormance evaluation oI stoves using perIormance
heat utilized, standard speciIic on-sumption (SCC) and
Iire power ('P).
Parameters KeroseneStove CowDung SawDust
PerIormance
Heat Utilized
(PHU) 71.93 82.75
Standard
SpeciIic
Consumption
(SCC) 3.1 2.3 5.3
Fire Power
('P) 15.36 11.1 13.29
Table 2
Weight measurement and temperature during the test oI
the kerosene, cow dung and saw dust stoves.
Types of Kerosene Cow Dung Saw Dust
Stove Stove Stove Stove
Mass oI the Iuel 2.83kg 1.67kg 1.34kg
Final mass oI Iuel 2.79kg 1.64kg 1.27kg
Initial mass oI H 0 1.36kg 1.36kg 1.36kg
2
Final mass oI water 0.068kg 0.045kg 0.051kg
Mass oI water
evaporated 1.292kg 1.316kg 1.309kg
2 2 2
Weight oI the Iuel 110- 2.010- 1.6710-
used per minute kg/mins kg/mins kg/mins
Total number oI
minutes cooked 198mins 243mins 290mins
kw
T
c m
taken time
Q
P
w w H
60
u
= =
evaporated water of amount
consumed Biofuel Exact
SSC =
( ) ( )
c c w w
f o i
c m c m
w w T T w
PHU

+
=
2260 2 . 4
2 1
9
Table 3
OrganolepticAssessment oI yam cooked with kerosene, animal dungandsawdust.
Food Items KeroseneStove CowDungStove SawDust Stove
Mass Time Fuel Time Fuel Time Fuel
(g) Used Used Used
1.2kg Maize(dry) 60mins 0.6 70mins 1.4 80mins 1.3
1.2kg Potato 25mins 0.25 30mins 0.6 40mins 0.7
1.2kg Cocoyam 40mins 0.4 50mins 1.0 65mins 1.1
1.2kg Groundnut 20mins 0.2 25mins 0.5 30mins 0.5
1.2kg Beans 40mins 0.4 50mins 1.0 60mins 1.0
SubTotal 185mins 1.85 225mins 4.5 275mins 4.6
BoilingWater Test 13mins 18mins 15mins
Total 198mins 243mins 290mins
ORGANOLEPTICASSESSMENTTESTING
The Food Technologist and Hospitality Management Technologist were invited to assess and evaluate the Iood cooked
with the Biomass, i.e, kerosene, cow dung and saw dust. Quality oI the Iood such as taste, colour Ilavor, salty and
texture was done on scale point;
Very Good 5; Good 4; Fair 3; Salty 2 and Poor 1.
The table below shows the results oI the panel on Organoleptic Assessment oI Cooking by the three Biomass:

ORGANOLEPTIC ASSESSMENT OF COOKING
Kerosene Stove
Panel Taste Colour Flavour Salty Texture Dryness
M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G
1 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
2 4 5 5 2 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 5
3 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 5
4.7 5 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 5 5 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 5 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 5


Cow Dung Stove
Panel Taste Colour Flavour Salty Texture Dryness
M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G
1 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
2 4 5 5 2 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 5
3 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 5
4.7 5 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 5 5 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 5 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 5


Saw Dust Stove
Panel Taste Colour Flavour Salty Texture Dryness
M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G M P C B G
1 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
2 4 5 5 2 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 5
3 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 5
4.7 5 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 5 5 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 5 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 5

10

WA1Lk 8CILING 1LS1
1lML (Mln) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SAW uuS1
2 30 40 30
4 38 30 32
9 80 74 76
13 100 90 92
13 96 100
18 100
lnl Llal 1emperaLure of WaLer = 30
o
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 3 10 13 20
WA1Lk 8CILING 1LS1
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1
Figure 1

CCCCAM
1lML (Mln) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SAW uuS1
3 88 90 92
10 98 93 94
13 102 96 97
20 103 97 100
23 100 103
30 103
1LML8A1u8L vA8lA1lCn
o
C
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
0 10 20 30 40
GkAn CI 1LMLkA1UkL AGAINS1 1IML (CCCCAM)
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1
Figure 2
Figure 3
C1A1C
1lML (Mln) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SAW uuS1
3 83 83 82
10 90 92 90
13 92 93 91
20 96 93 94
23 96 93
30 96
1LML8A1u8L vA8lA1lCn
o
C
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
0 10 20 30 40
GkAn CI 1LMLkA1UkL AGAINS1 1IML (C1A1C)
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1

MAI2L
1l ML ( Ml n) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SAW uuS1
3 38 60 39
10 90 82 86
13 94 87 89
20 97 92 92
23 100 93 93
30 103 97 98
33 103 99 100
40 109 101 103
43 112 103 104
30 114 103 107
33 117 106 110
60 120 109 113
63 112 117
70 114 120
73 117
80 120
1LML8A1u8L vA8lA1lCn
o
C
0
20
40
60
80
10 0
12 0
14 0
0 2 0 4 0 60 80 10 0
GkAn CI 1LMLkA1UkL AGAINS1 1IML (MAI2L)
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1
Figure 4
11

8LANS
1lML ( Ml n) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SA W uuS1
3 73 60 63
10 97 80 91
13 100 91 92
20 102 93 93
23 103 93 97
30 107 98 100
33 108 100 103
40 112 103 106
43 103 109
30 107 112
33 109
60 112
1LML8A 1u8L v A8l A1lCn
o
C
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0
GkA n CI 1LM LkA1UkL A GAINS 1 1IM L (8LANS )
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1
Figure 5

GkCUNDNU1
1LML8A1u8L vA8lA1lCn
o
C
1lML (Mln) kL8CSLnL CCW uunC SAW uuS1
3 90 88 86
10 93 92 90
13 94 92 92
20 96 93 94
23 98 97 96
30 98 98
33 98
40 100
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
0 10 20 30 40 30
GkAn CI 1LMLkA1UkL AGAINS1 1IML (GkCUNDNU1)
kL8CSLnL
CCW uunC
SAW uuS1
Figure 6
RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
EIIiciency and perIormance heat utilized Ior kerosene
stove, cow dung stove (Y-shape) and saw dust Y-shape
stove are respectively 71.93, nil and 82.75, Cow dung
was due to non-availability oI caloriIic value.
Standard speciIic consumption Ior kerosene stove, Y-
shape cow dung stove and saw dust (Y-shape) are
respectively 3.1, 2.3 and 5.3, while the Fire power (P) are
15.36, 11.1 and 13.29 Ior kerosene stove, Y-shape saw
dust stove andY-shape cowdung stove. (Table 1)
The Iood items cooked show that the kerosene is the
Iastest with saw dust and cow dung coming last and this
are good substitutes Ior the scarce/non-available
kerosene. The organoleptic assessment carried out by the
specialist panel, shows that the taste, Ilavor, texture,
colour and dryness shows no diIIerence as shown in
Table 3. This shows that the other Biomass are good
substitute Ior kerosene stove.
In the boiling water test, kerosene boils under 13 minutes
Iollowed by sawdust at 15 minutes while cowdung boils
water at 18 minutes. This can be seen in Figure 1.
The objective oI the controlled cooking test is to
compare the Iuel consumed and the time spent in
cooking in cooking equal quantity oI Iood under the
same condition with diIIerent Biomass. With the result
oI the research shows that except kerosene stoves, others
can be used as substitutes.
This is in line with the Iindings oI Sambo et al. (1991).
Initial burning in the sawdust stove was very slow; later
became Iaster aIter some time. The problem with saw
dust and cowdung is that the Ilame makes the pot black,
it cannot also be controlled and once it starts, nothing
can quench it until the biomass is exhausted.
Moreover, the smoke Irom cow dung can be used as
insecticide because it kills mosquitoes and other wide
insects.
CONCLUSION
The time spent by women in search oI Iuel-wood and
kerosene Ior cooking has been reduced with the
improved stoves oI saw dust and cow dung which cook
Iaster and burn more eIIiciently. The cost oI sawdust and
cow dung are almost Iree compare to high cost oI
kerosene andthe sawdust is abundantlyavailable.
References
Bamgboye, A. and S. JekayinIa. 2006. Energy
Consumption Pattern in Palm Kernel processing
Operations. Agricultural Engineering International: the
CIGR E-Journal. Manuscript EE 05 013. Vol. VIII.
March, 2006. Pp1.
12
Energy Commission oI Nigeria, 1998. Rural Renewable Energy Needs and Five Supply Technologies, Pp 10.
IntermediateTechnology Development Group (ITDG), 2005. http://itdg.org. Practical answers topovertyBiomass.
Lucas, E. B. and R. Akinoso. 2001. Asolar device Ior crop drying and cooking. Proceedings oI Intl Con oI Agric.
Engr., 23: 395.
Olorunnisola, A. 2007. Production oI Fuel Briquettes Irom Waste Paper and Coconut Husk Amixtures. Agricultural
Engineering International: the CIGRE-Journal. Manuscript EE 06 006. Vol. IX. February, 2007.
Stout, B. A. and G. Best. 2001. EIIective energy use and climate change: needs oI rural areas in developing countries.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGRE-Journal oI ScientiIic Research and Development, 3: 19.
13
THE IMPACTS OF RECREATIONALACTIVITIES ON THE SOCIETALDEVELOPMENT.
Giwa F.F.
Leisure and Tourism Management Department,
Lagos State Polytechnics, Ikorodu, Lagos State
Abstract
This study investigated unlimited contributions of recreation activities to societal development of Nigerians. General
well-being, crime prevention and economic development derived as contributions of recreation activities to societal
development were accepted based on result of the findings. It was however recommended that government, corporate
organi:ations and philanthropists should assist in the provision of recreation activities programmes, equipment and
facilities that will bring about good health and fitness of the community members.
Key words, Neigbhourhood, play, leisure, recreation,
1. 0 Introduction
The word recreation stems Irom a Latin word RECARE
which means to create and become reIreshed or restored.
It is essentially a renewing experience, a diIIerent and
reIreshing change Irom daily routine and work day
experience. The arts, heritage and cultural richness oI
Nigerians opened a wide avenue Ior recreation aIter the
day's works. Humans spend their time in activities oI
dailyliving, work, sleep, social duties and recreation.
Recreation as well as physical exercises like dance,
acrobatic and gymnastic displays cultural Iestivals are
oIten done Ior enjoyment and reIreshment .Recreation
are the various activities carried out during leisure hours
that are positive in nature. Omoruan (1996) opined that
in traditional AIrican society, the child jumps, climbs a
tree or mountain, rides a horse or donkey, dances or sings
and also perIorms balancing acts because his siblings or
elders do such. Every child discovers his lines and their
uses. Thus, through playing games, sports and
traditional religious Iestivals, theAIrican child develops
physical, emotional, aesthetic and social assets, which
will serve him in good stead when he grows up.
In Nigeria, there were lots oI other avenues Ior releasing
tension in this area, the include traditional Iestivals,
moonlight stories, meetings at the village square,
hunting, dancing, wrestling, Iishing, swimming and
playing various types oI games during their leisure to
become well adjusted (Ipinmoroti, 2004). The Iast
growing amount oI leisure time in Nigeria also under
scores the need Ior recreational pursuit. Critcher
Bramham and Tomlinson (2001) believed that it is
during recreation that citizens express their real
personalities. In Iact, it is the major determinant oI their
liIe consciousness as a basis Ior adoption oI value and
attitude that inIluence their behaviour in other aspects oI
liIe.
Critcher, Bramham and Jomlinson (2001) Iurther argued
that the result oI increased leisure that is not properly
utilized can maniIest in various societal problems
ranging Irom idleness, violence, alcoholism, drug abuse
and other related vices emphasizing the importance oI
recreation.
George and McCullick (1999) buttressed that
delinquency, crime, rioting and other anti-social acts
may be the result oI Irustration and boredom but in most
instances they are the result oI emotional instability.
Apart Irom heredity, the only way to have a strong stable
nervous system is through vigorous exercises and
recreation during leisure hours. Meanwhile, judicious
utilization oI leisure hours provides an opportunity Ior
everyone in the society to satisIy his/her basic human
needs Ior selI-expression, physical, emotional, mental
and social. Recreation as an antidote to the diIIiculties oI
youth liIe experiences should make them develop good
citizenship qualities and encourage democratic
principles (Odumuh, 2004). In his submission, Folawiyo
(2001) asserted that leisure pursuits stimulate physical
activity that is enjoyable and exciting, contributing to
good muscle tone and improving blood circulation. It
also provides satisIaction oI basic psychological needs
which in turn create chances Ior success and the
development oI sense oI belonging. Akorede and
Adewole (2005) supported that active recreation
activities during leisure promote the development oI
body ingredients like muscular strength, muscular
endurance, power, Ilexibility, agilityand co-ordination.
Asagba (2004) opined that recreation provides avenues
Ior socialization and it is conducive to the development
oI desirable behaviour. As iI to sum it up, Ikulayo (2007)
submitted that recreation regenerates the body and the
brain. It serves as a break, which prevents the body Irom
breaking down. However, Nigerians do have a lot oI
recreation activities like sports, game, music, reading,
watching Iilm and other arts.
Mull, Bayless, Ross and Jamieson (1997) highlighted
this cultural programming as; art activities that Iocus on
creating personal aesthetic objects such as painting,
wood work, or dance activities such as Iolk, square, or
14
ballet dancing that Iocus on rhythmic movement pattern
or, drama activities; like story telling or perIorming
skills that result into expression.
They also identiIied literacy, mental and linguistic
activities that Iocus on mental challenges such as
reading, working puzzles or writing. Pertinently, they
saw musical activities involving vocal and instrumental
expression as part oI play and recreation activities
engaged. ThereIore, the contributions oI recreation
activities to societal development in enhancing mental,
social, economic and physical well being oI every
individual cannot be over emphasized. It is thereIore a
worthwhile venture, assessing the impact oI
contributions oI recreation activities to societal
development in the society. Kraus (1971) Iormulated
some diagrammatic approach to showhowthese varying
land uses may be contained in a master plan commonly
reIerredtoas the neigbourhood concept.
2.0 Neigbourhood concepts
It is a section oI a city or town oIIering a social or
physical environment which meets such basic needs as
education, shopping, include about 6000 residents
(about the population needed to support a simple
elementary school).
(1)Neigbourhood play lot:- a small area set aside Ior
pre- school children, usually in crowded neigbourhood
where yards are absent or unsuitable Ior play e.g. low
cost housing estate.
(2)Neigbourhood play yard:- it is the major outdoor
play centre or a neigbourhood ,primarily Ior youth oI 6-
15 years oI age. it oIten has limited opportunity Ior older
youth and adults. it includes an area with play
equipments e g slides ,swings wading pool, a shaded
quiet area with benches ,and they are within halI a mile
Irom eachhome in less densely populated areas.
(3)Neigbourhood parks:-these are landscape areas
designed to provide attractive open space and
opportunity Ior passive recreation. They are design Ior
pleasure, picketing sightseeing and walking Ior
pleasures.
3.0 Social significance of recreation
(1) General well being oI the body
(2) Crime prevention is also a contribution oI recreation
activities to social development oI the society.
(3 It makes people less anti social
(4) It helps to ease accumulated tension and Iatigue
acquire due to monotonous and strenuous jobs.
(5) It prevents mental illness.
(6)It has unlimited reIreshing values and revitalizes and
restored the mentally and physical tiredness.
(6) It brings about a sense oI belonging.
3.1 Economic significance of recreation
(1) Recreational equipment and Iacilities can be hired
out tothe users.
(2) Community Iestivals and carnivals can serve as
tourist attractions
(3)Proceeds made can be used Ior community
developmental
Projects.
(4) Participating in leisure activities promote and
contribute to economic status oI indigenous
This signiIicances buttressed the submission oI Ibrahim
(2004) that Nigeria is endowed with wide variety oI
tourist attraction which iI properly managed will
generate Ioreign exchange, promote tourism based rural
enterprises, generate employment, and accelerate rural
and urbanintegration and central exchange.
Besides this, Ajala (2004) asserted that same are
gainIully employed in helping others utilize their leisure
time and recreate properly, such occupations as liIe-
guards, trainers waitresses and cooks in restaurants,
4.0 Conclusion
Based on the Iindings oI this study, the Iollowing
conclusions were drawn. With the increase awareness oI
importance oI an active liIestyle in the society
participation in recreation activities is seen as laying the
Ioundation in young and old people Ior long-term health
and improved quality oI liIe. Participation in recreation
activities is also believed to curb anti-social vices in the
community. Nevertheless, services and occupation Irom
recreation oI leisure activities can economically
empower individual and community as a whole.
4.1 Recommendations
Gover nment , cor por at e organi s at i ons and
philanthropists should assist in the provision oI
recreation activities, Iacilities and programmes that will
bring about good health and Iitness oI the community
members. There should availability oI recreational
equipment and Iacilities to maintain high moral standard
among community members. The neigbourhood
concepts should be well adhered to and utilised.
Recreation sectors and tourist sites should be maximally
utilised, so as to generate revenue Ior the economic
potentials.
REFERENCES
Ajala, J.A. (2004). Education Ior leisure in the primary
school curriculum. Education today. Aquarterly Journal
of the Federal Ministry of Education 11(1) 10 14.
Akorede, O.D. & Ajewole, P.O. (2005). Perception oI
recreational activities as correlates oI physical,
emotional and social well being among primary school
pupils in the Universal basic education program. Journal
of Sport Management and Health Education Research 1,
(2) 39 45.
13
Asagba, B.O. (2004). AthleticAdministration. Ibadan, Nigeria: Educational Researchand Study Group Publishers.
Babatunde, S.O. (2004). Recreation: Averitable tool Ior achieving community integration in Nigeria. Journal of the
Nigeria Association for Physical, Health Education Recreation, Sport and Dance (OYO-JONAPHER-SD) 3,(1) 14
21.
Critcher, C.; Bramham, P. & Jomlinson, F. (2001). Sociology of Leisure New York: Spoon Press an imprint oI the
Taylor andFrancis Group.
Dike, D.O. (2004). Provision oI recreational Iacilities in schools. Apanacea Ior youth restiveness. Education today. A
quarterly fournal of the Federal Ministry of Education, 1, (1),44 48.
Folawiyo, A.F.A. (2001). Concept of leisure and recreation. Okota-Isolo, Irede Printers Ltd.
George, M.D. & McCulick, R. (1999). Instructional theoryin sport pedagogy(1997 1998).
International Journal of Physical Education. A review publication, XXXVI issue, 2nd quarter 1999.International
Journal of African & African American Studies Jol. JI, No. 2, Jul 2007
Ibraheem, T.O. (2004). An appraisal and stress management oI tourist attractions in Nigeria.
Journal of Association for Physical, Health Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance. (OYOJONAPHER- SD) 3, (1)
91 99.
Ikulayo, P.B. (2007). Sociological and psychological values oI recreation. Introductiontorecreation.
Ipinmoroti, O.A. (2004). Provision oI recreational Iacilities. An imperative Ior the Nigerian School system. Education
today. Aquarterly fournal of the Federal Ministry of Education. 1(1) 4 9.
Money, F.O.; Okpako, J.E.F. & Ezomoh, O.O. (2004). Sporting activities Ior students' Iitness and healthIul living.
Journal of Nigeria Association for Physical, Health Education,
Recreation, Sports and Dance. (OYO-JONAPHER-SD) 3 (1) 22 25.
Mull, R.F.; Bayless, K.G.; Ross, C.M. & Jamlesson, L.M. (1997). Recreational Sports Management, 3rd ed;
Champaign. TheAthletic Institute.
Odeyemi, H.J. & Akinremi, S.A. (1997). Recreational Iacilities in social community. Journal of Physical and Health
education. 2 (1) 349 351.
Odumuh, T.O. (2004). Provision oI recreational Iacilities as a remedy Ior youth restiveness. Education today. a
quarterly fournal of the Federal Ministry of Education, (1) 15 18.
Omoruan, J.C. (1996). Ahandbook on physical education, sport and recreation. Zamaru, Zaria,Akesome & Co.
16
An Explicit Linear K-step method for Direct Solution of Third Order Ordinary Differential Equation
O. M. AKINMOLADUN
Department of Mathematics & Statistics,
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Aigeria.
Correspondence; `08038727249, e-mail: olusegun_myahoo.com
Abstract
An explicit linear K- step method for Direct Solution of 1hird Order Ordinary differential equation is developed at
step k3; using 1aylor series expansion techniques. 1he analyses of the basic properties of the method developed
were tested using Boundary Locus Method (BLM). 1he result shows that they are consistence, zero stable, and
convergent. 1he method was implemented on some sample problems of third order ODEand the result obtained are
quite suitable compare to some existing method that had been used in solving the same problems.
Key words: IJP, BLM, ODE, Taylor Series, Scheme
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any IunctionoI the Iorm
yf (x, y, y, y), with initial conditions y (x ) y
0 0
y (x0) y , y (x ) y .... (1.1)
0 0 0 0
is called initial value problems oI third order ordinary diIIerential equation. Solutions to the IVP oI the type (1.1) are
highly oscillatory in nature and thus severely restrict the conventional linear multistep method oI such system which
oIten occurs in mechanical system without dissipation, satellite tracking and celestial mechanics | Fatunla |5|, Henrici
|8|
One oI the conditions that such equation (1.1) must be satisIied in order to ensure the existence and uniqueness oI
solution is containedin theorem postulated by Coddington and Levingson |4|.
According to Fatunla |5|, Lambert|10|, and Jain|9|,; the commonest method oI solving a third order ordinary
diIIerential equation oI the Iorm (1.1) is by reductionoI the problem into Iirst ordinarydiIIerential equation oI the Iorm
y` I (x, y,), y(x ) y ------------------------------------------------------------ (1.2)
0 0
However, a more serious drawback to such technique arises when the given system oI equations to be solved cannot be
solved explicitly Ior the derivatives oI the highest order and, thereby, become ineIIicient, uneconomical Ior a general
purpose application.
In this work, a discrete Linear Multi K- step MethodoI the Iorm
is developed at step length K 3 ; Ior direct solution oI third order initial value problems oI ordinary diIIerential
equationoI the Iorm (1.1)
2.0 Derivation of the Method

17
Assuming that truncation error is deIined as
at each step oI application oI the method Ior the solution oI (1.1).
By inserting 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 in 1.7 and combine terms in equal power oI h to have
Equation (1.8) is compactly written as
Where
18
Definition 1
The numerical method in (1.1) and local truncation error T are said to be oI order PiI C C C .........
nk o 1 2
C C 0but C
p1 p2 p1
By imposing accuracy oI order Pon T , to obtain
nk
C .......................................... (1.9)
p3
By setting K 3 inequation (1.3) and expand to have a 3- step scheme oI the Iorms
. ..................(1.10)
With truncation error
... (1.11)
Imposing accuracy oI order 4 on and obtain the Iollowing system oI linear equations
........... . (1.12)
TransIorming equation (1.12) into matrix and obtain
Solving (1.13) using Guassian Elimination techniques the values oI the parameters are obtained as
Substituting equation (1.14) into (1.8.1) and simpliIy to obtain
....... (1.15)
3.0 Test for basic properties of the method
Accuracy
19
Since, then; according to Jain |9|, Fatunla|6|, Lambert
(10), Awoyemi |3| and Kayode|3|; the order P oI accuracy oI the 3-step method is P3 7. That is P 4. Hence,
the method is oI order 4 and the principal error constant is
CONSISTENCY
In the spirits oI Onumanyi et. al.|11|, Awoyemi|2|, Ademiluyi|1|, Kayode|3| and Fatunla|7|: a linear multistep method
is said to be consistence iI its order oI accuracy andits Iirst and secondcharacteristics polynomial Iunctions
satisIies the Iollowing conditions
(i) The order P (iii)
(iv)
Thus, the method (1.15) satisIies the conditions in(1.16) where
........ (1.17)
STABILITYOFTHEMETHOD
The method in (1.15) is zero stable; since the roots oI its Iirst characteristic polynomial is withina unit circle. i.e.
0
r 1, 1, 1.
Thus, the method is convergent since it is consistence and zero stable (Lambert |10|). Region oI absolute stability oI
the method (1.15) was investigated using boundarylocus methodas reported in Lambert |10|, andFatunla |6|.
For stabilityequation
Where r ...... (1.19)
Putting (1.19) in (1.18) and rationalize to obtain
where X( Ior values oI
ranges between at interval oI shows that the methodhas no regionoI absolute stability.
4.0 Implementation of the method
Problem 1
Where exact solution is y(x) ; and step size (h)
20
Problem 2
(0) 2 where exact solution is
; step size (h) 0.0025
REFERENCE
1. Ademiluyi, R. A. (1987); ' New Hybrid methods Ior systems oI stiII ordinary diIIerential equation Ph.D.
Thesis, University oI Benin. (Unpublished)
2. Awoyemi, D. O. (2003): A P-stable Linear Multistep method Ior solving general third order ordinary
diIIerential equations. Int. Journal oI Computer Math. Vol. 80, No. 8
3. Awoyemi, D. O. and S. J. Kayode (2003) : An optimal order collocation method Ior direct solution oI initial
value problem oI general second order ordinarydiIIerential equations Futa JEET, Vol. 3: 33-40
4. Coddington, E. A. and Levinson, N (1965): Theory oI ordinary diIIerential equations. Mc Grew Hill, New
York.
5. Fatunla S. O. (1992); Parallel methods Ior second order ODE's Computational ordinary diIIerential equations
proceedings oI comp conIerence (eds), Pp 87-99
6. Fatunla S. O. (1988): Applied Numerical Methods Ior initial value problems in Ordinary DiIIerential
Equations. Prentice-Hall Eaglewood CliIIs, New-Jersey.
7. Fatunla S. O. (1994): Higher order parallel methods Ior second order ODE's : ScientiIic computing Pg 61-67;
proceedings oI the IiIth international conIerence on scientiIic computing (eds Fatunla).
8. Henrici, P. (1962) : DiscreteVariable methods Ior ODE's, JohnWilley, NewYork, USA.
9. Jain, R. K. (1984) Numerical solution oI diIIerential equations (second edition), Wiley Eastern Limited, New
Delhi
10. Lambert, J. D. (1973): Computational methods inODEs, John Wiley andSons, NewYork
11. Onumanyi, P. Awoyemi, D.O, Jator, S.N. and Sirisena, U. W(1994)
'NewLinear Multistep methods with continuous coeIIicients Ior the Iirst order initial value problems, J. Nig.
Math Soc. 13, Pp37-51
21
ASSESSMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF EYO CULTURALFESTIVAL
TO THE LOCALCOMMUNITIES.
1 2
TI1ANI NASIRU OLAWALE (PHD) AND 1AMMALTAIWO MOSUNMOLA
1
NATIONALINSTITUTE FOR HOSPITALITYAND TOURISM,
P.O BOX 2475, OSOGBO, OSUN STATE.
2
DEPT. LEISURE & TOURISMMANAGEMENT LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU,
LAGOS STATE.
Abstract
1he persistence of poverty in Aigeria in spite of the oil wealth and specific policies and programmes to eliminate it
has turned government to tourism as a strategy to diversify the economy and alleviate poverty in the country. Eyo
Cultural Festival is the event that received Lagos State Covernment support in recent time. 1his study attempts to
assess the socio-economic contribution of the festival to the local communities. Materials used for the study were
collected via interviews, discussions, questionnaires and personal observation. 1he study revealed that the
development of Eyo Cultural Festival has brought about revenue generation and employment opportunity for the
local communities, besides, the infrastructural development. 1he paper thereby concludes that the festival should
be cherished and embraced as a viable tool for the empowerment of the local economy.
Key words: Cultural Festival, Socio-Economic, Benefits, Contribution and Community.
Introduction
Tourism is a vibrant and resilient industry as attested by it
all times oI 808 million international tourist and USD
723 billion receipts in 2005 in spite oI the eIIects oI such
major Iorces as at September 11, gulI crises, SARs, the
Tsunami andso on UNWTO, 2002).
Tourism is a highly labour intensive activity that opens
up opportunities Ior the micro small and medium sized
enterprises that provide products and services to the
tourism industry in the developing countries. For
instance, tourism constitutes exceptionally Iertile ground
Ior private investment initiative, it serves as a Ioothold
Irom which the market economy can expand and
Ilourish.
Above all, tourism creates many jobs, in the micro, small
and medium size enterprises as well as works Ior the selI-
employed, jobs Ior the poor, job Ior women and young
people, indigenous communities and Ior unskilled and
highlyskilledworkers.
It also creates jobs at remote, rural resorts on handcraIts
and jobs linked to eco-tourism and cultural tourism
(Frangialli, 2002).
However, until recently tourism was not accorded any
attention in the poverty reduction strategies oI
government. The most obvious reasons Ior the popularity
oI the local Iestival as tools Ior tourism promotion and
economic gains are that:
- Festival increase the demand Ior local tourism (Getz
1993)
- SuccessIul Iestivals can help recreate image oI a
place or contribute toward the exposure oI a location
tryingtoget on the tourism map (Getz 1991).
- The strategic placement oI a Iestival in the local
tourism calendar can help extend the tourism season
(Getz, 1991).
The local Iestivals are thereIore increasingly being an
instruments Ior promoting tourism and boosting the local
and regional economy. They have been recognized
among the Iestival growing business (Lee and Lee 2004).
Thus, many communities and destinations marketing
organization are engaged in the systematic planning,
development and marketing oI Iestivals and events as
tourist attractions image makers' catalyst Ior other
developments or as animation oI built attractions (Daniel
andAliza, 2003).
Festivals are oIten in expensive and iI properly organized
will generate positive impact and can be viewed as being
more sustainable than other Iorm oI tourism
development and because they are essentially cultural in
nature and lead to host guest contracts, increasingly
Iestivals are being looked upon as a clear alternative to
mass tourism (Getz, 1993, Kotler, 1993).
In Lagos State which is popularly known as a centre oI
excellence and a commercial centre and a Iormer capital
oI Nigeria has quite a number oI Iestivals such as boat
regatta, Eyo Festival, Igunuko Festival etc some oI these
Iestivals are now being revived and repackaged among
which is the Eyo Festival and Lagos State carnival.
22
They all have similar goals oI enhancing tourism
development, cultural revival, cultural sustainability as
well as economic re-engineering among other beneIits.
This paper examine the extent to which the Eyo Cultural
Festival can help improve the standard oI living, Ioster
community development and provide leisure activities
which couldhelp alleviate poverty in the state.
Methodology
Lagos Island with the population oI about 209,437
people according to Nigeria 2006 population census
constitutes the sampling Irame Ior the study. The areas
are within where the Iestival takes place. Purpose
sampling techniques was used to select 200 samples
among the Iollowingcategories oI the people.
- Eyo community leaders in Lagos Island
- Participants in the main events
- Visitors to Eyo Festival in the past 3 years
- Service providers during the Iestival.
This distribution is in line with UNWTO (2002)
recommendation. Also, primary data were collected
through questionnaire; this was complimented with
participatory Action Research (PRA) involving visual
observations and discussions to collect Iirst hand
inIormation about the perception oI the community on
the beneIits oI the Iestivals.
This approach has enabled the community members to
serve as partners in the research process they have
relevant knowledge oI the subject matter (GuiIt and
Veldhulzen, 1998). The interview and discussion took
place beIore and during the 2010 Easter Lagos Carnival
where the EyoFestival was also part oI the major event.
The data Ior this research work was analyzed using
tables, Irequency, percentage and chi-square statistics
analysis.
Results and Discussion
This section presents the result oI Iield exercise. Atotal
oI 200 copies oI questionnaire was administered but the
presentation and analysis oI data based on one hundred
and eighty-Iive (185), which was approximately
2
completed and returned. The chi-square x statistical tool
was used at 0.5 level oI signiIicance Ior the analysis. The
detail is as Iollows:
Table 1: chi-square statistical test Ior testing iI
development oI Eyo Cultural Festival capable oI
bringing revenue and job opportunities Ior the local
communities.
Option O E O-E (O-E)2 ?(O-E)2
SA 64 46.3 18 324 6.9
A 60 46.3 14 196 4.2
SD 36 46.3 -10 100 2.1
D 25 46.3 -21 441 9.5
Total 185 185 1061 5.7
dI (c - 1) (r-1)
(2-1) (2-1)
1x1 1
At .05level 3.84
Since 5.7 ~ 3.84. The null hypothesis rejected. This
indicate that the development oI Eyo Cultural capable oI
bringing revenue generation and job opportunities Ior the
hosting communities.
Table 2: chi-square test Ior testing iI eyo cultural Iestival
development capable oI bringing development in
inIrastructures inthe local communities.
Options 0 E 0-E (0-E)2 ?(O-E)2
SA 60 46.3 13.7 187.7 4.05
A 66 46.3 19.7 388 8.38
SD 23 46.3 -23.3 542.9 11.72
D 36 46.3 -10.3 106.9 2.30
Total 1225.5 6.62
DI (c-1) (r-1)
(2-1) (2-1)
1x1 1
X2 6.62
at .05 level 3.84
Since calculated value in less than the table value at .05
level oI signiIicant. We reject the null hypothesis. This
indicates that the promotion and development oI eyo
cultural Festival in Lagos Island will bring about
development in inIrastructure to the host communities
and Lagos State in general.
Discussion
Eyo cultural Festival is usually organized to honour and
pay homage to king and important personality in the
land, and on the death oI a highly regarded chieI. It is held
as the interpersonal and cultural relations, merry making
among the people oI the land.
During this Iestival all sons and daughters oI the land
come together Ior socializing and interaction Iostering
unity and peace. The Iestival also takes place whenever
occasion and tradition demand. For example, installation
oI a newking may demand Adamu Orisha play.
The community perception oI the beneIit oI the Iestival
however shows that 70 oI the respondents said that
they were satisIied with the Iestival. They believe it will
23
be economically and socially beneIicial to the
community. However, 18 oI the respondents were
undecided whereas about 12 oI majority oI whom are
community head express their dissatisIaction with the
Iestival. Their Iear borne out oI the transIormation oI the
Iestival Irom its original objective to the present
entertainment Ior government guests, and also being
totally hijacked by government.
The community heads are not Iully involved in the
planning through the Iestival is still done in the
traditional way, new concept have been added to its
making. Its more diIIerent Irom its original objective.
The exclusion oI the community is however contrary to
(WTO 2002 and Nasiru 2002) recommendation that
'Tourism policy and planning be the result oI
participatory process in which all interested parties and
in particular the local communities are involved by such
involvement they will understand the beneIits oI
tourism, and be better able to cope with the developmet
and thereIore will be more likely to support it.
In the area oI the community expectations oI the Iestival,
income generation, employment, alleviation oI poverty
and stimulate physical development, attracted the
highest expectations Irom the response. Creating
awareness about the rich cultural heritage oI the people
Iollowed while relaxation and socializing which was a
major objective at the inception oI the Iestival attracted
the attention oI only Iew respondents. This result
conIirm the argument that the reason Ior tourism
promotion in the developing countries in generally
economic (de Kadt 1979, Lea 1998).
Physical development was Iollowed by social beneIits oI
interpersonal and cultural relations, traditional skills as
well as promotion oI the image oI Lagos Island. In Iact,
Lagos island is a household name in every part oI Nigeria
and probably beyond on account oI not only being where
Eyo Cultural Festival evolve but a major business centre
in Lagos State and Nigeria and a whole majority oI
commercial activities, buying and selling takes place in
this Island. The Iestival has also provided a platIorm Ior
political leaders to interact in an atmosphere devoid oI
rainbow.
In return, the community has enjoyed continuous
government support and encouragement. A good
testimony was the Iace liIt oI the major centres in the
Island. Tinubu Square, race-cruce, Cityhall, Idumota,
Iga Idugaran, to mention but a Iew also turning the
Iestival into an international carnival which is now
hosted every year in April. It is now called Lagos
carnival.
However, the economic beneIits which ranked highest in
the expectations oI the community rated lowest in the
actual beneIits derived by the community. Moreso, the
beneIits were to individuals rather than community. It
was discovered that a good number oI the service
providers were not Iorm Lagos Island rather they are
Irom the mainland. Accommodations available in Lagos
Island are owned by expatriate, except smaller owner
operator holdings and Iamily houses.
Similarly, employment was generated but it was
temporary i.e. seasonal which in the word oI Daniel and
Aliza (2003) and Attahiru and Wakili 2002). Is the
greatess weakness oI most cultural Iestivals.
Also, the market women and men selling Iabric,
especially white materials made a lot oI sales as well as
designers oI Eyo costume and regalia. Expert was
brought in Irom abroad to train interested participant on
how to design costumes Ior Lagos carnival. Thus, was
jointly organized by Lagos State Government and
Ministry oI Tourism and Governmental AIIairs. These
are some oI the beneIits derivable Irom cultural tourism
which will make the people oI the local government, selI
employed even aIter the Iestival, thus improving their
standardoI living.
Food vendors, souvenirs sellers generated a lot oI money,
but it was only Ior the period oI the Iestival lasted.
However, the sales were encouraging to the extent that
majority are looking Iorward to the next Iestival with
enthusiasm high expectations and better preparations.
SUMMARY
The study assesses the socio-economic beneIits oI eyo
cultural Iestival to the local communities. The Iinding
reveals as Iollows:
- The development oI Eyo Cultural Festival brought
about revenue generation and employment Ior the
local community. The general concession being that
Iestival have grown in importance and have become
major goal Ior millions oI tourists and are equally
major economic activity at local level.
- That development oI Eyo Cultural Festival in Lagos
Island will bring about poverty reduction and
economic empowerment Ior the host community
and Lagos State as a whole.
CONCLUSION
The study have re-aIIirmed the economic beneIit oI
Iestivals has thereIore been Iound to bring about
economic gains to local people who operate various petty
businesses duringthe Iestival.
Consequently, the Iestival should be cherished and
embraced as a viable tool Ior the empowerment oI local
economy.
RECOMMENDATIONS
24
Based on the results oI the study, the Iollowing recommendations were made:
i. Government should provide enabling environment to enable Iull exploitation oI the beneIit oI the Iestival. First,
there is need Ior government and private investors(organizers) to train the people in the basic employable skills in
tourism operations/management and in hospitality, such training are obtainable Irom institutions like Lagos State
Polytechnic, Nihotour e.t.c
ii. There is also the need to emphasize the aspirations and needs oI the local community and their participation in the
planning and organizing oI the Iestival in contrast to the present practice.
iii. Adequate and attractive incentives packages need to be provided Ior local and private investor in tourism super
structure in the area e.g. interest on loans should be reduced Ior people involved in the tourism development
businesses.
iv. More security agents should be deployed to Iestival areas during the Iestival so as to reduce risk oI crime and
misconduct by the participants, visitors as well as service providers.
v. Finally, it is critically important Ior tour operators to package Eyo Cultural Festival Ior more local and
international consumption considering the distance oI Lagos, Irom major tourist destinations around the world,
thereby generating the awareness oI tourism in the country.
23
ZERO WASTE INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT MODEL
OMO1OSHO, Abayomi 1osiah
DEPARTMENTOF ARCHITECTURALTECHNOLOGY, LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU, LAGOS,
NIGERIA.
Tel.: 0703 0093900, 07055552300 E-mail: yomitoshoyahoo.com
ABS1RAC1
Due to poor management, solid waste materials in Aigerian cities contaminate the air, land and water, aid the
spread of diseases and degrade the environment. Solid wastes can be turned into blessing by exploiting their
potentials through nationally planned, comprehensive and co-ordinated management. It is possible to reclaim
materials from solid waste which can be re-used, reprocessed or used as cheap raw materials for industries.
Biodegradable organic solid waste can be processed into compost/fertiliser for agricultural and landscaping
purposes. 1he inorganic non recoverable refuse can be used as fuel in an incinerating plant to generate steam and
electricity, the residue being useful as filling in land reclamation, land improvement and road and building
construction. 1his paper examines existing solid waste management practices in Aigeria. It proposes separation at
source by waste generators. Such waste materials are then transported to transfer stations where they are further
sorted to re-usable and recyclable materials for direct sale, biodegradable organic refuse to be moved to
compost/fertilizer plant, inorganic waste products that are not re-usable for incineration, the residue to be used as
filling in construction and landscaping works. 1his management model translates to no solid waste ultimately 1he
paper further suggests the responsibilities of waste generators, all levels of government, Community Development
Associations, Aon-Covernmental Organisations, and Private Companies to make a success of the model.
Key words: biodegradable, compost/fertilizer plant, co-ordinated management, incineration, reclaim, zero
ultimate waste.
INTRODUCTION
Waste is generally regarded as any unavoidable
material that results Irom the production and
consumption processes oI domestic, commercial
and industrial activities (Omolabi, 2006) Awaste is
that which it is cheaper to throw away than to make
Iurther use oI (Department oI the Environment,
Scotland) It does not mean that waste is valueless,
some oI it certainly is not. The economist's
deIinition is inadequate. Partly because this
deIinition concerns one user only. It might be
economic Ior him to throw something away but
uneconomic Ior the nation or mankind particularly
inthe long run.
Solid waste has now been internationally accepted
Ior describing non-liquid, non-gaseous waste
materials Irom domestic, trade, commercial
agricultural and mining activities. The component
oI solid wastes include dust, Iood waste, paper,
metals, plastic, glass, discarded clothing,
Iurnishings, garden wastes, Iactory oII cuts, process
wastes, among others The exponential growth oI
urban population ,increased economic activities,
sprawling expansion oI cities and changes in
consumption patterns have continuously caused
increase in the amount oI waste generated in Nigerian
cities and towns and urban areas oI developing countries.
Poor management constitute the negative impact oI solid
waste on the Nigerian environment.
Estimated and Projected Volumes oI Solid Waste
Generation insome NigerianCities.
URAN AREA8 1982 1985 1990 2000
TONNES PERYEAR
LAGOS 625,399 681,394 786,079 998,081
IBADAN 350,823 382,224 440,956 559,882
KANO 319,935 348,580 402,133 535,186
KADUNA 257,837 280,295 324,084 431,314
ONITSHA 242,240 263,929 304,477 386,593
PORT- 210,934 229,821 265,129 352,853
HARCOURT
OSOGBO 131,903 143,712 169,719 236,703
ABA 122,923 138,786 142,609 213,552
JOS 99,871 111,905 134,272 197,660
WARRI 67,477 75,607 91,396 133,531
GUSAU 44,488 48,471 57,243 79,835
POTISKUM 15,434 16,816 19,399 28,347
UYO 12,508 13,628 15,721 20,923
SULEJA 9,383 10,514 13,311 21,336
NEw8u33A 5,690 6,200 7,152 9,518
26
Source: Nwabugwu 2001 in OlorunIemi and Pelemo
2006.
Problems Caused by Solid Wastes
The volume oI waste generated Irom large population
concentrations and economic activities in urban areas
outweighs the capacity oI the public authorities
responsible Ior its management. An average oI 0.46
kg/person/day is generated in Nigerian Cities (Omolabi
2000). Heaps oI solid waste in undesignated places not
cleared Ior several weeks is a common sight. Such
garbage attracts rats, rodents, cockroaches, Ilies and
mosquitoes which then spread disease. LandIill sites
where some oI these waste materials are disposed oI are
overIlowing attracting disease vectors. Over 70 oI the
health problems in the communities are environment
related (AnieIiok 2004). InIant mortality rates are oIten
Iour or more times higher in areas with poor sanitation
than areas with improved sanitation.
OIIensive odour emanates Irom waste dumps and
landIills. The environment is degraded and polluted.
Leachate Irom decomposing garbage contaminates
ground water and surrounding water bodies.
OverIlowing drainage channels clogged with garbage
cause Ilooding. Burning oI waste by waste generators
and agencies causes Iumes to aIIect houses and the
environment.
APPRAI SAL OF THE SOLI D WASTE
MANAGEMENTPRACTICES INNIGERIA
Solid waste management reIers to the material Ilow
stream oI waste Irom generation to ultimate disposal or
re-use. It comprises oI storage, collection,
transportation, processing and disposal or re-use.
Generally, the waste disposal unit oI local councils is
responsible Ior the location oI garbage collection points
in diIIerent parts oI the city and the disposal oI the
collected waste. Inability oI many local councils to cope
with the management oI the increasing volume oI waste
generated necessitated the engagement oI private
companies to collect and dispose reIuse. In Lagos, Lagos
Waste Management Authority (LAWMA), Highway
Manager Limited and private refuse operators collect
and move waste to various disposal sites in the city.
This is done in Abuja by Abuja Environmental
Protection Board (AEPB) in partnership with private
waste collectors. Private/public partnership arrangement
has been operated in Port-Harcourt, Owerri, Aba and
Benin (Omolabi 2006). In most cases this approach
encountered problems including lack oI admin
continuity, Iunding, and unrealistic service charges.
Agencies responsible Ior collection and disposal are
understaIIed ill-equipped and ineIIicient.
Sometimes collection occurs at a centralized location and
communal disposal spots where generators deliver solid
wastes or by going Irom individual generator to another.
The waste is loaded usually manually into garbage trucks
or open trucks and lorries and transported to dump sites
or landIills. The garbage is either leIt open or at best
compacted and covered with sand. Wastes are burnt,
buried or disposed haphazardly. Open waste trucks are
environmental hazards which spread Ioul smell and drop
garbage on the way. Most landIills are uncontrolled and
do not conIorm to international standards. They are non-
containment sites with visible protection oI the
underground water. The common by products oI landIills
are methane and carbon-dioxide produced as a result oI
anaerobic breakdown oI organic wastes Methane is
greenhouse gas, smells andkills surIace vegetation.
Currently less than 1 oI Nigeria Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) is spent annually on waste management
and water supply with Lagos and Rivers States leading
with a monthly expenditure oI about 300m naira and
100m naira respectively on waste collection and disposal
(Ossai 2006). This is less than recommended standard oI
3-5 oI national GDP.
Solid wastes which have so much negative impact on
Nigerian urban environment and public health can be
turned into beneIits by exploiting their composition and
potentials through comprehensive, planned and co-
ordinated management.
S OLI D WAS TE COMPOS I TI ON AND
POTENTIALS
For the purpose oI taking Iull advantage oI solid waste,
three classes can be identiIied. The Iirst are easily
recoverable, recyclable and reusable inorganic waste
materials like paper, plastics, wood scrap, metals, bottles,
cans, glass among others. The second are organic
biodegradable waste products like Iood and garden
wastes. The third are wastes which are inorganic, but not
easily recoverable Ior reuse and recycling. This is the
remainder oI the reIuse that does not Iall into the Iirst two
classes. The composition oI waste generated in Nigerian
cities is vegetable matter 68, paper 9, plastics 7,
metal 3, glass 5, textile/wood 4, others 4
(Omolabi 2006).
Reusable and Recyclable InorganicWastes
These are potentially valuable solid materials in the raw
reIuse. Such materials can be recovered immediately
and marketed Waste Irom a process can be used as raw
materials Ior another. Bones generated Irom slaughter
slabs and abattoirs can be processed to poultry Ieeds.
Metals may easily be collected and reclaimed by simple
melting. Recycling oI plastics has been described as the
most cost eIIective and eIIicient means oI waste
27
management as it ensures that nothing is wasted
(Odunaiya 2002). In 1988, 42.5 billion out oI 77.9
billion aluminium cans in the United States were
recycled (Odunaiya 2002). Glass can be broken down
into tiny pieces called culets which are a major raw
material in the manuIacture oI glass.
Biodegradables
These are organic waste materials that can undergo
anaerobic breakdown and are suitable Ior composting.
Composting is the manuIacture oI organic Iertilizers and
other related by products through a microbiological
process involving use oI microbes to digest organic
matter. The objective oI the process is to transIorm
organic solid waste to stabilised and sanitised materials
beneIicial to plant growth, landscaping and horticulture.
Composting will be very useIul in the North where there
is scarcity oI arable land. Over 70 oI domestic wastes
in Nigeria are biodegradables.
Inorganic Fraction
This is the rest oI the inorganic solid waste aIter the easily
recoverable, recyclable and reusable waste materials
have been separated. According to Henstock (1975) this
class may be considered as an energy bank. This trash
can either be used directly as a Iuel to generate electricity
and steam power or incinerated.. Incineration is a
controlled process Ior oxidizing solid inorganic waste to
heat, gas' steam and ash. Incineration can be used to
generate electricity; it provides excellent volume
reduction, and useIul heat. The process is relatively
pollution Iree, clean and immediate. Incineration is
recognised as practical method oI disposing certain
hazardous wastes including biological and medical
wastes.. The residue is harmless and can be used as road
bed, Iilling in building construction and land reclamation
and improvement.
Americans generate more than 225million tons oI trash
annually. About one third is being recycled, while the
remaining 150million tons is either managed as a Iuel to
generate electricity and steam power or disposed at
landIills. The Iull potentials oI waste can be exploited
throughplanned and well co-ordinated management.
ZERO ULTIMATE WASTE INTEGRATED SOLID
WASTEMANAGEMENT.
This is a solid waste management model that proposes a
shiIt Irom the current practice oI haphazard storage,
collection and transporting to landIills. It advocates solid
wastes separation at source, either at the household,
commercial or industrial level The waste products are
then transported to transIer stations where they are
Iurther sorted to recyclable and reusable items Ior direct
sale, biodegradables to be transported to compost plants
and the rest inorganic waste to incinerating plants or
electricity generating stations as Iuel..The residue Irom
incineration can be sold as Iilling in construction works
thus leaving no waste.
Most nations have Iormalized waste recycling as a major
source oI revenue while ensuring a clean environment
(Odunaiya 2002). The International Solid Waste
Association (ISWA) at the World Congress which was
held in Paris, France in July 2000 reported that the
world-wide market Ior municipal solid waste services is
$100 billion annually (Odunaiya 2002). There are 102
Waste-to-Energy Plants operating in 31 states
throughout the United States. The plant burns about
97,000 tons oI trash each day, thereby generating 2,800
megawatts oI electricity which meets the power needs oI
about 2.5 million homes, thereby serving the trash needs
oI more than 37 million people. Waste could be an
alternative Iuel that would solve the Nigerian chronic
power problem. Recently shortage oI gas was given as
th
the reason Ior drop in power generation and so on 25
April 2012 the Federal Government oI Nigeria awarded
100billion naira gas pipe line project to supply gas Ior
electricity generation.
Solid Waste Separation and Transportation
This management model proposes the separationoI solid
wastes as much as possible at sources where they are
generated. Generators are encouraged to do this by
supplying them with 3 labelled government rubbish bags
or bins to store inorganic, organic and hazardous
wastes..and through public enlightenment and
education. The waste products so separated are
transported to TransIer Stations by private waste
companies in partnership with State Government Such
companies are paid by the State Government. Waste
generators pay to State Government a monthly rate
based on average volume oI solidwaste generated.
TransferStations
This is a Iacility with sorting plants and open but rooIed
storage spaces where recyclable and reusable waste
items can be stacked. Here valuable items are
immediately recovered and sold directly. Industries can
come to this market Ior cheap raw materials. Private
companies should be licensed to sell and made to pay
levies, taxes or charges to State Government depending
on the volume sold. In Israel, the Arrow Ecology
Company developed the ArrowBio system which takes
trash Irom collection trucks and separates organic and
inorganic materials through gravitational settling,
screeningand hydro-mechanical shredding.
TransIer Stations must be located where there is land and
close to highly populated area where high volume oI
waste is generated.
28
Compost/FertilizerPlants
These are plants that private companies are licensed to set
up at designated locations by the government. They are
guaranteed constant supply oI biodegradables Irom
TransIer Stations. Operating companies pay to the State
Government depending on the location oI the transIer
station and the volume oI waste delivered.
Incinerators/Electricity Generating Stations.
Private companies can be licensed by the Federal
Government to set Iacilities that can generate electricity
at approved locations dictated by this solid waste
management model. This will especially be consistent
with the eIIort oI the government to deregulate the power
sector. Such stations can be Ied with rawinorganic reIuse
Irom TransIer Stations.
Management oI solid wastes can no longer be simply a
social service to its generator or only the business oI local
councils. Rather it encompasses a complex system oI
actors with diIIerent interests and priorities that require
proper planning, co-ordination and management. Private
companies must partner public authorities. There is a
need to integrate and extend solid waste management into
a comprehensive national programme. Integration allows
Ior capacity and resources to be Iully utilised. The
achievement oI economies oI scale Ior equipment and
inIrastructure is realised when waste management is done
as part oI a single system For this kind oI management to
succeed, waste generators, the 3-tiers oI government,
Community Development Associations (CDAs), Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs).and Private
Companies have responsibilities and roles to play.
RESPONSIBILITIES ANDROLES
Waste generators should separate waste at source as
practicable as possible and pay Ior the collection oI the
generated waste as shall be charged by the State
Government Irom time to time.
Environmental protection is the constitutional
responsibility all 3 tiers oI government. The Local
Government should supervise and monitor the collection
and transportation oI waste Irom its jurisdiction by
private operators to TransIer Stations.
The State Government should:-
- License private waste operators.
- Determine and collect taxes, charges, and levies
on waste collection, sales and supplies.
- Pay private companies Ior transportation
- Develop continuously economic collection
systems andcost recovery mechanisms.
- Locate the TransIer Stations in its jurisdiction
within the national master plan.
- Invest in waste management inIrastructure,
equipment and vehicles
- Super vi s e t he management oI s uch
inIrastructure, equipment and vehicles.
- Generally create enabling environment Ior the
private operators in its jurisdiction
- Co-operate with the other tiers oI government in
line with the objectives oI the model
- Formulate and enIorce policies, legislations and
laws that control management oI solidwastes.
The Federal Government should:-
- Prepare a national master plan locating TransIer
Stations, Compost/Iertilizer Plants and
incinerating/Electricity Generatingplants.
* Provide guidance and assistance in the economic
development oI integrated waste management
systems.
* Forster the development oI markets Ior the Iull
utilisationoI the materials andenergy recovered.
* Periodic intervention to make the model work.
* Educate and inIorm the public continuously
through CDAs, and the media.
* Issue permits and licence to operators oI
compost/Iertilizer and incinerating/electricity
generating plants.
* Facilitate access toIinance by investors.
* Provide Iunds Ior research into local waste
management equipment and technology.
* Private companies should operate plants under
licence CDAs and NGOs should complement the
eIIort oI the Federal Government to educate the
public on waste management.
CONCLUSION
Solid waste which constitutes a negative impact to the
Nigerian cities and towns and the public due to poor
management can be turned into beneIits. These beneIits
can be realised by shiIting Irom the conventional collect
and transport to dumpsites or landIills paradigm to
separate at source, move to transIer stations Ior Iurther
sorting and sale oI recyclable and re-usable waste items.
The organi c wast es bei ng t r anspor t ed t o
compost/Iertilizer plants and the inorganic Iraction used
Ior generating electricity. This should be done in a
nationally planned, co-ordinated and comprehensive
management with responsibilities Ior the 3 tiers oI
government, waste generators, private companies CDAs
andNGOs.
29
REFERENCES
AnieIiok M. (2004), Evaluation oI Solid Waste Management Options Ior Abuja. Journal oI Evironmental Health
September 2004 Vol. 1, No. 1. Society oI Environmental
Health oI Nigeria, Abuja.
AnieIiok M. (2004), Strengthening Public Participation in Solid Waste Management in Nigeria: An Education
ViewPoint. Journal oI Environmental Health December 2004 Vol. 1 No. 2. Society oI Environmental Health oI
Nigeria, Abuja.
Henstock M. E. (1975). The Scope Ior Materials Recycling a paper in the Proceedings oI the ConIerence on the
Recycling and Disposal oI Solid Wastes held in Dubrovnik, 1975. Michael E. Henstock and Michael W.
Biddulph Pergamon Press, NewYork.
Managing the Stink: Solid Waste Management in Urban India. Retrieved at 8.55pm on 14/11/11 Irom
www.chillibreeze.com/articlesvarious/solidwaste-management.asp
Odunaiya O.. O. (2002), Repositioning Solid Waste Management Practices in Cosmopolitan Lagos,
th
LASPOTECHInaugural Lecture Series No. 6. 26 June 2002.
OlorunIemi F. B. And Pelemo J. O. (2006), Towards a Sustainable Waste Management in Nigerian Cities: A
st
Review oI LandIill Practices in Lagos Metropolis. A paper presented at the 1 National ConIerence oI the
th th
Institute oI Environmental Studies, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin 15 16 November, 2006.
Omolabi A.. O. (2006): 'Assessment oI Existing Situation oI Waste Generation and Management in Urban Areas
st
in Nigeria. Apaper presented at the 1 National ConIerence oI Institute oI Environmental Studies Kwara State
th th
Polytechnic, Ilorin.. 15 & 16 November, 2006.
st
Ossai R. M. (2006). Moving Solid Waste Management into the 21 Century in Nigeria. Apaper presented at the
th th th
6 National Council on Evironment Meeting at Katsina State Secretariat, Katsina 13 17 November, 2006.
Wi k i p e d i a , Wa s t e M a n a g e m e n t . R e t r i e v e d a t 8 . 5 0 p m o n 1 0 / 1 1 / 1 1 I r o m
http://en..wikipedia.org/wiki/wastemanagement.
30
THE PROXIMATEANALYSIS AND SENSORYEVALUATION OF ~OKPA PREPARED WITH
FLUTED PUMPKINAND SCENT LEAVES
Adumanya, O. C. U., Obi-Adumanya, G. A. and Nwachukwu, P. C.
Department oI Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria.
E-mail, adumso2yahoo.com , Phone Number .234-0803-7730-442
ABSTRACT
"Okpa" is a well cherished food, especially among the inhabitants of the eastern part of Aigeria. It is prepared using
flour from Bambara nut. 1he proximate analysis and sensory evaluation of the "Okpa" prepared with vegetables
fluted pumpkin (1elfairia Occidentales) and scent leaves (Ocimum Jiridis) were carried out. 1he results showthat
the addition of the leaves altered the ash and fiber contents of the "Okpa" compared with control at P.5. Fluted
pumpkin leaf had the highest ash content (4.52 + .3) followed by the combination of the leaves (4.51+ .2), and
then the scent leaf (4.45 + .1) compared with the control (4.9 + .5), confirming that the presence of these
vegetables boosted the ash (mineral) contents of the "Okpa". 1he "Okpa" with scent leaf had the highest crude fiber
(11.92 + .2), followed by "Okpa" with combination of these leaves (11.3 + .), and then the fluted pumpkin leaf
(1.1 + .12) compared with the control (3.37+.11). 1his also shows that the presence of these vegetables
increased the crude fiber content of the "Okpa" which could ease off the dryness and hardness of "Okpa" to the
palate experienced by the consumers and the constipation as a result of ingestion of "Okpa". 1he percentage crude
protein, fats, carbohydrate, moisture and energy values were not altered significantly at p .5. 1he sensory
evaluation of the samples did not show any significant change at p .5. 1herefore, addition of vegetables,
especially fluted pumpkin leaves could serve as a boost to the nutritional value of "Okpa" and ease off the dryness,
heaviness and hardness to palate experienced while ingestion.
Keywords: Okpa, Bambara nut, Fluted pumpkin and Scent leaves
INTRODUCTION
'Okpa is a well-cherished Iood, especially among the
inhabitants oI the eastern part oI Nigeria. However it is
derived Irom Bambara nuts. Bambara nut (Joand:eia
Subterranean (l) thouars) which is the botanical name
synonyms oI vigna subterranean and belongs to the
plantea oI the Iamily oI fabaceae and subIamily oI
fabiodea. It is a legume, an indigenous to the tropical
AIrica (Kay, 1979). Bambara is grown extensively in
Nigeria (Oguntunde, 1985, Enwere, 1998) but it is one oI
the lesser utilizedlegume in Nigeria.
In Nigeria, the Ireshly harvested pods are cooked,
shelled and eaten as a vegetable snack, while dry seeds
are either roasted and eaten as a snack (Kay, 1979;
Alobo, 1999) or milled into Ilour and used in preparation
oI moi-moi (Olapade, et al, 2005) analogy called 'okpa'
among the Igbo tribe oI Nigeria (Enwere, 1988). For
most Iood uses, the seed coats oI legumes including
Bambara are removed to reduce the anti-physiological
Iactors and Iiber content, and this result in better
appearance, texture, cooking quality, palatability and
digestibility oI the products (Akinjayeju and Enude,
2002).
Dehulling can be accomplished manually or
mechanically depending on the type oI legume and /or
quantity involved (Ehiwe and Reichert, 1987).
Dehulling has been a limitation Iactor in the preparation
oI Ilour Irom Bambara that could produce acceptable
moi-moi substitute, most especially with respect to the
texture and Ilavour. The conventional method used
always result into a product with a very hard texture and
strong beans Ilavour (Alobo, 1999). Lack oI knowledge
oI the Iunctional, chemical and nutritional properties oI
some legumes grown in developing countries is
responsible Ior their less utilization in Iood Iormulations
(Udensi, et al, 1999). Bambara nut is a complete Iood
eaten in various Iorms either in mature or Iully ripe. The
seed is hard, smooth, usually round and varying in size
up to about 1.5cm in diameter (kay, 1979). It can also
vary in colour Irom white, cream, dark brown, red or
black and may be speckled or patterned with
combination oI these colours.
The extract Irom the nut oI Joand:eia subterranean
particularly the protein extracts can be used directly in
cosmetic Iormulation and provides speciIic properties
and notable particular eIIects. The nut can be used quite
Ireely to replace the high prized lumps oI meat Ior
adequate nutrition. The unique properties oI bambara nut
which 'Okpa' is been made Irom, make it serve as
balanced Iood which contain almost all the vital nutrients
31
that promotes good health Ior living in AIrica (Obizoba
and Egbuna, 1992).
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Fluted pumpkin, scent leaves and cream coloured variety
oI Bambara nut were procured Irom Ekeonunwa market,
Owerri, Imo-state Nigeria.
PREPARATIONOFBAMBARAFLOUR
The seeds were thoroughly cleaned and sorted to remove
extraneous matters. The clean seeds weighing 200grams
was used.
The seeds were stepped in cold water at room
0
temperature 25 C Ior 8hrs. The seeds were later dried in
0
air draught drier at 65 C Ior 48hrs to moisture content oI
about 10. The seeds were separately dehulled using
plate milled with clearance oI 6mm between the plates.
The cotyledons were hammer mill to pass through
0.8mm screen size.
PREPARATIONOFTHE~OKPA SAMPLES
Fresh paste was prepared Irom Bambara Ilour. Flour oI
0
200g was hydrated with 300ml oI warm water (60 C) and
mix thoroughly. The paste was divided into Iour equal
parts. To the Iirst portion, plain paste was dispensed into
a clean banana leaI. To the second portion, paste mixed
with sliced Iluted pumpkin leaves was dispensed into
another clean banana leaI.
To the third portion, paste mixed with sliced scent leaves
was also dispensed into a clean banana leaI. To the Iourth
portion, paste with Iluted pumpkin leaves mixed with
scent leaves was also dispensed into a clean banana leaI.
Then steam Ior 45mins at ambient temperature.
SAMPLECODING
SAMPLE A- plain Okpa (control), Sample B- Okpa
with Iluted pumpkin leaI, Sample C- Okpa with scent
leaI, Sample D- Okpa with Iluted pumpkin and scent leaI
combined.
ANALYSIS
5g oI each sample was taken and were careIully coded as
shown above. The proximate analysis oI the samples, that
is the ash content, crude Iiber, protein moisture, Iat and
carbohydrate contents were determined using the
standard method as described by Association oI OIIicial
Analytical Chemist 1984. Also the sensory evaluation
was carried out.
SENSORYEVALUATION
The 'Okpa samples (A, B, C and D) were presented to a
ten panel oI judges who are Iamiliar with the product Ior
sensory evaluation. The trained panel scored the
appearance, Ilavour, taste, and texture and overall-
acceptability oI the 'Okpa using a nine point hedonic
scale. Where 9 indicate extremely like and 1 extremely
dislike.
STATISTICALANALYSIS
Data obtained were statistically analyzed using one way
ANOVAat 95 conIidence interval (P0.05).
RESULTS
Table 1.1: PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF THE 'OKPA SAMPLES
SAMPLES CRUDE CRUDE FAT ASH MOIS- CARBOHY- ENERGY
PROTEIN FIBER TURE DRATE VALUE
(Kcal)
4.91+0.03 216.28+24.70
3.73+0.11*
16.92 *
10.01+0.12* 0
A 0.20 * 4.93+0.01 4.52+0.03* 47.44+0.92 26.62+0.77 213.98+23.90
B 16.80+ 4.91+0.03 * 48.13+0.07 25.64+0.31 0
11.92+0.02*
C 0.35 * 4.90+0.03 4.45+0.01 47.95+0.08 26.01+0.33 214.86+24.71
D 16.68+0.40 4.91+0.01 * 48.11+0.04 25.80+0.16 1
11.30+0.06*
16.69+0.20 * 4.51+0.02 214.11+24.31
* 1
32
Values Means + Standard deviation
Values with `` are highly signiIicant, and ` are signiIicant at p 0.05,
Values without asterisk are not signiIicant at p 0.05.
Table 1.2: SENSORYEVALUATION OF THE 'OKPA SAMPLES.
Table 1.2: SENSORYEVALUATION OF THE ~OKPA SAMPLES.
SAMPLES APPEARA TASTE FLAVOUR TEXTURE OVERALL
-NCE ACCEPTABILITY
3.70+2.1 5.30+2.72
5 2
A 3.40+1.90 5.10+2.0 4.20+2.8 4.10+2.69 3.60+1.56
B 4.60+2.69 7 6 3.30+2.93 4.60+1.62
C 3.00+1.55 5.00+1.8 5.90+2.4 3.70+2.05 4.60+1.56
D 3.00+1.84 9 7 4.40+2.06 5.10+1.04
3.60+1.9 6.90+1.2
6 2
Values mean+ standard deviation. Values are not signiIicant at p0.05
DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
The results as shown in table 1.1 indicate that addition oI the vegetables aIIected the ash contents
signiIicantly in the samples at p 0.05. Sample B had the highest ash content (4.52 + 0.03), Iollowed by
sample D, (4.51 + 0.02), and then by sample C, (4.45 + 0.01) compared with the control sample A(4.09 +
0.05). This shows that addition oI vegetables could serve as a boost to the ash content oI the 'Okpa. The ash
content oI a sample is a measure oI its mineral content.
Also, the crude Iiber contents oI the samples as shown in table 1.1 were aIIected signiIicantly at p 0.05.
Sample C had the highest (11.92 + 0.20), Iollowed by sample D (11.30 + 0.06), and then sample B (10.01 +
0.12) compared with the control sample A (3.73 + 0.11). This also indicates that addition oI vegetables
especially scent leaI to 'Okpa will increase its Iiber content which will help in bowel movement. This could
reduce or stop constipation and ameliorate the dryness and hardness oI 'Okpa to the palate experienced by
consumers while ingestion. The percentage crude protein, Iats, carbohydrate, moisture and energy values
were not altered signiIicantly at p0.05,as shown in table 1.1. The results oI the sensory evaluation as shown
in table 1.2 did not showany signiIicant change at p 0.05.
CONCLUSION
ThereIore, addition oI vegetables especially Iluted pumpkin leaves or scent leaves to 'Okpa a delicacy
produced Irom Bambara nut increases its ash (mineral) and Iiber contents. This increase could ameliorate the
dryness andhardness oI 'Okpa to the palate experienced by consumers during ingestion.
REFERENCES
Akinjayeju, O. and Enude, O.T (2002). Properties oI Bambara (voand:eia subterranean.L thou) Ilours.
Italian journal oI Iood Science N01, vol 14.53-58.
33
Alobo, A.P (1999) Production and assessment oI moi moi Irom Bambara groundnut (voand:eia
subterranean.Lthouars). Plant Ioods Ior human nutrition 53.313-320.
Ehiwe ,Aand Relchert, B.M (1987). Variability in quality oI Bambara groundnut and other Cereals. Cereals
chemistry.64,86.
Enwere ,N.J (1998) Foods oI plant origin: processing and utilization with recipes and Technology proIiles.
AIro-orbits publishers. Nsukka, Nigeria P59-61.
Kay, D.E (1979): Food legumes. Crop and product digest N0 .1. London: TPI, P. 142.
Nigerian Food Journals (2007). DiIIerent methods oI producing Bambara Ilours Ior making moi-moi. Vol
25,No.2, (www.ajol.inIo/journals/niIog) ISSN0189.
Obizoba, I.C and H.I Egbuna, (1992). nutritional quality oI Bambara nut (voand:eia subterranean.L
thouars) andits product. plant Ioods human nutr, 42;13-23.
th
OIIicial Methods oI Analysis(1984). Association oI OIIicial Analytical Chemist Washington DC4 edition.
Oguntunde, A.O (1985). Development oI new Iood products Irom readily available raw materials. Paper
present at the Nigeria institute oI Iood science and technology training workshop Ibadan, Nigeria.
Olapade, A.A, Ugokwe, P.U, Ozumba, A.U, Solomon H.M, Olatunji O. and Adelaja S.O(2005) proximate
analysis oI premixes Ior preparation oI okpa. Nigerian Iood journal vol.22, 54-59.
34
FUTUREAND PROSPECT OF FOOD PACKAGING IN EMERGING ECONOMY
ILESAAMI OLUSOLABRIDCE1
FOOD TECHNOLOGYDEPARTMENT, LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC
Email: ilesanmiolusola28yahoo.com
ABSTRACTS
1he future and prospects of food packaging in emerging economy was investigated. 1he health of the
packaging industry is strongly linked to that of the world economy as a whole. Demographics lifestyle issues,
convenience, health awareness, house hold sizes, brand issues, retail trends etc are the factors that affect the
growth and sustenance of food packaging in emerging economies such as India, Brazil, China, Indonesia,
South Africa amongst others. Emerging markets implies business opportunities new lean, functional and
convenient packages are paths to follow. Knowledge, training and innovation are essential to address
encountered challenges.
INTRODUCTION
The need Ior packaging has been long-lasting/
sustainable, but the designs, material, styles and
Iunctions has evolved and developed tremendously over
the years (WPO, 2005). Used in a wide range oI
industries across Iood and drink, health care, cosmetic
and other consumer goods, packaging has become an
essential everyday item, with its usage growing broadly
in line with the global economy (Bix et al, 2003). As oI
2003, the packaging sector accounted Ior about 2 oI
the gross national product in developed countries. About
halI oI this market was related to Iood packaging
(Schneider et al, 2010). Developing business in
emerging economy such as India, Brazil, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Russia, south AIrica, South East Asia, Turkey,
Mexico and Argentina have impact on Iood and
beverages packaging industries (Dixon, 2005).
The economy is the single most imports inIluence on
packaging consumption. The level oI economic activity
has a Iairly direct inIluence on demand Ior bulk
packaging in particular and indirectly provides the right
or wrong climate Ior investment into packaging
materials research and development (E.P.O, 2005).
Factors such as demographic, liIe styles issues,
convenience, house hold sizes, health awareness etc,.
peculiar with emerging economy also have direct
inIluence on the Iuture oI Iood packaging in such
emerging economies.
As in any other industry, there are Iailures but over all,
the packaging industry has worked successIully to
optimize packaging solutions over past decades. In the
current tough economic climate, with enormous
pressure on merging, packaging buyers won't pay one
cent extral Ior something that isn't required to promote
and protect their Iood products. Hence, this report
investigates the Iuture and prospects oI Iood packaging
Iuture and prospects oI Iood packaging in emerging
economy.
Packaging is the science, art, and technology oI
enclosing or protecting products Ior distribution,
storage, sale and use( Soroka, 2002). Packaging also
reIers to the process oI design, evaluation and production
oI packages. Packaging can be described as a
coordinated system oI preparing goods Ior transport,
warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging
contains, protects, preserves, transports, inIorms and
sells. In many countries it is Iully integrated into
government, business, and institutional, industrial, and
personal use(Brody et ai,1997).
Package labeling is any written, electronic or graphic
communications on the packaging or on a separate but
associatedlabel.
The Iirst packages used the natural materials available at
the time: baskets oI reeds, wineskins (Botabags),
wooden boxes, pottery vases. Ceramic amphorae,
wooden barrels, woven bags, etc. processed materials
were used to Iorm packages as they were developed: Ior
example, early glass and bronze vessels. The study oI old
packages is an important aspect oI archaeology. The
earliest recorded use oI paper Ior packaging dates back to
1035, when a Persian traveler visiting markets in Cairo
noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were
wrapped inpaper Ior the customers aIter they were sold.
Iron and tin plated steel were used to make cans in the
th
early 19 century. Paperboard cartons and corrugated
th
Iiberboard boxes were introduced in the late 19 century.
In 1952, Michigan state university became the Iirst
33
university in the country to oIIer a degree in packaging
engineering.
th
Packaging advancement in the early 20 century
included Bakelite closures on bottles transparent
cellophane overwraps and panels on cartoons, increases
processing eIIiciency and improve Iood saIety. As
additional materials such as aluminum and several types
oI plastic were developed, they were incorporated into
packages to improve perIormances and Iunctionality. In-
plant recycling has long been common Ior production oI
packaging materials. Post consumer recycling oI
aluminum and paper based products has been
economical Ior many years: since the 1980s, post
consumer recycling has increased due to curbside
recycling, consumer awareness and regulatory pressure.
The purpose of packaging and packages labels
includes;.
- Physical protection: The objects enclosed in the
package may require protection Irom, among other
things, mechanical shock, vibration, electrostatic
discharge, compression, temperature, etc
- Barrier protection: a barrier Irom oxygen, water
vapor, dust etc, is oIten required. Permeation is a
critical Iactor in design. Some packages contain
desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelI
liIe. ModiIied atmospheres or controlled
atmospheres are also maintained in some Iood
packages. Keeping the contents cleans, Iresh, sterile
and saIe Ior the intended shelI liIe is a primary
Iunction.
- Containment of agglomeration: small objects are
typically grouped together in one package Ior
reason oI eIIiciency, Ior example, a single box oI
1000 pencils requires less physical handling than
1000 single pencils. Liquid, powders, and granular
materials need containment
- Information transmission: packages and labels
communicate how to use, transport, recycle or
dispose oI the package or product. With
pharmaceutical, Iood, medical and chemical
products, some types oI inIormation are required by
governments. Some packages and labels also are
used Ior track and trace purposes.
- Marketing: the packaging and labels can be used by
marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase
the product. Package graphics design and physical
design ha been important and constantly evolving
phenomenon Ior several decades. Marketing
communications and graphics design are applied to
the surIace oI the package and (in many cases) the
point oI sale display
- Security: packaging can play an important role in
reducing the security risks oI shipment. Packages
can be made with improved tamper resistance to
deter tampering and also can have tamer evident
Ieatures to help indicates tampering. Packages can
be engineered to help reduce the risk oI packages
pilIerage. Some package constructions are more
resistant to pilIerage and some have pilIer
indicating seals. Packaging may include
authentication seals and use security printing to
help indicate that the packages and contents are not
counterIeit. Packages also can include anti-theIt
devices, such as dye-packs, RFIDtags, or electronic
article surveillance tags that can be activated or
detected by devices at exist points and require
specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in
this wayis a means oI loss prevention.
- Convenience: packaging can have Ieatures that add
convenience in distribution, handling, stacking,
display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing,
reuse, recycling, and ease oI disposal.
- Portion control: single serving or single dosage
packaging has a precise amount oI contents to
control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can
be divided into packages that are a more suitable
size Ior individual household. It is also aids the
control oI inventory. Selling sealed one-liter-oI
milk, rather than having people bring their own
bottles toIill themselves.
PACKAGING TYPES
Packaging may be looked at as being oI several diIIerent
types. For example a transport package or distribution
package can be the shipping container used to ship, store
and handle the product or inner packages. Some identiIy
a consumer package as one which is directed toward a
consumer or household.
Packaging may be described in relation to the type oI
product being package: medical device packaging
military materials packaging, pharmaceutical packaging
etc.
It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by
layer or Iunction: 'primary, secondary, etc
- Primary packaging is the material that Iirst
envelopes the product and holds it. This usually is
the smallest unit oI distribution or use and is the
packagewhichisindirect contact withthecontents.
- Secondary packaging is outside the primary
packaging, perhaps used to group primary packages
together
- Tertiary packaging is used Ior bulk handling,
warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most
common Iorm is a palletized unit load that packs
36
tightly into containers.
These broad categories can be some what arbitrary. Fro
example, depending on the use, a shrink wrap can be
primary packaging when applied directly to the product,
secondary packaging when combining smaller
packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution
packs.
SYMBOLS USED ON PACKAGES AND LABELS
Many types oI symbols Ior package labeling are
nationally and internationally standardized. For
example packaging, symbols exists Ior product
certiIications, trademark, prooI oI purchase, etc. some
requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspect
oI consumer use and saIety, Ior example the estimated
sign that notes conIormance to EUweight and measures
accuracy regulations. Examples oI environmental and
recycling symbols include the recycling symbols, the
resin identiIication code and the 'Green Dot.
Bar codes, universal product codes, and RFIDlabels are
common to allow automated inIormation management
in logistics and retailing. Country oI original labeling is
oIten used.
Technologies related to shipping containers are
identiIication codes, bar codes, and electronic data
interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve
to enable the business Iunctions in the process shipping
containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has
an essential Iunction: identiIication cods wither relate
product inIormation or serve as keys to other data, bar
codes allow Ior the automated input oI identiIication
codes and other data, and EDI moves data between
tradingpartners within the distribution channel.
Elements oI these core technologies include UPC and
EAN item identiIication codes, the SCC-14 (UPC
shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (serial shipping
container codes), interleaved 2-oI-5 and UCC/EAN-128
(newly designated GSI-128) bar codes symbologies, and
ANSI ASCX12 and UN/EDIFACTEDI standards.
Small parcel carriers oIten have their own Iormats, Ior
example, United Parcel Services has a MaxiCode 2-D
code Ior parcel tracking.
RFID labels Ior shipping containers are also increasing
in usage. A wall-mart division, Sma's club, has also
moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its
suppliers Ior compliance.
Shipments oI hazardous materials or dangerous goods
have special inIormation and symbols (labels,
Plackards, etc) as required by UN, country and speciIic
carrier requirements. Two examples are below.
With transports packages, standardized symbols are also
used to communicate handling needs. Some common
ones are show below while others are listed in ASTM
D5445 'standard practice Ior pictorial marking Ior
handling oI good' and ISO 78- 'pictorial marking Ior
handling oI goods.
PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATION
Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logistics
system. Packages designed Ior controlled shipments oI
uniIorm pallet loads may not be suited shipments with
express carriers.
An example oI howpackages design is aIIected by other
Iactors is the relationship to logistics. When the
distribution system includes individual shipments by a
small parcel carrier, the sortation, handling, and mixed
stacking make severe demands on the strength and
protective ability oI the transports packages. II the
logistics system consists oI uniIorm palletized until
loads, the structural design oI the packages can be
deigned to those speciIic needs: vertical stacking,
perhaps Ior a longer time Irame. Packages designed Ior
one mode oI shipment maynot be suited Ior another.
With some types oI products, the design process involves
details regulatory requirement Ior the package. For
example with packaging Ioods, any package components
that may contact the Iood are Iood contact materials.
Toxicologist and Iood scientists need to veriIy that the
packaging materials are allowed by applicable
regulations. Packaging engineer needs to veriIy that the
completed packages will keep the product saIe Ior its
intended shelI liIe with normal usage. Packaging
processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be
validated to comply with regulations and have the well
beingoI the consumer inmind.
Sometimes the objectives oI packages development
seem contradictory. For example, regulations Ior an
over-the-couter drug might require the package to be
tamper evident and child resistant. These intentionally
make the packages diIIicult to open. The intended
consumer, however, might be handicapped or elderly and
be unable to readily open the packages. Meeting all goals
is a challenge.
Packaging design may take place within a company or
with various degrees oI external packaging engineering,
independent contractor, consultant, vendor evaluations,
independent laboratories, contact packagers, total
outsourcing, etc some sort oI Iormal project planning and
project management methodology is required Ior all but
the simplest packages design and development
37
programs. An eIIective quality management system and
veriIication and validation protocol is mandatory Ior
some types oI packaging and recommended Ior all.
ENVIRONMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Sustainable Packaging
Packaging development involves considerations Ior
sustainability, environmental responsibility, and
applicable environmental and recycling regulations. It
may involve a liIe cycle assessment which considers the
materials and energy inputs and outputs to the package,
the packaged product (contents), the packaging process,
the logistics system, waste management, etc. it is
necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirement
Ior point oI manuIacture, sale and use.
The traditional 'three R's oI reduce, reuse, and recycle
are part oI a waste hierarchy which may be considered in
product and packages development.
- Prevention: waste prevention is a primary goal.
Packaging should be used only where needed. Proper
packaging an also help prevent waste. Packaging plays
an important part in preventing loss or damage to the
packaged product (contents). Usually the energy content
and materials usage oI the product being packaged are
much greater than that oI the package. Avital Iunction oI
the packages is to protect the product Ior its intended use:
iI the product is damage or degraded, its entire energy
and materials content may be lost.
- Maximization: (also 'source reduction) the mass
and volume oI packaging (per unit oI contents) can be
measured and used as one oI the criteria to minimize
during the package design process. Usually 'reduced
packaged also helps minimize costs. Packaging
engineers continue to work towards reduced packaging.
- Reuse: The reuse oI a package or component Ior
other purpose is encouraged. Returnable packaging has
long been useIul (and economically viable) Ior close
loop logistics system. Inspection, cleaning, repair and
recuperated are oIten needed. Some manuIacturers re-
use the packaging oI the incoming parts Ior a product,
either as packaging Ior the outgoing product or as part oI
the product itselI
- Recycling: recycling is the reprocessing oI
materials (pre-and post-consumer) into new products.
Emphasis is Iocused on recycling the largest primary
components oI a package: steel, aluminum, papers,
plastics, etc. small components to better Iacilitates
recycling.
- Energy recovery: waste-to-energy and reIuse-
derived Iuel in approved Iacilities are able to make use oI
the heat available Irom the packaging components.
- Disposal: Incineration and placement in a sanitary
landIill are needed Ior some materials. Certain states
within the US regulate packages Ior toxic contents,
which have the potential to contaminate emission and
ash Irom incineration and leach ate Irom landIill.
Packages should not be littered.
Development oI sustainable packaging is an area oI
consideration interest by standards organizations,
government, consumers, packagers, and retailers.
MARKET TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS
The health oI the packaging industry is strongly linked to
that oI the world economy as a whole. However, reliant
upon upstream industries Ior their raw materials,
packaging converters have to cope with Iluctuations in
rawmaterials price, dependent upon levels oI supply and
demands. In climate oI low overall inIlation, rising
prices Ior rawmaterials have put something oI a squeeze
on converters. Downward pressure on price is being
exerted by brand owners and retailers alike
exacerbated by moves towards consolidation at all levels
oI the supply chain. In addition, moves towards central
purchasing by packaging buyers have also impacted
upon packaging margins.
To summarize, also in limited growth, mature markets in
eastern Europe, Japan and North America, there remain
opportunities Ior growth driven by more Iunctional and
convenient packaging, as well as general growth across a
range oI consumer goods area. At the same time, rapid
growth in packaging usage in the Iast growing
economies oI Asia, middle East, Latin America and also
eastern Europe has presented new opportunities Ior
packaging suppliers.
KEYDRIVES AND TRENDS
The progression oI packaging demands is inIluenced by
a wide range oI Iactors, Irom year to year and also Iactors
with a much longer term inIluenced. While the economy
plays a central role in inIluencing the size and growth oI
the market, there are a number oI other Iactors which can
be seen as having a direct or at least indirect inIluence on
packaging demands or, at any rate, the nature oI this
demand, irrespective oI the perIormances oI the
economy. These include;
- The ageing oI the world population
38
- The trends towards smaller households
- The increasing requirement Ior convenience
amongconsumers
- Risinghealth awareness among consumer
- The trends towards on the go liIestyle among
increasingly time-poor consumer
- Gr o wi n g r e q u i r e me n t I o r b r a n d
enhancement/diIIerentiation in an increasingly
competitive environment
- Newpackaging materials development
- The move towards smaller pack sizes as the
incidence oI Iamilies eating together at the
dinner table become less common
- Increasing awareness oI environmental issues,
and the adoption oI new regulatory requirement
on packaging recycling.
- Climate change combat and carbon Iootprint
- Consolidation and globalization oI retailers
- E-commerce
Economic trends
The economy is the single most important inIluence on
packaging consumption. The level oI economic activity
has a Iairly direct inIluence on demands Ior
bulk/transport packaging in particular, and indirectly
provides the right oI wrong climate Ior investment into
packaging materials research and development. In recent
years, the progression oI the worlds economy has been
strong but also unevenly distributed, with rising oils and
raw materials prices and strong growth particularly in
emerging markets. In the US, the economy is slowing
down (lead by declining property prices) and the
resulting Iinancial turmoil may slow down the World
economic development in the years ahead.
Demographic trends
Mush is said about the potentials oI China's one billion
consumers, but demographics Iactors oIten have a much
more complex eIIect on demands trends. In the
packaging market, a great deal oI attention has been
devoted to ensuring that the oIIer responds to the oIIer
responds to the demands oI particular demography
segment, and takes into account the ageing oI the worlds
populationthat is nowoccurring.
The population oI the world currently stands at 6.47
billions, up Irom 4.07 billions people in 1975, and set to
grow to around 9.08 billion by 2050 talking the average
oI UNIorecasts. By the same measures, the population oI
AIrica will more than double to 1.94billion, while that oI
Asia will grow by around one third to 5.2 billion. The
population oI Europe, meanwhile, a Iorecast to decline,
Irom 728 million to 653 million, with the population oI
the world's more more developed regions set to rise only
slightly, Irom 1.21 billion to 1.24 billion.
China is currently the world's most populous nation with
a population oI 1.32billion, ahead oI india at 1.1 billion
and the USAat 298 million. Inia is et to overtake China
by 2050, when its population will have risen to 1.59
billions versus China's 1.39 billions.
Olderpopulation
The nature oI population in the worlds today is causing
government a great deal oI concern. Populations are
ageing, and this is leading to Iears oI what will happen
when the boomer generation retires, potentially using
political clout to demand better pensions, healthcare and
general social provision- to the extent that may create a
too great drain on the economy.
The ageing oI the worlds population is being caused by
two Iactors: on the one, Iertility decline or Ialling birth
rate; and also increasing liIe expectancy due to advances
in healthcare. In 1950, around 8 oI the world's
population was aged 60 years or over, since which time
that Iigure has risen to 10 and is expected to reach 22
by 2050. The number oI children aged 0-14, by contrast,
is expected to remain pretty much static, rising Irom 1.82
billion in 2005 to 1.83billion by 2050, with the share oI
under 15s Ialling Irom 28 to20.
Lifestyle issues
LiIestyle trends that are today impacting upon consumer
purchasing decisions are important. For the liIestyle
industry, many oI these trends are positive, encouraging
innovation and expansion oI e.g. chilled cabinet
selections in supermarkets. Consumers are becoming
increasingly demanding and short oI time, seeking our
convenience Iood solutions that represent an advance on
more traditional processed Ioods. The expectations oI
Iood quality are rising and growing awareness oI health
and other issues present new challenges to retailers,
packers and packaging supplier alike.
Smallerhousehold and smallerpack size
Social change is indirectly leading to medication in
packaging design. The average oI household is
declining in line with the rising number oI single parent
households and single persons households, and as a
result there have been moves towards smaller packs
sizes. This trend is being reinIorced by the decline in the
Iamily meal, as more and move women enter into the
workplaces. As working hours becomes less standards,
39
opportunity Ior the Iamily to eat together are becoming
Iewer.
Convenience
Rising sales oI convenience Ioods and developments in
conveniences Iood packaging have been a major Ieature
oI packaging markets in recent times. Packaging
technology has developed to the extent that the ready-
meal oIIer has improvedsigniIicantly, attractinga broader
and also wealthier customer base than was previously
possible, as consumers are prepared to pay a premiumIor
quality, pre-preparedmeals.
HEALTHAWARENESS
Consumer health concerns are an increasingly inIluence
in many end use markets Ior packaging. Examples
include:
- Rising sales oI bottled water, Iruit juice and milk
drink markets in many coy tries, to the detriments oI
spirits andinsomecountries, carbonatedsoIt drinks
- Increasing demands Ior packaged Iresh Iood
products.
On-the-golifestyles
On-the-go liIestyles have emerged as a result oI several
Iactors. Longer working hours, longer commuting times
andas wider rangeoI leisureactivities haveall contributed
to the notion oI 'time poor consumers. In addition,
consumers are less inclined to spend what valuable time
they have preparing Iood. The main consequence oI this
has been an increased incidence oI snacking during the
day and rising out-oI-home consumption as well as a
greater relianceonreadypreparedIoods intheevening.
BRAND ISSUES
Brandenhancement/differentiation
Packaging is a major aspect oI diIIerentiation in most
consumable goods where diIIerentiation com petition is
intense and packaging can provide a marketing
advantages at the points oI sale. Packaging is also a major
cost component in the majority oI consumable products.
Taking an 'extreme example, 48 cents out oI every
dollars (48) oI Cokers product costs is Irompackaging.
OI thetotal market, 60lies intheareas oI position.
Primary containers and Ilexible packaging- the container
and wrappers that give immediate protection to the
packages products. The power oI the global brands
continues to increase strongly. Where markets are
dominated by a small number oI companies, the success
or otherwise oI a new packaging product can oIten be
assured by its adoption by just one major global brands.
Aside Iromquickly generating a high level oI demands in
its own right, this also tends to bring with a copycat
switches byminor brands.
Retails trends
The retail industry is increasing in power and diversity.
Hypermarkets are usually sited outside the city centre,
while discounters can be Iound everywhere and specially
are usually in the larger cities. Convenience stores
continue to make headway and grow strongly, located in
airports, train station and city centre. In emerging markets,
super and hypermarkets are expanding rapidly, boosting
overall consumptionandalsotakingmarket share Iromthe
traditional local (Opem) market, where most oI the
produce is not individually packed. Various issues will
aIIect Iuture retails trends, including consolidation,
technology, services, quality and trust, liIestyle and
emotions.
On-line retailing, with goods, either being delivered
throughthepost or viaretailers ownIleets oI deliveryvans,
is expanding strongly. Today, items delivered are oIten
'over packed in packs that are not speciIically designed
Ior the purpose. In the Iuture, packaging development
tailoredtotheneeds oI on-lineretailingwill benecessary.
Newpackagingmaterial developments
Enabling new market developments, high-perIormance
packaging has been developed with strong barrier
characteristics, and also in certain instances active and
intelligent components as well. These may adapt to
changes in pack contents and environment and extend
shelI liIe; or provide inIormation on the pack and its
contents topromotesupplychaineIIiciencies.
Keyareas underconsiderationinclude;
- Highbarrier materials
- Activepackaging
- Intelligent packaging
- Nanotechnology
- Digital print Ior packaging
Climatechangeandenvironmental issues
Environmental concerns have led to government
throughout the world taking steps to deal with the issues oI
packagingwaste andrecycling. Packagingdirectives Irom
the European commission, Ior example, have led to the
imposition oI challenging targets Ior recycling, and
national government are also examining new ways to
discourage packaging waste. LandIill is a major political
issue, with landIill taxes and ban on landIill oI organic
materials being introduced by governments. In some
cases beIore the necessary inIrastructure is in place to
provide alternatives todisposal.
40
In the light oI climate change and environmental
concerns, major retailers and brands owners have started
to put pressure on suppliers, demanding carbon Iootprint
and sustainable business practice. Also consumers have
begiun to desire all thing natural, unaIIected by
'unnatural' processes, hence the suspicion oI GM Ioods,
etc. the packaging industry has taken steps to address the
environmental questions, but this has been more oI a
Iunction oI cooperation with government rather than a
broader perspective. Abroadcollaborationthroughout the
value chain will be required in the Iuture to address
sustainability, avoidingsub-optimization.
Downgaugingandlight weighting
One eIIect oI constant pressure on industry to reuse
resources use and cost together with environmental
legislation, has been to encourage the packaging industry
to reduce the amount oI packaging used, by light
weightingoI materials, withexamples across metal, glass,
plastics, plastics and paper and board packaging. This has
been made possible through the development oI new
technologies aimed at the strengthening oI materials
through new Iormulations and processes, Iactors which
have also inIluenced other packaging materials areas. The
use oI lighter corrugated container board is a signiIicant
trend in world paper and board packaging markets,
particularly in developed countries. In Europe, there have
been signiIicant increases in the use oI containerboard oI
100 gsm or less, Iacilitated by recent new capacity Ior
lighter materials. In Northern America and other parts oI
the world, however, the trends towards Weight has been
somewhat slower, but is nowcatchingup.
CONCLUSION
There are a number oI market developments with major
implications Ior the packaging industry. Designs have to
improve continuously to meet the changing market and
sustainability needs. Emerging markets, with a growing
muIIle class, adopting a consumption liIe style, implies
business opportunities. New lean, Iunctional and
convenient packaging, are paths to Iollow, both in mature
andemergingmarkets.
Fluctuating raw materials price in combination with
pressure Ior price reduction Irom consolidation brand
owners and retailers is a challenge Ior the industry.
Demands are changing as retailers globalize and increase
penetration in emerging markets. Also packaging suitable
Ior e-business is a Iuture dream together with active and
smart packaging.
To address these challenges, knowledge, training and
innovation are essential. WPO are committed to make a
contribution here continuing our mission to improve
quality oI liIe through better packaging to more propel.
Tools in this context are WordStar (student) Award,
trainingprogrammes, workshops, andseminars etc.
REFERENCES
Bix, L; Rifon, Lockhart, De La Fuente (2003) 'The
PackagingMatrix. LinkingPackages
Brody, A.L. Marsh, K.S. (1997). Encyclopedia OI
PackagingTechnology. ISBN0- 471-06397-5
Chio, Seung-1in; Burgess (November 2007). '
Practical Mathematical Model To
DeIense Packaging Policy Group. DeIense Logistics
Agency. Retrieved7June2011.
Design Criteria To The Marketing Mix. IDS Packaging
Retrieved2008-12-11
Diana Tweed (2005) 'The Origins Of Paper Based
Packaging`. ConIerence OI Equipment`. In Barry A.
Law, A.Y. Tamime. Technology OI Cheesemaking:
Second Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-
8298-0.
Historical Analysis And Research In Marketing
Proceeding12; 288-300(289). Retrieved2010-03-20
Houstuffwork.Com. ~How Anti-Shoplifting Devices
Work`. Http://Electronics.HowstuIIworks.Com/Anti-
ShoplliIting-Device.Htm
1ohnston, R.G. (1uly 1997). ' Effective Julnerability
Assessment Of Tamper-Indicating Seals`. J. TestingAnd
Evaluation25(4)
Lee, Ki-EUN; Kim, An, Lyu, Lee (November 1998).
'Effectiveness of Modified
Maloney 1.C. (1uly 2003). 'The History And
Significance Of Military Packaging. Predict The
Performance Of Insulating Packages. Packaging
Technology And Science 20 (6): 369-380 DOI: 10-
1002/Pts. 762. ProIessional ISBN 1-930268-25-4
'Michigan State School Of Packaging` Michigan State
University. Retrived2012-2-11.
Atmosphere Packaging In Preserving APrepared Ready-
To-Eat Food`. Packaging Technology And Science 21
(7): 417. DIO: 10.1002/Pts. 821
Schneider; C. Kluge, U. Weib, H. Rohm (2010).
'PackagingMaterialsAnd
Severin, 1. (1uly 200). 'New Methodology For Whole-
PackageMicrobial Challenge
Soko (2002). Fundamental Of Packaging Technology,
InstituteOI Packaging
Testing For Medical Device Trays. J. Testing And
Evaluations 35(4)
Trends andDevelopment. PIRAPUBCO.
WorldPackagingOrganization(WPO) (2005):
Global WorldPackaging: Market
41
ON SOME VARIATION OF OPIAL'S INEQUALITY
`Y.O ANTHONIO, O. RADERELE and O. MAKINMOLADUN
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Nigeria.
Correspondence: 08023330906 Email: anthonioiiyahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we employ 1ensen's inequality for the case of convex functions to obtain a special case of
Shum's generalization of Opial's inequality.
Keywords: Integral inequalities, Optial's inequalities, Shum's generalizations, 1esen's inequalities, convex
functions.
AMS MSC[21j 2D7, 2D1.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Some decades ago a Polish Mathematician called ZdzidlawOpial established an inequality involving integrals
oI a Iunction and its derivative, which was named aIter him as Opial's inequality.Since its discovery in 1960,
Opial's inequality has proved to be one oI the most useIul inequalities in Analysis. Opial (|5|) Iirst established the
Iollowing interesting integral inequality.
Theorem 1.1
Then, the Iollowing inequality holds.
Literature abounds with papers which generalized Opial's inequality. (cI. |1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8| and reIerences in
them).
In these generalizations or extensions, the authors have used diIIerent methods to obtain their results. Among the
diIIerent investigations is Shum's generalization |6, 7, 8|. Shun in (|7|) gave a general and sharpened Iorm oI
Opial's inequality.
Our objective in this paper is to use the Jensen's inequality Ior convex Iunctions to obtain an extension oI a special
Iorm oI Shum's generalization in |7|.
2.0 SHUM'S INEQUALITIES RELATEDTO OPIALS
In 1974, Shum T. Dadded his own contribution to literature. He used diIIerential inequality Ior a result that looked
more complexin the expressionthan other generalizations.
Shum (|7|) obtainedthe Iollowing inequality.
Theorem 2.1
42
where
?
0 and
Remark 2.1
Which is a special case oI Shum's generalization.
3.0 SOMEADAPTATONS OF 1ENSEN'S INEQUALITIES
Let continuous and convex and let h(s, t) be non negative, s 0, t 0 and be non-decreasing. Let - (t)
q(t) , and suppose has a continuous inverse (which is necessarily concave). Then,
With the inequality reversed iI is concave. The inequality (3.1) above is known as Jensen's inequality Ior
convex Iunction. Setting (u)
correspondence oI (3.1), we have Ior 1 ~ 1
Which we write as
and Ior
As the reverse oI (3.2).
Furthermore, iI it Iollows Irom (3.2) that
43
4.0 MAIN RESULT
In this section, we take a class oI Iunctions which does not change sign on |a, b| and we use it to obtain a
direct extension oI inequality (2.3). Towards this end we need the Iollowing lemma.
Lemma 4.1
Then,
Proof:
In the inequality (1.8), let
Then, we have

Combining (4.4) and (4.3), yields,

When satisIies the condition in (3.3). Consequently,
44
putting
We have,
Combining (4.5) and (4.7), we have
On simpliIying and arranging the above inequality (4.8), it becomes
Let
Thus
Putting inequality (4.10) into (4.9), we have
Multiplying both sides oI (4.11) with then, integrate over |a,b| with respect to t, we obtain
43
Take the RHS oI (4.12) and then integrate by parts to obtain
SimpliIying (4.13), we have
using the Iact that Ior
we have
46
Simplifying (4.15) further, we obtain,
Evaluating the last integral on the RHS of the (4.16), we have
We combine (4.12) and (4.17) to obtain,
Since f is non-decreasing and f(t) ~ 0 whenever t ~ 0, on [a, b], 0 take modulus
of both sides without changing the inequality sign, to obtain.
This completes the proof of the Lemma.
1heorem 4.1 Let all assumptions of Lemma 4.1 hold. Then,
47
Proof:
Suppose q 1 and p l 1 in inequality (4.19) above. Then,
Rearranging (4.24) gives
48
becomes inequality (4.20)
49
INVESTIGATION INTO MICROBIOLOGICALAND BIOCHEMICALCHARACTERISTIC OF
MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROMCASSAVAFLOUR IN NIGERIA.
1 2
ODE1UADE, S.K and L. O. ADEBA1O
Lagos State Polytechnic Department Olabisi Onabanjo University
of Science Laboratory- Microbiology unit. Microbiology Department
E-mail: odetundesimeonyahoo.com
Abstract
An investigation was carried out to study the micriobiological evaluation of nine cassava flour samples
obtained from six different states, Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Kwara, and Kano within Aigeria. Studies of the
cassava flour for its chemical, microbiological and deteriorative effects were carried out using conventional
methods of deterioration. 1he bacterial isolates were, identified as Flavobacterium sp, Micrococcus luteus,
Bacillus subtilis, B. polymyxia, B. cereus and Escherichia coli, while the fungal isolates include Aspergillus
niger, A. flavus, Fusarium oxyporum and Rhizopus sp.
Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) belongs to the
Iamily Euphorbiaceae and is grown almost entirely
within the tropics (Amoa - Awua, 1996). The cassava
plant is a perennial shrub grown Ior its edible tubers. It
is thought to have originated in Tropical America and
to have been introduced to AIrica by the Portuguese
th
around the 16 Century. Currently, it is widely
cultivated and the major staple crop in most sub
Sahara countries (FAO, 1991). Cassava accounts Ior
over halI oI the root tuber crops grown in AIrican
countries '62 millions oI tones in 1989, represented
42 oI the world, cassava output (FAO, 1991).
Cassava is one oI major Iood product produced in
Nigeria, Brazil, Zaire and Thailand which together
produce over two third oI the world production
(Bokanga, 1996). Despite its low protein content (1
3), cassava is however an excellent source oI
carbohydrate in the Iorm oI starch (80 90 oI root
parenchyma by dry weight). Cassava is rich in
thiamine, riboIlavin and niacin (Wheatley et al., 1994;
Amoa Awua, 1996). Cassava is the most important
Iood in terms oI dietary carbohydrate and many
households eat cassava daily in various Iorms
(Kormawa and Akoroda, 2003). Cassava is the
seventh most important crop in the world and it
constitutes a staple Iood Ior 800 million people (Hahn
and Keyster, 1985). Cassava is grown almost entirely
within the tropics (including the arid and semi arid
tropics). In Nigeria, it grows well even in the Iar North
including the Southern and Northern parts oI Sudan
savannah vegetative zones (Oyenuga, 1967). Now
cassava is in more than 39 countries in AIrica
including Nigeria, Benin, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
Ghana, Zimbabwe, Republic Democratic oI Congo
and Mosambique (Oyewole, 2002).Cassava edible
portion is 38 percent dry matter. Cassava contains
vitamin C only in the vitamin group (Oyenuga 1967;
FAO, 1968) and the vitamin is greatly aIIected during
processing. The concentration oI cyanogenic
glucosides in cassava tubers increases Irom the center
oI the tuber outwards and the hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) content oI the peel is substantially higher than
that oI the Ilesh.
Most cassava is consumed rawor as a snack when the
plant is still young. Recently, the crop has become
tremendously important industrially Ior production oI
livestock Ieed, starch, textile, industrial alcohol and
Ior the manuIacture oI cassava Ilour, macaroni variety
oI Iood and beverage (FAO, 1991 and IITA. 2005).
Traditionally, cassava roots are processed into
diIIerent products according to local customs and
preIerences (Hahn, 1987). Cassava is a single species,
Manihot esculenta Crantz (symnonymous with
Manihot utilisima Pohl.). Cassava is believed to have
originated in Northern Brazil with likelihood oI an
additional center oI origin in Central America
(Rogers, 1963). It has spread to various parts oI the
world and it is today cultivated in all tropical regions
oI the world, thus it is a tropical crop grown between
0 0
30 N and 30 S oI the equator in areas with an annual
rainIall oI 750 1300mm and mean temperature oI
0
greater than 20 C(Mayhem and Penny, 1988; Indira et
al., 1997).
Booth (1976), reported that the microbial
deterioration oI cassava was due to the activities oI
complex Iungi, such as Phythium, Mucor, Rhi:ophus
and Penicilliumas well as some bacteria, Bacillus and
Xanthomonas spp. During processing the cell
structural integrity is usually lost, and the cyanogenic
glucosids come in contact with limarase thus initiating
the Iormation oI Hydrogen Cyanide. Since Iood
processing usually include heating, the HCN
produced is likely to evaporate completely (Bokanga,
30
1996). Various Nigeria daily newspapers reported in
1989 that cassava consumption had introduced acute
intoxication while diseases oI endermic and epidemic
proportion have been reported in scientiIic literature
(Nestle, 1973).
MaterialsAnd Methods
Samples Collection: A total oI nine (9) samples oI
cassava Ilour were collected Irom six (6) diIIerent
states:- Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Kwara and Kano
respectively:- choice oI collection were based on
high consumption, cassava industrial utilisation and
high production. All the above cassava Ilour samples
were collected aseptically in sterile laboratory
polythene bags and were transported immediately to
International Institute oI Tropical oI Agriculture
Laboratory Ior immediate analyses.
Isolation of the associated microorganisms
One gram (1g) each oI cassava Ilour sample was
weighed separately inside sterile heat resistant glass
tube. Ten milliliters oI sterile water was added to each
cassava Ilour sample to dissolve the sample. An
homogenizer was used to ensure Ior proper mixing
together beIore serial dilution oI each sample into
10
various sterilized screw cap test tube up to 10
2 8
dilution. From an appropriate dilution oI 10 to 10 ,
1m oI each was then inoculated onto the Iollowing
media as shown below.
Table 1: Cassava flour samples analyzed and place
of collection,.
SAMPLE Place of collection States
CODE
AVL Albakem Nig. Ent.Sango Ogun
EF Achisa Musa Muhammed
Nig. Enterprises Kano
FIR Federal Institute oI
Industrial ResearchOshodi Lagos
FM Flour Mill IndustryApapa
Lagos. Lagos
HLI Hillinson Nig. Enterprises
Ilorin Kwara
MAL Ministry oI Agriculture
Oko Oba, Lagos Lagos
RS Real processing unit IIe
Ibadan Road Oyo
UPS UltimateProcessingSection,
Shagamu Rd., Ikorodu Lagos
YNE Yasima Nig. Enterprises
CBUIFONRoad. IIon. Osun
The diluted sample 1ml each was spread on to
prepared Nutrient Agar (oxoid) by the pour plate
method in order to determine the total viable counts.
0
Incubation oI the plates was carried out at 37 C Ior
24hrs 48hrs (Harrigan and McCance, 1982). The
2 -5
diluted samples, (10 10 ) were also spread onto the
Potatoes Dextrose Agar (Oxoid) with lactic acid
(2.5ml in litre) Ior inhibition oI bacteria. The pour
plate method was also observed in order to determine
the various yeasts and moulds present in the samples.
0
The plates were then incubated at 30 CIor 24hrs in the
case oI yeast and 4 5 days Ior moulds (Harrigan and
McCance, 1982). AIter incubation the organisms
were enumerated and puriIied by successive streaking
on Iresh agar plates to get pure cultures. The puriIied
cultures The slants were stored in the reIrigerator at
0
4 C.
Morphorlogical and Biochemical Tests
The various micro organisms were subjected to
morphological and biochemical tests Ior their
identiIication according to the combined speciIication
oI Beech et al, (1994) and Wheatley et al, (1994). The
bacteria isolated were stained according to the method
oI Tortora et al., (1994) as Iollows. Athin smear oI the
isolate was prepared on a clean and grease Iree glass
slide, air dried and heat Iixed and stained with crystal
violet Ior 60 seconds and then rinsed with tap water.
The smear was covered with Lugols' iodine solution
Ior 60 seconds and washed oII under gentle running
tap water. The smear was decolourized using alcohol
aIter which it was washed under tap water and counter
stained with carbon Iuchsin Ior 30 seconds rinsed in
tap water and blotted dry with a piece oI Iilter paper.
The stained cells were later examined under the oil
immersion objective oI the microscope. AIew drops
oI Ireshly prepared 3 hydrogen peroxide were
added to 24h old culture on a slide. The production oI
catalase enzyme was detected by the evolution oI a
gas as a white Ioam (Olutiola et al., 1991).
Methy - red Voges proskauer(MRVP)
The cultures inoculated into 10ml sterile MRVP
medium dispensed in test tubes were incubated at
0
30 C Ior 72hrs. AIter incubation the cultures were
divided into two portions oI 5ml and 1ml
respectively. To the 5ml portion, Iive drops oI 0.4
methyl red solution were added. To the 1ml portion
was added 0.5ml oI 6 ethanolic solution oI alpha
naphtol and 0.5ml 6 potassium hydroxide. The
tubes were observed Ior colour reaction (Olutiola et
al., 1991).
Sugarfermentation
The sugar solutions were 1 oI glucose, galactose,
31
maltose, arabinose, Iructose and xylose. The medium
used was 1 peptone water, glucose and Iructose
0
solutions were sterilized at 115 C Ior 10minutes and
0
the rest at 121 CIor one minute. Phenol red 0.1 was
used as the indicator Ior acid production. Ten
milliliters oI the medium was dispensed into test tube
containing inverted Durham tubes to detect the
production oI gas by the isolates. Each mould isolate
was cultured on potato dextrose agar and observed Ior
the Iollowing pigmentation and character oI the
hyphae.
Microscopic Examination
Slide preparation oI the mould were made, pieces oI
the young mycelium Irom the periphery oI the culture
was made with a sterile inoculating loop and put on a
glass slide. The cut sections were Ilamed brieIly to
melt the agar and later stained with lactophenol cotton
blue, cover slips were placed over them and examined
under the microscope.
Identification of Mould Isolates
The mould isolates were identiIied by initial sub
culturing as pure cultures and thereaIter stained with
lactophenol cotton blue reagent and examined under
the oil immersion objectives oI the light microscope.
The main characters employed in the identiIication oI
moulds are summarized as Iollows: Hyphae: Separate
or non separate. Mycelium: coloured or non
coloured. Types oI asexual spores, nature oI spores,
presence oI special structures such as stolon, rhizoids,
and Ioot cells.The various moulds isolated and
identiIied Irom cassava samples used Ior the analysed
were summarised on Tables 5 and6.
ResultsAnd Discussion
The result is shown in table 1,2 and 3. The groups oI
bacteria and Iungi observed in this study conIirms
microbial contamination oI cassava Ilour samples
obtained Irom diIIerent locations. A total oI six (6)
bacteria species were isolated. The isolation oI
Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus is an indication oI
possible health hazards posed by (Olowoyo et al.,
2001). Escherichia coli is an indication oI possible in
Iood samples although some strains are normal
inhabitants oI intestine oI man and other animals
(Frazier and WesthoII, 1994). Aerobic spore Iormers
have been implicated in spoilage oI bread and starch
based Ioods and in Iood intoxications. Thus, they
constitute health hazards and are potential spoilage
agents. B. cereus (a spore Iorming organism) is widely
distributed in nature and in Ioods. Their spores have
ability to withstand high temperature and they produce
enterotoxins which may cause Iood poisoning
(Olowoyo et al., 2001, Midura et al., 1990). The
aerobic spore Iorming bacteria have been enumerated
and used to investigate the quality oI cassava Ilour
'lafun (Abba et. al., 1991). Bacillus spp can survive
and thrive on various kinds oI Ioods. Isolated Bacillus
0
spp in milk heated above 100 C, thus indicating the
ability oI their spores to withstand high temperature.
Most oI the organisms isolated might have been
introduced into the Iood samples Irom soil and water
used during processing. Among the requirements Ior
Ioods to be oI good sanitary quality is that they must be
Iree oI hazardous microorganisms or those present
should be at a saIe low level (Frazier and WesthoII,
1994). The quality oI Ioods is determined by the
content oI indicator organism. Indicator organisms
any organisms whose presence or number serve to
indicate the condition or quality oI materials. Their
presence in Ioods may indicate that Ioods were
exposed to conditions Iavourable Ior the introduction
and growth oI pathogenic organisms. The occurrence
oI lactose Iermenters such as Esherichia coli indicate
the presence oI coliIorms which suggests a degree oI
contamination with Iaecal discharges oI human and
animal (Anon, 1974, ReIai, 1979, Uriah and Izuagbe,
1990, Olowowo et al., 2001). The most predominant
moulds isolated in this investigation are Penicillium
sp, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Rhi:opus sp,
and Fusarium sp. Kuku et al., (1984) and Abba
Kareem et al .(1991), isolated similar Iungi such as
Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger Irom
cassava Ilour. Species oI Aspergillus isolated in this
work are undesirable in Ioods. Some strain
Aspergillus flavus have been reported to be toxin
producing. These toxins are heat stable and hence
when consumed may result in Iood intoxication.
Moulds are potential spoilage agents (Uriah and
Izuagbe, 1990). The genus Penicillium sp isolated in
this study show one oI the three major mycotoxins
producing Iungi (Dicken and Jones, 1981, Olowoyo et
al; 2001). The discoloration coupled with the oII
Ilavour oI the cassava Ilour as shown in Table 6 are due
to the activities oI the inIecting mould species. Moulds
are generously endowed with extracellular proteolytic
or lipolytic enzymes and so can cause soItening oI
Iood products (Frazier and WesthoII, 1994, Olowoyo,
et al., 2001). Moulds growth also causes oII Ilavours
in Ioods and change in appearance oI Iood have been
related to mould growth (Elmer,1990). Spores oI
various species oI moulds are heavily suspended in air
especially in an untidy and unhygienic environment.
These sporulating moulds thereIore easily get in
contact with Ioods that are openly displaced in baskets
or bowls. The similarity in the types oI organisms
isolated Irom the samples and those reported by other
workers conIirms the
32
T
A
B
L
E

1
:

B
i
o
c
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m
i
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a
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o
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i
a

I
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f
r
o
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C
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a

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a
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s
C e l l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
C a r a l a s e
O x i d a s e
K O H
C o a g u l a s e
O x i d a t i o n
F e r m e n t a t i o n
M o b i l i t y
G e l a t i n
h y d r o l y s i s
S t a r c h
H y d r o l y s i s
C a s e i n
H y d r o l y s i s
L a c t o s e
S u c r o s e
F r u c t o s e
A r a b i n o s
G a l a c t o s
M a l t o s e
X y l o s e
G l u c o s e
P r o b a b l e
i d e n t i t y
I s o l a t e
c o d e s
C o l o n y
m o r p h o l o g y
33
34
n
e
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c
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33
36
37
TABLE3: Various Moulds Isolated on each Cassava FlourSamples
SAMPLECODE
AVL Fusariumoxysporum, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Penicilliumspp
EF Aspergillus niger
FIR Penicilliumspp, Aspergillus flavus
FM Penicillium, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus spp, Rhi:opus spp
HLI Rhi:opus spp, Aspergillus niger
MAL Penicilliumspp, Aspergillus niger, flavus
RS Aspergillus niger, Penicillus spp, Fusariumoxcyspurum, Aspergillus flavus
UPS Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus
YNE Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus
Iact that some oI the microorganisms are indigenous to
cassava Ilour (Abba Kareem et al. 1990). Alozie et
al., (1980), have shown that Aspergillus flavus can
grow and produce toxins in gari, a cassava product.
Okpokiri, et al., (1984), reported that Aspergillus have
been implicated in problem oI aIlatoxicity in cassava
root meals in Thailand, Hong Kong, Brazil and India.
Furthermore, Reiss, (1978), had shown that baking
0
temperature (120 C Ior 30 mins) as well as low
amounts oI volatile acids in bread do not degrade
aIlatoxin B to any reasonable extent. A similar
1
phenomenon can occur iI cassava Ilour containing
aIlatoxins is used in bread making, with obvious
consequence to the health oI the consumers. Studies on
the participatory roles oI the mould isolates on cassava
Ilour samples are as shown in Table 7. The result
revealed a gradual drastic reduction in the weight oI the
Ilour with time. This thus indicates a rapid deterioration
oI the cassava Ilour. The deterioration may be as a result
oI the utilization oI the nutrients in the cassava Ilour Ior
growth by the mould isolates. This observation agrees
with the submissions oI Abba Kareem, et al., (1991).
Studies on the participatory roles oI bacteria isolates on
cassava Ilour samples are as shown in Table 8. The
result revealed a gradual reduction in the weight oI the
cassava probably due to the deteriorative role oI the
Ilour samples. The deterioration may be as a result oI
the utilization oI the Iood nutrients Ior growth by the
bacteria species. Studies on the moisture content as
presented in Table 3 show that all the samples had
various values that were very lowwith the lowest value
oI being 9.66 and the highest oI 10.54. The
signiIicance oI low moisture contents in Ioods cannot
be overemphasized as they help to enhance the shelve
liIe oI Iood samples and prevent rapid spoilage by
microorganisms (Uriah and Izuagbe, 1990).
Conclusion
Studies carried out revealed the presence oI pathogenic
microorganisms which include bacteria species oI
Flavobacteriumsp, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cerus, B.
substilis, B.polymyxia and Mixcrococus luteus. Also
pathogenic mould species which include Penicillium
sp, Aseprgillus niger, A. flavus, Rhi:opus sp. and
Fusarium sp. were isolated Irom cassava Ilour. The
presence oI these pathogenic microorganisms is thus an
indication oI microbial contaminations with an
incessant possibility hazards on the health oI man. It is
rather impossible to avoid microbial contamination oI
Ioods during harvest and subsequent processing.
ThereIore, the practice oI basic sanitary rules in
preparing Ioods should be employed to improve on the
hygienic condition oI Ioods. Contamination oI Ilour
samples by these pathogens could be eliminated by
some heat treatment and observing the necessary basic
sanitary rules oI hygiene. Also, the use oI sterilized
processing equipment should be given adequate
attention as this will go a long way at alleviating
problem associated with the presence oI these
contaminating microorganisms.
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60
THE GROWTH PATTERN, FOODAND FEEDING HABIT OF ELOPS
LACERTA(TEN-POUNDER) IN THE BRACKISH WATER PONDS OF BUGUMA, RIVERS
STATE OF NIGERIA
Bolarinwa, J.B,
Department of Fisheries Technology & Aquaculture, Lagos State Polytechnic,
P.M.B. 21606, Ikefa, Lagos, Nigeria.
E-mail: bolabolero2007yahoo.com Tel.08023014849.

ABSTRACT
The growth pattern and Iood habits oI 140 Iresh samples oI Elops lacerta oI total length range 3.5cm-27.0cm
(mean size 15.13 + 6.9cm) in the brackish water ponds oI Buguma, Rivers State were studied. The length-
weight relationship was described by the equation Log W0.02 2.46 Log TL .Correllation coeIIicient 'r'
was 0.98. The value oI 'b' Ior this extraneous species was 2.46 showing negative allometric growth pattern
while a mean condition Iactor 'K' oI 0.66 reIlecting poor environmental conditions was observed. E. lacerta
showed the preIerence oI Iish Ior shrimps, especially Penaeus duorarum (54.8 by Occurrence method,
24.3 by numerical method). This is closely Iollowed by juvenile Iishes among which Sarotherodon
melanotheron was the most common (19.8 Occurrence Irequency and 10.6 by Numerical Irequency).
Size preIerence oI E.lacerta in the brackish water ponds oI Buguma was observed to be prey size range,1.5-
2.0cm even though up to 5.0cm total length S.melanotheron was preyed upon. Ontogenetic switch to
piscivory was noticed in E.lacerta at 6.0cm total length. E.lacerta in size range, 3.5-5.9cm revealed
microphagous Ieeding habit with preIerence Ior zooplanktons while those in size range 6.0-27.0cm Ied on
shrimps and juvenile Iishes. There was a corresponding change in number, shape and structure oI gill rakers
as the Iish changes to piscivory. Cannibalistic tendency was displayed by E.lacerta especially those in size
group, 6.0-14.0cm (7.1 Occurrence and 5.6 by number). Shrimps were ingested tail-Iirst and Iin Iishes
head-Iirst probably due to morphological advantages. This study also reveals E.lacerta as a potential
predator Ior biological control oI excessive breeding oI the cichlids especially S.melanotheron, thus
reducing the stunting problem peculiar to the cichlids.
Keywords: Cannibalistic, Elops lacerta, Extraneous, Microphagous, Ontogenetic, Predator
INTRODUCTION:
The importance oI studies oI Iood and Ieeding habits
were reported by some workers because such
investigations could provide useIul inIormation on
the positioning oI Iishes in a Iood web in their
environment apart Irom helping in Iormulation oI
management strategy options in a multispecies
Iishery( Joseph and Djama,1994). Knowledge oI the
Iood oI Iishes is very important not only Ior the
understanding oI relationship between Iish and its
environment but also to provide answers to practical
problems which arise in relation to human
exploitation.
Aminu et.al (2003) reported diet overlap between
two prehistoric Iishes viz Polypterus senegalus and
Polypterus endlicheri in River Rima, Sokoto, Malami
et.al (2007) reportedthat the IoodpreIerence oI Iishin
their natural habitat may serve as a milestone in
satisIyingthemunder culturecondition.
ShinkaIi and Maradun (2008) also studied the Iood
habit oI another lung Iish , Protopterus annectens in
River Rima,Sokoto and observed it to be
omnivorous Ieeding mainly on other Iishes,
crustaceans, mollusks, leaves, seeds and detritus.
Akegbejo-Samson (1995) reported the preIerence oI
Tilapia melanopleura Ior plant material, detritus and
diatoms in the coastal areas oI Ondo State. The
predominant catIishes in the coastal waters, Clarias
gari epi nus pr eI er r ed and Chrysi cht hys
nigrodigitatus Ied more on Iish Iragments, detritus,
nematodes and insects while Heterotis niloticus
preIerred plant materials and planktonic organisms.
The growth pattern, Iood and Ieeding habits oI
young bonga, Ethmalosa fimbriata in Lagos and
Lekki lagoons investigated by Soyinka and
Kusemiju (2007) revealed the preIerence oI young
bonga Ior planktons, crustaceans, Iish eggs and plant
materials, However, more copepods, diatoms and
plant materials were consumed in Lagos lagoon as
against spirogyra in Lekki lagoon.
61
Knowledge oI the Ieeding spectra oI Iish would help
in establishing the speciIic Ieeding relationships
among economically Iishes Ior mixed culture.
Selection oI compatible Iishes whose Iood
preIerences do not overlap would be better Iacilitated
when taken strategic management decisions like
stocking and Ieeding. In tidal ponds like that in
Buguma, Rivers State oI Nigeria, there is relatively
high tendency Ior extraneous Iishes to enter the
ponds thus competing with the originally Iish
stocked in the ponds. It is thereIore important to
know the Ieeding habits oI these extraneous Iishes
that came in with the tide as this would assist in their
control (Balarin, 1998, Fagbenro, 2002, JaIri et al,
1977).
King and Nkata (1991) reported a dearth oI
published inIormation on the composition, biology
and ecology oI the diverse icthyoIauna oI South
East area oI the Niger Delta (Teugels et. al, 1992),
hence the need to study the dietary habits oI our
endemic Iishes in Nigeria.
Past studies revealed the deceivingly complex
nature oI predator-prey relationships hence, the
need Ior an in depth study oI the Ieeding habits oI
native predators (Fischer, 1994, De GraaI et.al,
1996, Bolarinwa, 1995). The main objective oI the
study is to conduct an in-depth study oI the Iood and
Ieeding habits oI Elops lacerta in the brackish
water ponds oI Buguma. Knowledge oI the dietary
habits oI Iish would help in Ieed Iormulation and
other management decisions under polyculture
system apart Irom serving as input in modeling
studies oI predator pre-relationship
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS:
The research was conducted in the brackish water
ponds oI Buguma, an island lying between the
extensive zone oI swamps in the Niger delta area oI
Rivers State oI Nigeria. it is situated 41km Irom the
Atlantic Ocean apart Irom having an annual rainIall
oI 3.165m and average tide oI 1.65m and salinity
range oI 8 ppt 30 ppt (Pillay, 1965, Elakhame and
Sikoki, 2001, King and Nkata, 1991).
The IishIarm consist oI 15 earthened ponds oI size
range 0.2ha -1ha and tide-Iilled. The tidal range
makes it possible Ior the ponds to be impounded at
high tide and drained at lowtide.
Each oI the ponds was studied so as to know its
composition in terms oI extraneous species viz
Elops lacerta, Penaeus duorarum, Eleotrid sp,
Oxyrichthys occidentalis, Bathygobius soporator,
Mugil falcipinnis, Psettus sebae Callinectes
amnicola (swimming crab). Collection oI these
weed Iishes was during harvest using seine net. OI
all these extraneous Iishes, Elops lacerta happened
to be major in proportion.
140 Iresh specimens oI Elops lacerta (3.5cm-
27.0cm) were collected during harvest Irom the 4
hectare tide-Iilled brackish water ponds. There are
10 ponds, each oI which is 200m2 in size, 5 ponds
oI size 400m2 each and 2 nursery ponds oI size
200m2 each. These ponds were originally stocked
with Tilapia guineensis and Sarotherodon
melanotheron.
The total length, weight, gape length oI Iresh dead
specimens oI E.lacerta were taken aIter which gill
rakers were examined. The visceral organs were
exposed by ventral dissection. The gut analysis
started with an assessment oI digestion or degree oI
Iullness oI the stomach. The gut length oI each
specimen was measured beIore analysis oI its
stomach contents. The guts were cut open and the
contents sorted out into Iood items and the numbers
oI recognizable items were counted. The methods oI
analysis oI the gut used in this study is similar to
those used by previous workers on Iood and Ieeding
habits oI Iish in assessing the relative abundance
and importance oI various Ioods items by diIIerent
analytical methods. Ikusemeju and Olaniyan (1975)
used the percentage occurrence, numerical and
volumetrical analytical methods oI Iood items in
catIishes, Chysichthys walkeri, Chrysichthys
filamentosus and Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus in
Lekki Lagoon, Nigeria. Lagler (1956), WhitIield
and Blaber (1978) also used volumetric, numerical
and Irequency methods in gut analysis.
In the present study, analysis oI Iresh sample oI
E.lacerta was done using the numerical and
occurrence methods. The Irequency oI a Iood item
was got by Iinding the percentage oI the number oI
stomachs that contain the Iood item over the total
number oI stomachs that contain Iood items. The
percentage oI empty stomachs in E.lacerta was
noted.
The Numerical method A oI analysis was done by
Iinding the percentage oI the number oI each
recognizable Iood item on total number oI all Iood
62
items Iound inall Iood-containing stomachs as used by Ikusemiji and Olaniyan (1975).
Numerical methods as used by WhitIield and Blaber (1978) was done by Iinding the percentage oI the
number oI each recognizable Iood item on total number oI stomachs containing Iood items. Most oI the Iish
specimens were examined as soon as they were caught Iresh but some have their guts preserved in 4 oI
Iormalin.
RESULTS:
Summary oI the items oI Elops lacerta as shown in Tables 1 & 2 reveal the Iish to be predatory with
preIerence Ior shrimps (especially Penaeus notialis) which have occurrence oI 54.80 and 24.3 by
numerical method. Sarotherodon melanotheron ( occurrence oI 20.0 and numerical Irequency oI 10.5)
was the most abundant Iood item among the juveniles Iishes.
Other Iood items are the 2 gobiids, Batygobius soporator ( Occurrence 8.0 and numerical Irequency oI
5.0), Eleotris sp (0.8 occurrence, 0.6 by numerical method) and Oxyrichthys occidentalis (8
occurrence, 1.6 by numbers). Tilapia guineensis contributed 1.6 by occurrence oI 7.1 numerical
Irequency oI 5.0).
Summary oI Iood items taking diIIerent size-group oI E.lacerta as shown in Table 2 revealed an ontogenetic
switch to piscivory at 6.0cm. Fish oI size range 3.5-5.9cm preIerred microcrustaceans. Mysids contributed
6.4 occurrence methods, 6.4 by number, Cladocerans (especially Daphnia sp had 5.6 occurrence and
9.7 numerical Irequency. Copepods (especially Cyclops sp) contributed 6.4 by occurrence method and
6.0 by number as Iood items. There was less Ieeding on rotiIers ( occurrence 1.6 and 0.9 by numerical
methodA) and green algae with diatoms, Ankistrodesmus sp (a chlorophyte) had 2.4 occurrence and 9.1
by numerical method while Synedra sp, a diatom had 1.6 occurrence method and 5.3 by number. FinIish
contributed 0.00 by occurrence and organic matter, 2.4.
Those in size range oI 6.0-27cm Ied on shrimps and juveniles Iishes. Plankton was not represented at all in
the stomachs oI 65 specimens examined. There was corresponding change in number, structure and shape
with increase in size. The gill rakers were more numerous, Iilamentous and slender in the Iries but Iew, short
and sturdy in the bigger ones.
The cannibalistic tendency oI E.lacerta especially those in the size range, 6.0-14.9cm was revealed.
E.lacertaas Iood item contributed 71 by occurrence method and 5.6 by numerical method.
A low occurrence oI empty stomach was observed (10.0) while more than 75 oI the Iood-containing
stomachs were more than halI-Iull.
There was a positive correlation oI 0.98 between the total length oI Elops lacerta and weight when
linearised. Alinear relationship exists between its total length and gape-size as revealed by the regression
equation, Y0.01 0.12X. Ahigh positive correlation oI 0.96 was got.
Aplot oI total length against gut variables correlated as shown by r 0.76 gut.
There is a diIIerence in the mode oI ingestion oI shrimps and Iin-Iishes. Shrimps were mostly swallowed tail
Iirst while most oI the Iin-Iishes were swallowed head Iirst.
63
TABLE 1
SUMMARYOF THE FOOD ITEMS OF 140 E.LACERTAFROMBRACKISH WATER PONDS OF
BUGUMA
FOOD ITEMS OCCURENCE FREQUENCY NUMERICAL
METHOD METHODA METHOD B

No. oI Stomachs
With each
Food item No No
1. E. lacerta 11 8.73 24 7.10 24 19.05
2. S. melanotheron 25 19.84 36 10.65 36 28.57
3. T. guineensis 2 1.59 5 1.48 5 3.97
4. B. soporator (a gobiid) 10 7.94 17 5.03 17 13.49
5. Mullets (M. Ialcipinnis) 9 7.14 17 5.03 17 13.49
6. O. occidentalis (gobiid) 1 0.79 1 0.30 2 1.59
7. Eleotris sp 1 0.79 2 0.59 2 1.59
8. Shrimps (P. Duorarum
and Paleamonetes sp 69 54.76 83 24.56 24.56 65.87
9. Small crustaceans
i. Copepods (especially 8 6.35 20 5.22 20 15.87
Diaptomus sp)
ii. Cladocerans
Especially
Daphnia sp, Bosmina sp 7 5.56 33 9.76 33 26.19
iii. Mysids 8 6.35 22 6.15 11 11.46
10. RotiIers (Keratella sp) 2 1.59 3 0.89 3 2.38
11. Organic matter 6 4.76 - - - -
12. PHYTOPLANKTON
CHLOROPHYTA
(Green Algae)
i. Ankistrodesmus sp 3 1.38 31 9.17 31 24.60
ii. Chlorella sp 1 0.79 8 2.37 8 6.35
DIATOMOPHYCEA:
i. Asterionella sp 1 0.79 12 3.55 12 9.52
ii. Cyclotela 1 0.79 6 1.75 6 4.76
iii. Synedra sp 2 1.59 18 5.33 18 14.29
UnidentiIied items 5 3.97 - - - -
No. oI specimens observed 140 - Numerical method AaIter
oI Empty stomachs 10 Ikusemiju and Olaniyan(1975)
Numerical method B aIter WhitIield and Blaber (1978).
64
TABLE II
SUMMARYOF THE FOOD ITEMS OF 140 SPECIMENS OF E. LACERTAIN BYSIZE
GROUP
TOTALLENGTH 3.5-5.90cm 6.0-14.9cm 15.0-27.0cm
16 65 59
NO. EXAMINED No. Occurrence No. Occurrence No. Occurrence
1. Elops lacerta 0.00 0.00 5.56 7.14 0.88 1.56
2. S. melanotheron 0.00 0.00 2.63 5.556 7.31 12.70
3. T. guineensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 0.99
4.B. soporator (a
gobiid) 0.00 0.00 0.88 2.38 4.09 7.94
5. O. occidentalis
(gobiid) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.58 1.59
6. Mullets
(M. Ialcipinnis) 0.00 0.00 4.39 6.35 0.58 1.59
7. Eleotris sp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.79
8.Shrimps (P.duorarum)
Paleomonetes sp) 0.29 0.79 14.33 30.95 8.77 21.43
9. SMALL
CRUSTACEANS
I. Copepods(especially
Diaptomus sp 5.85 6 .35 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00
ii. Cladocerans
(especially
Daphnia sp,
Bosmina sp 1.65 5.56 6.43 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00
iii. Mysids 6.35
10. RotiIers
(Keratella sp) 1.17 1.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
11. Organic matter 0.88 1.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
12. PHYTOPLANKTON - 2.38 - 1.59 - 0.79
CHLOROPHYTA
(Green Algae)
Ankistrodesmus sp 9.06 2.38 3.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Asterionella sp
Chlorela sp 0.79 2.34 0.79
DIATOMOPHYCEAi. 1.75 0.79
Cyclotella sp ii. 5.33 1.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Synedra sp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
- 3.97
UnidentiIied items - - - -
No oI specimens observed 140 oI Empty stomachs10
63
DISCUSSION:
The present study reveals E.lacerta to be a predator
probably in density-dependent manner since it was
more prevalent in ponds originally stocked with tilapia
species. The analysis oI its stomach revealed its
preIerence Ior shrimps especially Penaeus duorarum,
another extraneous Iish in the brackish water ponds oI
Buguma. Shrimps contributed 55.0 by Occurrence
method and 24.3 by number. These Iindings agree
with the previous study on the Iood and Ieeding habit oI
a related species, Elops machnata (WhitIield and
Blaber, 1978), E.machnata also Iound to be more on
crustaceans especially shrimps most oI which are
swallowed tail-Iirst.
Factors like habitat, Iish size, swimming speed oI prey
have been Iound to be important in prey selection.
Shrimps, being slow swimmers as against the Iast-
swimming Iin-Iish prey might have being Ior their
vulnerability to predation by Elops spp (which are
equipped with Iorked tails peculiar to Iast swimmers).
The high vulnerability oI shrimps to predation might
also have been intrinsicallygoverned(Ivlev, 1961).
Other Iood items much eaten by E.lacerta are young
Iin-Iishes especially Sarotherodon melanotheron
(Table 1) stocked with the Cichlids might have being
responsible Ior their being well represented in the diet
oI E.lacerta. density-dependent predation is
suspected. The preIerence oI the cichlids to other Iin-
Iishes ( occurrence 19.84, 10.65 by number)
could be put to an advantage in biological control oI the
tilapias which are notorious Ior their proliIicacy which
causes stunted growth. The energy oI the Iemale
tilapias could have used to grow is being diverted into
gametogenesis (Mair et. al, 1991), hence the stunting
problem.
Cannibalistic tendency oI E.lacerta was revealed
especially Ior size range, 6.0-14.9cm. E.lacerta as prey
item accounted Ior 8.7 by occurrence and 7.0 by
number. Earlier studies on E. machnata did not
indicate any cannibalistic tendency (WhitIield et. al
1978).
Ontogenetic switch to piscivory was noticed in
E.lacerta which started Ieeding on shrimps and Iin-
Iishes at 6.0cm. those in length range 3.5cm-5.9cm
showed preIerence Ior microcrustaceans especially
mysids, cladocerans and copepods. The switch is
accompanied by a change in number, shape and
structure oI gill raskers. Fagade and Olaniyan (1972)
also observed similar change in Chrysichthys walkeri.
Gape limitation in predation was also noticed in
E.lacerta. a relative prey length ration oI 0.22 was
observed. Adirect relationship also between the gape
size and total length oI the predation, hence the
correlation coeIIicient oI 0.96. The maximum
consumable size oI prey increases with the increase in
predator's size. The most common size group oI
S.melanotheron and Tilapia guineensis consumed by
the predator was between 1.5cm-2.0cm. Other Iin-Iish
preyed like the gobiids Iall within size range, 2.5-
2.9cm.
Another striking observation in the present study is the
mode oI ingestion oI the shrimps and Iin-Iishes. The
latter were swallowed head-Iirst while the Iormer was
tail-Iirst. Abe.e-lund et. al (1996) reported a probable
morphological advantage in swallowing Iish head-
Iirst. The numerous appendages on the heads oI
shrimps might have been responsible apart Irom their
being sluggish-swimmers.
By and large, E.lacerta is a potential predator Ior
biological control oI the cichlids. Similar use oI a
predator, Megalops cyprinoides has been reported in
the brackishwater ponds stocked with Tilapia
mossambica in the Phillipines resulting in marked-size
tilapia (Fortes, 1980).
T
Fagbenro (et. al 1990) also reported a high A value i.e
oI harvestable market- size tilapia when C.
ischeriensis was stocked with Tilapia guineensis at a
ration oI 2: 1 however, care need to be taken to prevent
total extermination oI originally stocked cichlids. The
main problem with the use oI predators in recruitment
control oI highly Iecund Iishes is the choice oI an
eIIicient predator and determining the optimum size
with number to be stocked in order to obtain high
production oI marketable Iishes.
REFERENCES:
Abe-e-Lund, 1.H, Ass, P and Saegrow, H (1996):
Prey orientation in piscivorous brown trout. J. Fish.
Biol.l 48, 871-877.
Adesulu, E.A (1997): Current status oI Tilapia in
th
Nigerian Aquaculture. Proceedings oI the 4
International Symposium on Tilapia on Aquaculture
(ISTAIV) pp 577-583
(K Fitzsimmons.ed.) America Tilapia Association,
Orlando, Florida, USA.
Ajado, E.O and Edokpayi,C.A(2003) : Comparative
racial study oI Clarias gariepinus Irom River Niger
66
and Badagry lagoon, SWNigeria. Nigeria Journal of
Fisheries,41-48pp
Ezenwa, Anyanwu,P.E, Fleuren,W.G and Alakija,
A(2005): Water Recirculation System oI Aquaculture
in Nigeria: Problems and prospects oI the Dutch
model, 2005 Fisheries Society oI Nigeria
Proceedings.
Balarin, 1. D Lomo, A & Asafa, C.A (1998):
Aquaculture deIined in Animal Husbandary terms. A
case study oI Ghana International ConIerence Ior the
PARADI Association and Fisheries Society oI
Nigeria. Pp 191 (L. Cortze, J. Gon & C. Kulongwoski,
eds) Grahamstown, SouthAIrica.
Bolarinwa. 1.B (2001): The Iood and Ieeding habits
oI Elops lacerta an extraneous Iish in the brackish
th
water oI Buguma, Nigeria (presented at the 16 annual
conIerence oI Fisheries Society oI Nigeria, Nov. 2001
Fagbenro, O.A(1990): Studies on the use oI Clarias
ischeriensis Syndenham (Clariidae) as a predator in
Tilapia guineensis (Dumeril cichlidae) ponds.
Journal of Applied Icthyology, 6, 99-106 pp
Fasakin, E.A(2008): Fish as Iood: Yesterday, today
and Forever. Inaugural Lecture Series 48, delivered at
Federal university oI Technology, Akure, 04/03/08
Fagbenro, O.A (1992): Quantitative dietary protein
oI Clarias ischeriensis (Sydenham, 1980) (Clariidae)
Iingerlings. J. Appl. Icthyol. 8, 104-168pp
Graaf, G.1, Galemoni, F and Banzoussi, B (1996):
SuccessIul recruitment control oI Nile tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus by AIrican catIish, Clarias
gariepinus( Burchell, 1882) and the AIrican
snakehead, Ophiocephalus obscurus in a Ireshwater
pond oI Congo. I. Biological analysis. Aquaculture,
146: 85-100.
Hecht, Tand Appelbaum S, (1988): Observation on
IntrospeciIic aggression and coeval sibling
cannibalism by larval and juvenile Clarias gariepinus
(Clariidae: pisces) under controlled condition. J. Zool.
Lond. 214, 21-44.Ikusemiju, K and Olaniyan,
C.O.O (1975) The Iood and the Ieeding habits oI the
catIishes, Chrysichthys filamentosus (Boulender) and
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus Lacepede) in Lekki
lagoon, Nigeria, J. Fish. Biol. 10, 105-112.

1ackson, P.B.N (1961): The impact oI predation
especially by the Tiger-Iish, Hydrocyanus vittatus
cast. on AIrican Ireshwater Iishes. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond 132, 1-30.

1oseph, Y.1 and Djama, T(1994): Food habits oI two
scianid Iish species, Pseudotolithus senegalense and
Pseudotolithus typus oII Cameroon, Naga ICLARM
Quarterly 19: 40-41pp
Ofori, 1.K (1988): The eIIect oI predation by Lates
niloticus on overpopulation and stunting in mixed sex
culture oI Tilapia spp in ponds. In R.S.V Pullin,
T.Bhukaswan, K.Tonguthas and J.L.McLean
(editors). The Second International Symposium on
tilapia in aquaculture. ICLARM ConIerence
Proceedings, 15, Dept oI Iisheries, Bangkok, Thailand
and Center Ior Living Aquatic Resources
Management, Manilla, The Phillipines, 69-73pp
Olasebikan, B,D and Aminu, R (1998): Field guide
to Nigerian freshwater fishes, Federal College oI
Fresh water Fisheries technology, New Bussa, Niger
State, Nigeria, Decency Printers $ Stationeries
Ltd,51p
Soyinka,O.O and Kusemiju, K(2007):The Growth
pattern, Food and Feeding habits oI young Bonga,
Ethmalosa fimbriata (BOWDICH) Irom the Lekki
and Lagos lagoons oI Nigeria, Nigerian Journal of
Fisheries, 4(1).
67
1.0 INTRODUCTION: ORIGIN OF THE
PRINCIPLEOFRELATIVITY.
The principle oI relativity owes its origin primarily to the
attempt to express the laws oI nature by equations which
preserve the same Iorm Ior all systems oI reIerence; and
secondarily to the negative results oI all eIIorts to detect
the motion oI the earth relative to the ether. It is a matter
oI common knowledge that the equations oI motion oI a
body, as deduced Irom Newton's second law, retain their
original Iorm when the Irame oI reIerence S is replaced
by another S' which has uniIorm velocity v relative to
the Iormer. Weatherburn (1920) states that 'In this
special theory, iI we wished to make anything like a
complete survey oI the Iield, it would be advantageous to
use the properties oI Iour-vectors or space-time vectors
oI Iour components. II time is measured Irom the instant
when a point 0 Iixed in S coincides with the point 0
Iixed in S, the position vectors r, r' oI any other point
relative to 0, 0 respectively are connected by
r' r - tv
where t is the time variable. II the x-axis is taken
parallel to the uniIorm velocity v, this is equivalent to
x x - vt, y y, : z.
The transIormation represented by these relations leaves
the Newtonianequations oI motion unchanged in Iorm.
This, however, is not the case iI the transIormation is
applied to the Iundamental equations oI electrodynamics
as stated by Maxwell and Lorentz. Observers stationed in
the two systems would express the same phenomena by
equations not identical, but diIIering in certain terms oI
2 2
the order v /c , where c is the velocity of light in Iree
space. All experimental knowledge, however, leads to
the conclusion that the actions taking place in S depend
only on the relative velocities oI the diIIerent parts oI that
system, and are independent oI the relative velocity oI S
to any other system S. Starting with the desideratum that
the mathematical expression oI the laws oI physical
LORENTZ - EINSTEIN TRANSFORMATION: AVECTORAPPROACH USING THE PRINCIPLE OF
RELATIVITY.
ARIBIKE EMMANULLAEHUI
Aribike.ellayahoo.com
Department of Mathematics Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu
This paper discusses the general theory oI relativity and gravitation as advanced by Einstein is quite beyond the scope
oI this work. Its presentation seems to require some special analysis such as the absolute diIIerential calculus oI Ricci
and Levi-Civita. The paper is restricted to the principle oI relativity, which deal with systems oI reIerence whose
relative motion is a uniIorm velocity oI translation only.
Keywords: Relativity, Lorentz, Einstein, transIormation, uniIorm velocity, vectors.
phenomena should be the same whether these
phenomena are reIerred to S or to another system S
moving uniIormly with respect to it, Lorentz and
Einstein were led in diIIerent ways to the same
substitution satisIying the requirements. The
development oI Einstein's point oI view has led to the
theory oI Relativity.
2.0 The principle of relativity, and the Lorentz-
Einstein transformation. The celebrated experiment oI
Michelson and Morley (1887), was made to detect, iI
possible, a diIIerence in the speeds oI propagation oI
light in diIIerent directions relative to the earth's velocity.
The negative results oI this and other experiments,
whose methods were suIIiciently accurate to reveal
2 2
eIIects oI the rder v /c , lead to the conclusion that the
velocity oI light as accurately determined by an observer
in S is the same Ior all directions, and is independent oI
the motion oI that system relative to other systems. More
Iormally stated this principle is: Every light disturbance
is propagated, in vacuo, relative to the system S with a
constant speed c, whether it is emitted from a source
stationary or in motion relative to S.
To make the assumption clearer, suppose that Pis a point
Iixed in the system S, and that an arbitrarily moving
point-source oI light emits a Ilash just as it is passing
through P. Then, to an observer Iixed in S, the resulting
spherical wave oI light will travel out uniIormly in all
directions Irom the point P as permanent centre, the
radius r at a time t aIter the Ilash being equal to ct.
Similarly iI the point-source emits a Ilash while passing
through a point P Iixed in another system S, then to an
observer Iixed in S the spherical wave will have a
permanent centre at P, and its radius at a time t aIter the
Ilash will be r ct.
Considering the system (or Irame oI reIerence) S,
suppose that at various points oI it there are situated
clocks which are Iixed relative to S. The clocks are said to
be synchronous iI they satisIy the Iollowing condition.
68
Let A, B be two points Iixed in S, and suppose that a Ilash
oI light is sent Irom A at an instant when the clock at A
registers t . Let t be the indication oI the clock at B at the
1 2
instant when the Ilash arrives at B, to be automatically
reIlected back to A, arriving there when the clock at A
registers t . Then iI t t t t , that is, t (t t ), the
3 3 2 2 1 2 1 3
clocks at A and B are said to be synchronous. This
deIinition oI synchronism is, oI course, based upon the
ordinary idea oI allowing Ior the time oI transit. We shall
suppose that all clocks Iixed relative to S have been
synchronised, and remain permanently synchronous.
We may take it as axiomatic that iI the clock at B is
synchronous with that at A, then the clock at A is
synchronous with that at B. Also that iI the clocks at A
and B are each synchronous with another clock at C, they
are synchronous with each other.
Let S be another system (or Irame oI reIerence) with
another series oI clocks Iixed relative to it and
synchronous with one another. We can choose the units
oI length and time in the two systems in such a way that,
when the systems are in relative rest, they possess equal
units oI length and equal units oI time. Then iI the origin
oI time is the same Ior each, the clocks oI S are
synchronous withthose oI S.
Suppose now that by some means the system S has
acquired a uniIorm velocity v relative to S. Let the origin
oI time in each system be taken as the instant when the
two points 0, 0, Iixed in S, S respectively, were
coincident; and let these points be taken as origins oI
position vectors (or coordinates) Ior the two systems.
Then at a subsequent instant any one point will have a
position vector r (or coordinates x, y, z) relative to S, and
the S-clock instantaneously at that point will indicate a
time t, while the same point will have a position vector r'
(or coordinates x, y, :) relative to S, and the S-clock
instantaneouslyat that point will indicate a time t.
A. According to the principle enunciated above, the
velocity oI light has the same value c when measured
with reIerence to S or S, whether they are at relative rest
or in relative motion. Silberstein (1905), States that
'Starting with this assumption, Einstein deduced to the
Iollowing transIormation oI coordinates as consistent
with the principle II the x-axis. is taken in the direction
oI the velocity v oI S relative to S, the transIormation
may be expressed.
Where
and v is the module oI v. This is the same transIormation
that Lorentz had previously deduced Irom another point
oI view. The relations are clearly reciprocal. For iI the
equations are solved Ior x, y, :, t in terms oI the other
variables, we Iind
as we should expect, seeing that - v is the velocity oI S
relative to S.
3.0 Interpretation of the transformation.
Consider two points A, B Iixed in the system S, and let

their coordinates in that system be x , y , : , x , y , : .
1 1 1 2 2 2
Relative to the system S at the instant t let the coordinates

oI the same two points be x , y , : , x , y , : . Then Irom (1)
1 1 1 2 2 2
it Iollows that
Murray, (1959) states that to an observer Iixed in S the
distance between A and B, measured parallel to the
relative velocity v, appears less than it does to an observer
Iixed in S in the ratio while the distance
between the two points measured perpendicular to v
appears the same to both. Thus what appears to the S'-
observer to be a sphere, will appear to the S-observer to
be a spheroid Ilattened in the direction oI v. And the
larger the value oI the speed v the greater is the apparent
Ilattening; and when v c the Iigure appears plane to the
S-observer.
Abody Iixed relative to S, and having a volume J to
an S- observer, will have a volume
J to an S-observer. For, to the latter, the dimensions
measured parallel to v are times what
they are to the Iormer ; while the dimensions in the
perpendicular directions appear the same to both. We
may write this V
or
J J . . . . . . (3)
II we choose points A, B Iixed in the system S, and
consider these Irom the point oI viewoI the S'-observer at
the instant t, we IindIrom (2) inthe same way
69
and so on. The distance between the two points, measured
parallel to v, nowappears greater to the S-observer than to
the S observer, as we should expect Irom the reciprocal
nature oI the relations (1) and (2).
Consider nowan observer Iixed in S at the origin 0 oI that
system. Then since time is measured Irom the instant
when 0 coincides with the origin in S, his coordinates
relative to S are x vt, y 0, : 0. At a certain instant let
t be the time indicated by the S-clock near the observer,
1
and t that indicated by the S-clock instantaneously at the
1
same place. At another instant let t be indicated by the
2
same S'-clock, and t that shown by the (diIIerent) S-
2
clock, which is then instantaneously at 0. Then by (1)
t
1
so that t
1
Similarly t
2
and thereIore t t (t t)
2 1 2
We may, Ior example, take the above two instants as those
determined by two successive strokes oI the S'-clock.
Then the last equation shows that, to an S-observer, the
periodic time oI this clock is greater than to the S'-
observer inthe ratio :1 or 1: To the Iormer it
appears to go slower than to the latter.
4.0 Vectorial expression.
The transIormation (1) may be very neatly expressed
by means oI vectors, independently oI coordinate axes,
and thereIore without the Iormal privilege above
accorded to the x-axis. Let r xi yj :k, and r' xi
yj :k, be the position vectors oI a point relative to Oand
O respectively. Then the Iirst oI equations (1) is
equivalent to
r'.i (r.i - vt) . . . . . . i
while the second and third are then included in
r' - r'.i i r - r.i I. . . . . . . ii
while the last is
t . . . . . . iii
Multiply i by i and add it to ii. Then since v vi we
may write the result
r r . . . . . iv
It will be Iound convenient to introduce the selI-conjugate
dyadic . . . . . . (4)
in terms oI which the complete transIormation as
contained in iii and iv takes the concise Iorm
. . . . . . (5)
This is the vectorial equivalent oI (1).
The dyadic in direct multiplication with a vector
parallel to v leaves its direction unchanged, but increases
its length in the ratio :1. On the other hand, direct
multiplication by leaves a vector perpendicular to v
unaltered. The dyadic may thereIore be described as a
longitudinal stretcher Ior vectors parallel to v, the ratio oI
stretchingbeing : 1. The reciprocal dyadic has the value
-1
- vv I vv . . . (6)
?
-1
Ior it is easily shown that this makes . I. Similarly
the 'square" oI has the value
2
I . . . (7)
as is easily veriIied.
It was seen above that the relations (1) and (2) are
reciprocal, each being obtainable Irom the other by
interchanging accented and unaccented symbols and
changing the sign oI v. Similarly the equations (5) are
equivalent to
(5')
This is the vectorial equivalent oI (1).
The dyadic in direct multiplication with a vector
parallel to v leaves its direction unchanged, but increases
its length in the ratio :1. On the other hand, direct
multiplication by leaves a vector perpendicular to v
unaltered. The dyadic may thereIore be described as a
longitudinal stretcher Ior vectors parallel to v, the ratio oI
stretching being: 1. The reciprocal dyadic has the value
-1
- vv I vv . . . . (6)
-1
Ior it is easily shown that this makes . I. Similarly
the 'square" oI has the value
2
I vv . . . (7)
as is easily veriIied.
It was seen above that the relations (1) and (2) are
reciprocal, each being obtainable Irom the other by
interchanging accented and unaccented symbols and
changing the sign oI v. Similarly the equations (5) are
equivalent to
5.0Addition of velocities.
Consider a particle moving in any manner, and let r and r'
be its position vectors relative to 0 and 0, and Irom the
points oI view oI the S-observer and the S'-observer
respectively. Then, as viewed by the Iormer, the velocity
u oI the particle will while Iromthe point oI viewoI
the latter it will be u'
70
We naturally inquire how these are related. In
ordinary kinematics, since v is the relative velocity
oI S to S, we should have u u' + v. But in the
theory oI relativity this simple relation no longer
holds. Observing that , v, , and c are constant, we
Iind Irom (5')
dr.dr' vdt
and
dt
Hence the velocity u is given by
u
Dividing numerator and denominator by dt and
putting u'
we have the required relation
u . . . (8)
This is the vectorial expression oI Einstein's celebrated
Addition Theorem. We may look upon u as the
relativistic sum oI the two velocities v and u', the Iormer
being that oI S relative to S, and the latter that oI the
particle relative to S. The symbol # may be used
Iollowing Silberstein (1907), instead oI to denote such
composition oI velocities. Then putting v Ior v, and v
1 2
Ior u', we may write the above result.
v # v . . (9)
1 2
the suIIix unity denoting that the quantities and 4 are
1 1
Iormed in terms oI the velocity v . Such addition is not
1
commutative. For
v # v . . (10)
2 1
where O is the longitudinal stretcher oI ratio Ior
2 2
vectors parallel to v . Then one can veriIy that the vectors
2
and (9) and (10), though diIIering in direction, are equal
in length
The reciprocal Iormula to (8) is
U' . (11)
These are deducible Irom each other; or the latter
may be derived Irom (5) in the same way that the
Iormer was derived Irom (5').
6.0 CONCLUSION
In this paper that the analysis oI Iour-vectors aIIects a
great simpliIication, working, however, with the aid oI
vector analysis, we no longer have three unsymmetrical
equations to carry in our thoughts, but a single equation
involving only the vector quantity as a whole; and thus
Irom the habit oI regarding this as one complete
quantity rather than a groupoI three.
The analytical transIormations are reduced to a
minimum and one is able to devote a much greater part
oI her attention to the meaningoI her equations.
It save unnecessary diIIiculties and help to Iorm clearer
conceptions oI physical quantities and mathematical
processes.
71
( ) u ; x f
LIKELIHOOD RATIO TESTAS ANAPPROXIMATE TO CHI-SQUARE TEST WHEN THE
SAMPLE SIZE n IS LARGE
`1 2 3
Amalare A.A, Nurudeen T.S, Adeniyi M.O
`1,2,3
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Nigeria
+2348023998403 (e-mail: amalareasmyahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
Several methods oI arriving at a reliable and authentic decision in hypothesis testing have been a subject oI discussion
among many researchers. The choice oI the critical region, level oI signiIicance, testing equality oI variances,
maximum likelihood estimate and multinomial distribution are also oI great importance. This research work Iocus on
likelihood ratio test as an approximate to chi-square test when the sample size n is large. The test Statistic T (X) oI
likelihood ratio test and its asymptotic approximation, (X), are also careIully studied in this paper. Our study revealed
that the proposed chi-square method 2 as against the conventional chi-square gives a better
approximation oI Likelihood ratio test ( -2log T(X)).
Keywords: Hypothesis testing, maximum likelihood estimate, likelihood ratio test, equality oI variances, multinomial
distribution, restricted MLE.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The method oI maximum Likelihood was Iirst
introduced by Fisher (1945). Giving a collection oI r
observations each oI which is normal with population
2
mean and population o variance We want to estimate
2
and o where both are unknown. The problem has
been addressed in literature by several researchers
Neyman and Scott (1948), Basu (1955), KraIt and
Lecam (1953) and Bahadur (1958). In this paper a very
simple example oI inconsistency oI maximum
likelihood method is presented that shows clearly one
danger to be wary oI in an otherwise regular looking
situation. The discussion oI this paper is centred on a
sequence oI independent, identically distributed and Ior
the sake oI convenience, real random variables, X , X ,
1 2
..., X , distributed according to a distribution F(X,u) Ior
n
some u in a Iixedparameter space u.
Various problems that will lead to a reliable and
authentic decision in hypothesis testing shall be
discussed and the choice oI critical region testing,
equality oI variances, maximum likelihood estimate and
multinomial distribution shall also be considered.
1.1 DEFINITIONOFTERMS
Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE): A maximum
likelihood Estimate oI parameter u in the Irequency
Iunction I(X;u) is an estimate that maximizes the
i
likelihood Iunction L (u) that is, the
n
parameter values that agree most closely with the
observed data.
Restricted / Unrestricted M.L.E:
Let x be a sample drawn Irom a particular
.
u
distribution whose probability density Iunction is a
Iunction oI parameter u. We say is restricted MLE oI
u iI and only iI subjects to some particular
conditions (restriction), otherwise it is an unrestricted
MLE oI u.
1.2 PROPERTIES OFMLE(ASYMPTOTIC)
- Under regularity conditions, maximum likelihood
estimates are consistent.
- Under regularity condition, MLE is asymptotically
normal with (asymptotic unbiasedness) and
variance equal to the crammer Rao Lower bound.
(Cramer and Rao(1965)).
- the MLE oI u based on sample oI size n is
weakly consistent that is, converges in probability
to u as n tends to inIinity provided that is
such that
E exists
1.0 METHODOLOGY
2.1 LIKELIHOODRATIO TESTS
The method oI maximum likelihood estimate discussed
earlier in 1.0. is a constructive method oI obtaining
estimators which have desirable properties under certain
conditions earlier stated. Likelihood ratio test is a testing
procedure closely allied to MLE. This method was
proposed by Neyman and Scott (1948). In the case oI
simple null hypothesis H and alternative hypothesis H , a
0 1
likelihood ratio test is oIten most powerIul.
The procedure oI the likelihood ratio test (LRT) applies
tothe testing oI hypothesis.
Suppose that the Iamily oI probability
density Iunction oI a random variable Xis deIined. II we
intendto test the hypothesis H :
0
u Wagainst the alternative H : u
1
( )
n
x x , ,
1

.
u
.
u
.
u
x
n
u
( )
(

=
u ,
1
1
i
n
i
X f Log
n
( ) | | W x f e u u , ;
e
}
W
72
Where Wand are the distribution under H and H
0 1
respectivelyThe procedure is Iormulated as Iollows:
. . . 1
The distribution oI T under the null hypothesis must
be determined using the above test procedure.
Example 1
Let be a random sample Irom
normal distribution
N are both unknown. To Test the
hypothesis; H : against
0
H :
1
Consideringthe Normal distribution, Let
. . 2
Under H ;
0
. 3
Now taking the logarithm oI the likelihood Iunction in
(3) andmaximizing with respect
to o the maximum likelihood estimate oI will be
. . . . 4
Similarly,
Under H
1
. . . . 5

By substituting where represent the maximum
likelihood estimate oI . and putting (4) and (5) into (1),
we get
. . . . 6

Putting (4) and (5) into (6), yields
. . 7
.
Which is equivalent to
where
t
Thus we accept H iI T k
0
2
Since is a monotonic decreasing Iunction oI t , H
0
2 1
is rejectediI t ~ k or equivalently iI
Example 2
Let x , ....., x be a random sample Irom normal
1 n
distributionN(u, 1 ). We wish to test the hypothesis
H : u = u against
0 0
H : u = u
1 0
Considering the normal distribution with mean u and
variance oI 1, the density Iunction is
I(x; (u) exp
L I(x ; (u) exp
0
d
. . . . 8
Under H
0
Sup
Under H ,
1
Sup I
Upon simpliIying this it becomes
T(X) exp 9
Thus 5 critical region Ior the likelihood ratio test is
equivalent to the two equal tails oI the distribution
givenby the Iamiliar inequality
Example 3: Testing Equality of Variances
Let x , x , .. x be k independently normally
1 2 k
distributed variables with means and
variances Let random sample oI sizes
n , ..., n be drawnIrom those populations and
1 k
}
W
( )
( )
( )
W
x SUPf
W
x f up S
X T
}
e
e
=
u
u
u
u
;
;
( ) X
| |
n
x x X , . ,
1
=
( )
2 2
, , o o and
0
=
0
=
( )
( )
(

=
2
2
2
2
1
exp
2
1
, ,
o

t o
o
x
x f
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+

2
2
2
2
1
exp 2
1
2

o
t
o
x n x x
i n
n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(

+ =

2
0
2
2
2
2
0
2
1
exp 2
1
, ,
o
t
o
o x n x x x
i
n
n
.
2
o
2
o
( ) ( ) | |

+ =
.
2
0
2
2
1
o x n x xi
n
( )

=
.
2
2
1
. x x
n
i
o
x =
.

( )
2
2
2
.
n
X T
(
(
(

=
.
.
o
o
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
0
2
2
n
i
i
x n x x
x x
X T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

( )
| |
2
2
1 / 1
1
n
n t
X T
+
=
( ) ( ) |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|


1 / /
2
0
n x x x n
i

( )s X
( ) X T
k t >
( ) ( ) t u 2 /
2
1
2
x
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 /
2
1
n
i
x t u

( ) ( )

=
= =
n
i
i
x d x f
1
0 / ,
log
u u u
X
n
X
n
i
i
= =

=1
u
( ) ( )
( )
(

= =


=

n
i
n
i
x f
x
1
2
2
0
0 2
1
exp 2 ;
u
t u
W c u
( ) ( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=

2
1
2
2
1
exp 2 ;
n
i
i
n
x x x t u
W
}
e u
W
}
e u
( ) | |
2
0
2
u x
n
96 . 1
0
> n X u
k

2 1
,
k
k
o o o , , ,
2
2
2
1

X
73
let the hypothesis to be tested be
H :
0
H :
1
th
The random variable corresponding to the j observation
Ior the variable x is represented by x .
i ij
Thus, there are random variables.
Considering the Normal distribution Iunction with
parameters and as Iollows
The likelihood Iunction is
L
L I (10)
0
Where denotes the common value oI all when the
null hypothesis is considered.
Similarly,
Under H
1
L I (11)
n
Maximizing (11) with respect to the parameters and
I, I
the resulting expression will give
. (12)
and
. . (13)
respectively. Where
However,
thereIore,
2 2
2
2
1
..
k
o o o = =
k
k
o o o = = =
2
2
2
1
n n
k
i
i
=

2
o
( )
( ) | | | |
H

=
2
/
2
1
e x p
, ,
2
i
i i i f
i i i f
x
x f
o
o
o
( )
( )
( )
nk
k
n
n
k
i
n
f
i i if
x
x
o o t
o
o

1
1
2
2
1 1
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
(
(

= =
( )
( )
( )
n
n
k ni
i if
x x
x
o t
o
o
2
2
2
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
(
(

( )
( )
( )
i
i
k
i
n
k ni
i i if
x
x
o t t
o
o
1
2
2
2
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

o
( )

= =
.
=
k
i
ni
f
i if
n x x
1 1
2
2
, / o

=
k
i
n n
2 2
i i
s =
.
o
( )

= =
.
=
k
f
n i
f
i i f
n x x
1 1
2
2
/ o
n s n
i
k
f
i
/
2
1
2

=
.
= o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1
1
2 2
2 2 2
1 1
2
2
0
2 /
2
exp
/ .. 2 /
2
exp
n
nk
k
n
n
i if
n
k k
n
i if
i
s s x x
n
n s n s n x x
n
L Sup
L Sup

+ +
=
t
t
Where L L represent the likelihood Iunctions Ior null
0 and 1
andalternativehypotheses respectively. Whichreduces to
(14)
3.0 Large - SampleApproximation
3.1 Application of Large-sample approximations
We shall state the Cramer theorem without prooI.
Theorem: Cramer(1946)
Subject to regularity conditions necessary Ior asymptotic
results Ior maximum likehood estimates, the likelihood
ratio statisticT(x) Ior testing
H : W: u = against the alternative
0
H : (wherer stands Ior restrictionimposedon
1
Parameter u is such that as the sample si:e n becomes
very large (i.e. )
- 2 is asymptotically Chi square with r degrees
oI Ireedom Ior all u
We nowapplythe theorem as Iollows:
By taking the logarithm oI both sides oI (7), the
expressionbecomes
- 2logT (15)
The test statistics approximate to table oI critical
values. The critical value say C depends on the degree oI
0
Ireedom r and level oI signiIicance o chosen (r stands Ior
the number oI restrictions imposedon the parameter..
II the calculated value is greater than the value C ; we
0
reject the hypothesis H .
0
Recall (9) Irom example 2 and taking logarithm oI both
sides, we obtained
- 2logT (16)
For the sample size n, being the mean oI the
observations and given the value oI we reject H iI
0
table value say C degree oI Ireedom r and level oI
0
signiIicance o is smaller than the calculated value oI - 2
log T( X)
Recall Irom example 3.That
T( - - ) in (14) can be reduced to and taking
the logarithm oI bothsides, we have,
-2 log T(x) (17)
The value on the R.H.S. is equally computable since we
knowthat
( ) X T
( )

=
2
2
2
2
1
/
ni
k
i i i
ni
i
k
i
n s n
s t

0 r
u
0
:
r r
w u u =
}
( ) X T
log
W c
2
_
x
0
u
( )
2
1
2 2
1
n k
i
s s
=
t

2 2
log log
s n s n
i i i

=
k
i
n n
74

( )
i i i f i
n x x s /
2 2

=
2
And s
Then, the value thus calculated is compared with the
critical value Irom the table with known degrees oI
Ireedom r and level oI signiIicance o. We reject H iI the
0
calculated value is greater than the table critical value.
3.2 Approximation of - 2Log T(X) to Chi -
Square Statistics:
3.2.1 Multinomial Case:
Considering the multinomial distribution
(18)
Where
The likelihood Iunction oI (18) gives
L
By taking the logarithm oI both oI sides, the expression
becomes
Log (19)
Then generalizing and maximizing (19) with respect to
we have Ior any i such that 1i s. Thus
is MLE oI u Ior a multinomial distribution
Again,
T
(20)
By taking the logarithm oI (20) and using the theorem by
Cramer (1946), we have
?
2 (21)
But (22)
Thus, expanding (22) , using maclaurin series gives
(23)

n s n
i i
/
2
2
_
( )
ns
s
ni
s
n n
n
x f u u u

1
1
! !
!
, =

=
s
i
n n
1
1
=

=
s
i
i
u
( ) ( ) ( )
ni
i
s
i
i
i
n
n
x f u u u
1
5
1
!
!
,
=
=
H
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
H
= =
( ) ( )

=

=
+ + =
s
i
i s
s
i
i i i
n n n n
1
1
1
1 log ! log !
log log
u u u
i
u
n
n
i
i
=
.
u
.
i
u
( )
( )
( )
ni
i
ni
i
n
n
n
n
P
n
n
W
x f Sup
x f W
Sup
X
|
.
|

\
|
H
H
H
H
=

=
}
!
!
!
!
) , (
, (
c u
u
u c u
( )
| | | |
ns n
ns
s
s
n
i
n n
n
P
n
p
X T
1 1
1
1
1


(

=
( )
i
i
s
i
i
E
X T
0
0 2
log log
1

=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
E
E
E
i i
i
i
0
1
0
log log
( ) ( ) ( )
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
4
4
3
3
2
2
0
4
1 0
3
1 0
2
1 0 0
1
log
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
By substituting (23) into (21), the resulting expression
yields
(24)
We thereIore concludedthat
Subject to some conditions as stated in (25) , where O is
i
the observedIrequency andE is the expectedIrequency.
i
3.3 Conditions forApproximation
According to Perlman (1972) and Rice (1967),
the series in(23) converges iI andonly iI
(25)
And O ~ 0 or O 2E.
i i i
It Iollows that
- 2 logT(X) 2 should be used instead oI
Since
2 is computationally convenient and valid
Ior all values oI 0 and E.
i i
This statistic should replace the conventional Neyman
Pearson's Statistic.
which is validonly iI
II this condition does not hold Ior even one cell, it should
not be used.
3.0 RESULT, DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
4.1 RESULTANDDISCUSSION
The multinomial distribution discussed in (section 3.2.1)
and the examples 1,2 and 3 described earlier are solved
using the procedure oI likelihood ratio test subject to some
regularity conditions stated by Cramer (1946) at which
maximum likelihood estimates are consistent and Best
Asymptotically Normal Estimators (BAN). The region oI
the test o given by where Co is determined
so that the where
is the distribution under Thus we accept iI
otherwise is rejected.
However, subject to restriction imposed on parameters
2
and o and the regularity conditions that are satisIied as
earlier stated byCramer (1946). The criterion
( )
( )

=
2
2
0
2
log
_
i
i i
E
E
X T
( )
( )

~
i
i i
E
E
x T
2
0
2
log
1
0
<

i
i i
E
E
( )

=
n
i i
i i
E
E O
1
2
2
_
( )

n
i i
i i
E
E O
1
2
i i
E 2 0 <
73
under the null hypothesis is a large sample approximation to , where T(X) is the likelihood ratio test and r
is the degree oI Ireedom.
Consequently, the proposed Chi-square method
2 as against the conventional Chi-square
yields a better approximation result andvalid Ior all values oI O and E
i i
4.2 CONCLUSION
Whenever the conditions Ior regularity are satisIied and the sample size n is a large one, the approximation
2
-2 logT(x) to X can always be used.
This 'large sample approximation proves very helpIul Ior easier determination oI critical region (critical value)
especially when we do not know the distribution oI the test statistic and this critical value is needed Ior the decision
making.
2
Moreso, since -2 logT(x) approximates to X (r stands Ior restrictions imposed on parameter) the critical value with a
(r)
Iixedlevel oI signiIicance o r degrees oI Ireedom is read Irom the table, thus we reject H iI the value computed Irom
0
the test statistic -2 logT(x) is greater than the table value, otherwise we do not have any basis to reject H .
0
For multinomial distribution
-2logT(X) should be used insteadoI

Since is computationally convenient and validIor all values oI 0 and E.
i i
The statistic should replace the conventional Neyman Pearson's statistic whichis valid only iI 0 2E.
i i
References
1. BAHADUR R.R (1958) 'Examples oI inconsistency oI maximum Likelihood Estimates sankhya,
Vol.20, 207-210 .
2. BASU,D(1955) ' An inconsistency oI the method oI maximum Likelihood Annals oI Mathematical
Statistics , Vol.26, 144-145 .
3. CRAMERH(1946)Mathematical Methods oI Statistics', Princeton: Princeton University Press.
4. CRAMER Hand RAOC.R (1965) '' linear statistical inIerence and its Applications'', NewYork: John
Wiley.
rd
5. FISHERR.A(1945) Statistical Method and ScientiIic InIerence (3 edition) NewYork, HaIner press
6. KRAFT, C.H and LECAM L.M (1956) ' A Remark on the roots oI the maximum Likelihood
Equation. Annals oI Mathematical Statistics Vol. 27, 1174-1177 .
7. NEYMAN, J and SCOTT, E (1948) 'Consistent Estimator Based on partially consistent
observations Econometrica, Vol. 16 , 1-32 .
8. PERLMAN, M.D (1972) 'On the strong consistency oI Approximate maximum Likelihood
Estimates'', Proceedings oI the sixth Berkeley symposium on Mathematical statistics and Probability ,
Vol.1 , 263-281 .
9. RICE, J. A (1967) Rates oI Convergence oI Estimates and Test Statistics Annals oI mathematical
statistics, vol. 38 , 303-324.
2
_
2
_
76
USE OF GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEM(GPS) FOR CADASTRALSURVEYIN NIGERIA
1 2
Olowofoyeku, Olukemi Oyefunke and Akinpelu, Akinwunmi A.
1
Department of Surveying & Ceoinformatics Yaba College of 1echnology Yaba, Lagos, Aigeria
Email: oolowofoyeku yahoo.com and
2
Department of Building 1echnology, Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu, Lagos, Aigeria
Email: aaakinpeluyahoo.com
KEYWORDS: GPS, Cadastral
ABSTRACT
Cadastral Surveying data is based on the planimetric and vertical coordinate systems of the national
survey. GPS technology, has matured to the stage where it has become another tool Ior the proIessional
surveyor. Commercial products oIIer user-Iriendly hardware/soItware and suggest techniques that can
improve productivity at a high accuracy. Although some surveyors have embraced GPS survey methods into
their businesses, many practitioners are still reluctant to invest in the technology. This has been due to reasons
such as prohibitive cost, a lapsed understanding oI geodesy, conIusion about GPS surveying capabilities and
best practice techniques, uncertainty over howto best utilise existing GPS services, lack oI time/resources to
invest into GPS surveying training, and Ior the cadastral surveyor uncertainty over what is acceptable
practice to satisIy current survey regulations in Nigeria. This paper discusses the use oI GPS in Cadastral
Surveying with its relative advantages in speed, cost, accuracy and simple Iield operations. A brieI
introduction on Cadastral Surveying and how GPS works is presented Iollowed by GPS measurement
techniques. The result oI a test site is also analysed. GPS being a high precision coordinate generator, seems
an obvious tool to use (in Iavourable conditions). It is hoped that this paper will encourage the survey
regulating body, Government and proIessional surveyors to include the use oI GPS in Cadastral Survey and
use GPS more eIIectively.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cadastral surveying describes the exact course oI
property boundaries and thus provides the basis Ior
protecting landownership. Many areas in the private
sector, public administration and our daily lives depend
on cadastral surveying data. Landownership rights, Ior
example, which are entered in the land register, are based
on cadastral surveying, so it provides a substantial
contribution to saIeguarding real estate. When planning
a newbuilding, precise boundary inIormation as well as
inIormation about possible restrictions oI ownership
rights, the location oI pipes and cables and other Ieatures
is required. The proIessionals are able to Iind this
inIormation in cadastral maps and in a variety oI other
sources such as utility maps, local authority plans and
zoning plans. As part oI cadastral surveying, the terrain
is surveyed accurately and reliably. The public data thus
captured, Ior example property boundary points, the land
cover type (notably buildings, roads, Iields, woods and
water Ieatures) and the height oI the terrain are careIully
gathered, managed and continuously updated.
Computers have long since replaced the slide rule and
the ink pen in the surveying oIIices, and measurements
are increasingly being carried out with the aid oI
satellites. Data administration and management does not
require Iiling cabinets anymore, but rather Geographic
InIormation Systems and the Internet. However, one
thing still remains the same: in order to showa building,
a municipal boundary, or the edge oI a Iorest on a map,
points must be surveyed and their coordinates
calculated. The oldest land surveying method makes use
oI direct observations in the Iield. The most common
surveying instruments are the theodolite, which
measures angles and; Electro-Distance Measuring
(EDM) equipment or tape which measures distances
Irom which the coordinates oI the surveyed objects can
be computed. Modern digital instruments carry out some
oI these computations directly in the Iield and store the
results; these can then be downloaded Ior Iurther
processing in the oIIice.
The Global Positioning Systems using signals Irom
satellites have become an integral part oI cadastral
surveying. Navigation satellites orbit the earth and
continuously emit signals, which can be picked up by
special receivers. Distances are determined Irom these
signals and thus the position oI the receiver calculated.
With specialized measurement and computation
methods, coordinates can be determined in seconds to an
77
accuracy oI a Iew centimeters with reIerence to the
national ReIerence Coordinate System.
As countries such as Nigeria move towards a
Geographical/Land InIormation System (GIS/LIS),
boundary deIinition oI millions oI parcels is required,
thereIore surveying methodology that is quick,
inexpensive and within the reach oI the existing
surveying proIessionals is required.
In recommending and testing a GPS methodology Ior
cadastral surveying the Iollowing criteria are
considered:
* speed (must signiIicantly outperIorm current
approaches)
* cost (must signiIicantly reduce current unit survey
costs)
* appropriate (must be within the reach oI surveyors)
* realistic accuracy (match real needs)
* simple Iield operation (data collection must be simple
to allowIor variable Iield conditions)
This paper will describe the perIormance ability oI the
GPS technology using a test site within Yaba College oI
Technology (YCT). This experience was used as a basis
Ior a call Ior GPS-based approach to cadastral surveying,
which is described in the latter part oI this paper.
2.0 CADASTRALSURVEYING ANDITS USES
Cadastral surveying is the branch oI Surveying dealing
with the deIinition, measurement, relocation and
mapping oI land parcels to which registerable land rights
are attached, (Barnes & Mark, 2006). Many areas in the
private sector, public administration and our daily lives
depend on cadastral surveying data. Cadastral surveying
data serve as the basis Ior a wide range oI products and
applications which include:
Direct products:- Cadastral maps, Base maps, Digital
Terrain Models, Building addresses.
Applications:- Land register, Cadastre oI Public Law
Restrictions on Landownership Rights, Public
Administration, Construction Projects, Land-Use
Planning, TraIIic Engineering, Fire and Rescue
Services, Geographic InIormation Systems (GIS),
Environmental Protection, Agriculture, Tourism,
Marketing, etc.
Derived products:- Street maps, Zoning plans, Utility
asset maps, 3-Dcity models, etc.
Cadastral surveying data are available in both graphical
(on paper maps) and digital (computerized) Iorm.
Digital cadastral surveying data can be structured into
various independent thematic layers, which can be Ireely
combined, Ior example;
Control points: points providing the connection to the
national geodetic coordinate system; Land cover:
buildings, roads, water, woodland, etc.
Single objects: walls, wells, masts, bridges,etc.
Heights: Digital TerrainModel (DTM).
Local names: place names, locality names.
Land ownership: land parcels.
Pipelines: high pressure distribution network Ior oil and
gas.
Territorial boundaries: local, state, and national
boundaries.
The world is changing: new constructions and roads are
being built, land parcels are divided or consolidated,
Iorests spread, streams Iind newcourses, and glaciers are
melting. All oI these changes have a direct impact on
cadastral surveying since its content must coincide
precisely andreliably with reality.
2.1 CADASTRAL SURVEYING PRACTICE IN
NIGERIA
The predominant technique currently used Ior cadastral
surveying in Nigeria is traversing. Coordinate control Ior
such traverses may be based on geodetic control stations
or minor control stations established by Federal or State
Government with a closing error oI 1:3,000. Although
current Cadastral Survey Regulations oI 2009 allows
connection to a local origin by Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) where connection to
Government control stations are not practicable, the
connection is still expected to be by the traditional
techniques oI traverse, triangulation, trilateration,
radiation or resection. Surveys oI curvilinear boundaries
(e.g. rivers) shall be done to within plotting accuracy.
Over the past IiIteen years GPS has emerged as a major
tool Ior undertaking precise surveys. More recently, it
has made inroads in those applications requiring lower
precision surveys and is Iast becoming a primary
technology Ior acquiring data Ior input into GIS/LIS.
GPS receivers can provide coordinates which are
suIIiciently accurate Ior cadastral purposes. More
importantly, these receivers oIIer an opportunity to
signiIicantly lower the cost and time typically required
Ior cadastral surveys. It involves the application oI legal
boundary principles, as well as measurement theory and
techniques. Boundary principles are used to assess
boundary evidence in the Iorm oI measurements,
historical records, verbal testimony Irom landowners,
physical monuments and accessories. In this sense (and
also because it aIIects people's legal rights to land), it is
Iar more complex than merely mapping ground Ieatures
or land-use boundaries.
With the rapid growth oI GPS usage many institutions
78
have not yet implemented or corrected their literature to
suit the technical advancement, (Worrall, 2007). Such
institutions include Surveyors Council oI Nigeria
(SURCON), who provides surveyors with instructions
as to how to perIorm cadastral surveys in accordance to
the legislation.
3.0 GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEM(GPS)
3.1 GPS Basics
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-
based system and consists oI a constellation oI 24
satellites orbiting the earth at an approximate altitude oI
20200 km every 12 hours that provide continuous
instantaneous position and time inIormation to users
around the world. The GPS system works with a receiver
(essentially a radio receiver) that acquires signal Irom
satellites in order to locate its position geographically.
The GPS receiver simply calculates the distance to the
satellite by measuring the travel time oI the signals
transmitted Irom the satellite and multiplying it by the
velocity.
Distance velocity (speed oI light) x Time
The GPS receiver computes its position and time by
making simultaneous measurements to the satellites. A
signal Irom three satellites will sort out a 2-dimensional
position or horizontal position. In order to get a 3
dimensional position (latitude, longitude and height) at
least Iour satellites are needed within signal range. For
each signal received there are two methods oI measuring
the distance between the satellite and receiver. These are
pseudorange or code measurements, and carrier phase
measurements (HoImann-WellenhoI, Lichtenegger, &
Collins, 2001).
GPS operates with two transmission Irequencies known
as the L1 and L2 carrier signals. GPS measurements on
these two Irequencies are known as the carrier phase
observables. The pseudorange observables result Irom
two other codes being modulated onto these Irequencies
This results in a total oI Iive GPS observables or
measurement types which can be used Ior positioning.
The L1 carrier is modulated with the Coarse/Acquisition
(C/A) code and the Precise (P) code while the L2 carrier
is modulated with only the P code. Single frequency
receivers are capable oI measuring the L1 carrier phase
observable while dual frequency receivers measure
carrier phase observations (that is, single or dual
Irequency receivers) as opposed to the pseudorange
observable.
GPS is suitable Ior a broad range oI surveying
applications including: cadastral/engineering set-out,
topographic mapping, and geodetic control. GPS comes
in many Iorms, Irom low accuracy stand alone
positioning to high accuracy diIIerential positioning,
and Irom stationarytomovingapplications.
3.2 GPS Positioning
Pseudorange positioning using code measurements
enables absolute or single point positioning using a
single receiver (Iigure 1). The single point positioning
has an accuracy anywhere between ?10 metres and ?100
metres in the horizontal position component and up to
?150m vertical position components. Owing to the
achievable accuracy oI this technique, it is not suitable
Ior cadastral surveys.
II two receivers (and suitable soItware) are available,
then the pseudoranges Irom both receivers can be
processed in a diIIerential manner. This is known as
DiIIerential GPS (DGPS) (Iigure 2). This technique
enables various error sources to be reduced, thereby
improving position accuracy. Carrier Phase
measurements are processed diIIerentially to produce
the relative position between two stations. One receiver
is located on a known point (base station) while the
second (or several others), is a roving receiver in motion.
Since the base station receiver has known coordinates,
the true geometrical range between the satellite and
receiver can be computed. The computed position oI the
roving receiver will thereIore be oI greater accuracy than
a single point position.
Static positioning implies that both receivers are always
stationary and is the most precise Iorm oI GPS
positioning. However, iI certain conditions are satisIied,
then one oI the receivers (the roving receiver) can be
allowed to be in motion. This is known as kinematic
surveying.
Figure 1: Single point positioning
Figure 2: DiIIerential GPS
79
DGPS positions can be computed by either post processing or in real time. Post processing occurs iI the data Ior the two
receivers is collected and processed together at a later date. II processing occurs in real time, then the data is processed
by the base station and transmitted via a communication link to the roving receiver (Land InIormation New Zealand,
1999).
4.0 COMPARISONOFGPSTECHNOLOGYWITHCONVENTIONALTRAVERSINGATYCTTESTSITE
To test the application oI GPS in Cadastral Surveying, a test was undertaken at a cadastral test site on the YCTcampus.
The test site consisted oI 6 points and coordinates Ior all these points were determined using ProMark 3 GPS receivers
and SouthTotal Station equipment which is a combination oI theodolite and EDM.
In order to test Ior the suitability and Iunctionality oI the GPS technology Ior the demands oI cadastral surveying in
Nigeria, the survey oI the site was conducted twice, once using a conventional total station and a second time using the
GPS. Three control points (YTT 28/414, YTT 28/415, YTT 28/416) existed around the area to be surveyed, along the
Yaba-Ikorodu road, about 800 m away and not visible Irom the site. The coordinates oI these control points are known
to a very high degree oI accuracy as they are part oI the Nigeria Control Network. The conventional total station
traverse involved six instrument set-ups beIore getting to test site. At each set-up, one round oI Iace leIt and Iace right
observations were observed to each back-sight and Iore-sight point. The observations took 4 hours to be completed.
Closing the traverse generated a misclosure oI 12 mm horizontal.
Once the survey was completed using the total station, the same site was surveyed using GPS. The control point was
occupied by the base station receiver and the test site by the rover receiver. The observations took 1 hour to be
completed. The base station was used to determine the diIIerential corrections that were applied to the rover positions
using GNSS solutions soItware Ior post-processing.
4.1 Summary of Test Results
Atable (table 1) has been prepared comparing, the positions oI reIerence marks, as measured by both Total Station and
GPS.
Adistinct advantage oI the GPS system is the reduced time needed Ior Iield and oIIice work. To Iacilitate comparison
calculations, the same stations were used as Ior traversing and GPS observations. The time needed Ior the GPS survey
was /th that oI the traverse survey as Iewer set-ups were required and intervisibility between stations was not needed.
The GPS equipment automatically begins acquiring satellites and computing precise positions by the time the
instrument is leveled and positioned over the station andturned on.
Table 1: Coordinate Comparison
(GPS - Total station)
ReIerence
Mark
S 01
S 02
S 03
S 04
S 05
S 06
GPS
Easting (m)
540316.234
540301.910
540206.809
540044.010
540239.916
540209.643
Total Station
Easting (m)
540316.245
540301.931
540206.834
540044.019
540239.926
540209.651
DiIIerence (m)
0.011
0.021
0.025
0.009
0.010
0.008
GPS
Northing (m)
720187.238
720129.438
719958.641
719838.138
719726.304
719605.861
Total Station
Northing (m)
720187.245
720129.450
719958.653
719838.142
719726.319
719605.879
DiIIerence (m)
0.007
0.012
0.012
0.004
0.015
0.018
Average Easting 0.014 Northing
0.011
Standard deviation
0.005125102
80
5.0 CONCLUSIONS ANDIMPLICATIONS
The Iollowing conclusions can be drawn Irom these
tests:
As seen above the average Eastings and Northings
are 30mm. GPS does not measure a traversed
system oI connection to marks, but measures their
position directly. This means that a GPS survey will
be less likely to observe an erroneous
measurement, and hence aIIecting the quality oI the
cadastre.
Data evaluation Ior GPS is based on point
accuracies as opposed to loop closures. This is
necessary given the radial nature oI the data
collection and non-networked corner to corner
measurements. The point accuracy can be derived
Irom least squares analysis, weighted mean
position averages, or considerations oI the control
point accuracy and manuIacturer speciIications.
The GPS technology tested can produce sub-meter
results with very short occupation times (60
seconds or less), thereIore oIIering signiIicant
eIIiciency advantages over traditional methods.
Surveying with a total station, unlike GPS
surveying, is not disadvantaged by overhead
obstructions; however, it is restricted to
measurements between inter-visible points. OIten
control points are located distant to the survey area,
and traversing with a total station to propagate the
control is a time consuming task.
Compared to conventional surveying technology,
GPS:
Is Iaster.
Requires less labor.
Requires less training.
Is more accurate.
Roberts (2005) noted that Surveyors are high
precision users oI GPS equipment and thereIore
must understand the system more Iully than other
GPS users. It is hoped that SURCON will include
speciIications Ior use oI GPS in Cadastral Survey
Regulations and encourage more surveyors to
utilise GPS surveying techniques in their daily
practice.
REFERENCES
Barnes, G. & Eckl, M. (1996). Pioneering ACPS
Methodology For Cadastral Surveying.
Experience In Albania And Beli:e. Retrieved
January 20, 2012 Irom
http://sIrc.iIas.uIl.edu/geomatics/publications/lan
dconI96/barnes.pdI
Barnes, G. & Eckl, M. (1996). A GPS
Methodology for Cadastral Surveying in Albania.
Phase II Final Report. Madison: University oI
Wisconsin.
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., &
Collins, 1. (2001), Clobal Positioning System:
theory and practice (5th rev. ed.). Springer-Verlag.
Inter-Governmental Committee on Surveying
and Mapping (2002). Standards and Practices for
Control Surveys (SP1). Retrieved January 20,
2012 Irom
http://www.icsm.gov.au/icsm/publications/index.h
tml
Land Information New Zealand (1999): GPS
Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys. Retrieved
January 18, 2012 Irom
http://www.linz.govt.nz/docs/miscellaneous/gps-
guidelines-cadastral-surveys.pdI
Michael D. Londe (2002). Standards and
Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys Using Global
Positioning Methods. Retrieved January 18, 2012
Irom
http://www.Iig.net/pub/Iig2002/JS2/JS2londe.p
dI
Roberts, C. (2005). GPS for Cadastral Surveying
Practical Considerations. Paper presentedat
The National Biennial Conference of the Spatial
Sciences Institute. Melbourne. Spatial Sciences
Institute.
Surveyors Council of Nigeria (SURCON)
(2009).
Cadastral Survey Regulations. Galson Production.
Worrall, A. (2007). Development of Quality
Assurance Procedures For Cadastral Surveying
using CPS 1echnology. (M.Sc. dissertation,
University oI Southern Queensland, 2007).
81
1.1 INTRODUCTION
MicrosoIt word encyclopedia deIined hotel as
a commercial establishment that provides lodging,
Iood and other services to the public. The hotel
business is an important industry in many countries,
especially in those attracting a larger number oI
tourist.
The hotel Proprietors Act oI 1956 also deIined a
hotel as an establishment that provides Ioods, drinks
and sleeping accommodation to any traveler iI so
desired who is willing to pay and he/she is in a Iit
(condition) state oI mind (Brotherton, 2003).
It is also stated that the hotel industry is a unique
segment oI a large collection oI businesses reIerred
to as the hospitality service industry.
The hospitality services industry is composed oI a
broad spectrum oI establishments oIIering rooms,
Iood service, health care, transportation and
entertainment. The hotel business is distinguished
Irom other hospitality enterprise. It ability to supply
overnight accommodation and to provide its guests
with a Iull line oI goods and services.
Because these Ioods and services tend to have no
lasting physical value, oIten, hotels are described as
providing 'experiences rather than products. It is a
combination oI both tangible and intangible
distinctions that leads to the conclusion that hotels
provide to their guests with privileges, goods and
services that is not available elsewhere.
However, Irom the point oI viewoI the community,
ECONOMIC DEPRESSION - ITS EFFECT ON THE PROFITABILITYOF HOTELBUSINESS
IN NIGERIA
T. A. SHONUBI
LECTURER, HOTEL MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
ABSTRACT
Hotel industry is a part oI the hospitality industry mainly oriented towards the provision oI Iood, drink, amusement and
accommodation. It maintains the Iacilities Ior the potential customers that are tourists and local people. The study was
conducted to evaluate the eIIect oI economic depression on the proIitability oI hotel business in Nigeria. It also
showcases the Nigeria economy and the hotel industry. Excellence Hotel, Ogba was used as a yardstick Ior this study
and well structured IiIty questionnaires were administered. Adescriptive statistics were used Ior the data analysis. It
was seen that economic downturn had adverse eIIect on the proIitability oI hotel business in Nigeria. Depression
aIIects the hospitality industry negatively, especially with regard to raising capital Ior operations and Ior capital
investment. At the end oI the study, discussions were made on the Iindings and thus recommendations were made to
the industry.
allroundjoyymail.com
the purpose oI a hotel is to provide certain Iacilities
and services to its users. Hotel users who are buyer
oI overnight accommodation may thereIore be
satisIied according to the purpose oI their visit into
the three main categories as holiday, business and
other users.
However, the state oI health oI the economy plays a
signiIicant role in the proIitability oI hotel business.
When the economy is buoyant, customer's average
spending power increases which lead to patronage.
Hence, it is a proIitable business. But when the
economy is in a depressed condition the challenges
oI sustaining proIitable hotel business thereIore,
will become greater.
1.2 STATEMENTOFPROBLEM
The Current business scenario accompanied by the
economic depression has drastically aIIected the
operations and business status oI diIIerent
industries. The hotel has also got aIIected by the
economic depression.
The collapse oI social and economic inIrastructure,
especially power has castrated the economy. The
resultant high cost oI transacting business, together
with the weak buying power oI the populace has also
adversely aIIected business. The ManuIacturers'
Associations records showed that over one hundred
and thirty companies have Iolded up in the Iirst halI
oI 2000.
The general objective oI the study is to determine
the eIIect oI economic depression in the proIitability
oI hotel business in Nigeria. The speciIic objectives
include:
82
i. ToIindout the eIIect oI a depressedeconomyon
theproIitabilityoI hotel business inNigeria.
ii. To assess the management practices adopted
by the hotels Ior eIIective survival during the
economic downturn.
iii. To identiIy how the industry is positioning
itselI Ior attaining sustainability in the
operations and transIorming the recession
basedstatus to the growing status.
iv. To determine the relationship between the
Nigeria economy and the hotel industry.
In the hospitality industry inns have served travelers
since ancient times. The emergence oI the hotel as a
signiIicant commercial institution however, is a
development oI the past Iew centuries and may be
traced Ior example in the U.S. The locations oI
hotels have always been related to the
transportationavailable. (Raymond, 2001).
More eIIicient transportation and the growing
importance oI air travel have reduced the need Ior
accommodations along highways. More hotels are
nowbeing built within the boundaries oI large cities
and near airports. To deal with stiIIer competition,
a growing trend has been Ior hotels and motels to
oIIer greater conveniences such as taxing and
photocopying Ior business travelers. Today, many
hotels have been developed throughout the world
including AIrican countries (Zhang, Pine & Lam,
2005).
Hotels are classiIied as transient hotels which are
usually located within cities, boundaries and cater
Ior people travelling Ior business or pleasure. It
also includes conventional hotels, resort hotels
which are usually located in sea-side lake or
mountain areas, and they cater Ior holiday makers
and residential hotels which cater Ior permanent
residents. (RutherIord & O'Fallon, 2006).
Because oI the growing importance oI business,
most newhotels were situated near central business
areas.
In the 1920s, proIessional schools oI hotel
management were created to prepare American Ior
positions in the industry. Technical schools were
also established to train skilled employees such as
cheIs. Today, many colleges and universities oIIer
a Degree in hotel administration and trade schools
provide courses in both hotel and restaurant work.
Another signiIicant trend in the 1920s was towards
corporate rather than individual ownership oI
hotels. This was the result oI the steadily increasing
cost oI building and operating hotels. Chain
operation in the hotel and motel industries is a
continuing trend in the U.S. and other European
countries. It allows Ior eIIicient management
through the use oI mass purchasing central
reservations, billings and extensive advertising and
promotion campaigns.
Business hotels are provided to oIIer a high
standard by providing rooms equipped with what
business travelers would consider necessities.
Usually Iound in business-class hotel rooms are
high speed internet speciIied connections, alarm
clocks, comIortable beds irons and ironing boards,
coIIee makers, complimentary newspaper delivery,
and hair-dryers. The Iacility oI business hotel
would also oIIer an in-house restaurant, bar,
exercise room and shuIIle service to nearby
airports. Limit concierge assistance is oIten
included as well as room service, laundry and dry-
cleaning and wake-up calls.
Rats vary greatly depending on location and
proximity to popular events and attractions.
HOTELLOCATION
Hotel services are supplied to their buyers directly
in person, they are consumed at the point oI sales,
and they are also produced there. Hotel services
must be thereIore, provided where the demand
exists and the market is the dominant inIluence on
hotel location. In Iact, location is part oI the hotel
product. In turn, location is the key inIluence on the
viability oI the business so much that a prominent
entrepreneur could have said with conviction and
with much justiIication that there is only one rule
Ior success in the hotel business location.
Major inIluence on hotels location oI economic
activity and oI industrial and commerce in
particular while again not separable Irom transport
development, industrial and commercial activities
create demand Ior transit and terminal
accommodation in industrial and commercial
centres, in location not Irequently by holiday
visitors diIIerent segments oI the travel market give
rise to distinctive types oI hotels. In business and
industrial centres, hotel normally achieve their
highest occupancies on weekdays and in resorts in
the main holiday seasons, their Iacilities and
services reIlect the requirements oI businessmen
and oI holiday visitors respectively . Between these
clearly deIined segments came other towns and
areas such as busy commercial centres with
83
historical or other attractions Ior visitors, which may
achieve a more even weekly and annual pattern oI
business.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF THE
CASESTUDY
Excellence hotel and ConIerence Centre was
established in November 1996, with modern Iacilities.
The mixture oI various Iacilities and excellent
customer service that creates a memory that cannot
be Iorgotten has made the hotel stand out.
Tremendous patronage and Iunctions Irom private
and government parastatals are innumerable due to
its customer service and guest satisIaction. The hotel
is located at the midway between Island and
Mainland. The hotel is about 30minutes journey to
the airport. EHCC is magniIicent and imposing
architectural masterpiece located on an expanse oI
land in the exclusive area oI Ogba, Aguda, Lagos,
Nigeria the hotel is an ediIice oI 71 lavishly
Iurnished air-conditioned guest rooms with private
balconies and walk-in closets set up in careIully
landscaped terrain.
HOTELS PROFITABILITY
According to Shin (2003), it is stated that in order to
run a proIitable hotel business, the hotelier in many
cases must endeavour to replace the guests home or
at least some oI the more pleasurable aspects oI it
and provide replacements related to it while the
guest is away Irom home so that the guest can be
satisIied and come back or tell more people about
the hotel. Hotels also can make proIit by making
sure that they ensure that all Iacilities in the hotel are
repaired immediately when Iaulty so that there will
be no complain about Iacilities Irom the guests.
Right Irom the onset oI the establishment oI hotel, a
lot oI Iactors have to be considered which will lead
to proIitability oI hotel businesses. (Medlik, S &
Ingram, H., 2000).
SatisIying existing clients, giving good services,
value Ior their money standard oI cousine, standard
oI accommodation, maintenance etc.
With good marketing personnel and with a good
sense oI mar ket i ng pl anni ng, st r at egy
speciIalization and management a hotel will
continue making proIit. (Cruz, T. D. 2002).
The Nigerian economy has had a truncated history.
In the period oI 1970-80, the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) recorded 3.1 per cent growth
annually. During the oil boom era, roughly in 1970-
78, QDP grew positively by 6.2 per cent annually a
remarkable growth.
However, in the 1980s GDP had negative growth
rates. In the period 1988-1997 which constitutes the
period oI structural adjustment and economic
liberalization, the QDP responded to economic
adjustment policies and grewat a positive rate oI 4.0
per cent. In the year aIter independence, industry
and manuIacturing sector had positive growth rates
except Ior the period 1980 1988 where industry
and manuIacturing grew negatively by 3.2 per cent
and 2.9 per cent respectively. The growth oI
agriculture Ior the periods 1960 70 and 1970 78
was unsatisIactory. In the early 1960s, the
agricultural sector suIIered Irom low commodity
prizes while the oil boom contributed to the negative
growth oI agriculture in the 1970s. The boom in the
oil sector lured labour away Irom rural sector to
urban centres.
The contribution oI agriculture to GDP, which was
63 per cent in 1960, declined to 34 per cent in 1988,
not because the industrial sector increased its share
but due to neglect oI the agricultural sector. It was
thereIore not surprising importer oI basic Iood
items. The apparent increase in industry and
manuIacturing Irom 1978 to 1988, was due to
activities in the mining sub-sector, especially
petroleum. Capital Iormation in the economy has
not been satisIactory.
Gross domestic investment as a percentage oI GDP,
which was 16.3 per cent and 22.8 per cent in the
periods 1965 73 and 1973 80 respectively,
decreased to almost 14 per cent in 1980-88 and
increased to 18.2 per cent in 1991-98. Gross
National saving has been l965 low and consists
mostly oI public savings especially during the
period 1973-80. The current account balances
beIore oIIicial transIers are negative Ior 1965-73,
1980-88 and 1991-98.
The economy never experienced double digit
inIlation during the 1960s. By 1976, however, the
inIlation ratio stood at 23 per cent. It decreased to
11.8 per cent in 1979 and jumped to 41 per cent and
72-8 per cent in 1989 and 1995, respectively. By
1998, the inIlation rate had, however, reduced to 9.5
per cent Irom 29.0 per cent in 1996. (World Bank
Report, 1998).
Unemployment rates averaged almost 5 per cent Ior
the period 1976-1998. However, the statistics
especially on unemployment must be interpreted
84
with caution. Most job seekers do not use the labour
exchange apart Irom the inherent distortions in the
country's labour market. Based on some basic
indicators, it appears that the economy perIormed
well during the year immediately aIter independent
and into the oil boom years. However, in the 1980s,
the economy was in a recession. The on-going
economic reIorm programmes is an attempt to put
the economy on a recovery path with minimal
inIlation. The analysis that Iollows tried to discuss
the developments in the economy Ior diIIerent
periods. (Wikipedia.com).
However, economic depression is understood as a
severe down-turn in the economy oI a country that
last Ior a year or more. GDP is a good indicator oI
whether we are in recession or depression. II the
decline in GDP is greater than 10 per cent, an
economy is said to be going through depression.
Besides reduction in GDP, an economic depression
is characterized by increase in unemployment rates
and decrease in the IlowoI money into the economy.
Business Iinds it exceedingly diIIicult to earn proIit.
As a result, they reduce their staIIs hence, it leads to
unemployment. Overall crises commonly occur
during an economic depression.
THE EFFECTOFECONOMICDEPRESSION
ONHOTELBUSINESS PROFITABILITY
According to Raymond, Y. C. T. (2001), the
Iollowing Iactors aIIect hotel business proIitability
duringdepression.
- Credit impairment
- Employee lay-oIIs and BeneIit Reductions
- Reduced Customer Access
- High Cost oI Power (Electricity) Supply
- Unskilled StaII
- LowPatronage
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
The research is a survey study to know how hotels
are making proIit in a depressed economy (Nigeria).
Excellence Hotel, Ogba was used to obtain
inIormation Irom the management and staII.
Questionnaires were used to collect inIormation
where questions about the hotel was asked and
aIterwards, returned. Descriptive statistics,
Irequency table and chi-square statistics were used
toanalyze the data.
DISCUSSION
Findings revealed that the majority oI respondents
believed that Nigeria economy is in depression as
against respondents who believed that the economy
is on the average. Also, some oI the respondents
strongly agreed to the Iact that depressed economy
can aIIect the proIitability oI hotel business as
against the respondents who just agreed to the Iact.
In a Iollow-up question as how the depressed
economy can aIIect various areas in the hotel
business 75 (30) oI the respondents believed that
the economy has aIIected proIitability oI hotel
business to a large extent, 15 (16) oI the
respondents believed that the eIIect oI depressed
economy oI proIitability oI hotel business is not as
great. However, the remaining 5 (2) believed the
eIIect on the average.
In term oI patronage, employment, staII training and
development, majority oI the respondents believed
that, though the economy has eIIect on these areas
but the eIIect is not as great as that oI proIitability
and hotel business.
Moreover, it was revealed that the rate oI proIit level
oI hotel was on the average and it was believed that
the state oI economy has impact on this rating. This
means the depression in the economy has a great
eIIect on proIit making in hotels and in most cases
the business is not proIitable. On the challenges the
hotels are Iacing 35 (14) oI the respondents
believed that low sales is aIIecting the business
averagely as against 5 (2) oI the respondents who
believed that low sales is not aIIected at all on the
proIitability oI the business. Also, only 7.5 (3) oI
the respondents agreed that low patronage is
aIIected by the depressed economy on the agreed
that low patronage is aIIected by the depressed
economy on the average while the remaining 25
(10) believed that low patronage is not really
aIIecting the proIitability oI hotel business.
On the lack oI enough capital 22.5 (9) oI the
respondents believed that this problem is aIIecting
hotel business very much while 12.5 (5) oI the
respondents believed that the problem is not really
aIIecting the hotel business consuming the high cost
oI power supply 75 (30) agreed that the depressed
economy really has aIIected power supply while
25 (10) respondents agreed that t is much.
On the problem oI unskilled staII 15 (6) oI the
respondents believed that the problem can aIIect
hotel business very much, 15 (6) also believed that
83
it has aIIected hotel business much, 20 (8) oI the
respondents believed that it has aIIected hotel
business averagely, 45 (18) oI the respondents
believed that it has not aIIected the business, and 5
(2) oI the respondents believed that it has not
aIIected the hotel business at all.
From the explanation above, the greatest challenges
hotels are Iacing are low sales, lack oI enough
revenue and high cost oI power (electricity) supply.
When the economy is in a good state, a lot oI
activities which boost hotel proIitability take place,
traveler comes into the country to do business or
they come to establish or even Ior tourism
individuals can aIIord to do Iunctions in hotels and
other activities. All these activities will give the
hotel good quality sales, and it is only when there is
enough sales that the hotels can make proIit.
Lack oI adequate capital also contributes to the
running oI proIitable hotel business. Because oI the
depressed economy, many people cannot aIIord the
kind oI money needed to run a proIitable hotel
business. Such Iactor location, type oI service and
the quality oI staII employed when all these Iactors
are property put in place, the hotel have a comIort oI
a 'real home and when this happens, guests Ieel
satisIied and patronize the hotel more. Not only
that, the guest will tell other people about the hotel
and this will bring more sales.
On the quality oI staII, the hotel does not only
depend on the type oI Iacilities and other services
put in place, but also the type oI staII it employs.
This is because staII usually comes in conIect with
guests and only skilled and well traipsed staII can
satisIy a guest.
IMPLICATIONOFTHESTUDY
Hotel plays an important role in most countries in
providing Iacilities Ior the recreation and
entertainment. In that series, hotels are as essential
to the economy and society as transportation,
communication and retail distribution systems Ior
various goods and services which make up the
material well being oI the nations and communities.
In many areas, hotels are important attractions Ior
visitors who bring in money to spend and who tend
to spend at a higher rate than they do when tend to
spend at a higher rate than they do when they are at
home. In areas receiving Ioreign visitor, hotels are
oIten important because Ioreign currency erasures
and in this way contribute signiIicantly to their
country's balance oI payment.
Hotels are important employers oI labour thousand
oI job are being provided by hotels in many
occupational Iields which make up the hotel
industries in most countries. A large employer oI
labour.
Hotels are also important outlets Ior the product oI
other industries. In the building and modernization
oI hotels, businesses are provided Ior the
construction industry and related trades. All these
roles oI hotels can only be made maniIest in a
situation where hotel business prospers i.e. where
hotel business becomes proIitable, it leads to
development oI more hotels. But in a case where
the economy is so depressed that it gives rise to lots
oI problems such as inIlation, insecurity, crime and
inadequate inIrastructure which discourages
Ioreign investors Irom coming into the country to
run a proIitable hotel business. Furthermore, hotels
cannot be developed and there are even Iears oI the
existing ones Iolding up. The Iallout results in
unemployment.
SUMMARYANDCONCLUSION
It has been Iound out that to run a proIitable hotel
business in a depressed economy takes greater
eIIort and that many hotels are just trying to keep the
business on line. The economy has aIIected various
areas oI hotel business such as proIitability,
patronage, hotel business Iinancing and lack oI
enough revenue, but the most aIIected area is the
proIitability which is caused by various Iactors
when an economy is undergoing depression.
The hotels have been Iacing challenges and
diIIerent measures have been put together to
overcome these challenges. Take Ior instance,
having a good marketing personnel who has the
skill oI marketing planning, marketing strategy,
market i ng speci al i zat i on and market i ng
management Ior the proper marketing oI the hotel
products and services to the general public
(customers), the location and Iacilities which the
hotel has to Iace. But Ior all these measures to
Iunction eIIectively there is need to improve the
economic situation oI the country.
It is thereIore becomes the responsibility oI the
Nigerian government to take a drastic step in order
to serve the present situation oI the economy.
RECOMMENDATION
As stated earlier, there is need to improve the
86
economic situation oI the country. This can be done by the Iollowing ways:
1. Increase in newinnovation
2. Investment structure
3. Expansionary monetary and Iiscal policy
4. Address revenue allocation issues.
REFERENCES
Brotherton, B., 2003,The International Hospitality Industry: Structure, Characteristics and Issues. OxIord:
Butterworth-Heinemann
Cruz, T. D. (2002) 'Industry ClariIies Marketing during Recession. Hotel and Motel Management, 15 18.
Dibb, S. &Simkin, L. (1994). TheMarketingCasebook: Cases&Concepts, London: Routledge.
Heyer, H., 21 October, 2008, Etn ExecutiveTalk: Is the Hospitality Industry Recession-prooI? Viewed
7 December, 2009
http://www.eturbonews.com/5714/etn-executive-talk-hospitality-industry-recession-prooI
Kusluvan, S., 2003, Managing EmployeeAttitudes and Behaviours in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry,
NewYork: Nova Publishers.
Loannides, D. & Debbage, K. G., 1998, The Economic Geography oI theTourist Industry: A Supply-
sideAnalysis, London: Routledge.
th
Medlik, D. & Ingram, H., 2000, The Business oI Hotels, 4 Edition, UK:Butterworth-Heinemann.
PriceWaterhouse Coopers (2008). Hotels. Managing in a downturn. The QuantiIication oI serviced
accommodation supply in the United Kingdom and the consideration oI related issues Melvin Gold
Consulting Ltd, conducted in March 2008
Raymond, Y. C. T. (2001). Estimating the Impact oI Economic Factors on
Tourism: Evidence Irom Hong Kong, Tourism Economics.
th
Rutherford, D. G. & O'Fallon, M. 1. (2006). Hotel Management and Operations, 4 Edition, New Jersey:
John Wiley and Sons.
nd
Sophie Butler. 'Travel Advice: Your Money Abroad'. TheTelegraph, 2 December, 2008
World Bank Report 1998
Zhang, H. Q., Pine, R & Lam, T. (2005). Tourism and Hotel Development in China: From Political to
Economy Success, USA, Routledge
Shin, S. (2003). Certain Degree oI Hospitality
87
Direct Solution of Second Order Ordinary Differential Equation with Oscillatory Solutions
(1) (2) (3)
, O. M. Akinmoladun`, D.A. Farinde and R. A. Ademiluyi
(1,2)
Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Lagos-State Polytechnics, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria
(2)
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University Of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
Correspondence author. 234838727249, email. olusegunmyahoo.com
Abstract
In this paper, a discrete Implicit Linear Multistep Method (LMM) oI Direct Solution oI IVP second order ordinary
diIIerential equation with oscillatory solution was developed at step length k 2, using trigonometric Iunction as a
basis Iunction. The computational burden and computer time wastage involved in the usual reduction oI second order
problem into system oI Iirst order equations are avoided by this method. The development oI the method adopts Taylor
series expansion techniques and Boundary Locus stability test method. The developed method was Iound to be
accurate, consistent, zero stable, A-stable and convergent. The method was used to solve some sampled problems on
second order ordinary diIIerential equation with oscillatory solutions and results are quite suitable when compared
with the solution obtained by some existing methods Ior the same set oI problems. Hence, the method developed can
compare andcompete with the existing methods Iavourably.
Key Words; Oscillatory, Periodic, LMM, ODE, Stability, Trigonometry, Taylor series
1.0.0 INTRODUCTION
Any Iunction oI the Iorm

y f(t, y) a t b, y(a) y , y(a) o
0
(1.0.1)
where I(t T, y) I(t, y) whereTis the period.
is called initial value problems oI second order ordinary
diIIerential equation with oscillatory solution.
cconventional linear multistep method oI such system
which oIten occurs in mechanical system without
dissipation, satellite tracking and celestial mechanics
||6|, |8||
One oI the conditions that such equation (1.0.1) must be
satisIied in order to ensure the existence and uniqueness
oI solution is contained in theorem postulated by |4|.
According to |6|, |7|, |11|, and |9| ; the commonest
method oI solving a second order ordinary diIIerential
equation oI the Iorm (1.0.1) is by reduction oI the
problem intoIirst ordinary diIIerential equation.
However, a more serious drawback to such technique
arises when the given system oI equations to be solved
cannot be solved explicitly Ior the derivatives oI the
highest order and, thereby; become ineIIicient,
uneconomical Ior a general purpose application.
Inthiswork, adiscreteLinear MultistepMethodoI theIorm
(1.0.2)
is developed at step length K 2 ; Ior direct solution oI
second order initial value problems oI ordinary
diIIerential equation oI the Iorm (1.0.1) using
trigonometric Iunction as a basis Iunction.
1.1.0 DERIVATIONOFTHEMETHOD
The development oI the numerical method Ior solution oI
periodic initial value problems oI ordinary diIIerential
equation oI the Iorm

y f(t, y) a t b, y(a) y , y(a) o
0
(1.1.1)
where I(t T, y) I(t, y) whereTis the period.
Assuming the theoretical solution oI the equation (1.1.1)
is oI the Iorm
y ( t ) a c o s w t b s i n w t
At, t t ; y y(t ) a cos wt b sin wt
n n n n n
(1.1.2)
1 1
y (t ) y - a w sin wt bw cos wt
n n n n
11 11 2
y (t ) y - w (a cos wt b sin wt ) f
n n n n n
. (1.1.3)
t t kh where k 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.and h t t
nk n n1 - n
Similarly, at, t t , y(t ) y a cos
n1 n1 n1
wt b sin wt (1.1.4)
n1 n1
1 1
y (t ) y - a w sin wt b w cos wt
n1 n1 n1 n1
(1.1.5)
11 11 2
y (t ) y - w (a cos wt b sin wt ) f
n1 n1 n1 n1 n1
(1.1.6)

Also, at t t , y(t ) y a cos wt b
n2 n2 n2 n2
sin wt (1.1.7)
n2
1 1
y (t ) y - w a sin wt bw cos
n2 n2 n2
wt (1.1.8)
n2
11 11 2
y (t ) y - w (a cos wt b sin wt )
n2 n2 n2 n2
f (1.1.9)
n2 .
1.2.0 METHODOLOGY
Subtract equation(1.1.2) Irom equation (1.1.4), we have
y y a(cos wt cos wt )b(sin wt sin
n1 n n1 n n1
wt ) (1.2.1)
n
(1.2.2) ( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
2
2
cos 2
2
sin
2
wh
88
Subtract equation (1.1.4) Irom equation (1.1.7)
y y a(cos wt cos wt ) b(sin wt sin
n2 n1 n2 n1 n2
wt ) (1.2.3)
n1
y y - 2 sin
n2 n1
(1.2.4)
Subtract equation(1.2.2) Irom equation (1.2.4) to have
2
y 2y y 4 sin
n2 n1 n
(1.2.5)
Adding equations (1.1.3) and (1.1.6) to obtain
2
I I -w
n1 n
2
I I - w (1.2.6)
n1 n
2
I I -2 w cos (1.2.7)
n1 n
Similarly; by adding equations (1.1.9) and (1.1.6) and
simpliIying, we shall obtain
2
I I -2 w cos
n2 n1
(1.2.8)
Also addingequations (1.2.7) and (1.2.8) to obtain
2 2
I 2I I 4 w cos
n2 n1 n
(1.2.9)
Divide equation (1.2.5) by equation (1.2.9) and
simpliIyingto obtain
(1.2.10)
SimpliIy toget
y - 2y y (1.2.11)
n2 n1 n
Adopting the short Iorm oI the Taylor's Series expansion
oI tan , givenas
(1.2.12)
and substitute in (1.2.11) and simpliIy to get
y - 2y y
n2 n1 n
(1.2.13)
For suIIiciently small value oI h, equation (1.2.13)
becomes
y 2y - y (1.2.14)
n2 n1 n
1.3.0 PROPERTIES OFTHEMETHOD
The basic property oI the method to be discussed
includes accuracy, consistency, convergence, stability
2
wh
( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
3 2
2
cos 3 2
2
sin
2
wh
( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
2 2
2
sin 2 2
2
cos
( ) ( ) | |
n n n n
wt b wt b wt a wt a sin sin cos cos
1 1
+ + +
+ +
( ) ( ) | |
n n n n
wt wt b wt wt a sin sin cos cos
1 1
+ + +
+ +
2
wh
( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
2
2
sin 2
2
cos
2
wh
( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
3 2
2
sin 3 2
2
cos
2
wh
( ) ( )
(

+ + + h t
w
b h t
w
a
n n
2 2
2
sin 2 2
2
cos
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
tan
1
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
wh
w f f f
y y y
n n n
n n n
( )
n n n
f f f
wh
w
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+ + 1 2
2
2
2
2
tan
1
2
wh
( )
n n n
f f f
h w h w
h + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ + 1 2
2
4 4 2 2
2
2
240 24 2
1
4
2
h
( )
n n n
f f f + +
+ + 1 2
2
properties and region oI absolute stability oI the method.
1.3.1.0Accuracy
The discretization error is the diIIerence between
the theoretical solution and the solution given by the
numerical method. II the theoretical solution y(x)
has continuous derivatives oI suIIiciently high order
then Ior both explicit and implicit methods; the
discretization error is deIined as
y(x ) - y e
nk nk n
A linear multistep method oI type (1.2.2) with
discretization error e Ior second order ordinary
n
diIIerential equation is said to be oI order P, with
principal error constant c , iI and only iI
p2
2 n
T C C hC h .... c h ....
nk 0 1 2 n
(1.3.1.1)
C C C ... c , c , c = 0
0 1 2 p p1 p2
accordingto|11|, |13|, |6|}
In order to establish the order and error terms Ior the
method in (3.2.16); we shall adopt a linear operator L
deIine as
L (1.3.1.2)
where y y(x j) and x x j h
nj n nj n
|1|, |2| assumed that
y (1.3.1.3)
nk
11
andy (x k) I(x k) (1.3.1.4)
n n
Then, when k 2, Irom (3.1.2) combine the equal power
oI h and obtain
1 2 2 3 3
L(y(x), h) C y(x) C h y (x ) C h y (x ) C h y (x )
0 1 n 2 n 3 n
q q
.. C h y (x )
q n
q1 q1 q2
C h y (x ) .. C h O
q1 n q2
q3
(h) (1.3.1.5)
Where
C 1 2 1 0
0
C 2 2 0
1
P 2 4 ~ P 42 2
The order p oI the methodis 2.
Error constant is C -0.1667(approximately)
p2
(1.3.1.7)
( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ +
=
f n i f n
k
f
f h y f x y h x y | o
2
0
,
( ) ( )

=
m
r
n
r r
r
x y k h
0
!
( )
( )

=
+ +
+
m
r
r r
r
y kh
2
2 2
! 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 2 2
4
1
2 2
! 3
1
0 1 2 1
4
1
2 2
! 2
1
3
3
2
2
= + =
= + + =
C
C

( ) ( ) 2
2 4
4
0 2 2
4 ! 2
1
2 2
! 4
1
+ = = + = p C C
6
1
89
1.3.2.0 CONSISTENCYTEST
Definition
L e t ( r , h ) p ( r ) h o ( r )
(1.3.2.1)
denotes the characteristic polynomial equation oI the
method.
where p(r) and o (r) are called Iirst and second
characteristics polynomials respectively; as explained
by |11|.
In the spirits oI |3|, |9|, |11|, |12| |13|, |14|; a linear
multistep method is said to be consistent iI and only iI it
satisIies the Iollowing conditions
(1.3.2.2)
With the principal root r 1
Irom (3.2.1) the characteristic polynomial equation oI
the 2-step method (1.2.14) is
2 2
r - 2r 1 (r 2r 1) (1.3.2.3)
2
where p(r) r 2 r 1
2
o (r) (r 2r 1)
SimpliIyingequation (3.2.3), we have (r 1)(r 1)
0, r 1, 1
Thus, p(1) 0 p(1), p(1) 2 2! (1)
1 2 1 0
ThereIore the method (1.2.14) is consistent, convergent
and zero stable.

1.3.3.0 STABILITY PROPERTIES OF THE
METHOD
Alinear multistep method oI the Iorm (1.0.2) is said to be
(i) Zero stable iI no root oI the Iirst characteristics
polynomial has modulus greater than one that is it
must be within a unit circle.
(ii) Absolutely or relatively stable in a region R oI the
complex plane iI Ior all h eR; all roots (r ) oI the
s
stability polynomial t (r, h) associated with the
method satisIy.
, r , , ; s 1, 2, .. K, ,r , , r ,
s s 1
S 2, 3, 4..., k, | according to |11|, | 5||
(1.3.3.1)
REGIONOFABSOLUTESTABILITY
To establish the region oI absolute stability Ior the
method in (3.1.16), we assume
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

=
= =
=
>

=
r r iv
r r iii
f ii
P order The i
k
f
o

o
! 2
0
0
1
11
1
0
4
h
4
1
( )
( )
( ) r
r
r h
o

=
such that
(1.3.3.2)
2
(r) r 2r 1
2
(r) / (r 2r 1)
2
r 2r 1
(r) h (1.3.3.3)
i u
Setting r e cos u i sin and h (u) = (1.3.3.4)
Where L(u) 8|cos u (cos u - 1) I sin u (cos u - 1)|
W(u) 2 |cos (cos u 1) 2i sin u (cos u1)|
(1.3.3.5)
Putting equations (4.3.5) Ior L(0) and W(u) in equation
(4.3.4) andobtain
h (u) X(u) i y (u)
(1,3.3.7)
0
For in interval |0,t| For angle ranging between 0 and
0
180 we have the table oI valves below.
1.4.0 NUMERICALEXPERIMENTS
To test the perIormance oI the proposed scheme on
periodic initial value problems oI second order ordinary
diIIerential equations; the Iollowing sampled problems
were considered and the results are compared with the
result obtained through the method developedby |10|.
1.4.1 SAMPLED PROBLEMS
11
(1) y - y
1
Y (0) 1, y(0) 0 Theoretical Solution
y(x) Sin X
(2) y - 2y
2
Theoretical solution is y(x) sin x; |Taking Irom
|10||
The developed method was implemented by solving the
sampled problems at step size h 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 Ior
( ) 1 2
4
2
2
+ + r r
h
( )
1 2
1 2 4
2
2
+ +
+
r r
r r
( )
( ) u
u
W
L
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) | | 1 cos sin cos cos 4
1 cos 2 cos 1 cos sin 16
1 cos sin cos cos 4
cos 2 cos 2 1 cos cos 8
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
u u u u
u u u u
u
u u u u
u u u u
u
y
X
u
u X( )
0
0
0
0
30
0. 2389
0
60
1 . 333
0
90
4. 0
0
1 20
1 6. 00
0
1 50
0. 287
0
1 80
0
( )
y
y
2
2
1
4
1
6
,
2
3
6
1
= |
.
|

\
| H
= |
.
|

\
| H
y y
90
steps k 2. The perIormances oI the method on each
sampled problems were shown below in tabular and
graphical Iorms.
TABLE1A: PERFORMANCEOFPROPOSED
METHODONPROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h 0.1
TABLE 1B: PERFORMANCE OF PROPOSED
METHOD ON PROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h 0.01
MESHSIZE
(X)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600
EXACT
SOLUTION
(ES)
0.50006
0.86609
1.00000
0.86589
0.49971
-0.00041
-0.50041
-0.86630
-1.00000
-0.86569
-0.49935
0.00081
0.50076
0.86650
1.00000
0.86548
0.49900
-0.00122
-0.50112
-0.86670
NUMERICAL
RESULT
(NR)
0.50308
0.86783
0.99999
0.86414
0.49668
-0.00390
-0.50343
-0.86804
-0.99999
-0.86393
-0.49633
0.00431
0.50378
0.86824
0.99999
0.86373
0.49597
-0.00471
-0.50414
-0.86844
ERROR
(E)
0.00302
0.00174
-0.00001
-0.00175
-0.00303
-0.00349
-0.00302
-0.00174
0.00001
0.00175
0.00303
0.00349
0.00302
0.00174
-0.00001
-0.00175
-0.00303
-0.00349
-0.00302
-0.00174
MESH
SIZE (X)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600
EXACT
SOLUTION
(ES)
0.50006
0.86609
1.00000
0.86589
0.49971
-0.00041
-0.50041
-0.86630
-1.00000
-0.86569
-0.49935
0.00081
0.50076
0.86650
1.00000
0.86548
0.49900
-0.00122
-0.50112
-0.86670
NUMERICAL
RESULT
(NR)
0.50036
0.86627
1.00000
0.86571
0.49940
-0.00076
-0.50071
-0.86647
-1.00000
-0.86551
-0.49905
0.00116
0.50107
0.86667
1.00000
0.86531
0.49870
-0.00157
-0.50142
-0.86688
ERROR
(E)
0.00030
0.00017
0.00000
-0.00017
-0.00030
-0.00035
-0.00030
-0.00017
0.00000
0.00017
0.00030
0.00035
0.00030
0.00017
0.00000
-0.00017
-0.00030
-0.00035
-0.00030
-0.00017
TABLE 1C: PERFORMANCE OF
PROPOSED METHOD ON PROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h 0.001
MESH
SIZE
(X)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600
EXACT
SOLUTION
(ES)
0.50006
0.86609
1.00000
0.86589
0.49971
-0.00041
-0.50041
-0.86630
-1.00000
-0.86569
-0.49935
0.00081
0.50076
0.86650
1.00000
0.86548
0.49900
-0.00122
-0.50112
-0.86670
EXACT
SOLUTION
(ES)
0.50006
0.86609
1.00000
0.86589
0.49971
-0.00041
-0.50041
-0.86630
-1.00000
-0.86569
-0.49935
0.00081
0.50076
0.86650
1.00000
0.86548
0.49900
-0.00122
-0.50112
-0.86670
ERROR
(E)
0.00003
0.00002
0.00000
-0.00002
-0.00003
-0.00003
-0.00003
-0.00002
0.00000
0.00002
0.00003
0.00003
0.00003
0.00002
0.00000
-0.00002
-0.00003
-0.00003
-0.00003
-0.00002
91
TABLE 2: PERFORMANCE OF THE METHOD PROPOSED BY( 10] ON PROBLEM2.
Where k 2 and h 0.1/40
FIGURE1A: GRAPH SHOWING EXACTSOLUTION, NUMERICALRESULTOFPROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h 0.1
FIGURE1B: GRAPH SHOWING EXACTSOLUTION, NUMERICALRESULTOFPROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h0.01
MESH
SIZE
(X)
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
EXACT SOLUTION
(ES)
0.347079856D00
0.4447029076D00
0.5445304795D00
0.64258276176D00
0.7349507191D00
0.8179519328D00
0.8882774063D00
0.9431234848D00
0.9803036284D00
0.9983355820D00
0.9965004686D00
0.9748714482D00
0.9343108018D00
0.8764355542D00
0.8035453772D00
NUMERICAL
RESULT
(NR)
0.3470825002D00
0.4447039485D00
0.5445299073D00
0.6425806127D00
0.7349470726D00
0.8179469074D00
0.8882711564D00
0.9431161965D00
0.9802955155D00
0.9983268816D00
0.9964914361D00
0.9748623526D00
0.9343019191D00
0.8764271615D00
0.8035453772D00
ERROR
(E)
0.26443872944D-05
0.104083893D-05
0.572236891D-06
0.2149012977D-05
0.364652591D-05
0.5025381945D-05
0.6249907566D-05
0.7288316186D-05
0.8112927441D-05
0.8700463868D-05
0.9032438938D-05
0.9095639054D-05
0.8882690344D-05
0.8392689725D-05
0.7631869991D-05
92
FIGURE 1C: GRAPH SHOWING EXACT SOLUTION, NUMERICALRESULT OF
PROBLEM1
where Step k 2 and h 0.001
1.5.0 CONCLUSION
In this work, numerical methods Ior solution oI periodic
initial value problems oI second order ordinary
diIIerential equation had been discussed. The developed
method was analyzed and Iound to be consistent,
convergent and stable.
The perIormance oI the method was implemented on
some sampled problems oI second order ordinary
diIIerential equation with oscillatory solutions. The
results showthat as the values oI h decreases Irom 0.1 to
0.001, the truncation error approaches zero. It was also
observed that as h decreases the graph oI the numerical
result (NR) and the exact solution (ES) oI the proposed
methods at each steps oI k were nearly overlaps each
other and the discretization error vanishes as h tend to
zero, showing that the proposed method is accurate and
can compare Iavourably with the result on table 2.
REFERENCES
1. Ademiluyi, R.A. (1987) ' New hybrid methods Ior
system oI stiII ordinary diIIerential equation Ph.D
thesis, University oI Benin, Benin-City, Nigeria.
(unpublished)
2. Ademiluyi, R.A. and Kayode, S.J. (2001)
Maximum order second derivative hybrid
multistep methods Ior integration oI initial value
problems in ordinary diIIerential equations
Journal Nig. Ass. Math Phy Vol. 5, pp254 262.
3. Awoyemi, D.O. (1999): 'A class oI continuous
methods Ior general second order initial value
problems oI ordinary diIIerential equations
Journal oI the Mathematical Association oI
Nigeria, Vol. 24, 162, p 40-43
p
4. Codington, E.A. and Levinson, N. (1955):
Theory oI ordinary diIIerential equations McGraw
Hill, New-York
5. Dahlquist, G. (1969) ' A Numerical Method Ior
some ODEs with large Lipschitz & constants
inIormation processing 68, North Holland
Publishing company, Amsterdam.
6. Fatunla S.O. (1988) ''Numerical methods Ior IVPs
in ordinary diIIerential equations''. Academic press
Inc. Harcourt Brace Jovano. Publishers NewYork.
7. Fatunla S.O. (1992) '' Parallel methods Ior second
order ODE's'' Computational ordinary diIIerential
equations proceedings oI comp. conIerence
(eds),p 87-p 99.
p p
8. Henrici, P. (1962): Discrete variable methods in
ordinary DiIIerential equations John Wiley and
sons, NewYork.
9. Jain et. al. (1984) 'Asixth order p-stable symmetric
multistep method Ior periodic initial value
problems oI second order diIIerential equation
IMAJournal on Numerical Analysis. vol. 4 pp 117 -
125.
10. Kayode S.J. (2004) 'A class oI maximal order
Linear collocation methods Ior direct solution oI
second order initial value problems ordinary
diIIerential equations Ph.D. thesis, FUTA ,
Nigeria. (unpublished).
11. Lambert J.D. (1973) 'computational method in
ordinary diIIerential equations John Willey and
sons Inc NewYork.
12. Lambert J.D. (1980) 'StiIIness proceeding
computational Techniques Ior ordinary
diIIerential equation (Gladwell I and Sayers D.K.
ed) 1946 Academic press a subsidiary oI Harcurt
Brace Jovanovich publishers London, New York
Toronto Sydney San Francisco.
13. Lambert J.D. (1991) 'Numerical methods Ior
ordinary diIIerential system oI initial value
problems JohnWilley and sons Inc, New-York.
14. Onumanyi P., Awoyemi D. O., Jator S. N. and
Sirisena U. W. (1994) New Linear multistep
methods with continuous coeIIicients Ior the Iirst
order initial value problems. J. Nig. Math. Soc. Vol.
13, p 37-51
p
93
THE VITAMINAND MINERALCONTENTS OF ~OKPA PREPARED WITH FLUTED PUMPKINAND
SCENT LEAVES
Adumanya, O. C. U., Obi-Adumanya, G. Aand Chukwu, M. O.
Department oI Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria.
E-mail, adumso2yahoo.com , Phone Number. 234-0803-7730-442
ABSTRACT
The Bambara nut Ilour is oIten processed into 'Okpa by the inhabitants oI the eastern part oI Nigeria. The 'Okpa is a
well cherished Iood, especially among the inhabitants oI the eastern part oI Nigeria. The vitamin and mineral contents
(mg/100g) oI 'Okpa prepared with Iluted pumpkin and scent leaves were determined. The result shows that the
addition oI the vegetables increased the vitamin B B , and B contents oI 'Okpa compared with the control at P
1, 2 3
0.05. But it did not alter that oI vitamin Clevels at P0.05. The order oI increase in vitamin B levels were, sample B~
1
D~ C~ A. While that oI vitamin B levels were, sample C~ D~ B~ Aand that oI B contents were D~ C~ B~ A. This
2 3
points that the presence oI these vegetables could serve as a booster to the vitamin contents oI 'Okpa. Also the mineral
contents, especially phosphorus, magnesium and calcium ions were signiIicantly change compared with the control at
P0.05. The 'Okpa with Iluted pumpkin leaves had the highest phosphorus ion contents (136.623 + 0.372), Iollowed
by 'Okpa with Iluted pumpkin and scent leaves combined (114.433 + 0. 377) and then 'Okpa with scent leaI (92.783
+ 0.377) compared with the control (22.533 + 0.448). The magnesium ion levels was highest in 'Okpa with Iluted
pumpkin (18.400 + 1.131) Iollowed by '0kpa with combined leaves (16.000 + 1.131) and then 'Okpa with scent leaI
(12.800 + 2.263) compared with the control (11.200 + 1.131). The potassium contents was also highest in 'Okpa with
Iluted pumpkin leaI (165.860 + 0.377), Iollowed by 'Okpa with scent leaI (153.600 + 0.653) and 'Okpa with the
combined leaves (143.733 + 28.097) compared with the control (70.133 + 0.377). The levels oI calcium ion was
highest in 'Okpa with scent leaI and 'Okpa with the combined leaves (85.50 + 1.890) respectively, Iollowed by
'Okpa with Iluted pumpkin leaI compared with the control (78.833 + 1.890). The sodium ion levels was not aIIected
signiIicantly at P 0.05 compared with the control. These results suggest that the vegetables especially Iluted
pumpkin leaves could serve as a booster to the mineral and vitamin contents oI 'Okpa.
Keywords: Okpa, Bambara nut, Fluted pumpkin and Scent leaves.
INTRODUCTION
'Okpa is a well-cherish Iood, especially among the
inhabitants oI the Eastern part oI Nigeria.
However consumers oIten complain that the 'Okpa
bought Irom the local markets is hard, dry and heavy to
the palate. It is gottenIrom the Ilour oI Bambara nut.
Bambara nut (Joand:eia subterranean (L.) thouars) is a
seed oI AIrica origin used locally as a vegetable. It was
I i r s t I o u n d i n w e s t A I r i c a
(http://wapedia.mobi/en/bambara). The plant is
leguminous and has numerous nitrogen Iixing nodules
on the root. Evidence has shown that based on the root
nodules, the plant supports land care provision in AIrica
(National Research Council, 2006). The quest Ior plant
with nutritional properties continues to receive attention.
Bambara nut which constitutes complete Iood stuII is
reported to contain protein, carbohydrate and lipid and
can be consumed at diIIerent stages oI maturation
(National Research Council, 2006). The plant has a
potential to improve malnutrition and boost Iood
availability.
The botanical name oI Bambara nut is Joand:eia
subterranean (L.) thouars, synonyms oI Jigna
subterranean and belongs to the plantea oI the Iamily oI
Iabaceae and sub Iamily oI Faboidea. The common
names oI Bambara nut are okpa (Nigeria Igbo), Gurujia
(Nigeria, Hausa), congo groundnut (Cong), Njugo, bean
(South AIrica) Nzama (Malawi) Ntoyo (Ci Bemba) or
K a t o y o ( K , K a n o d ) ( Z a m b i a )
(http://wapedia.mobi/en/bambara). The plant is
distributed in AIrica and grows best under bright
sunshine, high temperature and at least 4 months Iree
Irost and Irequent rain. However, it is highly adaptable
and tolerates harsh weather conditions better than most
crops. Bambara nuts are used locally as Iood stuII Ior
preparing 'Okpa (moi-moi) (Nigeria, Igbo). It can be
boiled and eaten as nut and can also be grounded into
Ilour Ior preparing IuIu maize Ior (Nigeria, Middle
Belt). Bambara is used to IortiIy maize Ior pap (Nigeria,
Anambra state). The dry seeds can last Ior very long
time and serves as Iamine Iood boosting Iood
availability(National ResearchCouncil, 2006).
Bambara plant is also used to sustain the plant habitat as
it increases the Iertility oI the soil and brings about the
94
high yields oI other crops cultivated around it without
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o I I e r t i l i z e r
(http://wapedia.mobi/en/bambara). The plant also
serves as a natural For Florida garden. The nut can be
eaten rawwhen immature because it is soIt and pleasant.
The extract Irom the nut oI Joand:eia subterranean
particularly the protein extracts can be used directly in
cosmetic Iormulations and provides speciIic properties
and notable particular eIIects. The nut can be used quite
Ireely to replace the high-prized lumps oI meat without
sacriIicing adequate nutrition. The Iatty acid present in
the nut oil is among the essential Iatty acids needed in the
body. These Iatty acids are primarily used to produce
hormone like substance that regulates the wide range oI
Iunctions. The nut also contains tannin which is one oI
the anti nutritional Iactors (Obizoba and Egbuna, 1992).
The unique properties and composition oI Bambara nut
make it serve as a balanced Iood which contains almost
all the vital nutrients that promotes good health Ior
people living in AIrica.
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Fluted pumpkin, scent leaves and cream coloured
variety oI Bambara nut were procured Irom Ekeonunwa
market, Owerri, Imo-state Nigeria.
PREPARATIONOFBAMBARAFLOUR
The seeds were thoroughly cleaned and sorted to remove
extraneous matters. The clean seeds weighing 200grams
was used.
The seeds were stepped in cold water at room
0
temperature 25 C Ior 8hrs. The seeds were later dried in
0
air draught drier at 65 CIor 48hrs to moisture content oI
about 10. The seeds were separately dehulled using
plate milled with clearance oI 6mm between the plates.
The cotyledons were hammer mill to pass through
0.8mm screen size.
PREPARATIONOFTHE~OKPA SAMPLES
Fresh paste was prepared Irom Bambara Ilour. Flour oI
0
200g was hydrated with 300ml oI warm water (60 C)
and mix thoroughly. The paste was divided into Iour
equal parts. To the Iirst portion, plain paste was
dispensed into a clean banana leaI. To the second
portion, paste mixed with sliced Iluted pumpkin leaves
was dispensedinto another clean banana leaI.
To the third portion, paste mixed with sliced scent
leaves was also dispensed into a clean banana leaI. To
the Iourth portion, paste with Iluted pumpkin leaves
mixed with scent leaves was also dispensed into a clean
banana leaI. Then steam Ior 45mins at ambient
temperature.
SAMPLECODING
SAMPLE A- plain Okpa (control), Sample B- Okpa
with Iluted pumpkin leaI, Sample C- Okpa with scent
leaI, Sample D- Okpa with Iluted pumpkin and scent
leaI combined.
ANALYSIS
Five grams (5g) oI each sample was taken and were
careIully coded as shown above. The Mineral and water
soluble vitamins oI the samples were determined using
the standard method as described by Association oI
OIIicial Analytical Chemist 1984.
RESULTS
THERESULTOFTHEWATERSOLUBLEVITAMINCONTENTS OFTHESAMPLES
Table 1.1: The vitamin contents (mg/100g) of the samples
Valuesmeans + standard deviation. Values with asterisks (*) are signiIicant at P0.05
* SigniIicant, ** highly signiIicant, * * * Much more highlysigniIicant
THERESULTOFTHEMINERALCONTENTS OFTHESAMPLES
Table 1.2: The mineral contents (mg/100g) of the Samples
A
B
C
D
0.131+0.009*
0.167+0.009*
0.147+0.005*
0.151+0.005*
0.320+0.002**
0.429+0.002**
0.446+0.007**
0.443+0.002**
0.883+0.009***
1.103+0.009***
1.053+0.009***
1.073+0.005***
2.933+0.415
13.787+0.415
11.100+0.424
1.613+0.414
Samples
A
B
C
D
Calcium
78.823+1.890*
82.833+1.890*
85.507+1.890*
85.507+1.890*
Magnesium
11.200+1.131**
18.400+1.131**
12.800+2.263**
16.000+1.131**
Sodium
6.413+0.019
6.347+0.019
6.413+0.038
6.393+0.009
Potassium
70.133+0.377***
165.867+0.377***
153.600+0.653***
143.733+28.097*``
Phosphorus
22.533+0.448****
136.623+0.372****
92.783+0.377
114.433+0.377****
93
Valuesmeans + standard deviation. Values with
asterisks (*) are signiIicant at P0.05
* SigniIicant, ** highly signiIicant, * * * more
highly signiIicant, * * * * Much more highly
signiIicant

DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
The result as shown in table 1.1 shows that the addition
oI the vegetables signiIicantly altered the vitamin B
1
(thiamin), vitamin B (riboIlavin ) and vitamin B
2 3
(niacin) contents oI the samples compared with the
control at P 0.05. But that oI the vitamin C levels was
not aIIected at P0.05.
The highest vitamin B contents was seen in sample B
1
(0.167+ 0.009), Iollowed by t sample D(0.151 + 0.005),
and then by sample C (0.147 + 0.005) when compared
with the control sampleA(0.131 + 0.009).
Sample C (0.446 + 0.007) had the highest riboIlavin
(vitamin B ) levels, Iollowed by sample D (0.443 +
2
0.002) and then sample B (0.429 + 0.002) compared
with the control sample A (0.320 + 0.002). While the
other oI increase in niacin (vitamin B ) levels were
3
sample D (1.073+ 0.005), sample C (1.053 + 0.005),
sample B (1.103+ 0.009) and sample A(0.883 + 0.009)
i.e. D C B A. The vitamin C contents were not altered
signiIicantly at P0.05. These showthat the presence oI
the vegetables which are rich in vitamins boosted the
vitamin contents oI the Okpa compared with the control.
The result in table 1.2 shows that the mineral contents
especially phosphorous, magnesium potassium and
calcium ions were signiIicantly changed at P0.05. The
change was noticed more in phosphorus, Iollowed by
potassium, magnesium and calcium ion levels. Sodium
ion levels were not aIIected signiIicantly at P0.05.
Sample B had the highest levels oI phosphorus ion
(136.623 + 0.372), Iollowed by sample D (114.433 +
0.377) and then sample C (92.783 + 0.377) compared
with the control sampleA(22. 533 + 0.448). Also sample
B had the highest magnesiumion contents (18.400 +
1.131), Iollow by sample D (16.000 + 1.131), then by
sample C (12. 800 + 2.263) compared with the control
sampleA(11. 200 + 1.131).
The potassium ion contents was also highest in sample B
(165.867 + 0.377), Iollowed by sample C (153.600 +
0.653) and sample D(143.733 + 28.097) compared with
the control sample A (70.133 + 0.377). The levels oI
calcium ion was highest in sample C and D (85.507 +
1.890) Iollowed by sample B (82.833 + 1.890)
comparedwith the control sampleA(78.823 + 1.890).
CONCLUSION
These results suggest that the vegetables especially
Iluted pumpkin could serve as a booster to the mineral
and vitamin contents oI 'Okpa, thereIore, their
additionwill enhance its nutritional values.
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Akinjajeju . O.U (2001) Genetic diversity in Bambara
groundnut L) germplasm revealed by road
markers. Genome, 44: 1995. 999
Alobo, R.M (1999) the mineral composition oI Bambara
groundnut grown in southern AIrica. AFR.J
Biotechnol., 5: 2408-2411.
Asiedu, F.J, Nwale, S.S (20020 Breading in Bambara
nut/vigna subteranea L verdc) strategic
consideration, Afr. J. Botichnol 1, 4. 463-471
Beolthoumer, 0.1 (2009) climate change and hunger:
responding to the chanllenge: world
programe, Rome. Italy
Cocks, W.W. (2009) Biological potential oI pumpkin:
updated reviewnutr. Res Rev.
Decor, T.T 2009 Analysis oI genetic diversity in
bambaranut, landance using ampliIied
tragment length polymorphism (AFLP)
markers. AFR. J. Biotechno1 3: 22.0.225
Ehiwe, Nu. (2000) evaluation oI bambarnut yield
related characteristics. Agricultural research
council grain crop institute. (ARC- GCI)
HHp:// all dissentation. Com. I Iill. Phppled
102622.
Enwere, I.P. Makanda K.E (2001) Bambaranut
literature: A levised and up dated.
Biolography 3. 22. 0225
Ijeh, I.K, Barron, N.E (2001). The new Iood lover's
rd
companion3 ed pumpkinseedoil.
Jonal, I.K (1999). National academy oI science.
Tropical legumes resources Ior the Iuture pg.
47-53, Washington D.C
Kay, F,N and Heppen, A.D (2002) the bambara nut in
west AIrica knewbulletin 16: 398-407.
Meltler, S.K(2002) economic important oI Bambara nut
would cups 23. 195-196.
Mike, J.J (2001) processing tropical crops a technical
approach. Raacmillan publisher limited,
London, p1-10.
Nnum, J.U. WolIord, J.M (200) the mineral composition
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AFR. J. Biotechnol, 5. 2405-2411.
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th
OIIicial Methods oI Analysis (1984). Association oI OIIicial Analytical Chemist Washington DC4 edition
Oguntunde, M.A(2009) variation and correlation studies in quantitative characteris in soyabean ogun J. Agric sc, 3.
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Okonkwo. N.A. (1999) growth nodulation and yield oI bambaranut on selection Nigeria soils. J.Sci. food Agric. 73:
377-382.
Olapade, A. O(2005) Department oI Ioods technology. Faculty oI technology. University oI Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Osagie A. Uand OIIiong, U.E (1988) nutritional quality quality oI plant Iood. Amilk press, post harvest research unit,
university oI Benin, Benin city Nigeria.
Oshoda N.A(1999) eIIect oI dehulling on Iunctional properties oI dry beanIlour cereal chemistry 59(50: 397-401
Sendeccor . U.O, Mike . N. P (2009) Irom academic imperation to the civil commons. Sustainable Dev. Interchange,
39.77-94.
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97
HEAVYMETALDETERMINATION IN WASTE WATER FROMFOUR CHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES USING ATOMICABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER
DAMAZIO OLANREWA1UAND 1A1I SAHEED
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORYTECHNOLOGY, SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGY, LAGOS
STATE POLYTECHNIC IKORODU, LAGOS STATE
E-mail: larrydam2000yahoo.co.uk
Mobile Phone Number: +2348023400498
This study was carried out to determine the level oI heavy metals concentration in industrial waste water Irom Iive
chemical industries around Ikeja Industrial Estate usingAtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer. EIIluent samples were
collected twice daily Mondays and Thursdays Ior Iour weeks Irom Iour chemical Industries (Apple cosmetics,
Chemiron, Friesland and Vital products). The metal analyzed were Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb),
Manganese (Mn) and Zinc (Zn). The results oI the analysis showed that Chromium and Copper were not detected in any
-3
oI the eIIluents. The concentration oI Lead ranges Irom NDto 0.0246mgdm , while that oI Manganese and Zinc were
-3 -3
Irom NDto 0.0019mgdm and NDto 0.0303mgdm respectively. All the concentrations were within the World Health
Organizationstandards Ior Water quality.
Key words: Heavy metal, EIIluent, AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer, Industrial waste water, Water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Heavy metals include a great variety oI chemical
elements that typically occur in lower trace amounts in
the environment and all have the potential to provoke
toxic eIIects in organisms. Heavy metals occur in nature
in very low concentrations, yet are capable oI exerting
biological eIIects at concentrations within a Iew orders
oI magnitude. In systems as heavily disturbed as rivers,
the use oI biological sentinels is a most interesting way oI
obtaining continuous assessment to environmental
quality. (3).
Heavy metal contamination in industrial eIIluents has
been an issue oI environmental and public health concern
since the advent oI industrialization, owing to their non-
biodegradable, toxic and bio-accumulative nature (4, 6).
The rapid growth in global population and urbanization
has driven an exponential increase in industrial
activities, which is accompanied by an increase in the
amount oI industrial waste being discharged into the
environment. Hence, the increase in heavy metals such
as Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Copper, Zinc, Nickel and
Chromium posing signiIicant risk to soil, water and
human health. Heavy metals are discharged into the
environment by industries such as mining, textile,
petrochemicals, Iood, and cosmetics among others. (2)
Many waste materials discharged to the environment.
Most are degraded slowly by living organisms into
smaller harmless molecules; however some not easily
broken down and instead they accumulate to levels
which could pose health hazards. The disposal oI heavy
metals is a consequence oI industrial activities like,
electroplating, painting, petrochemical, chemical
manuIacturing, and textile industries (1). Toxic metals
such as Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni and Zn, make their way
into water bodies which can produce harmIul eIIects on
human health when they are taken up in amounts that
cannot be processed by the organism (9). As a result,
many new technologies are required to mitigate heavy
metal concentrations to environmentally acceptedlevels.
Lead and chromium are toxic metal contaminants in
water. According to Pakistan standards the maximum
discharge limits Ior lead and chromium in wastewater are
-1 -1
respectively 0.5 mg l and 1.0 mg l . Maximum limit in
-1
drinking water is 0.05 mg l Ior both metals. In Iact there
is no saIe level oI these metals in drinking water and even
a very dilute content can cause adverse health eIIects.
Lead is toxic to living organisms and iI released into the
environment can bio accumulate and enter the Iood
chain. Lead is known to cause mental retardation,
reduces haemoglobin production necessary Ior oxygen
transport and it interIeres with normal cellular
metabolism. Lead has damaging eIIects on body nervous
system. It reduces I.Qlevel in children. Strong exposure
oI hexavalent chromium causes cancer in the digestive
tract and lungs and may cause gastric pain, nausea,
vomiting, severe diarrhoea, andhaemorrhage (5).
A variety oI methods and instruments are available Ior
the determination oI trace heavy metals in eIIluent
samples (7). Among the instruments, AtomicAbsorption
Spectrophotometer is the instrument oI choice and has
98
been used in the present study Ior heavy metal
determination inthe eIIluent samples.
The main purpose oI this study is to determine the
concentration oI Chromium (Cr), Zinc (Zn), Copper
(Cu), Manganese (Mn) and Lead (Pb) in Iour chemical
industrial eIIluents, thereby identiIying the most and
least concentrated heavy metals and hence compare the
concentration with the World Health Organization
(W.H.O.) standard according to the parameters oI
industrial eIIluent discharge. (8)
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
StudyArea
The study area was conducted in the eIIluent channels
Irom Iour chemical industries in Ikeja industrial estate in
Ikeja Metropolis oI Lagos State. The industries under
study are apple cosmetics, chemiron international
Limited, Vital product and Iriesland Ioods Nigeria Plc.
Sample collection and contamination control.
All sample bottles, glass volumetric Ilasks, glass reagent
bottles and crucibles were washed with detergent, rinsed
in tap water, rinsed in distilled water, soaked overnight in
dilute hydrochloric acid then rinsed in de-ionized water
and dried in the oven. Hands were washed more oIten
with de-ionized water, also de-ionized water was used
throughout the analysis.
Samples oI eIIluents were collected in sample bottles in
the morning and evening Irom the Iour industries with an
enclosed bung, Ior two days in a week (Monday and
Thursdays). This was carried out Ior Iour weeks. All
samples were placed into thoroughly cleaned sample
bottles and tightly closed. Each bottle was rinsed with
appropriate sample beIore the Iinal sample collection
and preserved with 5ml dilute trioxonitrate(v) acid. The
sample were placed in a reIrigerator at low temperature
and then takentothe laboratory Ior analysis.
LaboratoryProcedure
100ml oI the thoroughly mixed samples were measured
into a 250ml conical Ilask. Some pebbles were added
and the Ilask covered with an aluminium Ioil. The
sample were heated on a hot plate until the volume
reduce to about 20ml, it was not allowed to boil. The
samples were allowed to cool and Iiltered with whatman
No. 4 Iilter paper into a 100ml measuring cylinder to
remove any sediment. It was weighed and quantitatively
transIerred into a 50ml volumetric Ilask and made up to
mark with de-ionized water. Blank sample was also
prepared using the same procedure without adding the
wastewater sample.
The samples were aspirated at the speciIied condition
using Ilame atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(FAAS) (Model: Solar MAASIS series 711047 Vl. 22)
with a hallow cathode lamp and Iuel rich Ilame (air-
acetylene) the mean signal responses were recorded at
each oI the elements respective wave length and the
concentration oI each element in the sample was
calculatedas Iollows.
Conc. (mg/L)
Standard concentration sample absorption 100
Standarabsorbance weight oI sample
TABLE 1
S/N
1
COMPANY
VITAL
PRODUCTS
SAMPLING PERIOD
1st Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
Concentration (mg/l)
Lead (Pb)
0.0107
0.0037
0.0015
ND
0.0018
0.0027
0.0096
ND
ND
0.0018
0.0117
0.0071
0.0062
ND
0.0105
0.0056
Concentration (mg/l)
Copper (Cu)
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
99
S/N COMPANY
FRIESLAND
SAMPLING PERIOD
1st Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
Concentration (mg/l)
Lead (Pb)
ND
0.0075
ND
ND
0.0049
0.0035
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.0246
0.0075
0.0019
0.0025
ND
Concentration (mg/l)
Copper (Cu)
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
APPLE
COSMETICS
1st Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
0.0004
ND
0.0023
ND
0.0015
0.0035
ND
ND
0.0003
0.0009
0.0123
0.0009
0.0023
0.0055
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
CHEMIRON 1st Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week
Mon. Mor. Mon. Eve.
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.0017
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.0025
ND
0.0055
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
100
S/N
1.
Company
/Sample
VITAL
PRODUCTS
Sampling Periods
1st Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
Concentration
Zinc (Zn) Manganese (Mn) Chromium (Cr)
0.0152
0.0207
0.0080
ND
0.0044
0.0023
0.0080
0.0010
0.0143
0.0085
0.0026
0.0110
0.0131
0.0055
0.0030
0.0023
0.0019
0.0005
0.0005
ND
0.0005
0.0010
0.0005
0.0017
0.0002
0.0006
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.0026
0.0076
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2. FRIESLAND 1st Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
2nd Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
3rd Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
4th Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve.
0.0027
0.0115
ND
ND
0.0009
0.0123
0.0005
0.0205
0.0009
0.0123
0.0100
0.0303
ND
ND
ND
0.0075
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.0010
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
3. APPLE
COSMETIC
S
1
st
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. ND 0.0003 ND ND ND ND
2
nd
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0016

0.0123

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. ND ND ND ND ND ND
3
rd
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. 0.0037 0.0041 ND ND ND ND
4
th
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0100

0.0123

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. ND ND ND ND ND ND


4. CHEMIRON 1
st
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0034

0.0129

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. 0.0027 0.0011 ND ND ND ND
2
nd
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0091

0.0087

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. 0.0085 0.0100 ND ND ND ND






3
rd
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0042

0.0065

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. 0.0010 0.0023 ND ND ND ND
4
th
Week:
Mon Mor. Mon Eve

0.0002

0.0090

ND

ND

ND

ND
Thur. Mor. Thur. Eve. 0.0045 0.0079 ND ND ND ND
101
Note: NDsigniIies 'Not Detected
Mon. Mor. Monday morning, Mon. eve. Monday evening,
Thur. Mor. Thursday Morning, Thur. eve. Thursdayevening.
Table 2: The Maximum Tolerable Levels Ior trace Elements Proposed by World Health Organization (1984).
Element Concentration (mg/L)
Copper 1.0
Lead 0.05
Zinc 5
Cadmium 0.005
Manganese 0.1
Nickel 0.5
Cobalt 0.05
Chromium 1.0
DISCUSSION
The concentration oI lead in all the samples analysed
shows that it was all below the WHO maximum
tolerable level which is 0.05mg/L the highest was
detected Irom Friesland which gave 0.0246mg/Lthough
was not detected in most samples.
Copper was not detected in all the samples analyzed.
This is an indication that the Iour industries under study
does not release copper in any Iorm into the
environment.
The concentration oI zinc in all the samples analyzed
shows that it was all belowthe WHOmaximum tolerable
level which is 5.0mg/L. the highest was detected Irom
Friesland which gave 0.03mg/L. it was detected in all the
samples collected Irom Chemiron and at very low
concentrations. It was not detected in same samples Irom
vital products, Frieslandandapplecosmetics.
Manganese was not detected in apple cosmetics and
Chemiron, was only detected in one oI the samples taken
Irom Friesland but was deteceted in most oI the samples
obtained Irom Vital products. The concentration ranges
Irom N.D 0.0076mg/L.
Chromium was not detected at all, in all the samples
takenIrom the Iour industries.
CONCLUSION
From the results obtained Irom this study, it was realized
that all the heavy metals in the samples are within the
World Health Organization (WHO) limit. The
concentration oI the various metals are lowand as such,
those people who rely on the receiving water body as
their source oI domestic water is known to be saIe with
regards to this Iive heavy metals. With the interim
guidelines Ior maximum tolerable levels as proposed by
theWorld Health Organization.
REFERENCES
1. Ajmal M., Rao and Siddiqui B. A., 1996. Studies on
removal and recovery oI Cr (VI) Irom electroplating
wastes, Water Research; 30: 1478-1482.
2. Al-Daghistani, H. A. 2012. Bio-remediation oI Cu,
Ni and Cr Irom Rotogravure Wastewater Using
Immobilized, Dead and Live Biomasss oI
Indigenous Thermophilic Bacillus species. The
Internet Journal oI Microbiologyvol 10 Issue I.
3. Anton, A., Serrano, T., Angulo, E., Ferraro, G. and
Rallo, A. 2000. The use oI towspecies oI crayIish as
environmental quality sentinels: the relationship
between heavy metal content, cell and tissue
biomarkers and physic-chemical characteristics oI
the environment. The science oI the Total
Environment. 249: 239-251.
4. Bailey, S. E., Olin, T. J. Bricka, R. M. and Adrain, D.
D. 1999. AreviewoI potentially lowcost sorbents Ior
heavy metals. Water Resources. 33(11); pp 2469-
2479.
5. Mohanty, K., Jha, M., Biswas, M. N. and Meikap, B.
C. Removal oI chromium (VI) Irom dilute aqueous
solutions by activated carbon developed Irom
Terminalia arjuna nuts activated with zinc chloride.
Chemical Engineering Science, June 2005, vol. 60,
no. 11, p. 3049-3059.
6. Nomanbhay, S. M. and Palanisamy, K. 2005.
Removal oI Heavy metal ions Irom wastewater :
Using Chitosan-coated Oil Palm Charcoal.
Electronic Journal oI Biotechnology ISSN: 0717-
3458, 8(1) .
7. Rand M. C. and Greenburg, A. E. 1982. 'Standard
methods Ior Examination oI Water and Wastewater,
16 edition; APHAWashington.
th
8. Tolba, K. M. 1984. World Health Organization
Gui del i nes Ior Dri nki ng Wat er Qual i t y
Recommendations. Geneva World Health
Organization. 1. 130p.
Volesky, B. 1990a Biosorption and biosorbents In:
Biosorption oI heavy metals. Edited by B Volesky CRC
press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 3-5.
102
DETERMINATION OF THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OFALUMINIUMAND OTHER
ASSOCIATED METALS IN COOKING POTS
DAMAZIO OLANREWA1UAND OSHIN TAIWO
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORYTECHNOLOGY, SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGY, LAGOS
STATE POLYTECHNIC IKORODU, LAGOS STATE
E-mail: larrydam2000yahoo.co.uk
Mobile Phone Number: +2348023400498
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to determine the percentage composition oI aluminium and other associated metals in
aluminium cooking pots Irom three diIIerent manuIacturers (Alumaco, Asaba and Tower Aluminium). ARL Metal
Analyzer was used to analyze the samples and the result showed that the percentage composition oI aluminium in
Alumaco gave 99.5188, Asaba 99.1389 and Tower gave 99.0880, while the other associated metals all gave
values ranging Irom not detected to 0.5106. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer was also used to determine the
percentage composition in the other associated metals in the cooking pots; this result was comparable with that oI the
ARL metal analyzer while Back titration was used to determine the percentage composition oI aluminium in the
sample with its results comparable with that oI theARLmetal analyzer.
Key words: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, ARL Metal Analyzer, Back Titration, Alumaco Aluminium,
AsabaAluminium, Tower Aluminium.
INTRODUCTION
Many oI the metals that are commonly used have
adverse eIIects on the environment and health oI human
beings. Exposure oI man to various metals has
generated justiIiable global concern and this is now re-
inIorced by public notice. Aluminium is one oI the most
abundant metals in the earth crust, and can be Iound in
water, air, soil and also in Iood. Food Irom the major
non-occupational source Ior the exposure oI man to
metals like aluminium and varying amounts have been
Iound inIood. (1)
Most Iood especially grains and vegetables contain
small but variable amounts oI aluminium naturally. In
Iact, the amount oI aluminium in some vegetable
products may vary by several Iolds (8). It was reported
that some tea leaves contain as much as 17,000g/g oI
aluminium in dry leaI.
Food additives containing aluminium are used as
Ilavouring and appearance agent. For example
aluminium potassium tetraoxosulphate(vi), this is used
either to enhance existing Ilavour or to add Ilavor to
Ioods and to improve the appearance. Also aluminium
additives are used as processing aids. These additives
are intended to aid in the processing oI Iood, during
production and aIter purchase. Example is anticaking
agents like aluminium calcium silicate, sodium
aluminosilicate and sodium calcium alumino silicate.
Baked products, such as corn bread, biscuits, pancakes,
muIIine, coIIee cake, doughnut, cakes and cookies were
estimatedtocontain almost 18g Al (3).
Several investigators (5,8) have suggested that
aluminium cooking utensils were a major source oI
aluminium in Iood. Generally, studies have shown that
most Ioods stored or cooked in aluminium pans, trays or
Ioils accumulate some aluminium. The amounts oI
aluminium that accumulate in Ioods during cooking
depends on the pHoI the Ioods, the length oI the cooking
period, the type oI utensils and how they had been used
previously, the circulation, becomes saturated and is
unable to bindall oI the ironthat is absorbed (2).
SoIt drink Irom aluminium cans are an insigniIicant
source oI dietary aluminium intake and it appears that
the aluminium intake Irom the source should not be a
cause oI concern in regard to aluminium toxicity Ior the
human body (7). Aluminium leaching Irom low quality
(Al-Pb alloy) and high quality (Al-Mn alloy) utensils by
water has been studied under diIIerent conditions oI pH,
boiling time and NaF concentrations. High Iluoride
concentration and low pH were Iound to enhance the
leaching oI aluminium more Irom low quality utensils
thanIrom highqualityutensils (6).
The main purpose oI this study is to determine the
concentration oI Aluminium and other associated metals
in aluminium cooking pots using three diIIerent
methods; ARL 3460 metal analyser, atomic absorption
spectrophotometer and backtitration.
MATERIALANDMETHODS
Sample collection and contamination control
All sample bottles, glass volumetric Ilasks, glass reagent
103
bottles and crucibles were washed with detergent,
rinsed in tap water, rinsed in distilled water, soaked
overnight in dilute hydrochloric acid then rinsed in de-
ionized water and dried in the oven. Hands were washed
more oIten with de-ionized water, also de-ionized water
was used throughout the analysis.
Three diIIerent brands oI new aluminium cooking pots
manuIactured byAsaba Aluminium, Tower Aluminium
and Alumaco Aluminium, were bought Irom Ojuwoye
Market in Mushin Lagos State, Nigeria.
Laboratory Procedure
Method one (Using ARL3460 metal analyser)
The three cooking pots were cut in Iorm oI a square oI
2
about 4cm . The surIace oI the pot samples were
polished with emery paper to smoothen the surIace and
cleaned with methylated spirit. It was then mounted on
the spark table oI the metal analyzer, the spark chamber
was closed and the spectrometer was on, aIter the spark,
results were transmitted Irom the analyzer to the screen
oI the computer which gives the percentage
composition oI aluminium and other associated metals
in the aluminium cooking pots.
Met hod t wo ( Us i ng At omi c abs orpt i on
spectrophotometer)
Two grams oI the three diIIerent cooking pots were cut
using a metal cutter and was rinsed in distilled water and
latter rinsed in de-ionized water, dried and weighed in a
200ml beaker. 50ml oI aqua regia (mixture oI
concentrated hydrochloric acid and trioxonitrate(v)
acid in ratio 3:1) was added to the weighed metal to
digest the metal; aIter vigorous eIIervescence the
beaker was then place on a hot plate to evaporate oII the
acid to about 10ml in the beaker. This was transIerred
into 100ml volumetric Ilask and made up to mark with
de-ionized water. It was done Ior the other two samples
along with the blank sample which was with the
exception oI the 2g aluminium cooking pot.
The Iour samples were analysed at Federal Institute oI
Industrial Research Oshodi. The instrument used was
P V 9 1 0 0 X s e r i e s A t o m i c A b s o r p t i o n
Spectrophotometer.
Method three (Using back titration)
This was used to determine the percentage composition
oI aluminium using Eriochrome Black-T as Indicator,
this was used as the alternative Ior the AAS since there
was no aluminium lamp and nitrous oxide because
aluminium is a reIractory metal that requires a hotter
Ilame than acetylene and air.
25ml oI 0.01M aluminium ion solution was pipette into
a 250ml conical Ilask and 30ml oI 0.01M EDTA
(ethylene diamminetetraacetic acid) was ran Irom the
burette into the conical Ilask. The pHoI the solution was
tested with a pH meter it was always between 2 and 3.
Ammonia solution was added to adjust the pH to
between 7 and8.
The solution was boiled Ior about 5 minutes to ensure
complete complexation oI the aluminium, it was leIt to
cool to room temperature and the pHwas tested again, it
gave values oI between 6.3 and 6.6, it was then adjusted
to between7 and8 with ammonia solution.
5 drops oI Eriochrome black-T indicator indicator was
added to the solution, this gives the solution a blue
colour. Standard 0.01M zinc tetraoxosulphate(vi)
solution was titrated into the solution until the colour
changes Irom blue to wine red. The solution was leIt Ior
about three minutes, the Iully titrated solution then
acquired a reddish violet colour due to the
transIormation oI the zinc dye complex into the
aluminium Eriochrome Black-Tcomplex.
The volume oI zinc tetraoxosulphate(vi) used to titrate
the excess EDTAwas then subtracted Irom the volume
oI EDTA added to the aluminium ion solution, this
corresponds to the volume oI EDTA that complex the
aluminium in the 0.01M aluminium ion solution. The
diIIerence in volume was used to calculate the amount oI
aluminium in milligram Ior the standard aluminium ion
solution. The same procedure was used Ior the
remaining two samples and the blank by substituting the
0.01M aluminium ion solution withthat oI the samples.
The mass oI aluminium contained in the samples was
calculated using the value obtained Irom the 0.01M
aluminium ionsolution and the standard.
104
ALUMACO ASABA TOWER
ALUMINIUM 99.5188 99.1389 99.0880
SILICON 0.0190 0.2168 0.2483
IRON 0.2323 0.3960 0.5106
COPPER - 0.0020 0.5106
ZINC 0.0461 0.0460 0.0326
CALCIUM 0.0013 0.0018 0.0019
TITANIUM - - 0.0017

RESULTS:
TABLE I
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OFALUMINIUMAND OTHERASSOCIATED METALS IN THE
THREE DIFFERENT COOKING POTS AS REVEALED BYARL3460 METALANALYZER
TABLEII
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OTHER ASSOCIATED METALS IN THE THREE
DIFFERENTCOOKING POTS USING ATOMICABSORPTIONSPECTROPHOTOMETER
ALUMACO ASABA TOWER
IRON 0.2384 0.4044 0.5369
COPPER 0.0066 0.0085 0.0244
MANGANESE 0.0068 0.0118 0.0186
MAGNESSIUM - - -
ZINC 0.0134 0.0126 0.0301
CHROMIUM 0.0090 0.0090 0.0090
CALCIUM 0.0017 0.0017 0.0017

103
PERCENTAGECOMPOSITIONOFALUMINIUMUSING BACK TITRATION
ALUMACO ASABA TOWER
ALUMINIUM 99.0935 98.5527 98.2823

DISCUSSION
In both method used Ior analyzing aluminium, its
percentage composition is highest in Alumaco product,
Iollowed by Asaba and least in Tower. The three pots
contain more than 98 aluminium. This shows that the
other associated metals in aluminium cooking pots are in
trace amount. It is also an indication that aluminium is
possible to be leached Irom this pots whenever Iood is
cooked in it. Though the quantity might be very low. It
has being reported that when cooking with water that has
a high Iluorine content and an acidic pH, the quantity oI
aluminium that would be leached into the Iood will be
higher than those that has low Iluorine content and
neutral pH(4).
The percentage composition oI iron is next to that oI
aluminium in the cooking pots though the values are less
than 1, it is highest in Tower and least in Alumaco.
Silicon could not be analyzed using A. A. S. (Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer) because oI lack oI
nitrous oxide. Its result using ARL metal analyzer gave
the highest result in Tower (0.2483) and least in
Alumaco(0.0190).
Tower gave the highest percentage oI copper, using
methods one and two, while Alumaco gave the least
percentage to the extent that it could not be detected
using ARLmetal analyzer.
ARL metal analyzer was only able to detect titanium in
Tower while it was not detected in the other two samples.
A. A. S. could not be used because there was no Titanium
lampat FIIROat that time.
The percentage composition oI Zinc as given by ARL
metal analyzer ranges Irom 0.0326 to 0.0461, this is
higher than that obtained using A. A. S. which ranges
Irom 0.0126 to 0.0301.
The percentage composition oI calcium in the three
samples gave the same result when it was analysed with
atomic absorption spectrophotometer but was not so
with ARL metal analyzer, Tower gave the highest value
whileAlumaco gave the least.
The percentage composition oI manganese is generally
very low, it ranges Irom 0.0068 to 0.0186. It is highest
inTower andleast inAlumaco.
Magnesium was not detected in all the aluminium
cooking pot using both methods.
CONCLUSION
The results reveal that the percentage composition oI
aluminium in aluminium cooking pots is very high Ior
all the three brands oI aluminium pot samples used in the
course oI this study with that oI Alumaco having the
highest percentage composition oI Aluminium Iollowed
by Asaba and Iinally Tower. Conversely the percentage
composition oI the other associated metals in Tower is
higher than that oI the other two pots with that oI
Alumaco lowest. This shows that the higher percentage
composition oI aluminium, the lower the percentage
composition oI the other associated metals it contains
and vice versa.
The general view is that outside an industrial setting,
Aluminium normally present no health hazard, but it is
nevertheless disturbing that many manuIacturers
continue routinely and unnecessarily to add aluminium
to their products (Ior instance to some indigestion
medicines) and that some water boards, outside London
add aluminium during puriIicationprocess.
REFERENCES
1. Casarett andDoulis, 1989. Toxicology; Toxic eIIect oI
rd
metals 3 edition. MacmillianPublishing631-721.
2. Corinne, H. R. and Lawcer, M. R., 1977. Normal and
th
Therapeutic Nutrition; Macmillian Publishing 5
edition112-115, NewYork.
3. Eden, T., 1976. Climate and Sal. Ch 2 'Tea 8
LongmanGroupLtdLondon.
4. Food and Nutrition Board; 1994. Recommended
th
Dietary allowance: 8 Edition. National Academy oI
Sciences. National Research Council Washington D.
C.
5. Levick, S. E., 1980. Dementia IromAluminiumpots.
NewEngl. J. Med. 303; 164.
6. Rao, K. S. and Rao, G. V. 1995. Aluminiumleaching
IromUtensils a kinetic study. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutri.
46(1) 31-8.
7. Seruga, M., Grgic, J. and Mandic, M. 1994.
Aluminium content oI soIt drinks Irom aluminium
cans ZLebensm-Unters-Forsch198(4) 313-6.
8. Trapp, G. A. andCannon, J. B., 1981; Aluminiumpots
as a source oI dietary aluminium, New Engl. J. Med.
304, 172.
106
TheVariational Iteration Method: An Essential Tool forScience and Engineering
1` 2 3
M.O. Adeniyi , A.A. Abdurasid, O.MAkinmoladun
1,2
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu
3
Department of Physics and Electronics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu
E-mail: ojigweadeniyiarsenal2007yahoo.com, +2348033805036.
Abstract
This paper examines the eIIective use oI the Variational Iteration Method in solving some mathematical problems
associated with sciences and engineering. The eIIiciency oI the method was tested using several examples on ordinary
diIIerential equations (ode) and partial diIIerential equations (pde).
Key words: Variational Iteration Method, Lagrange multiplier, ode, pde
1.0 Introduction
It is a well known Iact that the dynamical behavior oI
real-liIe problems can be described by a system oI
system oI Iirst order diIIerential equations. It is in
general diIIicult to solve this type oI systems
|1,2|.Finding approximate, and iI possible in closed-
Iorm solutions oI diIIerential equations is the subject oI
many researchers. Nonlinear diIIerential equation in
engineering and applied mathematics has been a topic oI
intensive research Ior many years |3,4 and 5|.Partial
diIIerential equation systems applied in the study oI
mechanical system and in some Iield oI science. Various
methods such as Homotopy perturbation method (HPM)
|6-9| and the Adomian Decomposition method (ADM)
|10-14| has also been proposed to solve problems in this
regard.
The VIM is a powerIul tool in investigating the
approximate or analytical solutions oI diIIerential
equations (ODE and PDE): whether linear or nonlinear
diIIerential equations. This method was proposed by the
Chinese mathematician (Ji - Huan, He) |15-17| as a
modiIication oI a general Lagrange multiplier method
by Inokuti et al |18|. It has been shown that this method
is a powerIul tool Ior solving problems oI various kinds.
The aimoI this paper is todirectlyextendtheVIMtosolve
some problems that occur Irequently in science and
engineeringwhosesolutions arenot readilyobtained.
2.0 He's Variational Iteration Method
In this section, we will brieIly reviewthe main points oI
He's variational iteration method |15-17|. In the
variational iteration method, a diIIerential equation
(2.1)
is considered, where and are linear and nonlinear
operators, respectively and is the inhomogeneous
term. According to VIM, we can construct a correction
Iunctional
where is a general Lagrange multiplier, is the ?
approximate solutionand is a restricted Iunction i.e
|15-17|. The successive approximation
oI the solution u (x) will be obtained upon
using the determined Lagrange multiplier and any
selective initial Iunction u Consequently,

(2.3)
It means that by the correction Iunctional (2.2) several
approximations will be obtained and thereIore the exact
solution emerges at the limit oI the resulting successive
approximation.
3.0 Application
We now apply the proposed method on some examples
to show the eIIiciency and the eIIectiveness oI the
proposed method.
3.1 Numerical Examples
Example 3.1
y` y
(3.1.0)
The theoretical solution to equation(3.0) is y (x) sin x.
Using VIM, it can readily be seen that the Lagrange
multiplier . By choosing a selective Iunction
(3.1.1)
This gives;
(3.1.2)
Equation (3.2) is the Iirst numerical approximation
whichgives a result equaling the theoretical solution.
Example 3.2
Consider the Iollowing Helmholtz equation presented in
|19| as Iollows:
(3.2.1)
With the Iollowing initial conditions:
(3.2.2)
Using equation (2.2), and
we obtain
,
(2.2)
107
Other components can be easily obtained
Example 3.3
Consider the Iollowing initial value problem oI the
Bratu-type
(3.3.1)
With the initial conditions:
(3.3.2)
The exact solution is
Using equation (2.2), and
we obtain
The series solution is given as
Or equivalently
Example 3.4
Consider the Iollowing linear partial diIIerential
equations system:
(3.4.1)
With the initial conditions:
The Lagrange multiplier can be identiIied as
(3.4.2)
We construct an iteration Iormular similar to equation
(2.2) as Iollows:
(3.4.3)
?
As a result we obtain the Iollowing iteration Iormula.
(3.4.4)
Nowwe start with an arbitrary initial approximation that
satisIies the initial condition:
(3.4.5)
Using the above variational Iormula in equation (4.4),
we have
(3.4.6)
Substituting Eq. (4.5) into Eq. (4.6) and aIter
simpliIications, we have:

(3.4.7)?
In the same way, we obtain
(3.4.8)
And so on. In the same manner the rest oI the
components oI the iterationIormula can be obtained:
(3.4.9)
4.0 Conclusion
In this paper, the variational iteration method (VIM)
method is discussed. The variational iteration method is
used to solve some problems on ordinary diIIerential
equations and partial diIIerential equations which gives
us an acceptable solutions in the considered examples.
This method could be used to solve both linear and
nonlinear partial and ordinary diIIerential equations oI
higher order.
REFERENCES
|1| S.M Goh, M.S.M Nooravi, I. Hashim (2007):
EIIicacy oI Variational Iteration Method Ior
Chaotic Genesio System- Classical & multistage
approach. Chaos Solutions and Fractals; in press
|2| Z. Odibat (2008): Reliable approaches oI
Variational Iteration Method Ior nonlinear
operators. Mathematical and Computer
Modelling. Vol. 48' pp 222-231
|3| H. Babazadeh, D.D Ganji and M. Akbarzade
(2010): Approximate Analytical Solutions to
Nonlinear Oscillators Using He's Amplitude-
Irequency Formulation, Int. Journal oI Math.
Analysis Vol. 4, No. 32, 1591-1597.
|4| H. Pashaei, D.D Ganji and M. Akbarzade
108
(2008): Application oI the Energy Balance Method Ior Strongly Nonlinear Oscillators, Progress in
Electromagnetics Research; Vol. 2, 47-56
|5| M. Akbarzade, D.D Ganji and H. Pashaei (2008): Analysis oI Nonlinear Oscillators with Iorce by He's
Energy Balance Method; Progress in Electromagnetics Research, Vol. 3, 57-66
|6| He, J.H (2004): The Homotopy Permutation Method Ior Nonlinear Oscillators with Discontinuities. Applied
Maths. Computer. 287-292
|7| He, J.H(2006): Homotopy Permutation MethodIor solvingboundary value problems. 87-88
|8| Ghasemi, M., Tavassoli Kajani, M. and Babolian, E. (2007): Numerical Solution oI the Nonlinear Volterra-
Fredholm Integral Equations by using HomotopyPermutation Method. Appl. Math. Computer 446-449.
|9| S.H. Mirmoradi, S. Ghanbarpour, I. Hosseinpour, A. Barari(2009). Application oI Homotopy Permutation
Method and Variational Iteration Method to a nonlinear Iourth order Boundary value problem. Int. J. Math.
Analysis., 1111-1119.
|10| Adomian, G., (1991): AreviewoI the decomposition method and some recent results Ior Nonlinear equations.
Comput. Math. Appl., 101-127
[11] Lrcan Cellk, MusLafa 8ayram and 1urguL ?eloglu (2006):SoluLlon of ulfferenLlal- Algebralc LquaLlon
by Adomlan uecomposlLlon MeLhod, lnLernaLlonal !ournal ure and Applled MaLhemaLlcal
Sclences, vol. 3, no. 1,pp 93-100
[12] u.! Lvans and k.8 8aslan (2004): 1he Adomlan uecomposlLlon MeLhod for solvlng uelay ulfferenLlal
LquaLlon . lnLernaLlonal !ournal of CompuLer MaLhmaLlcs vol. 00,no. 0, pp 1-6
[13] M. AlabdullaLlf, P.A Abdsalam and L.S lahmy (2007): Adomlan uecomposlLlon MeLhod for nonllnear
reacLlon dlffuslon sysLem of LokLa-volLerraLype. lnLernaLlonal MaLhemaLlcal lorum 2,no. 2, 87-96
[14] L.a lbl[ola, and Adeboyegun (2008): Cn Lhe Lheory and AppllcaLlon of Adomlan uecomposlLlon
MeLhod for numerlcal SoluLlon of Second-Crder Crdlnary ulfferenLlal LquaLlons. 1he aclflc !ournal
of Sclenceand 1echnology,vol. 9, no. 2
[13] Pe!.P. (1997): varlaLlonal lLeraLlon meLhod for delay dlfferenLlal equaLlons. Commun. nonllnear Scl.
numer. SlmulaL., 2(4): 233-6
[16] Pe !.P. (1998): ApproxlmaLe soluLlon of nonllnear dlfferenLlal equaLlons wlLh convoluLlon producL
non-llnearlLles. CompuL. MeLhods Appl. Mech. Lngng., 167: 69-73.
[17] Pe!.P. (1998): ApproxlmaLeanalyLlcal soluLlon for seepageflow wlLh fracLlonal derlvaLlves ln porous
medla. CompuL. MeLhods Appl. Mech. Lngng., 167: 37-68.
[18] lnokuLl M., Seklne P. and Mura 1. (1978):Ceneral use of Lhe Lagrange mulLlpller ln nonllnear
maLhemaLlcal physlcs. ln: S. nemaL-nasser, edlLor. varlaLlonal meLhods ln Lhe mechanlcs of sollds,
Cxford: ergamon ress., pp: 136-62.
[19] khaled 8aLlha and 8elal 8aLlha(2012): 1he varlaLlonal lLeraLlon MeLhod for Solvlng nonllnear
CsclllaLors. Applled MaLhemaLlcal Sclences, vol. 6, no. 36, 1771-1777
109
1.0 Introduction
Mathematics is an autonomousintellectual discipline,
and is one oI the clearest exponents oI the creative
power oI the human mind. On the other hand, it plays a
Iundamental role in modern science has a strong
inIluence on it and it has been inIluenced by it in an
essential way. Mathematics is much more there is whole
new way oI looking at them, and doing them next to the
method, it is the basis upon which modern science has
been built and as a consequence, the modern
technological development.
It permeates today all aspects oI contemporary society
Irom engineering to inIormation, management business
and governance. The practical importance oI
Mathematics in science is indisputable and it is not
under discussion to a certain level, since the
overwhelming majority oI scientists are well aware oI
the instrumental value oI some mathematics. A
historian,sociologist, philosopher IbnKhaldun ,al-
Muqaddima (born in 1332, Tunis) once said,
'Education should be started withMathematics. For it
Iorms well designed brains That are able to reason
right.It is evenadmitted that those who have studied
Mathematics during their childhood should be trusted ,
Ior they have acquired solid bases Ior arguing which
become tothem a sort oI second nature (Laure , 2008).
2.0 IMPORTANCEOFMATHEMATICS
1he importance of Mathematics can be summarized as
thus:
- It develop logical thinking and creativity.
- It uses its abstract skills to generalize.
- It help to make deduction Irom assumption
- It makes the learner to be selI- reliant
REVOLUTIONIZING THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICSIN NIGERIAPOLYTECHNICS :
AVERITABLE TOOLFOR NATIONAL TECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENT
C. ILUNO and 1. I. TAYLOR
Department of Mathematics& Statistics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.
Correspondent; 08060706596 email;ilunochristyahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Mathematics Iorms the conceptual scheme on which modern science is based and which supports technology,with
close interaction among them.Thedevelopment oI science and technologyhave greatly aIIected the lives oI every
human being. To be ignorant oI this basic knowledge is to live an empty meaningless and probably an unrealistic liIe.
The level oI development oI a country to a large extent is determined by its scientiIic and technological advancement.
Anation with a scientiIically uneducated citizenry cannot be expected to make any reasonable technically based
political decision because oI lack oI rudimentary tool to grasp it.It is thereIore pertinent that the teaching oI
mathematics,especially in polytechnic should march the innovations in technology or even herald the anticipated
change in technology.The paper ventures into the teaching oI mathematics curriculum, its implementations and the
implications in Nigeria polytechnics.Researchwere carried out and t-test was used to analyzed the data
obtained.Suggestions were made to all concerned on integrating Computer Assisted in Teaching and Learning oI
Mathematics (CATLM) and the use oI Problem Solving Skills inTeaching and LearningMathematics (PSSTLM) atthe
polytechnic level.
Keywords: Technology,ComputerAssistedInstruction(CAI) , ProblemSolvingSkills(PSS) ,BluePrint, Polytechnics.
- It develop the attitude oI co-operation, leadership
and sense oI groupwork
- And sense oI belonging, active participation in group
work
- It sharpen the knowledge oI scientiIic investigation
and conIirmation.
3.0 POLYTECHNIC EDUCATION
The National Policy On Education (2004) classiIied
polytechnic as one oI the post-secondary institutions
that provide technical education. The same document
deIined 'technical education as that aspect oI education
which leads to the acquisition oI practical and applied
skills as well as scientiIicknowledge. By this same
policythe aims oI technical are highlighted as :
To provide trained manpower in applied science,
technology and commerce particularly at sub-
proIessional grades;
To provide the technical knowledge and vocational
skills necessary Ior agricultural, industrial,
commercial andeconomic development;
To provide people who can apply scientiIic knowledge
to the improvement and solution oI environmental
problems Ior the use andconvenience oI man;
To give an introduction to proIessional studies in
engineering and other technologies;
To give training and impart the necessary skills
leading to the production oI craItsmen, technicians
and other skilled personnel who will be enterprising
andselI-reliant, and
To enable our young men and women to have an
intelligent understanding oI the increasing
complexity oI technology.
110
The realization oI the above mentioned aims would
serve as a pre-requisite knowledge that Nigeria,
polytechnic education is intended to help in the national
development in all sectors. ThereIore, the teaching oI
mathematics at this level is very important. Mathematics
is the mother oI science and technology oI the abstract
world.
However, Mathematics is considered as the most
important science ,and its development brought about
development oI science in all kind such as medical
,physics, biology, technology, and more. The
importance oI mathematics is being an essential,
creative and powerIul discipline that is recognized
globally. The basics development in mathematics such
as equations, laws, algorithms, are used implicitly in
other sciences.
4 . 0 PROBLEMS OFTEACHI NGAND
L E A R N I N G M A T H E M A T I C S I N
POLYTECHNIC
Mathematics is always taught as a requirement in
various departments such as engineering,management,
agriculture and so on. Its practical importance in these
Iields is indisputable and it is not under discussion to a
certain level,since the overwhelming majority oI
scientists are well aware oI the instrumental value oI
some mathematical modeling.The heuristic approach oI
teaching mathematics is making the dream oI national
development or even the objectives oI polytechnic
education not achievable. The conventional method
(lecture method).
5 . 0 PROBLEMS OF MATHEMATI CS
INSTRUCTION
The most acceptable problems Iacing the instruction oI
Mathematics are:
- teachingIor understanding
- teachingoI assimilation
- teachingIor transIer
- teaching Ior permanence
However, to solve these problems a means is needed to
eIIectively and eIIiciently help in teaching mathematics
especially in Polytechnics. Teachers oI mathematics
should endeavor to teach the subject in order Ior
student to imbibed the skills needed in their various
Iields. And this involved problem solving skill in
mathematics.
6.0 PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS (PSS) AND
COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI)
INPOLYTECHNICMATHEMATICS .
The development and use oI problem solving skills also
improves learningRossman (1993) suggested 'role oI
the student changes Irom a passive recipient oI
inIormation to a participant in the creation oI
understanding.Problem solving skills requires two
distinct types oI mental skill, analytical and creative.
Analytical or logical thinking includes skills such as
ordering,comparing, contrasting, evaluation and
selecting. It provides a logical Irame work Ior problem
solving and helps to select the best alternative Irom
those available by narrowing down the range oI
possibilities (a convergent process).Analytical
thinkingon the other had oIten predominates in solving
closed problems, where the many causes have to be
identiIied andanalyzed to Iind the real cause.While
Creative thinking is a divergent process using the
imagination to create a large range oI ideas Ior solutions.
It requires us to look beyond the obvious creating ideas
which may at Iirst seem unrealistic or have no logical
connection with the problem. There is a large element oI
creative thinking insolving open problems.
Majority oI learner's worldwide view 'Mathematics as
solemnly abstract and diIIicult to comprehend. Also, lack
oI proper use oI instructional materials in mathematics
makes the teaching oI mathematics boring and abstract.
The consistent poor solutions to mathematical problems
had become a major concern to teachers, learners and
mathematics curriculum planners. It is thereIore
pertinent to seek Ior a way oI using a more sophisticated
teaching aids (computer) to generate and solve these
problems. The use oI computer in Nigeria is growing
rapidly in banking, accounting and industrial sectors.
UnIortunately, it's use has not elicitedsuch rapid growth
in the educational sector. Hamzat (2007) asserted that the
degree oI sophistication in numeracy through the use oI
computers has nowbecome more pronounced thanever.
7.0 COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
(CAI)
Computer is deIined as an electronic device capable oI
solving, retrieving inIormation perIorming series oI
arithmetic and logical operations at Iaster rate based on
instructions supplied by the programmer. Computer is
machine that can store and manipulate inIormation and
perIorm mathematical operations using that inIormation.
Chang (2000) indicated that Computer Assisted
Instruction can improve reading achievement oI
students. Jenks and Springer (retrieved online in 2007)
presented a contemporary view on the eIIectiveness oI
Computer Assisted Instruction as a teaching tools,
especially as its impacts academic perIormance. Abd-El-
Khalick (retrieved Online in 2007) conducted his own
research and concluded that the eIIectiveness oI
Computer Assisted Instruction in Science and
Mathematics teaching is, at best, equivocal. Not only was
the research Iindings in this regard mixed. Also, positive
impacts, when Iound were relatively small as reIlected in
low mean size eIIect reports in the reviewed meta-
analysis studies. Computer Assisted Instruction soItware
111
are basically oI the drill-and practice variety and
mai nl y t arget l ower l evel knowl edge and
comprehension instructional outcomes, investments in
these soItware might not yield desirable educational
returns unless these latter instructional outcomes (e.g
mastery oI bodies oI inIormation, algorithmic problem
solving) are valued in the target educational context.
However, it should be noted that computer has a
considerable Mathematical component which is
becoming more important as the designer oI soItware
are required to prove that the soItware meet its
speciIication. This kind oI rigour is one oI the basic
techniques oI mathematics and can be learned only
through Mathematics skills.
8.0 PURPOSEOFTHESTUDY
The purpose oI this study is to establish the application
oI Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Problem
solving skillsinMathematics.
8.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study was guided by the Iollowing research
questions :
Are Mathematics teachers computer literate?
Does the use oI computer in Mathematics teaching
aIIect student perIormance?
To what extent would Computer Assisted
Instruction (CAI) improve student perIormance in
Mathematics?
Does the use oI computer improve three
psychological domains psychomotor, cognitive
andaIIective domains?
Does the conventional method oI teaching
ma t h e ma t i c s o r Co mp u t e r As s i s t e d
Instruction/Problem Solving Skill have any major
impact on students?
What is the eIIect oI Computer Assisted Learning
on Individual diIIerences in students?
8.2 THE NEED FOR CAI IN THE TEACHING
ANDLEARNING OFMATHEMATICS
The CAI has many advantages iI well utilized in
teaching and learning oI mathematics. Some oI the
advantage includes:
1. Students canprogress at their own rate oI learning.
2. It oIIers quick and accurate Ieedback.
3. CAI services are very suitable method oI assisting
students when there is shortage oI teachers.
4. It presents individualizedinstruction.
5. It reduces the time needed Ior understanding
diIIicult concepts and skills inmathematics.
Adaralegbe (1985) claimed that it will have wider
application in the Iuture as there are more CAI
programmed designed to teach reading in the early
grades. Also, Bagert-Drowns, Kulik and Kulik et al.,
(1985) both attested to the improved student
perIormance in mathematics at both primary and
secondary schools level with the introduction oI
computer aidedinstruction.
8.3 Hypothesis
The study tested the null hypotheses Iormulated.
i. There is no signiIicantdiIIerences between the use
oI CAI, PSS and the students' perIormance in
mathematics.
ii. There is no signiIicant diIIerences between
students' perIormance and sex when CAI and PSS
is used.
iii. There is no signiIicant diIIerences between the
conventional method oI teaching and Computer
Assisted Instruction and Problem Solving Skills in
mathematics.
8.4 METHODOLOGY
The research was done using Lagos State Polytechnic as
a case study, a random sample oI Iourstudents each Irom
ten departments(Accountancy, Banking and Finance,
Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
Electrical & Electronics Engineering,Chemical
Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Civil
Engineering, Science Laboratory technology, and
Computer Science) were selected, given the total Iorty
(40) students. The selected students were divided into
two groups, Aand B
Group Ais labelled (Experimental Group) while Group
Bis (Control Group).
8.5 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS USED
Questionnaires and perIormance test were used Ior the
collection oI data Ior this research work. The two
instruments Ior the study was adopted as research
instrument, a pilot study was carried out to validate the
instrument to ensure its reliability and content validity.
Also, the table oI
TABLE 2
STATISTICS Experimental Group (A) Control (B)
112
speciIicationor the blue print oI the perIormance test was done to assess the reliability
Fig 1: TABLE OF SPECIFICATION(BLUE PRINTOF THE TEST)
Some Randomly selected
topics Irom Scheme oI
work
T
o
t
a
l
Number and Numeration 1 1 3 - 3 -
1
9
Algebra - 1 - - - 1
2
5
Calculus 2 - 1 - 1 1
1
5
Trigonometry - - 3 - 1 1
1
6
Statistics 1 1 1 - - 2
-
5
Total 4 3 8 - 5 5
5
30

K
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e
C
o
m
p
r
e
h
e
n
s
i
o
n
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
I
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
S
y
n
t
h
e
s
i
s
E
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
8.6 METHODOFDATAANALYSIS
The data collected Ior this study were analyzed with the used oI statistical tools and the result shown intaT- table (Iig
.2) below.
- Frequency (I)
- Percentage ()
- MeanXStardard Deviation (S. D)
- T-Test (t)The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level oI signiIicance.
TABLE3 (The rawscores collected and analysed using T-test
Scores Interval

Experimental
Group A
Control
Group B




fA(X-X)
2


f
A
(X-
X)
2

0-less than 5
5 - ' 10
10- ' 15
15 20
20 25
25 30
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
27.5
-
1
24
6
5
4
6
7
2
3
2
-
-
7.5
50
105
112.5
110
15
52.5
25
52.5
45
-
-
138.06
182.25
18.38
52.81
272.25
294
28
18
192
338
-

Scores Interval
X
Experimental
Group A
Control
Group B
113
From the table above. The Iollowing values were calculate Ior the standard deviation (S. D).
S. D(For Group A) 5.76
S. D. (For Group B) 6.59
8.7 TESTING HYPOTHESES
There is no signiIicantdiIIerences between the use oI CAI and the students' perIormance in mathematics.
The result in the table indicates there is signiIicant diIIerence between students who CAI were used Ior and those
taught with the conventional method. Since t-test analysis at 5 level oI signiIicance is less than the table value, the
null hypothesis H is rejected hence the null hypothesis is rejected. There is a signiIicant diIIerent between the use oI
0
CAI and the student perIormance
HYPOTHESIS 2: There is no signiIicant diIIerence between sex and students perIormance when Computer Assisted
Instruction is used.
TABLE5: Comparing the perIormance oI students when CAI was usedwith respect to sex.
From the table above, it indicates that - 0.02 1.81. H is not signiIicant. ThereIore, we retain or accept the
0
H . This implies that there is no signiIicant diIIerent oI sex on perIormance oI students whenCAI is involved.
0
HYPOTHESIS 3
There is no signiIicant diIIerence between the conventional methodoI teachingand CAI/PSS in mathematics.
114
TABLES 6 Questionnaire forteachers n 50
Yes No
f " f "
1. Are you computer literate. 35 70 15 30
2. The use oI Computer Assisted Instruction during your
lesson is important.
30 60 20 40
3. II yes, do you use CAI on its own or as an adjunct to
the conventional methods oI teaching
5 10 45 90
4. CAI could enhance and complement teaching and
learning oI mathematics
42 84 8 16
5. CAI enables students to access a wide range oI
inIormation resources in mathematics
32 64 18 36
6. Students will learn Iaster with computer 40 80 10 20
7. CAI improves the understanding oI mathematics better. 31 62 19 38
8. The use oI CAI leads to more positive attitude than the
use oI the conventional teaching
33 66 17 34
9. Students taught with CAI have more sense oI creativity
and selI-reliant that the conventional method
32 64 18 36
10 Secondary schools are equipped with ICTcentres 6 12 44 88

9.0 CONCLUSION
Technological development is an important component oI a developing economy. In case oI Nigeria ,
the economy is changing as the social and political order is changing .Technological development is Iactor
which contributes a lot in the progress oI any country. It is a process oI research and development oI
technology. Scientists are working Ior the development oI more advance technologies which will help them
in a signiIicant ways. However, there are several emerging technologies which are expected to be applied in
near Iuture and will bring a remarkable change in the society. Today, the scientists and researchers have
made technological development in almost every Iield oI liIe. Technological development includes soItware
engineering, cloning, biotechnology , genetic engineering, wireless communication, anti - aging drugs etc. \
Technological development has played a significant role in the development of the society Everything
today has positive and negative aspects but the technological development has a positive rather than a
negative impact on the society.
One oI the greatest technologies invented the great people is mobile technology, It has made very easy to
communicate to anyone at any place. Technological development supplies an entertainment Ior the people living in the
society. Machine based technologies such as computers, satellite, shipstelescopes and etc. have has increased the
quality oI human liIe. Mathematics is the bed rock oI all sciences. ThereIore, in the teaching oI mathematics, it
becomes necessary that care must be taken so that students will not lose interest in mathematics which result to poor
perIormance. Computer Assisted Instruction is to be integrated into the teaching and learning process in mathematics.
Mathematics emphasizes on practices and selI oriented learning which can be actualized by the used oI CAI. From the
Iindings oI the study, the Iollowing conclusion were drawn
1. Most oI the Mathematics teachers questioned were computer illiterate.
2. Secondary school are not provided with CA
113
3. ICTcenter does not exist in school.
4. Government school authority does not get themselves involvedwith the poor knowledge impacts in schools.
5. All the schools used Ior the study have Iew computer system which Ior are used mainly Ior administrative
purposes and not Ior teaching.
10.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Base on the Iinding oI this study, the Iollowing recommendations were made.
- Government and school authorities should organize seminars and workshop where modern CAI resources should
be made Iamiliar to Mathematics lecturer.
- School authorities and government should provide internet/v-SATIor all schools so as to enhance the teaching oI
mathematics and improve student's perIormance since the position oI CAI resources is indispensable in the
teachingand learning oI mathematics.
- Adequate number oI computer systems should be provided in all the Polytechnic, The computers should be kept
where both lecturer and students will have access to them Ior mathematics instruction.
- Government should be sincere in providing stable electrically supply to communities and schools so that
computer purchased could be used during mathematics lesson.
REFERENCES
Abd-El-Khalick, (Retrieved Online 2007). Integrating TechnologyinTeachingSecondary Science and
Mathematics.www.uhuc.edu.
Adaralegbe, A.E.(1985):APhilosophy For Nigeria Education, Heinneman Educational Books Ibadan.
Bangert D.L.,Kulik,J.A. Et Al., (1985):EIIectiveness OI Computer Based Education In Secondary Schools. Journal OI
Computer Based Instruction.
Chang, (2000). EIIect oI Computer Assisted Instructionon ReadingAchievement : AMetaAnalysis. www.edu.
Federal Republic oI Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education
116
FIXED POINT THEORY FORGENERALIZED NON EXPANSIVE MAPPING
C, ILUNO and I .AIDOWU
Department of Mathematics, Lagos state Polytechnic, Ikorodu Lagos State.
ABSTRACT
The researcher Iocuses on the investigation oI some aspects oI the Iixed point theory Ior a class oI generalized non-
expansive mappings, and the condition Ior generalized non expansive maps to have a Iixed point. Also, the researcher
extended the work to some common Iixed point theorems Ior a commuting Iamily oI generalized non- expansive
mapping recentlydeIined by Elloreus and E Moreno in 2011 and Suzuki in2008.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
According to|1|, be a metric space.Amapping
T : X X is called (C )Lipschitzian or(L-lipschitzian) iI
1
there exists L~0 such that d( Ior
(C2) Strict contraction or a- contraction iI
there exists a constant aE ( 0 ,1 | such that T is a-
lipschitzian.
(C3) Non expansive iI T is 1-Lipschitizian.
(C4) Contractive iI d
(C5 )lsometryd
Non expansive mappings are those which have
Lipschitizian constant equal to 1 . ABanach space X Is
said to have the Iixed point property FPP Ior non-
expansive mapping provided that every non expansive
selI mapping oI every non empty, closed , convex ,
bounded subset oI C oI Xhas a Iixed point |2| stressed
that FPP property closely depends upon geometric
characteristics oI Banach spaces under consideration.
However , when C is a weak compact convex subset
oI X a non expansive selI mapping oI C need not have
a Iixed point.
Although , iI the norm oI X has geometric properties
(as uniIorm convexity...) every non expansive selI
mapping oI every weakly compact convex subset oI X
has a Iixed point property ( WFPP).
2 Generalized Nonexpansive Maps
Let (Cd) be a metric space. Amap T: C C is said
to be generalized non expansive, iI Ior any
then
as
where a are non negative constantsa are called
i i
generalized nonexpansive mapping.In |3| Goebel
,Kirk ,and Shimi proved that iI T is continuous
generalized non expansive selI map oI non empty
closed convex bounded subset oI C oI a uniIormly
convex Banach space ,then T has a Iixed point. OI
course |2| veriIies that the above conditions (2.1) and
(2.2) are equivalent to the existence oI non-negative
constants a, b , c with a 2b 2c 1 such that Ior
all C
Cases oI mapping satisIying condition (2.2) have
been studiedby various authors independently|4|.
Recently in a paper ,Suzuki|5| deIined a class oI
generalized non expansive mapping as Iollows:
Let Cbe a non empty subset oI a Banach space X. We
say that a mapping T: C X SatisIieson CiI Ior all
C
(2.4)
We will assume throughout this paper that (
is a Banach space and C is a non empty closed,
convex , bounded subset oI X. For a given mapping
T : C X, the set oI all Iixed points oI T will be
denoted by Iix(T). Also, a sequence (x ) in C is called
n
almost Iixed point sequence(a. I. p. s) Ior T provided x
n
It is also known that every non

expansive mapping T: C C has almost Iixed point
sequence.
3. Condition (L)
From |2| DeIinition 3.1 : A mapping T: C C
satisIies condition L on C provided that it IulIills the
Iollowing two conditions:
II a set D C is nonempty , closed, convex , and T
invariant (T(D ) (1) c D) then there exist an a.I.p.s
Ior T in D
( 2) For any a.I.p.s (x ) oI T in C and each xcC
n
Assumption (1) oI this deIinition is automatically
satisIied by several classes oI nonlinear mapping.
Proposition 3.0: Let Tbe a generalized non expansive
selI map oI C. II any oI the Iollowing conditions holds,
thenTsatisIies condition (L)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
117
which implies that a1
Proof : We need to show that there exist almost
Iixed point sequence Ior T in nonempty, closed ,
convex , and T -invariant subset D oI C. We need
to split the prooI as splitted above |6| that
(1) II it proved in |6, Theorem 4|
that generalized non expansive mapping with coeIIicient
a, b c satisIying a 2b 2c 1 From non empty closed,
bounded, convex setK into itselI has a Iixed point
x*cC. Then, iI such K C is T-invariant, then the
sequence (x ) given by x x* is obviously an a.I.p.s Ior
n n
T in K
(2) II in the prooI
oI Theorem 1 oI |7|, it is seen that Ior each the
orbit ) is an a.I.p.s. Thus, Thasa.I.p. sequence on
each Tinvariant closed, convex, subset KoI C
in the prooI oI Theorem 1.1 in |8|, it is shown that
Thus, T has a.I.p
sequence on each T-invariant closed, convexsubset oI C
(4) II
(1) C, that is, any orbit oI Tis an a.I.p. s |1|
(5) II
T is nonexpansive. Thus, Thas a.I.p sequences on each
T- invariant, closed convex subset oI C
We prove the second condition, that is given an a.I.p.s
(x ) Ior Ton CIor each
n
(see the prooI oI lemma 3.1 oI |2|). But iI T :C C is
generalized nonexpansive mapping and then
Let (x ) be an a.I.p.s on Cand then
n

Thus, )
And this leads to
As
Thus,
Consequently,
Proposition 3.1: II T is non expansive mapping
then it satisIies condition (L )
Proof: Let T: C C be a n on expansive mapping It
is well known that iI Dis a closed
Ior every a.I. p.s (x ) Ior Tand
n
Then, TsatisIies condition(L)
4. FIXED POINT THEOREMS Remark 4.1 Let C
be a nonempty closed, convex subset oI a Banach space
X, and T : C mapping which satisIies condition (
L). II (x ) is an a.I.p.s Ior T, then Ior every
n
THEOREM4.1: From |2 | Let Cbe a closed, convex,
bounded subset oI a Banach space
T : C C be a continuous mapping satisIying
condition (C ) on CIor some
y
Thenat least one oI the Iollowing statement is true:
(1) Thas a Iixedpoint ,
(2) T satisIies condition (L)
COROLLARY4.1: Suppose that the asymptotic center
in C oI each sequence in C is nonempty and compact.
Then, Thas a Iixed point.
THEOREM 4.2: Let C be a non-empty compact
convex subset oI a Banach space X and T : C C a
mapping satisIying condition (L) Then, T has a Iixed
point
Proof: Since C is nonempty, closed, bounded and
convex, and T- invariant , there exist an a.I.p.s Ior T, say
(x ), in C. Since C is compact, there exists a
n
subsequence (x ), oI (x ) such that (x ) converges to
n f n n f
some
118
By assumption ( 2 ) oI DeIinition 3.1
By unicity oI the limit, Tz z.
REFERENCES
|1.| B. Vasile' Iterative Approximation oI Iixed points. CUBPress, pp4, 92-95 , (2002).
|2.| E .Llorens , M .Galvez 'The Iixed point theory Ior generalized non expansive mapping Hindawi
Pub. Co. , Abstract and Applied Analysis, pp (2002).
|3.| K. Goebel, W.AKirk and T.N Shimi, 'AIixed point theorem in uniIormly convex spaces Boll U.
M.I 7 pp 67-75, (1973)
|4.| J. Garcia, E. Llorens and T. Suzuki, 'Some generalized non-expansive mappings Journal oI
mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol.375, no 2011, pp.185-195, 2010
|5.| T. Suzuki, 'Fixed Point Theorems And Convergence Theorems For Some generalized Non
expansive Mapping Journal oI mathematical Analysis and Application Vol.340, no . 2 ,pp 1088-
1095,(2008)
|6.| B.E Rhoades, ' A comparison oI various deIinitions oI contractive mappings, Transactions oI the
American Mathematical society, Vol226, pp 257-290, 1977.
|7.| J.Bogin, 'A generalization oI a Iixed point theorems oI Goebel, Kirk and Shimi Canadian
Mathematical Society. Vol . 19, no 1 pp 7-12 ,1976.
|8.| M. Gregus Jr., 'AIixed point theorem in Bananch space, BU.MI, VOL.17, no1,pp193-198, 1980.
119
ARTPRENEURSHIP IN WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR NATION BUILDING: ACASE OF
RECYCLING ~WASTE PLASTICS MASH FOR PAVING STONES
By
Adenle 1ohn Oyewole
08033184235
E-mail johnrachael2000 yahoo.com, Web-www.johnadenle.blogspot.com
FEDERALCOLLEGE OF EDUCATION OSIELE, ABEOKUTA
Abstract
Waste management especially solid waste has emerged as one oI the greatest challenges Iacing environmental protection agencies
in developing countries. Today people generate and dump reIuse arbitrarily everywhere causing environmental hazards to human,
land, Ocean and marine liIe. However, 'out oI the eater came Iorth meat, and out oI the strong came Iorth sweetness, iI proper
attention is paid to our waste streams, 'sweeter thing abound there to be oI immense beneIit to the Nation. This paper experiments
the use oI plastic (dusts, shaven and pellets) as substitute to conventional aggregate (sharp sand, granite, and stone dust) in
preparation oI interlocking stones. It also discusses the relative diIIerence between the 3 aggregates (PD, PS, PP) used.
Introduction
Conventionally, interlocking stones (blocks) are paving
stones made Irom concrete aggregates like granites and
stone dust with cement, which serve as plastic (bond
agent) and water. There are specialized plastic moulds
design Ior cutting the blocks which are arranged
repeatedly and rhythmically such that the shapes
interlock without the aid oI cement (Adenle 2007).
These paving stones are Iound everywhere today, they
are produced using conventional aggregates mentioned
above. Although people have gone a step Iurther to
experiment using locally source materials like gravel
with soIt sand to replace the quarried granite and the
dust, Exploring the potentials oI our waste streams to
recycle and reuse to substitute entirely Ior granite and
stone dust using plastic waste is the concern oI this
experiment.
In developed and developing countries oI the world,
successIul small business and enterprises are the
primary engines oI job creation, income growth and
poverty reduction. Hence the need to properly harness
other resources to achieve growth and employment
oppor t uni t i es . Adenl e ( 20011) des cr i bed
entrepreneurship as that critical Iactor oI production that
has the responsibility oI harnessing knowledge,
including technical progress Ior use in production. In the
same vein artpreneurship harnesses creativity, explore
materials and passionately innovates in to engage his
audience visually. More so the innovation could be in the
creativity, choice oI materials or oI tendering the
materials and more importantly marketing the art works.
Kasturi (2012) said artpreneurship, or art and
entrepreneurship, to me, is about a constant focus on
excellence, creativity and innovation Artpreneurship
means recognition Ior your hard work and an eager
audience that looks Iorward to your next piece. It means
the Iunding to pursue new art projects at your leisure. It
means mixing stability with creativity and spontaneity.
In this world oI wastes all creative beings must
.
recognize and exhume hidden opportunities in this era oI
technological advancement.
What is Waste ?
Waste has been deIined as something that is not or no
longer useIul and is to be thrown away or disposed oI. In
the word oI Ogwueleka (2009) wastes are materials that
are not prime products (that is products produced for the
market) for which the generator has no further use in
terms of his/her own purposes of production,
transformation or consumption, and of which he/she
wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the
extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into intermediate and final products, the
consumption of final products, and other human
activities.
From the stand point oI this work, wastes are materials
lacking direct value to the producer and so must be
disposed oI. However, managing wastes properly could
help turnthe tide oI our economic.
Waste management is the collection, transport,
processing or disposal, managing and monitoring oI
waste materials. The term usually relates to materials
produced by human activity, and the process is generally
undertaken to reduce their eIIect on health, the
environment or aesthetics.
According to Peter (2011), the management oI waste
treats all materials as a single class, whether solid, liquid,
gaseous or radioactive substances, and try to reduce the
harmIul environmental impacts oI each through diIIerent
methods. Waste management simply means the
collection, keeping, treatment and disposal oI waste in
such a way as to render then harmless to human and
animal liIe, the ecology and environment generally. It
could also be said to be the organized and systematic
dumping and channeling oI waste through or into
120
landIills or pathways to ensure that they are disposed oI
with attention to acceptable public health and
environmental saIeguard. Proper waste management
will result in the abatement or total elimination oI
pollution. Domestic Waste Management has become an
area oI major concern in Nigeria today. It appears to be a
losing battle against the harmIul consequences oI
unguided waste and the attainment oI a clean healthy
environment Ior all Nigerians. It is common sight in
Nigeria today to see heaps / accumulation oI Iestering
waste dumps in our urban and commercial cities. All
sides oI residential apartments, the drains, the highways,
corners oI major or and minor streets, undeveloped plots
oI land have all become waste dumps Ior many
households. As Peter puts it, waste increases in a
geometrical progression and collection and disposal is at
an arithmetical progression.
Waste Stream
Aplastic material is any oI a wide range oI synthetic or
semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manuIacture oI
industrial products.
Arueyingho in Arueyingho G. and Adenle J.(2012)
posited that plastics are typically polymers oI high
molecular mass, and may contain other substances to
improve perIormance and /or reduce production costs.
Monomers oI plastics are either natural or synthetic
organic compounds. The word plastic comes Irom the
Greek, plastikos, meaning moulded.
It reIers to their malleability, or plasticity during
manuIacture, Plastic materials that allows them to be
cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety oI shapes such
as Iilms, Iibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes and much
more.
Godwin (2011) opined that the simple chemicals Irom
which monomers and polymers ultimately derive are
usually obtained Irom crude oil or natural gas, but they
can also come Irom coal, sand, salt, and air. These
polymers are made oI a series oI repeating units known
as monomers. The structure and degree oI
polymerisation oI a given polymer determine its
characteristics.
Linear polymers (a single linear chain oI monomers) and
branched polymers (linear with side chains) are
thermoplastic, that is they soIten when heated. Cross-
linked polymers (two or more chains joined by side
chains) are thermosetting, that is, they harden when
heated.
Polymerstructures
Thermoplastics make up 80 oI the plastics produced
today. Examples oI thermoplastics include;
` high density polyethylene (HDPE) used in piping,
automotive Iuel tanks, bottles, toys,
` low density polyethylene (LDPE) used in plastic
bags, cling Iilm, Ilexible containers;
` polyethylene terephthalate (PET) used in bottles,
carpets and Iood packaging;
` polypropylene (PP) used in Iood containers, battery
cases, bottle crates, automotive parts andIibres;
` polystyrene (PS) used in dairy product containers,
tape cassettes, cups and plates;
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used in window Irames,
Ilooring, bottles, packaging Iilm, cable insulation, credit
cards and medical products.
Thermosets make up the remaining 20 oI plastics
produced. They are hardened by curing and cannot be re-
melted or re-moulded and are thereIore diIIicult to
recycle. They are sometimes ground and used as a Iiller
material. They include: polyurethane (PU) coatings,
Iinishes, gears, diaphragms, cushions, mattresses and
car seats; epoxy adhesives, sports equipment, electrical
and automotive equipment; phenolics ovens, handles
Ior cutlery, automotive parts and circuit boards.
Nowadays, the raw materials Ior plastics come mainly
Irom petrochemicals, although originally plastics were
derived Irom cellulose, the basic material oI all plant liIe.
What is oI interest in this research work is that the wastes
generated Irom this solid plastic constitute 7 to 10
and is non-biodegradablity (Arueyigho and Adenle
2012), making it a great concern to government,
agencies, non- governmental organizations and
individuals to recycle, re-use and reduce the menace.
ThereIore, creatively adapting non-biodegradable
plastics into pellet used as aggregate Ior Paving stone
will aesthetically enhance the environment instead oI
environmental pollution it causes.
Environmental harm of plastics
For most oI us, the motivation to recycle and reduce the
plastics we use comes Irom our desire to protect the
environment. According to Maryruth (2011), the
Iollowing are hazards that plastics pose to both land and
marine liIe:
- Nonrenewable: Because most plastics are made
Irom crude oil, they are inherently non-renewable. As
such, we have only a limited supply oI the resources we
need to make plastics. Drilling Ior oil poses even greater
environmental problems.
- Toxic pollution: Creating plastics Irom crude oil
requires the use oI toxic chemicals that are then washed
into our waterways, our soil, andemitted into the air.
- Plastic island: So much oI our plastic ends up in the
ocean where it is gather into what's now known as the
plastic island in the PaciIic. This plastic kills wildliIe,
smothers coral reeIs, and much more.
121
- Biodegradability: Though technically plastics will
eventually break down in the environment, most take a
long, long time to do so (we're talking hundreds oI
years). That means resources are locked up in products
in landIills Ior centuries, unusable and wasted.
Rightly so, since plastics cause considerable planetary
harm there must be Recycling Waste is one oI the
commonest ways oI managing waste in developed
countries. It involves the production oI a useIul material
Irom waste garbage almost always has enough value to
justiIyrecycling parts oI it.
The word cement comes Irom the Latin phrase, opus
caementum, or chip work, in reIerence to the aggregate
oIten used in applications. Cements contain some oI the
Iirst structural materials exploited by humanity, the
common material components are: sand, lime, and
water. On a molecular level, cement is a paste oI calcium
silicate hydrates polymerized into a densely crosslinked
matrix. Oladimefi (1999) posited that cement is
produced mainly from limestone rocks heated to about
0
145 Cin a kiln and grounded into powdered compound
consisting Lime (Ca0) Silica (S 0 ) and Iron Oxide
1 2
2
(Fe 0 ). Its most important property is called
2
hydraulicity the ability to set and remain insoluble under
water.
According to Douglas and Mary (2003), cement can be
used as a mortar to bind large stones or bricks. When
sand and stones are added to cement, the aggregate is
called concrete. In view oI this, the plastic nature oI
cement could also allow it to be used as mortar to bind
plastic wastes such as plastic pellet, shaven and dust.
Materials Substitute
The materials used Ior this experimental research are in
replacement oI granite, stone dust, and sharp sand :-
- Cement
- Plastic dust
- Plastic shaven
- Plastic pellet
- Water
Plastic dust, shaven and pellet are used in this
experiment substitute to granite, sharp sand and stone
dust that are conventionally used Ior paving stones or
interlockingblocks.
Aggregates
Aggregates according to Adenle (2007) are other
essential components aside cement. Aggregates are
used to Iorestall cracks as a result oI weakness. They are
hard, durable and chemically inactive when mixed with
cement. Two types oI aggregates are used in this
experiment, Fine and coarse aggregates.
A. Plastic Dust (PD) (Iine aggregate)
It is the Industrial Crumbs or waste that Iall during
production at the Iinishing stage, usually dusty,
light and oIten times with small pellets.
B. Plastic Shaven (PS) (Iiber aggregate)
The shaven is derived Irom cutting oI lump oI
plastic with industrial machine like Mita, Table
and Standing Band saw.
C. Plastic Pellets (PP) (coarse aggregate)
122
Pellets are small, small chops Irom bigger lump oI
plastics that enables easy melting, usually a little
above the size oI rice grain.
Composition of materials
The Iollowing ratio was adopted to arrive at the
results below.
Results
A. Plastic Dust (PD)
This a mixture oI cement and plastic dust.
B. Plastic Shaven (PS)
This a mixture oI cement and plastic shaven.
Aggregale Ral|o
P|asl|c 0usl (P0) - 3a
P|asl|c 3|aver (P3) - 3
P|asl|c Pe||els (PP)- 3
Cererl Ral|o
2
2 1

2 1
0oserval|or
Eas||y r|xed
0o rol r|x eas||y Was a resu|l
add|l|ora| ore as added.
0o rol r|x eas||y as a resu|l
add|l|ora| ore Was added
C. Plastic Pellets (PD)
Amixture oI cement and plastic pellet
Conclusion
Generally, the outcome oI the three experiments are the
same in outlook, the variation is in the weight oI each
paving stone. Experiment B is lighter thanA, while Ais
lighter than C. The reasons Ior these are due to the weight
oI the aggregates, 'A which is plastic dust heavier than
'B which is plastic shaven, on the other hand Cwhich is
plastic pellet is heavier than A (plastic dust).
Conclusively plastic aggregates with cement are also
suitable and can be used as substitute Ior stone and sand
other material used Ior interlocking blocks. These will
reduce the waste stream oI plastics in our environment.
Recommendation
Considering the impact oI plastic waste in the
environment and its non-biodegradable nature,
Government should encourage reusing oI plastics in
other to reduce pollution oI plastic. Creative individuals
should engage in exploring this or other possibilities
because using plastic in such way (pellet Ior interlocking
blocks) gives it permanent state without probability oI
ending inthe landIill.
References
Adenle J.O (2007) Entrepreneurship opportunities in
sculpture A case oI interlocking tiles. Presented at
National ConIerence school oI vocational and Technical
th
EducationAdeyemi College oI Education, Ondo 6 Sept.
2007.
Adenle J.O. (2007) Cost eIIect oI producing
Interlocking Tiles with Locally sourced Materials.
th
Presented at 5 Annual national conIerence on
Culture &Creative Arts Iorum. Federal College oI
th th
Education; Abeokuta 6 9 November. 2007.
123
Arueyingho G. and Adenle J.(2012) Asthetic recycling as adaptable measure to climate change: a proactive
assessment oI Adenle's plastic works oI art. ConIerence paper presented at 2012 International ConIerence
nd th
and ChinuaAchebeAnnual Lectures Faculty of Art, University of Nigeria Nsukka, 22 28 , April 2012
Douglas C. M. and Mary A. W.(2003 ) Cement: Its Chemistry and Properties. Department oI Chemistry
and Institute Ior Research in Materials, Canada Nova Scotia Dalhousie University, HaliIax, B3H4J3,
Godwin 1. I. (2011) New 1obs Industry: Consider Recycling Our Plastic Wastes
http://pmnewsnigeria.com
Kasturi B. (2012) Do you knowwhat 'artpreneurship' is? http://zingcc.blogspot.com/2012/02/do- y o u
know-what-artpreneurship-is.html
Maryruth B. P.(2011 ) An Introduction on the Subject of Recycling Plastic: Guide: Recycling Plastic
Oladimeji T. A (1999) Workshop practices in Vocational and Technical Education. Ibadan Nig. Ecstasy
Publishers.
Ogwueleka T. C. (2009) Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria,
http://journals.tums.ac.ir/
Peter E. (2011) Tackling waste management in Nigeria. Daily Trust Thursday, 05 May 2011
Recyclingplasticshttp://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/recycling_plastics.pdf
124
APPLICATION OFATOMS OF ELEMENT IN PLASTIC INDUSTRIES
(CASE STUDYOF OBELAWO PLASTIC INDUSTRY, OSOGBO, OSUN STATE)
BY
ENGR. D.AFOLARIN
Email:- dafolarin2002gmail.com
08035028640
AND
K.AHASSAN
Email:- kabirzanyahoo.com
08061141428
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
FEDERALPOLYTECHNIC, EDE
OSUN STATE
Abstract
Technology advancement has made us to Iorget the earlier struggle Ior this advancement. Viewing it Irom any side oI
scientiIic breakthrough, atom oI an element is the most priority both in applied and pure sciences. Atom oI an element
is the key Iocus oI this paper and its involvement in plastic making process, it will takes us years back to the early
discovery oI atom and particles it made oI, in an element. Electron in the orbital oI atom is said to be negatively charge
and revolved round the outer part oI nucleus (proton and neutron). These and many more will deIinitely be discussed in
this paper work as we proceed Iurther.
Key word: Technology, Advancement, ScientiIic, Plastic, Discovery, Process, Atom and Nucleus.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In modern technology, postulates, experiments and
discoveries were the backbone oI progress achieved. To
start with, atom oI an element were discovered as Iar
back as 18's century during the period oI John Dalton
when atom was said to be indivisible, this was later void
to contain three main particles, Electron (negatively
charge), proton (positively charge) and neutron
(neutrallycharge).
As the particles contain in atom has diIIerent charges the
properties oI atom has various Iunction in relating one
element to another be it chemical reaction or physical
appearance.
Proton and neutron oI an element were both combining
called NUCLEUS. Nucleus is the central part oI an
element that determine the stability oI an element and it
is also the central part that electron revolve rounds its
orbit. With the internal support oI nucleus, electron oI an
atom was able to perIorm chemical reaction with other
electron in atom oI another element.
Be it has it may, atom oI an element is the major particles
that are involved in diIIerentiating element which
broadly divided into three namely:
(1) Metal (ii) Non metal (iii) semi conductor, each with
its practical application as the Iunction oI their atom.
Metal element has less electron in their outer orbit and
non-metal has more electron in their outer orbit while
semi-conductor has their outer orbit electron in between
metal and non-metals. I.e greater than metal and less
than non-metal. (Ramsden, 2000).
Application oI various reactions oI an atom in the
production oI plastics will be deal with. Today plastics
play a dominant role both Ior industrial and domestic
applications because oI their excellent properties and
merits. these are very popular because oI their high
speciIic strength and stiIIness, corrosion resistance,
good electrical and thermal insulating properties, low
coeIIicient oI Irictione.t.c.
The whole range oI plastics is based on various ways oI
combing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms to
produce molecules which have characteristics quite
diIIerence Irom other elements (Jain,2006).
2.0 LITERATUREREVIEW
As earlier said that atom exist base on the giant
experiment set up by the noble scientist and this has
been Iollowed to a modern time where various postulate
had been made and sustain in the science world.
In 1803, John Dalton was able to put up an experiment
which show that matter compose oI a particle that can
neither be created nor destroyed and named the particle
Atom. In his postulate he indicates that atoms cannot be
Iurther divided into anyother particles.
123
Dalton experiment was void by sir J J Thompson
postulate oI 1897 where atoms oI an element was
identiIy to have mass oI an electron up to 1/1836 in
relation to hydrogen atom as an example. In 1911 came
another discovery Irom Ernest Ruther Iord who stated
that positive charge nucleus was revolved round by an
opposite charge particle called ELECTRON. This
postulate was later tarnished on the ground that
RutherIord experiment was not scientiIically proved.
Due to Ernest short comings, Bohr came with new
postulation that prooI the earlier experiment right in
bringing up some scientiIic readjustment oI RutherIord
postulation.
Bohr experiment shows that electron in atom oI an
element does not radiate energy in its orbit and
associated with a certain amount oI energy in each
orbit, he also shows that transition oI electron occur in
orbital and label orbital with the maximum electron
2
each can occupy. 2n where n no oI orbital shell.
So Ior Lwhich is two, the total number oI electron that
can occupy its orbit is eight.
2 2
i.e. 2n 2(2) 2x4 8
Bohr back his postulation with division oI atom oI an
element into proton, neutron and electron which till
today is still much relevant in the chemical reaction
process. (Olajire et al, 2002).
3.0 APPLICATIONOFATOMS
Atom oI elements are very signiIicant in scientiIic
discovery be it in medical |x-ray|, engineering
|photoelectric| and in various Iield oI study.
Atom is a useIul agent in manuIacturing oI bullet,
Iertilizer, drugs, explosive |e.g Atomic bomb, missile|
and in productionoI plastics (e.g pipe).
They are important in chemical reaction and it is now
important to consider atomic reaction. For instance
atom oI metal can react with non-metal |Electrovalent|
or atom oI non-metal reacting with another non-metal
|covalent| in a chemical processes.
Apart Irom chemical reaction, atom is the main stream
oI MendeleeI periodic tables which use the properties
oI atom to arrange element into period and group in a
table pattern. MendeleeI was able to predict non-
existing elements and locate a position Ior them in
periodic table in time to come and such a prediction was
later Iound to be truth. With all these, atom oI an element
does not only give result Ior immediate circumstance but
also Ior Iuture assurance in the Iield oI science and
technology.
Application oI atomic reaction in plastics industry.
Plastics may be deIined as organic materials(containing
a synthetic high polymer as the major constituent
polymer being materials oI high molecular weight
Iormed by joining together many(poly) small molecule)
that can be easily moulded or shaped by mechanical or
chemical action to give non-crystalline substances that
are solid at ordinary temperature(Jain,2006). Plastic is
made up oI long-chain molecules based on carbon and
hydrogen. The basic unit oI a long-chain molecule is a
mer. The structure oI one type oI mer is
H
C

H
It has 2-chain carbon bond unused. II we add two more
hydrogen atom we produce methane but joining it to
other mer we create a chain.
H H H H
C C C C
H H H H
3 5
These can be very long, containing 10 to 10 mers.iI the
Iirst and last mers are render stable by adding a hydrogen
atom to the unused bond, a plastic material known as
polyethylene is Iormed. Thus polyethylene can be
4 5
written as C H (n being 10 to 10 ). There are many
n 2n2
other possible ways oI building long-chain molecule
such as polyvinyl chloride (pvc). Polyvinyl chloride
plastics are synthetic materials made Irom the
compound having (CHCH ) group (Arun and Bahl,
2
2006) .
CH CH CH
2
HO.OCCH Hg salt
3
CH O.OCCH
3
CH CH
2
HCl
CH CHCl
Polymerization gives,
CH CH CH
2
n Acetyl chloride
CH OOCCH3 COOCH3 n
126
Aresin oI more importance is copolymer oI vinyl acetate andvinyl chloride.
Polyvinyl acetate; it is colourless, transparent, resistance to water, chemical and atmospheric oxygen. It is used Ior
adhesive e.t.c.
Polyvinyl chloride; it is tough, resistance to water and chemical, light , mainly used Ior cable coverings, coated Iabrics,
tank lining e.t.c.
4.0 PROCESSING INDUSTRY- Lawal Obelawo Plastic Industry |LOPIN|.
LOPIN NIG LTD was located along Ikirun road Ayetoro area Osogbo Osun State. The company won West AIrica
plastic company oI the year in 2005 and it has since growing Irom strength to strength. The industry has diIIerent
machine Ior various operation but certain two will be Iocused on andthat is plant Aand plant B
Plant Ais a 20kwmachine used Ior production oI PVC25mm-63mm in diameter while plant Bis a 148kwmachine Ior
production oI bigger pipes oI range 110mm-315mm in diameter and standard length oI the pipes are either 3m or 6m.
This industry is involved in the production oI PVC pipes oI various sizes varying Irom 25mm-315mm diameter with
standard length oI 3m-6m. It makes use oI batch stirred reactor (BSTR) and a heat exchanger. The production
processes are in Iive stages namely.
* Pre-heating stage
* Gas extraction state
* Pressurizing the material
* Placing size stage
* Polishing the surIace oI the plastic pipe.
4.1 Pre-heating stage: This is the Iirst stage in making oI plastic.PVCoI require size will be chosen and subjected to a
0
temperature oI 150 C. AIter 35 minutes the PVC pipe will melt into liquid. Thus converting the solid pipe into a liquid
state.
4.2 Gas extraction state: This Iollows pre-heating stage and it is the mixing oI chemicals oI the liquid pipes to expel
the impurityunwanted gas Irom it.
4.3 Pressurizing the material: The liquid remain oI the pipe is subjected to high pressure oI about 192 mm Hg. The
liquid is thenallowed to cool in a large open tank Ior about two hours.
4.4 Placing size: This stage should be careIully monitor because the melt is now place in several Iorms that the
manuIacturer wants. Eachsizeis Iilledtothebrimandtheprocess stoppedandallowedtowait Ior 24hours.
4.5 Polishing the surface: This is the last stage oI the processing and it require cleaning oI the newly made plastics Ior
human consumption. This is achieved by the use oI brush and its neatly packed Ior sale.
Table 1.0: Data table

Stage Description Range
1 Environment of the factory 28
o
c - 33
o
c
2 Reactor before operation 28
o
c-150
o
c
3 Reactor temperature during operation 185
o
c - 220
0
c

127

TabIe 2.0: Machine capacity Pipes Diameter
Machine
Capacity
of pIant A
Outer
Pipe
Inner
Diameter
Mass FIowrate
20kw 25mm 1.5mm 50kg 5kg/min
20kw 35mm 3mm 50kg 10kg/min
20kw 40mm 4.0mm 50kg 10kg/min
20kw 56mm 4.5mm 50kg 10kg/min
20kw 63mm 4.7mm 50kg 10kg/min
Table 3.0: Machine capacity Pipes Diameter
5.0 METHODOLOGY
Relevant organic elements were used in manuIacturing process oI PVC plastic by the process called polymerisation.
Polymerisation is deIined as the joining together oI many small molecules called monomer to Iorm very large
molecules called polymer (Morrison et al, 2005). Polymers are Iormedin twogeneral ways;
(a) In chain-reaction polymerisation, there is a reaction each oI which consumes a reactive particle and
produces another similar particle; each individual reactionthus depends upon the previous one.
(b) In step reaction polymerisation, there is a series oI reactions each oI which is essentially independent oI
the preceding one; a polymer is Iormed simply because the monomers happen to undergo reaction at more than one
Iunctional group.(Schmid,1996)
The methodemployed in this paper is chain-reaction polymerisationstarting with the kindthat involves Iree radical.
5.1 FREE-RADICALVINYLPOLYMERISATION
Polymerisation oI ethylene and substituted ethylene under conditions where Iree radicals are generated-typically in
the presence oI small amounts oI an initiator, such as peroxide. Reaction occurs at the doubly bonded carbons- the
vinyl groups and is called vinyl polymerisation. Out oI all the elements used in this paper work we Iocus on the
plastic made withChloroethene (C H Cl ).
2 4 2
5.2 Preparation of vinyl chloride; chloroethene,
H C CH - Cl
2
o
The vinyl chloride is prepared by passing a mixture oI ethylene, hydrogen chloride and oxygen at 250 C over copper
(II ) chloride.
Ch CH HCl O CuCl2 CH CH Cl H O
2 2 2 2 2
o
250 C
Machine
Capacity of
pIant B
Outer
Pipe
Inner
Diameter
Mass FIow rate
148kw 110mm 5.3mm 100kg 1.5kg/min
148kw 160mm 7.7mm 100kg 1.5kg/min
148kw 230mm 9.8mm 100kg 1.5kg/min
148kw 315mm 20.9mm 100kg 1.5kg/min

128

Cl Cl

nCH
2
CH polymerization CH
2
CH n

(Polyvinyl chloride)
This organic element is a member oI alkene's group with double bond, and in the transIormation to plastic the element
was exposed to high heat and the bond break which makes chlorine to react with ethene and produce polychloroethene
(polyvinylchloride) as end product.
5.3 PREPARATIONOFPOLYVINYLCHLORIDE
o
Polyvinyl chloride was obtained by polymerisation oI vinyl chloride. The reaction is carried out at 80 c and 10atm.
pressure withsmall amount oI benzoyl peroxide as a Iree-radical catalyst. The equation oI reaction is given below;
The polar C-CL bonds result in considerable dipole-dipole attraction between polymer chains, making PVC a Iairly
strong material. e.g. pipe.
OBSERVATION
(1) It was vividly observed that the production rate oI the machine (both plant Aand B ) diminished as the reaction
progresses and thus aIIect production gain oI plastic in the industry
(2) There was no suIIicient water supply Ior coolingeIIect inthe industry.
(3) The production oI plastic is an exothermic reaction and generate high amount oI heat which needs to be careIully
monitor.
RECOMMENDATION
Obviously, reaction oI atom oI an element in industry requires a proper procedure to prevent hazardous eIIect on the
worker in the industry and its environment. For this, the Iollowingshould be considered in LOPINLTD.
There should be optimisation oI chemical batch reactor to increase the production rate in the industry. Water should be
providedabundantly Ior use to prevent dangerous eIIect on the people and the machine.
CONCLUSION
It can now conveniently conclude that atoms oI elements are very useIul in our daily activities and can predict Iuture
occurrence in chemical reaction.
REFERENCES
Arun B and B.S Bahl (2006): Advanced Organic Chemistry, S. Chand and Company Ltd,Ram Nadar New Delhi
Pg1292
th
1ain R.K. (2006); Production Technology 7 Edition, Khanna Publisher India ,Pg255
Olajire and Ayodele (2002): introductory physical chemistry, ogIat publication revised edition Pg. 121-12
Ramsden EN(2000): Alevel chemistry, Nelson Thorns Ltd., Iourth Edition Pg. 32 - 3
Schmid G.H (1996); Organic Chemistry, 5It Edition ,James M.Smith, St. Louis Missouri Pg 1234-123
Sharma K K and Sharma LK (2005): Atextbook oI physical chemistry, Vikas publishing house PVT Ltd, Iourth
Revised Edition Pg. 370 - 37
The Open University (1986): Reaction mechanism: Application, The Open University Press, 2nd Edition Pg. 234-
236
129
APPLICATION OF TWO SIDED UNIFORMLYMOST POWERFULTEST TO
NORMALDISTRIBUTION
by
D. A. Farinde, and O. M.Akinmoladun,
Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu
jophyab2001yahoo.com; danielIarindeyahoo.co.uk
Abstract
The practice Ior testing one-sided hypothesis-testing problem using uniIormly most powerIul test exists in the class oI
all size tests. This is applied to distributions with monotone likelihood ratio. In this paper, we consider the application
oI uniIormly most powerIul test oI size- to the two-sided testing oI Normal distribution. We restrict our application to
the parameter oI the standard normal distribution.
.
Key words: Neyman-Pearson Lemma, Normal distribution.
1. INTRODUCTION
In statistical hypothesis testing, a uniIormly most powerIul (UMP) test is a hypothesis test which has the greatest power
1- among all possible tests oI a given size u. Neyman-Pearson Lemma Iurther states that the likelihood-ration test is
UMPIor testing simple (point) hypothesis.
Let X denote a random vector taken Irom a parameterized Iamily oI probability density Iunction (pdI) or probability
mass Iunction (pmI) given as I(x), which depends on the unknown deterministic parameter ueu. the parameter space
u is partitioned into two disjoint sets Let H denote the hypothesis that and H denote the hypothesis
0 1
that
The binary test Ior hypotheses is perIormed using a test Iunction
Meaning that H is in Iorce iI the measurement Rand that H is in Iorce iI the measurement A.
1 0
is a disjoint covering oI the measurement space.
Hence, a test Iunction is uniIormly most powerIul oI size uiI Ior any other test Iunction we have
To introduce the UMP to Normal distribution, we consider the standard normal distribution oI the Iamily oI Normal
distribution. Section 2 contains review oI UMP test. In section 3, we explained hypothesis testing uniIormly most
powerIul tests. Section 4 is devoted to the results instandard normal distribution.
2. UNIFORMLYMOSTPOWERFUL(UMP) TEST
Fishers (1922) pioneered modern Irequentist statistics as a model-based approach to statistical induction anchored on
the notion oI a statistical model.
As I Fishers proposed to begin with pre-speciIied I as a hypothetical
inIinite population. He estimated the speciIication oI I as a response to the question: what population is this a random
sample? Amis-speciIied I would vitiate any procedure relying on or the likelihood Iunction. Fishers (1955)
argued Ior inductive inIerence spearheaded by his signiIicant testing, and Neyman (1956) argued Ior inductive
behavior based on Neyman-Pearson testing. However, neither account gave a satisIactory answer to the canonical
question. When do data provide evidence Ior a substantive claim hypothesis?
Over the last three decades, Fisher's speciIication problem has been recast in the Iorm oI model selection problems. The
essential question, howcould n inIinite set oI all possible models that could have given rise to data be narrowed down
to a single statistical model I! These models may be nested or non-nested. For non-nested case, see Cox (1961). Fisher
and McAleer (1981), Vuong (1989), Commenges et al (2008). Sayyareh et al (2011). In the nested case, we consider a
130
parametric Iamily oI densities and two hypotheses as H
0
and H . When the domain oI density is dependent on
1
parameter, the theories Ior hypothesis testing and model
selection have not developed. For the testing problem oI
type
Against
When a class oI size-u tests is considered, and the Iamily
is one-parameter exponential distributions, a uniIormly
most powerIul (UMP) test to exist. However, under
these conditions, a UMPtest does not exist Ior H :
0 1 2
against H : u u ~ u
1 1 2
Whereas, iI the class oI size- tests are reduced to a class
by taking only the unbiased test and the Iamily oI
distributions is Polya type, we know that a UMP test
does not exist Ior testing problems oI the two latter types
oI hypothesis testing. When a UMP test does not exist,
we may use the same approach used in the estimation
problems. Imposing a restriction on the test to be
considered and Iinding optimal test within the class oI
test under the restriction. Two such types oI restrictions
are unbiasedness and invariance. Under some
distributional assumptions, let the power Iunction oI any
test , is continous in u. Let us consider a test
oI size- unbiased tests Ior testing H : u u against H :
0 0 1
u= u denoted by would be given by
0 0
In this situationthe two sided test is
Where are obtained by uand
Such a test is thereIore UMPsize-uunbiased test in
Ior testing H against H Consider a Iamily oI
0 1
distribution which it supports is dependent on its
parameter. In such a situation the UMPtest is known Ior
uniIorm and double exponential distributions, see
Lehmann (1986). To introduce the UMP test Ior Pitman
Iamily, we consider some sub-classes oI this Iamily.
Section 3 contains a review on UMP test. Section 4, is
devoted to new results Ior hypothesis testing in Pitman
Iamily.
3. HYPOTHESIS TESTING - UNIFORMLY
MOSTPOWERFULTESTS
We give the deIinition oI a uniIormly most powerIul test
in a general setting which includes one-sided and two-
sided tests. We take the null hypothesis to be
And the alternative to be
We write the power Iunction as Pow(u, d) to make its
dependence on the decision Iunction explicit.
Definition: Adecision Iunction d* is a uniIormly most
powerIul (UMP) decision Iunction (or test) at
signiIicance level o, iI
(1) Pow(u, d*) o ,
0
(2) For every decision Iunction d which satisIies (1),
we have Pow(u, d) Pow(u, d*), ,

Do UMPtests ever exist? II the alternative hypothesis is
one-sided then they do Ior certain distributions and
statistics. We proceed by deIining the needed property
on the population distributionandthe statistic.
Definition: Let T t(X , X , . . . , X ) be a statistic. Let
1 2 n
I(x , x , . . . , x ,u) be the joint density oI the random
1 2 n
sample. We say that I(x , x , . . . , x ,u) has a monotone
1 2 n
likelihood ratio in the statisticTiI Ior all the ratio
depends on only through t ( and
the ratio is an increasing Iunction oI
Example: Consider a Bernoulli distribution Ior the
population, i.e we are looking at a population
proportion. So each X 0, 1, and p P(X x). The joint
i
density is
Where
Let we have
So the ratio depends on the sample only through the
sample mean x and it is an increasing Iunction oI x. (It is
aneasyalgebra exercise tocheck that iI
Example: Now consider a normal population with
unknown mean and known variance . So, the joint
density is
Nowlet . Alittle algebra shows
1 2
So the ratiodepends on only through x,
and the ratiois an increasing Iunction oI x
Theorem 1: Suppose has a monotone
likelihood ratio in the statistic Consider
hypothesis testingwith alternative hypothesis
131
and null hypothesis Let
be constants such that
Then the test that rejects the null hypothesis iI
is a UMPtest at signiIicant level,
Example: We consider the example oI a normal
population with known variance and unknown mean.
We saw that the likelihood ratio is monotone in the
sample mean. So iI we reject the null hypothesis when
this will be a UMPtest with signiIicance level
Give a desired signiIicance level
we choose c so this equation holds. Then the theorem
tells us we have a UMPtest. So Ior every , our test
makes as large as possible.
Example: We consider the example oI a Bernoulli
distribution Ior the population (population proportion).
To be concrete, suppose the null hypothesis is
and the alternative is We have a random sample oI
size n 20. Let x be the sample proportion. By what we
already done, the test that rejects the null hypothesis
when will be a UMP test. We want to choose c so
that However, is a discrete RV(it can only
be 0/20, 1/20, 2/20, , 19/20), so this is not possible.
Suppose we want a signiIicant level oI 0.005. using your
Iavourite soItware (or a table oI the binomial
distribution) we Iind that
and So we must take c
7/20. Then the test that rejects the null iI is a
UMPtest at signiIicance level 0.005.
What about two-sided test alternatives? It can be shown
that there is no UMPtest in the setting.
4. UNIFORMMOSTPOWERFUL(UMP) TEST
Let be an independent random sample.
Atest Ior testing against
is said to be a uniIormly most powerIul test oI size u iI it
is oI size- u and it has no smaller power than that oI any
other test u, in class oI level utests i.e
and Ior every
The known theorem due to Karlin and Rubin 1956
provided a UMP test oI size u Ior one-sided testing
problem against whenever the
p.d.I oI has monotone likelihood ratio. The
theorem holds Ior such distributions provided they
have monotone likelihood ratio in (x) For testing
against and test oI the Iorm
has non-decreasing power Iunction and is UMP oI its
size provided its size is positive.
Sayyareh, el al (2001) explained that Ior every
and every there exist numbers
and such that the test
given above is UMPsize utest oI againts
EXAMPLES OF UNIFORMLY MOST
POWERFULTEST
II the same result oI MPT test is obtained Ior UMP by
changing the composite range to speciIied
range andthenconsider alternative hypothesis
then the result obtained is said to be UMPT. i.e when H
0
is simple and H is composite (one-sided) then a UMPT
1
exist.
On the other hand, iI H is simple
0
generally no UMPT exists.
EXAMPLE
Let X , X , . . . , X be a random sample oI size n Irom a
1 2 n
distributionwith density
For testing against where
is speciIied, what is the UMPT?
SOLUTION
In this case H is simple and H is composite. Let
0 1
be the simple hypothesis. Then MPT Ior
against is given by
Since
ThereIore
Taking the natural log, we have
132
Let since is a constant, then we have
Also, let since
is also a constant, then we have
Divide through by n, we have
ThereIore,
Since the same MPT will be obtained Ior each simple
hypothesis , is the UMPT.
EXAMPLE
Let X , X , . . . , X be a random sample oI Irom
1 2 n
Iind the UMPT Ior testing
SOLUTION
against we want to Iind a UMPT.
Here H is simple and H is composite. Consider a
0 1
speciIic alternative hypothesis . Then an
applicationoI Neyman-Pearson lemma to test
against gives
ThereIore
Where c is determined such that
andnot by (hence independent oI
and the critical region will be the same iI we had selected
another value oI ThereIore the test givenby
is a UMPT.
EXAMPLE
Let X , X , . . . , X be a random sample oI Irom
1 2 n
Find the UMPTIor testing
SOLUTION
Consider a particular simple alternative hypothesis
Then the MPTIor testing H against
0
H is given by
1
133
Where
Observe that as long as the MPTwill remain the
same Ior each simple alternative hypothesis
where c is determined once. u, the probability oI type 1
error, is speciIied, and independent oI Thus P
Since the critical region is
independent oI , the test obtained here is UMPT. II we
were testing against , it can be veriIied
that the corresponding UMPTis
EXAMPLE
Let X , X , . . . , X bearandomsampleIrom where
1 2 n
What is the UMPTIor testing against
SOLUTION
Let us consider the alternative Then
MPT Ior against is given by
134
thereIore
Since the same MPTwill be obtained Ior each simple hypothesis
then is the UMPT.
kLILkLNCLS
(1) Commenges, D. , Sayyareh, A., letenneur, L. , Guedj, J, and Bar-hen, A, (2008), ' Estimating a
DiIIerence oI Kullback-Leibler Risks Using a Normalized DiIIerence oI AIC'', The Annals of Applied
Statistics, Jol. 2,No. 3, pp.1123 -1142.
(2) Cox, D.R. (1961), 'Test oI Separate Families oI Hypothesis'', Proceeding of the Fourth Berkeley
Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, Jol.1, pp.105 123.
(3) Cox, D.R. (1962), Further Result on Tests oI Separate Families oI Hypotheses'', Journal oI the Royal
Statistical Society, Vol. B, No. 24 pp.406 424.
(4) Fisher, R.A. (1922), ' On the mathematical Ioundations oI theoretical statistics'',
Philosophical Transactions oI the Royal Society Vol. A, No.222. pp.309 3689.
(5) Fisher, R.A. (1955), 'Statistical Methods and ScientiIic Induction'', Journal oI the Royal Statistical
Society, (1989), Vol. B, No. 17, pp.69 78.
(6) Fisher, G. and McAleer, M. (1981), ' Alternative Procedures and Associated Tests oI SigniIicance Ior
Non-Nested Hypotheses'', Journal oI Econometrics,Vol. 16, pp.103 119.
(7) Lehmann, E.L., (1986). 'Testing Statistical Hypotheses'' NewYork, John Wiley, II edition,
(8) Neyman, J. (1956), 'Note on an article by Sir Ronald Fisher'', Journal oI the Royal Statistical Society, Vol.
B, No. 18, pp.288 294.
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criteria'', Communication in Statistics Simulation and Computation, Vol.40 pp.72 86.
(10) Sayyareh, A., Barmalzan G. , and Haidari, A, (2011), ' Two Sided UniIormly most powerIul test Ior
Pitman Family, 'Applied Mathematical Sciences Vol. 5, No.74, pp.3649 3660.
(11) Vuong, Q.H. (1989), 'Likelihood Ratio Tests Ior Model Selection and Non-Nested Hypotheses'',
Econometrica, Vol. 57, No. 2, 307 333.
133
Curbing Examination Malpractices with Multi-modal Biometric Solution
in Nigerian Institutions
Adesanya, Sunday Adelaja, MSc, MNCS, MCPN, ICITP
sunadesanyagmail.com,
Department of Computer Sciences, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos
Abstract
1he method of securing and authenticating students against examination malpractices has become an obvious
problem in Aigerian institutions- universities and polytechnics. Observations also showed that most government
organizations or parastatals that use examination as a means of performance evaluation and review technique for
their personnel/staff during promotion exercise periods are not exonerated in this bid. However, the major
technique for admitting students into examinations has been through the presentation of a token, that is, a physical
object and/or portable device containing student/user identity such as ID cards, Library cards, Fees Clearance
cards, Photo cards, etc, an approach that is associated with major problems like being easily misplaced, stolen,
forgotten at home or somewhere and can also be faked. 1his paper, therefore, is intended to present a Multi-Modal
Biometric solution- a biometric fusion of fingerprint, face and voice security and authentication solution to curb or
eliminate the problem of examination malpractices among students in Aigerian institutions of higher learning
considering the huge damage examination malpractice had caused quality education in Aigeria. 1hus, this
research work utilizes the debut of fingerprint, facial and voice scanner through the usage of thumb, special
webcam and voice recognizer or device on modern laptops and computers in effectingthis solution.
Keywords:
Multi-Modal Biometric, Examination Malpractices, Identification, Jerification, Biometric Fusion.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Biometrics is an automated method Ior recognizing a
person based on his or her behavioral or physiological
characteristic. It comes Irom the greek words 'bios
liIe and 'metron to measure. Among the Ieatures
measured are; Iace, Iingerprints, hand geometry, iris,
retinal and voice to establish his or her identity.
Biometric technologies are becoming the Ioundation oI
an extensive array oI highly secure identiIication and
personal veriIication solutions. By multi-mode, we
mean the use oI more than one biometric Iactor or
modality as a means oI security. Multi-mode
authentication is the use oI more than one biometric
modalities to authenticate or veriIy the identity oI a
person or other entity. Every biometric modality has its
own Ilaws hence the use oI multi-mode biometric to
address examination malpractices in Nigerian schools.
For instance Iingerprint oI a person keep on changing
Irom time to time especially Ior those who are involved
in hard labour works such as bricklaying. This can lead
to the security device having problem in identiIying a
person's Iingerprint. The age and occupation oI a person
can cause sensors diIIiculty in capturing a complete and
accurate Iingerprint image.
Face is another popular biometric that has been used
over the years. In Iact, it is the oldest method through
which human beings have been identiIying themselves.
The emergence oI web cam on laptop and notebook
computers has made Iacial automation possible. Facial
recognition is not without its own Ilaw(s). The most
prominent oI such Ilaw is that the Iace can easily be

disguised or even obstructed by hair, glasses, hats, Iace
plastic surgery, etc. This reduces the reliability oI Iace
biometric security to a great extent. Face biometric is
also sensitive to changes in lighting, expression, and
poses. Finally, the Iace keeps on changing over time and
this can be another problem.
Automatic personal identiIication system based solely
on Iingerprint or Iaces is oIten not able to meet the
system perIormance requirements. This is why this
paper combines fingerprint and face recognition along
with voice in order to utilize their diIIerent Ieatures oI
three schemes to make three diIIerent authentication.
SelI recognition is said to be Iast but reliable while
Iingerprint veriIication is reliable but ineIIicient in
database retrieval. The limitations oI unimodal
biometric systems can be overcome by using
multimodal biometric systems. Multimodal biometric
system uses multiple applications to capture diIIerent
types oI biometrics.
This allows the Iusion oI two or more types oI biometric
recognition and veriIication systems in order to meet
stringent perIormance requirements. An eIIective Iusion
scheme is required to combine the inIormation presented
byindividual modalities.
Biometric Iusion combines biometric characteristics
and can improve accuracy, robustness, Iault tolerance
and eIIiciency oI multi biometric system. According to
Anastasis et al, three levels oI Iusion are possible which
includes thus;
(a) Fusion at the Ieature extraction
(b) Fusion at the marching score level
(c) Fusion at the decision level. 136
In the case oI Iusion at the Ieature extraction, the
Ieatures obtained Irom each biometric is used to
compute a multimodal Ieature vector which is used Ior
the biometric authentication. The second approach
involves Iusion at the matching score level.
For each biometric, the user is validated and a marching
score indicating the proximity oI the Ieature vector with
trained model is calculated. These scores are then
combined in order to veriIy the claimed identity. The
third approach is the Iusion at the decision or output
level.
The Iinal decision is the Iusion oI individual accepts or
rejects decisions taken by each biometric method.
1.1 BACKGROUNDINFORMATION
Examination malpractice has been deIined as a
deliberate wrong doing contrary to oIIicial examination
rules designed to place a candidate at an unIair
advantage or disadvantage. Examination malpractices
has also been viewed as the act oI omission or
commission that contravenes those West AIrica
Examination Council rules and regulations to the
extents oI undermining validity and reliability oI the
text and ultimately the integrity oI the certiIicates issues
by West AIrican Examination Council.
From the psychological view examination malpractice
is all Iorms oI cheating which directly or indirectly Ialse
the ability oI the students. Examination malpractice has
long graduated Irom the normal giraIIing at neighbors?
work, using key points, notes or textbooks or copying
on sheets oI papers reIerred to as 'microchips, or
'ekpo, or copying on desks or laps also known as
'desktop publishing and 'laptop publishing,
respectively to a more advanced and more organized
system oI buying questions Irom examination bodies or
corrupt bank oIIicials or individual entrusted with the
saIe keeping oI examination question papers.
Also, syndicates have been able to arrange 'special
centers Ior their 'special candidates, enrolled Ior the
examination at exorbitant and unapproved Iees with the
connivance oI examination bodies Ior the easy
perpetration oI malpractice. These 'miracle centers
enjoy the patronage oI some corrupt school
administrators and examination oIIicers. These
syndicates have made it very easy Ior somebody to
acquire a Senior School CertiIicate oI Education or a
University degree without necessarily entering the
examination hall. Mercenaries abound to
impersonate the candidates without adverse
consequence. This trend has, sadly, crept into
international examinations like British and the
American-sponsored examinations (City and Guilds,
SAT, TOEFL, etc) organized in Nigeria. These
syndicates have also devised mind-boggling means oI
impersonating and cheating during these examinations.
2.0 LITERATUREREVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The term biometrics is derived Irom the Greek words bio
(liIe) and metric (to measure). Among the Iirst known
examples oI practiced biometrics was a Iorm oI member
printing used in China in the Iourteenth century, as
reported by the Portuguese historian Joao de Barros. The
Chinese merchants were stamping children's palm and
Iootprints on paper with ink to distinguish the babies
Irom one another.
In the 1890s, an anthropologist and police desk clerk in
Paris named Alphonse Bertillon sought to Iix the
problem oI identiIying convicted criminals and turned
biometrics into a distinct Iield oI study. He developed a
method oI multiple body measurements that was named
aIter him (the Bertillonage techniquemeasuring body
lengths).
Police throughout the world used this system until it
proved to be exceedingly prone to error as many people
shared the same measurements. AIter this Iailure, the
police started using Iingerprintingdeveloped by
Richard Edward Henry oI Scotland YardaIter the
methods used bythe Chinese centuries beIore.
Biometrics is a rapidly evolving technology that is being
widely used in Iorensics, such as criminal identiIication
and prison security, and that has the potential to be used
in a large range oI civilian application areas. Biometrics
can be used to prevent unauthorized access to ATMs,
cellular phones, smart cards, desktop PCs, workstations,
and computer networks. It can be used during
transactions conducted by telephone and Internet
(electronic commerce and electronic banking). In
automobiles, biometrics can replace keys with keyless
entrydevices.
It is quite obvious that biometric authentication has
brought ecstasy to many institutions whose treasury had
been tremendously Iraud owing to weak or insecure
measure use. This and many reasons were the more
requirement why this scheme is employed Ior the
implementation oI manning various malpractice
exercises inschool`s examination.
2.2 MANIFESTATION OF EXAMINATION
MALPRACTICEINNIGERIA
Examination malpractice is not a new phenomenon in
Nigeria, as well as indemethodsed in any part oI the
world. The Iirst examination malpractice in Nigeria was
reported in 1914, when there was a leakage oI question
into the Senior Cambridge local examination; others
traced the origin oI examination malpractices to the
wave oI cancellation oI Nigeria's candidate paper in
1948 because it posses on history during the 1940
matriculation examination to then 'Yaba- Nigeria
technical.
137
The most pronounce, malpractice in Nigeria in early
examination was that oI 1964 that was tagged 'expo
subsequently in 1970, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1981, 1988
and 1991 Iollowed. Since 1991 to date examination has
taken advance and more sophisticated dimensions,
records are been emerged yearly indicating high or low
percentage in examination malpractice in the Nationals
core examination (external) West AIrican Examination
Council and JAMB.7 To prove this point, investigation
has revealed that thirty out oI one hundred and sixty-six
examination towns were involved in cheating and
malpractice while Iorty-Iive thousand Iour hundred and
Iour-eight candidates seeking University admission had
their results cancelled in year 2002 because oI
examination malpractice.
ReIerring to the examination Iraud in the country the
Iormer president oI Nigeria, 'ChieI Olusegun
Obasanjo said students in the country perceived
education as a means oI getting a meal ticket and getting
a job; the Iormer president Iurther argued that the
perception or orientation must change so that students
would appreciate the intrinsic value oI education, which
is the total development oI the individual to be able to
make meaningIul contributions to the Iamily,
community and the country at large. Even though
various strategies, such as Post UME test, setting oI
diIIerent versions oI questions Ior the same
examination, the use oI photo cards and involving more
hands in examination supervision, have been used over
the years to stop examination malpractices, the area oI
impersonation still remains. This is why this paper
Iocuses on the use oI multimode biometrics to oIIer
solution Ior examination malpractices in Nigerian
schools.
3.0 ANALYSIS OFPROBLEM
Various research evidence and reports had shown that
biometric security and authentication is Iar comparable
with the less and weak traditional or conventional
methods eg passwords. Data collected were analysed
according to the respective scheme employed and
results examinedIor discussion.
3.0 BIOMETRICSYSTEMS
Biometrics is a rapidly evolving technology that is
applicable to many areas oI endeavor in preventing
access to unauthorized inIormation. It comprises oI six
diIIerent types that are widely implemented in various
civil andpublic application areas.
3.1 TYPES OFBIOMETRICS
The important andmost widely used Biometrics are;
1. Finger print
2. Hand Geometry
3. Iris Scan
4. Retina Scan
5. Facial Scan
6. Voice Recognition
3.2 M U L T I - M O D E I D E N T I T Y
AUTHENTICATIONSYSTEMARCHITECTURE
The architecture oI an automatic multi-mode identity
authentication system is shown in the Iigure 1.4 below. It
consists oI Iive components:
(i) ImageAcquisitionModule
(ii) Template Database
(iii) Enrolment Module
(iv) AuthenticationModule
(v) Decision Fusion.
The image acquisition module provides mechanisms Ior
a student to indicate his/her identity claim and input
his/her Iingerprint and Iacial image into the system. The
template database consists oI a collection oI records,
each oI which corresponds to a student authorized to take
a particular course or examination. Each record contains
the Iollowing Iields which are used Ior authentication
purposes:
(I) User name
(ii) Minutiae template oI a student's Iingerprint
and eigenIace
(iii) Other inIormation.
The task oI enrolment module is to enroll students and
both their Iingerprints and Iacial images into the
template database. When the Iingerprint, Iacial image
and the user name oI a student to be enrolled are Ied to the
enrolment module, a minutiae extraction and eigenIace
extraction algorithms are applied to the Iingerprint
images and Iacial images which made the minutiae
patterns and eigenIace to be extracted.
A quality checking algorithm is used to ensure that the
records in the system database only consists oI templates
oI good quality in which a signiIicant number oI genuine
minutiae and eigenIace may be detected. II a Iingerprint
and Iacial image is oI poor qualities, they are enhanced to
improve the clarity oI ridge/valley or Iace structures and
mask out all the regions that cannot be reliably
recovered. The enhanced Iingerprint and Iacial image
are Ied to the minutiae and eigenIace extractors
respectively.
The task oI authentication module is to authenticate the
claimed identity oI the student who intends to take a
particular examination. The student to be authenticated
indicates his/her identity and place his/her Iinger on the
Iingerprint scanner as well as positioning his/her Iace
properly on the web cam; a digital image oI his/her
Iingerprint and Iace are captured; minutiae pattern is
extracted Irom the captured Iingerprint; eigenIace is
extracted Irom the captured Iacial images and Ied to a
matching algorithms which matches them against the
student's minutiae and eigenIace stored in the template
database to establish the identity. The decision Iusion
138
combines the Ieatures oI both the Iingerprint and the Iace
Ior each student to accept or reject decisions taken by
each biometric method.
Figure 1.4: Architecture of an automatic multi-mode
identity authentication system.
3.3 COMPONENTS OF BI OMETRI C
SYSTEMS
Biometric devices have three primary components,
namely;
1. Automated mechanism that scans and captures
a digital or analog image oI a living personal
characteristic.
2. Compression, processing, storage and
comparison oI image with a stored data.
3. Return output whether sample is match or
unmatched and interIaces with application
systems.
3.4 GENERALBIOMETRICSYSTEM
Figure 1.: Typical biometric enrolment and matching
process.
3.4.1 F I N G E R P R I N T B I O M E T R I C S
IDENTIFICATION
Human beings have used Iingerprint Ior personal
identiIication Ior centuries and they have used them Ior
criminal investigations Ior more than 100 years. The
validity Ior Iingerprint as a basis Ior personal
identiIication is thus well established.
AIingerprint is the pattern oI ridges and Iurrows on the
surIace oI a Iingertip. No two persons have exactly the
same arrangement oI patterns, and the patterns oI any
one individual remain unchanged throughout liIe.
Fingerprints are so distinct that even the prints oI
identical twins are diIIerent.
The prints on each Iinger oI the same person are also
diIIerent. The biometric Iingerprint sensor takes a digital
picture oI a Iingerprint. The Iingerprint scan detects the
ridges and valleys oI a Iingerprint and converts them into
ones andzeroes.
Figure 1.1Conversionof fingerprints to Binary Digits
Complex algorithms analyze this raw biometric scan to
identiIy characteristics oI the Iingerprint, known as
'minutiae. Minutiae are stored in a Iingerprint template
(a data Iile usually smaller than the initial scans). Up to
200 minutiae are stored in a template, but only a subset
oI these (10 to 20 minutiae) has to match Ior
identiIication or veriIication in most systems. For smart
card systems, approximately 40 minutiae are stored,
because oI space restrictions |19|.
Small ridges Iorm on a person's hands and Ieet beIore
they are born and do not change throughout liIe. These
ridges are Iormed during the third and Iourth month oI
Ietal development.
Fingerprint oI cloned monkeys, just like identical twin
humans have completely diIIerent Iingerprint.
The ridges on the hands and Ieet have three
characteristics
- Ridge endings
- BiIurcations - a Yshaped split oI one ridge into
two
- Dots short ridges that looks like dots.
The important points regarding to Iinger print
veriIication are
1. DiIIerent people have entirely diIIerent sets oI
Iinger prints, which enable identiIication.
2. A Iingerprint is made up oI ridges and valleys,
which are scanned.
3. Optical scanner illuminate the Iinger and the
CCDinside takes a picture oI the Iinger.
4. Algorithm compare speciIic Ieatures oI the
Iingerprint called minutiae with samples in
database.
5. II a speciIic number oI minutiae are matched
thenthe print accepted.
Figure1.2 shows how Iinger print recognition
mechanism work.
139
Figure 1.2: Fingerprint Recognizer Operation
3.3.2 FACIALBIOMETRICS
The most Iamiliar biometric technique is Iacial
recognition. Human beings use Iacial recognition all the
time to identiIy other people. As a result, in the Iield oI
biometrics, Iacial recognition is one oI the most active
areas oI research as in Iigure 1.3. Applications oI this
research range Irom the design oI system that identiIy
people Irom still - photograph images oI their Iaces to
the design oI systems that recognize active and
changing Iacial images against a cluttered background.
More advanced systems can recognize a particular
individual in a video tape or a movie. Facial recognition
analyzes the characteristics oI a person's Iace images
input through a digital video camera. It measures the
overall Iacial structure, including distances between
eyes, nose, mouth and jaw edges. These measurements
are retained in a database and used as a comparison
when a user stands beIore the camera. Figure 1.2:
Fingerprint Recognizer Operation
3.3.2 FACIALBIOMETRICS
The most Iamiliar biometric technique is Iacial
recognition. Human beings use Iacial recognition all the
time to identiIy other people. As a result, in the Iield oI
biometrics, Iacial recognition is one oI the most active
areas oI research as in Iigure 1.3. Applications oI this
research range Irom the design oI system that identiIy
people Irom still - photograph images oI their Iaces to
the design oI systems that recognize active and
changing Iacial images against a cluttered background.
More advanced systems can recognize a particular
individual in a video tape or a movie. Facial recognition
analyzes the characteristics oI a person's Iace images
input through a digital video camera. It measures the
overall Iacial structure, including distances between
eyes, nose, mouth and jaw edges. These measurements
are retained in a database and used as a comparison
when a user stands beIore the camera.

Figure1.3: Facial Scanning or Recognition System
This biometric has been widely, and perhaps wildly,
touted as a Iantastic system Ior recognizing potential
threats (whether terrorist, scam artist or known
criminal).One oI the strongest positive aspects oI Iacial
recognition is that it is non-intrusive. VeriIication or
identiIication can be accomplished Irom two Ieet away
or more, and without requiring the user to wait Ior long
periods oI time or do anything more than look at the
camera. The inherent diIIiculties in making a positive
identiIication (lighting requirements, Iacial position
etc) are larger than most people realize and seems to
make this biometric a better choice Ior veriIication
systems, rather than identiIication. Facial recognition
soItware translates the characteristics oI a Iace into a
unique set oI numbers - this is reIerred to as 'eigenIace.
The eigenIace is used by both identiIication and
veriIication systems Ior Iacial comparisons made in
real-time.
IdentiIication involves a one-to-many comparison oI an
individual's Iace against all Iaces in a database in order
to determine the identity; and veriIication is
characterized as a one -to- one match oI an individual's
Iace to his or her stored image Ior the purpose oI
conIirming identity. The brain deals with visual
inIormation much as computer algorithms compress
Iiles. Because everyone has two eyes, a nose and lips,
the brain extracts only those Ieatures that typically show
deviations Irom the norm, such as the bridge oI the nose
or the upper cheekbones. The rest it Iills in. Facial
recognition soItware today can instantly calculate an
individual's eigenIace Irom either live video or a still
digital image, and then search a database oI millions in
only a Iew seconds in order to Iind similar or matching
images. The challenge is to support rapid and accurate
real-time acquisition as well as its scalability to
databases containingmillions oI Iaces.
The important points regarding toFacial
Scan verification are;
1. Every Iace has certain characteristics and
distinguishable Ieatures, which allow us to
diIIerentiate between two people.
2. The soIt ware di vi des t he Iace i nt o
approximately into 80 nodes.
140
3. Some oI the common ones being distance
between eyes, width oI nose, and depth oI eye
sockets, cheekbones, jawline, and chin.
4. The system generally needs to match between
35-45 nodes in order to obtain a positive ID.
5. Approximate template size is 84 bytes to
2kbytes.
6. Face can be detected Irom a playing video.
7. It can be used in thousands oI passengers at
airport and match it with a database oI wanted
criminals and Iind whether or not that Iace
belongs to a guilty party.
8. Only biometric that allows you to perIorm
passive identiIication in a one to many
environments.
3.3.3 VOICEBIOMETRICS
Basics
1. Analyzes the acoustic Ieatures oI speech that
are unique to each individual
2. Acoustic patterns reIlect both the anatomy
(size and shape oI throat and mouth) and
learned behavioral patterns (voice pitch and
speaking style).
A. HOWI1 WORKS
1. User speaks into microphone his/her password
or access phrase.
2. VeriIication time is approximately 5 seconds.
3. Most devices require the high and low
Irequencies oI the sound to match to prevent
recorded voice use.
Figure3: Voice Recognition system
A. EJALUA1IOA
1. A potentially interesting technique bearing in
mind how much voice communication takes
place with regard to everyday business
transactions.
2. Some designs have concentrated on wall
mounted readers whilst others have sought to
integrate voice veriIication into conventional
telephone handsets.
4.0 METHODOLOGY OR P ROBLEM
IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 MULTIMODE BIOMETRIC SOLUTION
FOREXAMINATIONMALPRACTICES
Individual student must Iirst register their Iorm oI
identity with the system by means oI capturing raw
biometrics to be used in the system. This process, which
is called enrolment, composed oI the Iollowing phases:
capture, process and enroll.
A raw biometric oI each student is captured by the
biometric sensing device, characteristics that are unique
to individual and distinguish each student Irom another
are extracted Irom the raw biometric transIormed into a
biometric template. The template is then stored in a
suitable storage medium such as a database on a disk
storage device or on a portable device such as a smart
card, whereby later comparisons can be made easily.
Once enrolment is complete, the system can authenticate
individual student by means oI using the stored template.
The major key elements oI all biometric systems are
enrolment andmatching.
4.1.1 ENROLLMENT
Enrollment is the process whereby a user's initial
biometric sample or samples are collected, assessed,
processed and stored Ior ongoing use in a biometric
system. Enrolment takes place in both one to one (1:1)
and one to many (1: N) systems. II users are experiencing
problems with biometric systems, they may need to re-
enroll to gather higher qualitydata 6.
Enrolment is the most important process in overall
biometrics. It is the moment when the computer Iirst
'gets to know the person who is later to be identiIied.
The more and the better inIormation the system gets, the
better will be the accuracy Ior recognition. Technically
spoken, enrolment is a process in a biometric system with
the Iollowing input/output (I/O).
INPUT- samples oI the person's characteristics (e.g. Iace
Images Ior Iace recognition, Iingerprint Ior Iinger
recognition, spoken words Ior voice recognition, etc).
OUTPUT- The 'biometric template, the extracted
inIormation oI the input samples describing the person's
characteristics.
For this approach to Iunction eIIectively, every student at
the point oI admission is enrolled into the student's
database. The picture (mainly the Iace) and the
Iingerprint oI each student are enrolled along with their
corresponding names. Most laptops produce nowadays,
because they come with built-in web cam and Iingerprint
scanner, can allow Ior multi modal enrolment. The Iace
will be captured by the web cam and the Iinger will be
captured by the Iingerprint scanner or reader.
141
The school authority must allow Ior good enrolment- a
situation when user gives diIIerent samples to the
system within the Iull range oI variety that this person
normally exhibits. Enrolment can be done through any
enrolment application or through enrolment wizard that
comes with your computer system. Avery large storage
device should be provided Ior storing the biometric
template(s) oI the students since this will deIinitely take
a large memory. The template may be stored within the
biometric device or remotely in a central repository.
Storing the template in a central repository is a good
option in a high-perIormance, secure environment. The
size oI the biometric template varies Irom one vendor
product to the next and is typically between 9 bytes and
1.5 kilobytes.
The task oI the enrolment is the creation or management
oI a users biometric template. II enrolment wizard is
used, it guides the user to make a suIIicient number oI
recordings, to reviewthose recordings, test the result oI
the training, and Iinally store the biometric template in
the database.
4.1.2 MATCHING
This is the process oI comparing submitted biometric
sample against one (veriIication) or many
(identiIication) templates in the system's database.
Matching involves two process i.e. identiIication and
veriIication.
Matching will be done during the examination period.
Each student's Iingerprint and Iacial picture is taken at
the point oI entry into the examination and is compared
against the template already stored in the student's
database.6
4.2 B I O M E T R I C R E C O G N I T I O N -
IDENTIFICATION
Biometric recognition can be used in identiIication
mode, where the biometric system identiIies a student
Irom the entire enrolled population oI student by
searching a database Ior a match based solely on the
biometrics.
IdentiIication can be used to discover the identity oI a
student when the identity is unknown (the student makes
no claim oI the identity). For the process oI
identiIication a central database is necessary to hold
records Ior all students known to the system; without a
database oI records, the process oI identiIication is not
possible.
When a student comes to be identiIied, he provides a live
biometric sample, e.g. a Iingerprint or a Iace is scanned.
The data is processed and the resulting biometric
template is compared against all entries in the database
to Iind a match (or a list oI possible matches). The
system then returns as a response either the match (or list
oI possible matches) it has Iound, or that there is no
matchagainst the enrolledpopulation oI student.
4.3 B I O M E T R I C R E C O G N I T I O N -
VERIFICATION
VeriIication is a test to ensure whether a student is really
he or she claims to be. Two types oI veriIication can be
envisaged: with centralized storage or distributed
storage.
4.3 VERIFICATION WITH CENTRALIZED
STORAGE
II a centralized database exists (produced once at
enrolled and updated with each additional student)
where all biometric data and the associated identities are
stored, the biometric sample oI the claimed identity is
retrieved Irom the database. This is then compared to the
live sample provided by the student, resulting in a match
or a non-match. The matching can be done locally on the
device temporarily storing the acquired sample or
remotely by the hardware that stores the sample
acquired during enrolment.
4.4 VERIFICATION WITH DISTRIBUTED
STORAGE
Biometric data can also be stored in a distributed system
in which case student's templates are stored department
by department. This has an advantage oI allowing
student data to be monitored departmentally and at Iast
rate. This allows Ior Iast identiIication since the data oI
students in each department can never be as large as the
one in central database storage.
4.5 DISCUSSIONANDRESULTS
4.6 BIOMETRICFUSIONSCHEME
InIormation presented by multiple traits (such as
Iingerprint and Iace in this paper) may be consolidated at
various levels. At the Ieature extraction level, the data
obtained Irom each sensor is used to compute a Ieature
vector. Since data Irom various traits are independent oI
each other they can be concatenated to a newvector with
higher dimensionality that represents a person's identity
ina newhyperspace.
142
This new vector is then used in the matching and
decision-making modules oI the biometric system. At
the matching score level, each individual system
provides a matching score and those scores are
combined to aIIirm the authenticity oI the claimed
identity. At the decision level or output level, each
individual system provides multiple biometric data and
the resulting vectors are individually classiIied into two
classes accept or reject. The Iinal decision is the Iusion
oI individual accepts or rejects decisions taken by each
biometric method.
5.0 RECOMMENDATION
As a result oI the enormous advantages and
achievements made so Iar as being gathered Irom
various researches, it is evident that biometrics
authentication would still stand the test oI time since it is
a widely rigid and rapidly evolving technology whose
best is yet to be exploited. It cannot easily be hacked or
cracked as compared with the conventional schemes.
ThereIore, biometric is highly recommended Ior
organizations that require securing vital and large
document and achieve equivalent accesses, hence,
examination malpractices will be an omen oI the past,
that is, a thing that can no more be reckoned with in our
institutions.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Biometrics is the technology oI the millennium. It has
been used in diIIerent areas oI liIe to provide security.
This paper clearly reveals that biometrics can also be
used in the school system to curb examination
malpractices which is a rampant cankerworm that has
eaten in-dept into every Iabric oI our educational system.
Incorporating biometrics identity veriIication in the
school system will not only help to monitor the
attendance oI students in lectures but will also help to
check examination malpractices (impersonation). The
rational Ior multimodal user authentication is that no
single biometrics is generally considered suIIiciently
accurate, universal, and user acceptable Ior any given
application. The proper implementation oI biometric
system will result into a world without identiIication and
authentication threats. We can Iorget our passwords and
PINs. With biometrics one can say 'MYBODYIS MY
PASSWORD.
REFERENCE
1. ' Ada mu, M ( 2001) . ' Exa mi na t i on
MalpracticeA Paper Presented at the Annual
Special and Prize Giving Day Ceremony oI
Federal Government, Daura Katsina State.
2. Bernard, M.O(1998). Examination Malpractice
i n T e r t i a r y I n s t i t u t i o n i n
Nigeria: Types, Causes, EIIects and Solution.
Unpublished.
3. Brunelli, R., Falavigna,1995; D. Person
Identification using Multiple Cues. IEEE Trans.
On Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,
vol. 12, No 10, pp 955-966 .
4. Hong L., Jain A. K., Pankanti S, 1999; Can
Multibiometrics Improve Performance?, In
Proc. AutoID?99, Summit, NJ, October 1999,
pp. 59 64.
5. Smart.card.readercardwerk.com retrieved
3.14pm,15 August, 2011
6. IBG, www.biometricgroup.com multi modal
enrolment, matching, identiIication. retrieved
3.50pm,15 August, 2011
7. Chinedu Ugwu, 2008;. The Menace oI
Examination Malpractice (July 16, 2008)
Unpublished.
143
EFFECTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENTAND ENVIRONMENTALCONTROL
1 2 3
Engr. Sangotola T.M, Ladipo O.A, Adeyeye A.A.
Department oI Civil, Mechanical, Electrical/Electronic Engineering.
The Polytechnic Ibadan, Adeseun Ogundoyin Campus, Eruwa.
Abstract
There is wide spread interest in the world today in the methods that enable the re-use of waste. According to Websters
Mew Practical Dictionary, Waste means 'Thrown away as worthless after being used. i.e. of no further use to a
person, animal or plant, contrary to this opinion, it has been discovered that what is regarded as waste or worthless,
when worked upon can be manipulated to generated or produce materials that are beneficial for the use of man.
This paper throw light into how waste resources can be control by analysis the theories of waste management,
recycling, re-use disposal and compositing fromorganic wastes and ways by which farmand municipal waste can be
worked upon to produce materials that are beneficial for the use of man.
Keywords: EIIective Waste Management, Environmental Control, Re-use oI Waste Disposal, Waste, Recycling oI
waste.
INTRODUCTION
STUDYAREA
The Ibadan North Local Government was established by
the Federal Military Government in September 27,
1991. It was carved out oI the deIunct Ibadan Municipal
Government (IMG) along with Iour others. The
jurisdiction oI Ibadan North Local Government covers
the area between Beere round about to Gate, Idi-Ape to
Basorun and oII Lagos-Ibadan expressway, State
Secretariat, University oI Ibadan and Agbowo Area.
Bodija market was also situated within the Ibadan North
Local Government.
The Local Government is bounded on all sides by one
local or the other. On the North by Akinyele Local
Government, on the West by Ido, Ibadan North East by
Akinyele Local Government by the 2006 census, the
population oI Ibadan North Local Government was
152,602 males and 155,511 Iemale. The total land area is
2
145,581m the inhabitants oI Ibadan North Local
Government are predominantly Yoruba's, however,
there are other ethnic group. The Urobos, Hausas, Tapas
and Ilorins. The premier University oI Ibadan and The
Polytechnic Ibadan Iall within the jurisdiction oI Ibadan
North Local Government. In addition, Adeoyo State
Hospital and University College Hospital are also
located within Local Government oI Ibadan North. The
administrative headquarters oI Oyo is located
0
approximately in latitude 3 58 East and transitional
zone between the high Iorest and the savanna belt
Nigeria
GENERALBACKGROUND
Waste as it implies could mean many things, it could be
something that is no longer needed Ior use. The term
waste in this context as it relates to public health
(sanitation) is oI least dimension. It ranges Irom solid
state to gaseous states. In reality, the end Iocus oI it is that
it constitutes nuisance to the public quarters and as such
eIIective and eIIicient way oI getting rid oI it has to be
employed.
Poor reIuse disposal encourages Ily breeding it promotes
the transmission oI Ieaces-oral inIections; it can obstruct
street and drainage channels when it is neither controlled
nor collected. Waste can be in the Iorm oI solids, liquids
and gases depending on the production process Irom
which they are generated and raw materials involved
instead oI drawing the usual distinction which divides it
into the group's solids and liquids, waste paper and
sewage respectively. The organic materials which
include sewages, Iood waste and garden waste are all
subject to natural processes oI puriIication and
decomposition hence decay rapidly. Inorganic wastes
on the other hand are more stable and long liIe. They are
remains undegradable in same position they are dumped
such that materials which are oI potential values can be
recovered and recycled.
Layman views environment just as local surrounding
where one lives. Environment is a complex and dynamic
relationship between living and non living components
oI a particularity. Akinyele 2000 reIers to environment as
the biological and physical surrounding oI plants, animal
and human being. He Iurther stressed that the Iactors
which brings about complete interactions in an
environment includes climate, natural and physical
Ieatures, air, water, landIorms, soils, topography and
cloud-cooler. All these sustain the existence oI all living
beings. ThereIore, environment is a huge pool oI
resources comprising oI the earth's landscape
(lithosphere), the water (hydrosphere) and the mineral
matter (including oil, water and gas) man being
144
conscious oI these values oI eIIective waste
management and environmental control.
The timber and non-timber agro Iorestry products
descents heavily on them Ior the survival, hence
Adekoya 2000 observed that the survival oI the people is
oIten dependent on the resources provided through the
eIIective waste management and control Ior exploitation
and there is usually a concern Ior sustainability within
units oI economics survival and environmental control
awareness.
OB1ECTIVEAND METHOLOGY
The objective oI the research work is to bring out ways to
obtaining the advantages oI eIIective management and
environmental control. To achieve these objectives the
Iollowing procedure are Iollowed:
Research on eIIective managements and ways
oI environmental control.
Research on composition and other quantities
volume percentage oI household waste in the
town (Ibadan) to know the percentage which
can be re-used.
Visiting the Oyo State Waste Management
Authority to know how the waste is presently
managed in the city (Ibadan).
GASEOUS WASTE
Gaseous compounds are dangerous to human health
they Iorm gaseous pollutants produced Irom the activity
oI man gaseous waste include smoke and the table
below.
SOLIDWASTES GENERATION
Waste excretion is when materials become
valueless Ior the owner and they discarded. The rate
at which this occurs is a determinant oI how much
waste is generated by the person; usually it is
measured in the basis oI by capital (i.e. person) or
households per day. In 1985 the Federal Ministry oI
Housing and Environment determined solid waste
generation rated in Nigeria urban centers and galley
the Iollowing Iigures Ior the Ibadan per capital -
0.39kg per day.

Gaseous waste Sources
Carbon dioxide (co2) Products oI human respiration Irom
exhaust pipe oI automobile, industrial
machines, generators, etc.
Dust Result oI human activities on soil, it is
also aIIected by the present condition.
Smoke From motor instead construction oI gutter
out while open reIuses building.

Also unadjusted total annual volume oI solid waste
generated per year was derived as shown below.
1982:350,823 tons per year
1985:382,224 tons per year
1990:440,956 tons per year
2000:559,882 tons per year
This data highly outdated and needs to be up dated.
However, it gives a good picture oI the values oI
solid waste generated per year in the city oI Ibadan
which is quite enormous. Hence, there is need to
have a proper system oI managing and control the
waste eIIectively.
COMPONENT

MEAN PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY WEIGTH
G.R.A Bodija Private layout
(Mokola &
Sango)
Private layout
(Oke-Ado)
Agugu Traditional
Market
(Oja-Oba)
Leaves 7.5 4.3 11.2 14.0 50.1 18.7
Food remains 35.5 19.2 9.1 3.6 6.4 6.9
Paper 15.1 26.2 10.7 19.4 15.2 16.6
Rags 1.3 1.5 4.2 6.8 4.5 10.9
Plastic &
Polythene
4.1 8.9 3.7 11.6 4.8 6.1
Tins &Metals 20.8 11.4 20.1 16.4 7.7 12.8
Bottles &
Glasses
9.9 11.8 12.7 9.0 6.1 6.0
Ash, dust &
stones
5.9 16.7 28.3 19.1 29.8 12.0

143
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste management can be deIined as the eIIort
associated with the control oI generation, storage,
collection, transIer and transport, processing and
disposal oI solid wastes in a manner that is in accord
with the best principles oI public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetic and others
environmental considerations which are responsive to
public attitudes.
From the above deIinition, it can be summarized that
there are various stages in solid waste management,
namely:
Ceneration: This is stage where solid wastes are
produced Irom the various households, institutions,
industries and the commercial centers.
Storage: This is a stage where generated wastes are kept
beIore they are collected. This involves the use oI
household bins, waste storage areas in Iactories,
communal storage points, particularly in markets and
schools and so on.
Collection: There are two phases under this storage,
namely: primary and secondary collection. Primary
collection is the Iirst stage oI collection between the
waste generation and secondary storage. Sometimes
this directly transported aIter primary collection. It is
common knowledge to see hand drawn carts, especially
in Lagos, collecting waste Irom households and markets
stalls to a central point Ior subsequent transport to
disposal. In some areas in Ibadan, particularly, the
government reservation areas, wastes are collected by
designated contractors who transport them directly to
disposal. On the other hand, secondary collection or
transportation entails collection oI waste brought to a
centrally designated point, usually reIer to as transIer
station, Ior onward transportation to the disposal sites.
This is usually vehicular in cities, but in some small
towns in developing countries animal or human drawn
carts are used. This stage is most common in large urban
areas. For example: Lagos where the distance to
disposal sites are Iar.
Disposal: This is the Iinal destination oI the waste. It
may be a land Iill, in cinema or a composed plant and so
on.
THE GOOD PRACTICE
In the considering the best practice Ior solid waste
management in order to achieve sustainability,
particularly at a community level, the Iour waste-related
area to be considered. These areas are interrelated and
mutually supportive. However, the main emphasis to be
given to each area will be varied according to the local
socio-economy and physical conditions oI the town or
city the rate oI generation and composition oI the
wastes. In a nut shell, the Iour rate related areas oI Iocus
in solidwaste management are:
- Minimization.
- Maximizing environmentally sound waste re-use
andrecyclingprocesses.
- Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal
treatment.
- Extending waste service coverage.
In minimizing wastes, the major objective includes:
1. Stabilization or reduction oI the production oI
wastes destined Ior Iinal disposal;
2. Strengthening oI procedures Ior accessing waste
quality and composition changes.
Also maximizing environmentally sound waste re-use
and recycling programme recognizes nature oI the
economics oI waste disposal. Waste and recycling,
resource recovering is increasingly becoming the cost-
eIIective approaches to control waste. Waste recycling
is one oI the ways to go iI our society is to achieve
eIIective waste management and control oI our waste.
Boladouer (2006) take a critical look at the above
composition oI waste generated in Ibadan will reveal to
us that not are useless. There are some oI these wastes
that can be converted into one Iorm or the other Ior
economic beneIit oI mankind. Developed nation oI the
world have come to realize that they need to Iind
alternative way oI handling wastes. This has become
evident given the rapid urbanization and the alarming
rate at which land is becoming depleted such that the
hitherto conventional means oI disposing wastes are
becoming impracticable by the day. Hence the need to
depart Irom traditional practice oI cradle to grave
approach waste management and embrace cradle to
cradle approach.
CONCLUSION
The characteristic oI eIIective waste management and
environmental control changed predominantly organic
matters. More than 80 in the late IiIties to a more
heterogeneous mature, also, the organic material still
take the highest percentage, and the proportion then has
been drastically reduced. The proportion oI metals,
glass, plastic and paper gradually increasing abandoned
automobiles, reIrigerators, cookers and other bulky
metallic items constitute a big problem, the items are
oIten abandoned in selected open space where they are
create poor environmental condition. Collection and
transportation oI solid and liquid waste are not
eIIectively carried out because oI technique Iinancially
and administrative short-comings oI the authorities that
involved. The common disposal method is crude land-
Iill, composting should be carried out to recommend the
desirable composting method Ior use at a speciIic
location.
146
The conclusion is as Iollows:
i. Government should have more Iocus/interest on
waste to wealth programmes.
ii. The Oyo state government should budget suIIicient
money Ior proper Iunding oI the OYSWMA(Oyo
State Waste Management Authority) Ior eIIicient
Ioundation.
iii. StaII oI the OYSWMA should be sent abroad Ior
training on waste management and utilization in
general, proIessional staII should be employed.
iv. Public education on waste management is highly
necessary. Hence government should promote this.
v. Purchase oI dust bin by each household, shop and
other commercial centers should be made
compulsory.
vi. There should be sanitary inspectors who would
monitor people around and Iine anyone who
disobey environmental cleaning rules e.g. anyone
who litter the surrounding carelessly by throwing
oII papers, nylon, etc anywhere or dispose his/her
households waste in any unapproved place.
RECOMMENDATION
Government should have more Iocus on this topic
'eIIective waste management and environmental
control deduce every means through which positive
things could be generated Irom waste resources, give
more encouragement to waste to wealth programmes,
establish some industries and plants like the composting
plant Ior conversion oI biodegradable waste to various,
re-usable energy Iorm, soil conditioner, etc. recycling
plant Ior recycling non-biodegradable matters into the
waste components.
It is also recommended that the project should be made
available to people Ireely. Especially to appropriate
government quarters to serve as eye opener on the topic
'eIIective waste management and environmental
control. Knowledge on what solid waste management
means and ways by which waste resources can be regain
and re-utilized, it should also be made available Ireely to
the Oyo State Solid Waste Management Board.
REFERENCES
Adekoya B.T. (2000) Solid Waste Management Pg. 15-
20.
Akingbile L.A. (2000) Environmental Extension as
EIIective Tools Ior Sustainable Natural Resources
'JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTENSION
vol.1-No 1 Pg. 69-74.
Bola Olowe, Sustainability Community Base. Solid
Waste Management Projects paper delivered at the
national conIerence oI the environmental division. The
Nigeria SocietyoI Engineers, OYO2006 Pg. 4-6.
Chongrak-Polpra set (1996) Organic Waste. Recycling
Technology and Management Second Editing Pg 69-
108, 115-162.
Conared PSTRUAUB. Practical Handbook oI
Environmental Control Pg. 375-453.
Fanida A. (1997), Introduction to EIIective Solid Waste
Management Engineering Control. Bibis Press, Ibadan.
Pg. 25-30.
Madumere A.J. (2000) Environmental Programme as in
dispensable tools Ior enriching public environmental
education in Nigeria. STAN 418I Annual conIerence
proceeding. Pg. 188-190.
Sangotola T.M. (1997) Solid Waste Management Paper
Slated Ior Publication oI Faculty oI Engineering Journal
(2007). Pg. 3-10 Vol. 4
Scridhar M.K.C. (2003). Nature oI Solid Wastes and
their Management. A paper presented at a one day
seminar organized by MANNAFEFF, Ibadan. Pg. 2-3.
147
DESIGNAND CONSTRUCTION OFA
(0 - 30V) VARIABLE, STABILISED POWER SUPPLY
INCORPORATING SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Engr.OGUNDARE, AY?ADE BENSON
(Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department LASPOTECH)
ayoadeogundareyahoo.com
AND
Engr. OMOGOYE, OKEOLU SAMUEL
(Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department LASPOTECH)
Samelect2003yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The aim and objective oI this research work is to design and construct a (0 30V) variable, stabilized power supply
with short-circuit protection. The regulator used was 723 conIigured Ior high output voltage and Ior Ieedback current
limiting. The stabilization ratio was determined using input line variation based on a 10 line voltage change and
100 load variation.
At the output oI this research work, the stabilization ratio Ior using 723 regulator with input line variation method was
45 and Ior load variation method was 43. Consequently, the stabilization ratio using input line variation method is
hereby recommended due to its better value. The contribution oI this work is that 723 regulator is a better stabilizer
(stabilization ratio oI 45) than the conventional zener diode (stabilizationratiooI 5).
Keywords;
(0-30V) Variable stabilized Power Supply, Short-circuit Protection, 723 Regulator, Stabilization ratio, Conventional
zener diode.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The necessary d.c supplies Ior electronic circuits may be
drawn Irom batteries or obtained by rectiIication oI the
a.c mains. Batteries have the advantage oI portability
and complete absence oI a.c components in their output.
There is however, a danger oI leakage iI exhausted
batteries are accidentally allowed to stay too long in
equipment; this may endanger many hundreds oI Naira
worth oI circuitry through corrosion damage: Batteries
are used, oI course, Ior portable radios and sometimes
Ior those laboratory instruments where complete
isolation Irom the mains is desirable. The operation oI
power supply Irom a.c line is the major concern in the
designed andconstruction oI this research work.
In experimental electronics, a power supply with an
adjustable output voltage is a very useIul piece oI
equipment. The simplest way to obtain a variable output
voltage is shown in Iig1.1

0 -

18v ouLpuL

18v
+
-

llg1.1 varlable volLage supply by poLenLlom eLer

Here, the d.c source is an 18-V battery, but it could
equally well be a transIormer, rectiIier and reserved
capacitor. The potentiometer can be adjusted to give any
required output voltage, but there is serious snag: the
presence oI the potentiometer increases the output
resistance oI the supply so that the load regulation is very
poor.
1.2 ANALYSIS OF VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY
BLOCK DIAGRAM
The power supply changes the available electrical energy
(usually alternating current) to the Iorm required by the
various circuits (usually alternating current).
In the power supply units, transIormer is used to step
down the alternating current (a.c) mains voltage to the
required voltage, then the a.c supply is rectiIied using
diodes to give a unidirectional current (d.c) supply. A
block diagram showing diIIerent components oI a power
supply are shown in Iig 1.1

1ransformer 8ecLlfler
Cver volLage /
overload proLecLlon
volLage
8egulaLor
lllLer
A/C lnpuL
u/C CuLpuL
llg1.1
148
CIRCUITDIAGRAMOFPOWERSUPPLYUNIT

v
1

C
1
8
1
8
2
8
3

12

8
4

10

723

11

83
C
2

87

8
8

8
6

C
3

12
1
3
8sc

3

6
11
13

7

9

4

v
+
vo

v
-

v
l

comp

v
ref
n.l

vc
lnv

llg 1.3. -

30volLs 8egul aLor

CuLpuL

0 -

30v

+

-

+
+

V 230V R 0.33O, 2W
sc
R 2-5kO C 2000I
1 1
R 10kO C 1nI
2 2
R 47kO C 100I
3 3
R 100kO T BC178
4 1
R 1.8kO T 2N2905
5 2
R 10kO T 2N3055
6 3
R 47kO
7
R 470O
8
1.4 DESIGNCALCULATION
TransIormer rating 60VA
Input VoltageV 230V, Output Voltage 30V
1
Load current I 1.5A
dc
Load (output) Voltage 30V
V is the voltage at the secondary side oI the transIormer. ThenV I V I 60VA.
r.m.s 1 1 2 2
Where subscript 1 denotes primary and 2 secondaryvalues.
This give, V I 60
1 1
230I 60
1
I 0.260A
1
and V I 60
2 2
I 2.00A
2
I 2.A
r.m.s
V at secondaryoI transIormer 30V
r.m.s
V (d.c) 0.9Vr.m.s 0.9 x 30 27V
av
0.636V 0.636 x 30 x
max
27V
Voltage drop bythe diode (30 -27) V 3V
voltage rating Ior the rectiIier (P or V )
IV RRM
2 Vr.m.s
230
60
30
60
2
2
149
2 x x 30
84. 85V
Theoretical value oI PIVor V 84.85V. But in order
RRM
to allow Ior transient voltage pulses which can
breakdown the rectiIier junction, PIV oI Iour times the
r.m.s voltage was used peak current rating Ior diode I
dc
x whereT
1

T
1
-4
7.07 x 10
Peak current rating 21.2A.
V V V
a.c d.c ripple
30 27 V
ripple
V 6V
ripple
But V
ripple
-3
C 2.5 x 10 F
C 2500I
The theoretical value oI Iiltering capacitor is 2500I, but
to get good Iiltering, larger value oI Iilter capacitor was
used. The value used was 6800I.
The theoretical voltage rating oI capacitor
V
p
but the practical value
used was 50V.
The 732 is a regulator capable oI giving a voltage
between 0 and 30V. The circuit uses two similar voltage
dividing networks, R ,R and R and R to Ieed inputs to
2 3 6 7
non-inverting (NI) and inverting inputs (inv. input) oI
the IC. The voltage at NI is V
reI.
When the wiper oI R is at ground level, voltage at Inv.
1
Input will be: V
out
Since the IC regulates the output by keeping the two
inputs equal, we have:
V , since R R 10kO and R R
out 2 6 3 7
47kO
2
1
T
2
T
Vm
4
T
x Vripple
Vm x 4I
6
c
30 x 2 x 200
6
4 -
10 x 7.07
0.01 x 1.5
2
1
2
1
100c
Id.c
ripple
d.c
V x 100
I
6 x 100
1.5
42.42V 30 x 2 Vr.ms x 2 = =
( )
3 2
3
R R
R
+
( )
7 6
6
R R
R
+
( ) ( )
7 6
6 out
3 2
3 reI
R R
R V
R R
R V
+
=
+
2
3 reI.
R V
R
With the value oI components used in the circuit, V is a
out
little more than 30V.
Whenthe wiper oI R reaches the upper end (maximum)
1
V . output Ieeds a voltage oI V .
reI reI
to the inverting input which is equal to that Ieed to the N.I
input. The output voltage thereIore, Ialls to zero.
Increasing resistors R and R to 15kO will reduce the
2 6
range to 20V. Transistors T provides current limiting by
1
shorting the base drive to T when the voltage drop across
2
R exceeds0.65V.
sc
Short-circuit current I
sc
I 1.96A
sc
1.5 RESEARCH PRO1ECT TESTING AND
ANALYSIS
Project testing was carried out Ior diIIerent values oI
voltage andthe results are as indicatedin tabular Iorms.
(a) Whenthe output voltage is set to 24V.
(b) With output set to18V.
( )
7 6
7
R R
R
+
Rsc
V.65
33 . 0
65 . 0
lnpuL vol Lage (v) CuL puL vol L age (v)
240
230
220
200
190
180
170
160
130
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
23.8

lnu1 vCL1ACL (v) Cu1u1 vCL1ACL (v)
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
130
140
130
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
17.84

130
(c) With output set to 12V.
It is a common practice to speciIy regulation oI a power
supply in terms oI line and load variations, usually based
on a 10 line voltage change and 100 load change.
The degree oI stabilization produced by a particular
circuit can be speciIied as its stabilization ratio, which is
obtained by measuring the percentage change in output
voltage produced by a given percentage change in input
voltage.
Stabilization ratio
Abasic zener diode stabilizer usually gives stabilization
ratios between 5 and 20, whilst some oI the more
sophisticated ICregulators give values over 1000.
An alternative term which deIines degree oI stabilization
is line regulation. Line regulation may be deIined in a
number oI ways. The common one being
Line regulation
A typical value oI line regulation Ior a well-stabilized
power supply is 0.01 change. II this deIinition is
speciIied Ior a 10 change in input voltage, as it usually
is, then line regulation can be related to stabilization
ratio (SR)
Line regulation
From the test results,
(a) Input change Irom 240Vto 150V
change in Input 37.5
The corresponding change in Output is 24 23.80 0.2
change in Output 0.833
lnu1 vCL1ACL (v) Cu1u1 vCL1ACL (v)
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
130
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
11.80

Voltage output in change
Voltage input in change
100 x
Voltage Output in Change
Voltage Input in Change

SR
10
x 100
90
240
100 x
24
0.2
Stabilization ratio 45
From table b,
Change in input voltage Irom 240V to 130V causes the
output to change Irom 18Vto17.84V.
change in Input 45.83
The correspondingchange in Output is 18 17.84
change in Output 0.88
Stabilization ratio 52
From table c,
input change Irom 240V to 80V, causes a
corresponding Output change oI 12 to 11.80.
change in Input 66.67
change in Output 1.667
Stabilization ratio 40
CONCLUSION
From the results analysis, it can be concluded that the
stabilization ratio ranges Irom 40 to 50, a value that is
greater thanthat oI a basic zener diode.
The line regulation Ior the constructed variable (0-30V)
stabilized supply was carried out using two methods.
(i) input line variations
(ii) load variation
The input voltage was varied based on a 10 input
voltage change. The values were given in tabular Iorm
and stabilization ratio was determined. The value being
anaverage oI 45.
Similarly, the load was varied by 100 (that is between
no load and Iull load), the stabilization ratio was
determined. The value being an average oI 43. The
discrepancy is due to the value oI the load current and the
size oI the capacitor. At no load, the capacitance will
have to be very high to give good Iiltering. So, with load
current demand, the capacitor value must be quite high.
However, a very high value in a capacitive input Iilter
can cause problems.
From the results analysis, it can be concluded that the
stabilization ratio ranges Irom 40 to 50 Ior this project
work. A value that is greater than that oI a basic Zener
diode withstabilization ratio oI 5.
0.83
37.5
100 x
240
130 - 240
100 x
18
17.84 - 18
100 x
0.88
45.83
100 x
240
80 - 240
100 x
12
11.80 - 12
1.667
66.67
131
For Iurther work on this design and construction, the meter reading should be made oI digital type as against analogue
used Ior this work.
REFERENCE
1. Adesoji Odunlade (2006), Electric CircuitsAnalysis, Tony TerryPrints, Mushin Nigeria.
2. BarryG. Woollard (1978), Practical Electronics: McGraw-Hill Bk. Co. UK.
3. B. L. Theraja & A. K. Theraja; Atextbook oI Electrical Technology, Twenty-Third Edition2002
4. Charles, A. Schuler (1999); Electronics Principle andApplications, Glencoe Mcgraw Hill United State.
5. GiorgioRizzoni (2004); Principles and Applications oI Electrical Engr. McGraw-Hill. NewYork
6. M.CSharma (1980); First Edition, G.CJain Ior Business promotion Bureau, Shahzada Badh: NewDelhi India.
th
7. Robert L. Boylestad & Lours Nashelsku (2006); Electronic Devices and circuit theory, 9 Edition Prentice Hall,
Inc, NewDelhi India
th
8. Roger L. Tokheim (1999); Digital Electronics principles andApplications, 5 Edition: Glencoe Mcgraw Hill
UnitedState.
9. V.K. Metha (1977); Principal oI Electronics Pearson Educational, Inc, NewJersey, U.S.A
10. W.H. Dennis (1982) Electronic Components and systems, Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd, London and
Worcester.
132
Evolving a Reliable Computational Grid for Cost Effective Academic Collaboration
ADELANWA, S.O.A. CITP, MBCS, CPN
Department of Computer Science, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu
e-mail: yinka.adelanwagmail.com
Abstract
In the works oI Foster et al, (2001) & (2006), a vision oI grid systems was articulated, in which computing/data
resources belonging to many enterprisers are organized into a single, virtual computing entity that can be
transparently utilized to solve compute-intensive and data-intensive problems. Subsequently, this vision has
continued to evolve as use oI grid technology has grown within industry, science, research and development. To
realize the long-term goals oI grid computing will require development oI methods that ensure that grid services are
reliably provided under conditions oI scale, heterogeneity, anddynamism (Foster et al, 2008).
This paper oIIers a presentation on how to implement a Iault tolerance (reliability) computational grid environment
and present suitable topology and design to set up computational grid Ior data processing and collaborative research
in/amongst academic institutions.
Keywords: Computational Grid, Scalability, Heterogeneity, Fault Tolerance, Reliability.
1.1 Introduction
Grid computing (or the use oI a computational grid) is
applying the resources oI many computers in a network
to a single problem at the same time- usually to a
scientiIic or technical problem that requires a great
number oI computer processing cycles or access to large
amounts oI data. Grid Computing enables users to
request as much inIormation or computation as they
want and have it delivered whenever they want.
Generally speaking, grid computing seeks to uniIy
geographically dispersed computing systems to create
one large, powerIul system.
Computational grid appears to be a promising trend Ior
three reasons:
(1) Its ability to make more cost-eIIective use oI
a given amount oI computer resources,
(2) As a way to solve problems that cannot be
approached without an enormous amount oI
computing power, and
(3) It suggests that the resources oI many
computers can be cooperatively and perhaps
synergistically harnessed and managed as
collaboration towards a common objective.
In some grid computing systems, the
computers may collaborate rather than being
directed by one managing computer. One
likely area Ior the use oI grid computing will
be pervasive computing applications- that is,
those in which computers pervade our
environment without our necessary
awareness.
Over the past 20 years, grid computing has had a
relatively small impact on corporate productivity,
research and development, institutional/academic
collaboration due to the substantial investment it
required to deploy and maintain it. This has hitherto
changed, radically, due to technological advancements in
the industry and improved Iunding oI research and
development. Today, a number oI corporations,
proIessi onal groups, pol yt echni c/ uni versi t y
consortiums, and other groups have developed or are
developing Irameworks and soItware Ior managing grid
computing projects, at aIIordable scale. In Iact, IBM and
Sun, have begun maximizing grid computing to
accomplish tasks Iaster and cheaper, and the productivity
gains have been staggering. However, such huge success
has not been recordedin collaborative/academic research
anddevelopment.
The ability oI the computational grid to allocate large
numbers oI resources Ior a parallel application with a
greatly reduced cost makes its concept highly appealing.
However, the heterogeneous nature oI a grid creates a
complex application environment; the nature oI Iaults
within this environment signiIicantly complicates the
liIe oI the developer and/or IT architect. Creating an
application that can recognize, aIter thorough diagnosis
(Detection, Localization, Repair, Management, etc) and
handle these Iaults (deIect that causes a catastrophic or
reproducible malIunction. AmalIunction is reproducible
iI it occurs consistently under the same circumstances or
an accidental condition that causes a Iunctional unit to
Iail to perIorm its required Iunction) and prompt
recovery in computational grids becomes complex and
non-trivial (Ross, 2007).
Ahmed et al, (2010) stated that while the Grid computing
is nowbeing implemented in the business organization, it
is time to establish and deploy it in academic institution
establishingtheVirtual Organization (VO).
133
1.2 Computational Grid Faults
Being (Computational Grid) the collection oI diIIerent
types oI resources, heterogeneous platIorms and
diIIerent types oI networks, chances oI encountering a
Iault are very high as compared to any other parallel
execution environment. Another reason Ior the
occurrence oI Iaults in Grid environment is that that
executed jobs are very large, which implies that huge
amount oI processing power and resources are required
to execute these jobs. Some jobs e.g. scientiIic
experiments may even take weeks to execute. So more
the time a job consumes while executing, more are the
chances oI encountering a Iault during its execution.
Broadly the Iaults in Grid environment can be divided in
the Iollowingcategories.
1.2.1 Hardware Faults
Hardware Iailures take place due to Iaulty hardware
components such as CPU, memory and Iaulty storage
devices. Hardware Iaults are very diIIicult to recover
because the solution is either the troubleshooting or the
replacement oI the Iaulty part.
1.2.2 Application And Operating System Faults
Application and Operating System Iaults are Iaced due
to exceptions or errors on the node which may be a result
oI anyDOS (Denial oI Service attacks), viruses etc.
1.2.3 Network OrConfiguration Faults
The network Iaults may be traceable to a node Iailure
due to loss oI connection, packet loss or the corruption oI
the data during the transmission Irom one node to the
other and it may be traceable to the Iaulty or inconsistent
results and this can aIIect the quality oI service
requirement oI the user.
1.2.4 Middleware Faults
Middleware is the interIace between the user and the
resources on Grid and perIorms all the major tasks like
resource management, resource allocation, job
scheduling and Iault tolerance etc. Any exceptions in the
working oI the middleware may lead to Iaults in Grid.
1.2.5 Transient Faults
Transient Iaults are the Iaults which disappear itselI
eventually without any signiIicant intervention.
Transient Iaults are less severe but hard to diagnose and
handle. It is caused by temporary malIunction oI some
system component. Some environmental interIerence
also causes transient Iault or Iaults.
1.2.6 TimingAnd Interaction Faults
The jobs which require high amount oI interaction
between diIIerent nodes while executing are aIIected by
these kinds oI Iaults. The delay in messages may cause
timeout situations hence interrupting the execution.
Any oI these Iaults may aIIect the execution oI a job in
either delaying the completion oI the job, totally Iailing
the execution oI the job or not meeting the required QOS
(quality oI service) requirements oI the user. These Iaults
make Grid less reliable Ior executing the jobs with high
QOS requirements. Dealing with these complex Iailure
scenarios is challenging (Raissa et al, 2003). Detecting
that something is wrong is not so diIIicult (in general,
symptoms are quickly identiIied), but diIIiculties arise to
identiIy the root cause oI the problem, i.e., to diagnose a
Iailure in a very complex and heterogeneous
environment as presentedby computational grid.
1.3 Computational Grid Reliability
A lot oI research eIIort has being put to Iind better
mechanisms Ior Iault treatment on grid computing
aiming at improving the reliability oI such
inIrastructures. Ideally, a grid user should be able to
submit a set oI tasks to remote execution, wait until the
execution is concluded, and then retrieve the results oI its
execution in the very same way he/she would do iI using
a single high-perIormance machine. In practice,
however, this is not what is happening to users oI the
heterogeneous grid inIrastructures available nowadays.
It is not rare to observe high Iailure rates on tasks
submitted Ior execution in a grid inIrastructure. Grid
users see their tasks Iailing and receive no Ieedback Irom
the grid middleware that could possibly help them to
?gure out why their tasks Iailed.
There has been unprecedented growth in the number oI
operational grid systems used in scienti?c and industrial
applications. However, iI this growth oI grid technology
is to continue, it will be important that grid systems
provide high reliability, that is, they must be able to
continuously provide correct service (Avizienis et al,
2004). In particular, it will be critical to ensure that grid
systems are reliable as they continue to grow in scale,
exhibit greater dynamism, and become more
heterogeneous incomposition.
Dabrowski (2009) recommends that ensuring grid
system reliability in turn requires that the speci?cations
used to build these systems Iully support reliable grid
services. Thus, reliability oI the grid becomes very
important issue and implementation oI Iault recovery
mechanism becomes essential.
2.1 Implementation Requirement
Ahmed et al, (2010) identiIied three Iundamental
requirements that must be satisIied Ior implementation
oI computational grid Ior cost eIIective collaboration in
academic institution as: Hardware, SoItware and Human
Resources.
2.1.1Hardware
The basic hardware requirements that must be satisIied
by any computational gridimplementationinclude:
134
` Every computing resource must have enough
computing power and data storage capacity to
properly run the grid platIorm.
* Computing resources can be indirectly connected
(through switches, routers, bridges, hub, gateway,
and possibly through wireless connections) by
which data packet can be dispatch Irom one
computing resources to another.
* Resources must knowsome entity that takes it into
the grid. Entity could be an internal scheduler or
data server, and so on.
2.1.2 Software
The following are the basic software requirements
that must be satisfied:
* There must be interoperability among grid
platIorms oI all the computing resources.
* Network soItware must be properly conIigured to
allow direct or indirect communications between
any pair oI computing resources.
2.1.3 Human Resources
In any grid implementation, there are basically high-
l evel t asks, perIormed by speci al i zed
personnel/analyst and low-level tasks, assigned to
non-specialized personnel, in order to manage the
computational grid eIIectively aIter its
establishment Ior academic institutions.
* There must be at least one analyst who will be
responsible Ior the high-level administrative tasks.
* There should exist one Web developer to assist the
application developer to develop and test their
applications.
* There must be a group oI at least two proIessionals
responsible Ior the IT service oI the computational
gridenvironment.
3.1 System Design
The Ioundation oI a grid solution design is typically built
upon an existing inIrastructure investment and the
success oI a grid solution is heavily dependent on the
amount oI thought the IT architect put into the solution
design (Ferreina, 2003). Also, diIIering topologies are
designed to meet varying Geographical constraints and
network connectivity requirements.
Whenever the signiIicant inIormation and requirement
Ior establish Grid is available, the IT architect has to
decide which topology is suitable Ior his academic
institution to implement, iI equipped with that, the high
level grid designwill be easier to complete.
Atopology viewIor the proposed Grid can viewed in the
Iigure 1, as adopted in (Ahmed et al, 2010) but modiIied.
It is divided into three stages (IntraGrid, ExtraGridand,
and InterGrid) and every stage is cohesive with the other.
3.1.1 IntraGrid
This is the simplest oI the topologies and comprise
mainly oI a basic set oI Grid services within a single
campus. The milestone Ior the initial phase is to provide
an intragrid solution, which is essentially a grid sandbox
that supports a basic set oI Grid service. This solution
would support a single location build upon the core grid
components, such as a security model, inIormation
services, workload management, and the host devices.
As long as this model supports the same protocols and
standards, this design can be expandedas needed.
3.1.2 ExtraGrid
ExtraGrid is the second stage and kink the IntraGrid. It
expands on the concept by bringing together two or more
intraGrid. And the levels oI management oI an extraGrid
are dispersed security, multiple organizations, and
remote/wirelessArea Network (WAN) connectivity.
3.1.3 InterGrid
The Iinal is the InterGrid, which requires the dynamic
integration oI applications, resources, and service with
patterns, customers, and any other authorized grid-users,
who will obtain access to the grid via the internet/WAN.
InterGrid topology is primarily used by engineering
I a c u l t i e s / I i r ms , l i I e s c i e n c e I a c u l t i e s ,
designers/manuIacturers, and by business in the
Iinancial industry.
It must be noted that, the complexity oI the Grid design is
proportionate to the number oI campuses or networks
that the grid is designed to support, and the geographical
parameters and constraints.
133

IntraGr|d

LxtraGr|d

InterGr|d

I|g 1: roposed Computat|ona| Gr|d for Academ|c Co||aborat|on

Secur|ty

3.2 Planning Implementation Steps
In order to convert the dream oI Grid to reality, the
researcher and developer should walk in a constant steps
and try to beneIit Irom the existing inIrastructure as the
polytechnics/universities that already having cluster(s)
on campus will explore it and determine iI they can be a
part oI Grid and not to Iorget to develop Grid Policies to
Iacilitate and encourage sharing oI resources with
security guarantee.
The process oI planning Ior Iacility inIrastructure and
network inIrastructure is a continuous one and must be
re-evaluated every year as technology changes and as
the requirements oI the scientiIic programs evolve or
become better understood.
By implementing the Grid computing technology the
Resources which can be oI any inIormation type
(computing, storage, networking, etc) can be distributed
world-wide and the Access to it is provided in a secure,
coordinated, seamless, dynamic and inexpensive way,
and then it will achieving.
The above steps will assist academic institutions which
already having clusters on their campuses to explore it, iI
they can be shared and linked together or assist those that
are to develop clusters Ior the purpose oI migration to
computational grid.
4.1 Challenges of having Reliable Grid
Complex scientiIic problems in science and engineering
run Ior a long time and it becomes important to make them
resistant to Iailures in the underlying hardware and
inIrastructure. During parallel application, the computation
cannot complete iI any nodes Iailures is encountered.
ThereIore, Fault tolerance has become necessity.
In computational grid environment, the possibility to
have a computational node with a Iailure or a network
connection broken increases considerably, since many
network elements and links are involved in a wide area
communication. Due to the economically driven trend to
use commercial oII-the-shelI components to build grid
elements, the possibility to have Iailure in the system
increases, mostly due to the use oI general operating
systems and middleware. Though IP routing solves
problems like router or link Iailures, not all are
recoverable, at least in an acceptable way (due e.g. to a
too low alternative bandwidth). Also node Iailures have
a much higher probability than with single
supercomputers since each node may be itselI a cluster
(which has the problems identiIied above) and the
number oI processing unit increases considerably.
The Iault recovery technique usually compromise
between eIIiciency and reliability oI the node to
complete the computation even in presence oI Iailures.
The goal usually is to preserve eIIiciency hoping that
Besides the dynamic nature oI grids, which means that
resources may enter and leave the grid at any time, in
many cases outside oI the applications' control, grid
resources are also heterogeneous in nature. Many grid
applications will be running in environments where
interaction Iaults are more likely to occur between
disparate grid nodes. As resources may also be used
outside oI organizational boundaries, it becomes
increasingly diIIicult to guarantee that a resource being
used is not malicious. Due to the diverse Iaults and
Iailure conditions, developing, deploying, and
executing long running applications over the grid
remains a challenge. So Iault tolerance is an essential
Iactor Ior grid computing.
136
Iailures will be less. However, the computational
resources have increased in grid but its dynamic
behaviour makes the environment unpredictable and
prone to Iailure. Amajor hurdle parallel applications are
Iacing today is appropriate handling oI Iailures that
occur inthe grid environment.
Most application developers are unaware oI the diIIerent
types oI Iailures that may occur in the grid environment.
Understanding and handling Iailures imposes an undue
burden on the application developer already burdened
with the development oI their complex distributed
application. Thus, automatic handling oI Iaults by grid
middleware is necessary. This strategy makes this
Iunctionality transparent to the application users. This
would enable diIIerent data-intensive grid applications
to become Iault-tolerant without each having to pay
separate cost.
Research has also shown that currently deployed
commercial and research grid systems can and do
behave reliably at present levels oI scale using available
technology. However, eIIorts are in progress to develop
reliability methods Ior grid environments that are
expected to have increased scale, heterogeneity, and
dynamism.
5.1 Conclusion
Figure 1 shows the proposed steps that should be
Iollowed when computational grid is to be implemented
Ior academic collaborations. At last, in today's world, a
high level oI computational perIormance which runs on
a well-managed technological inIrastructure platIorm
can be implemented to Iacilitate cost eIIective academic
collaborations
5.2 Recommendation
The Iollowing are germane:
* In grids it is imperative to start in small scale and to
begin building the basic Iramework oI the design
and then think oI expansion. So it is not advisable
to setting out to build the desired end state grid
solution all at the beginning.
* Academic institutions are to develop Grid Policies
to Iacilitate and encourage sharing oI resources
with security guarantee.
References
Ahmed Mohammed Al-iesawi, Mohd Isa Mohd
Samat. ACase Study on Implementation
oI Grid Computing to Academic
th
Institution. Retrieved on 14 April, 2012
at
http://www.brandonhall.com/public/glos
sary/index/htm |2010|
AvizienisA, Laprie 1, Randell B, LandwehrC.
Basic concepts and taxonomy oI dependable
a n d s e c u r e c o mp u t i n g . I EEE
Transactions on Dependable and Secure
Computing2004I(1):11-33
Dabrowski Christopher Reliability in Grid
Computing Systems. Concurrency And
Coomputation: Practice and Experience.
Published online in Wiley Interscience.
st
(2009). Retrieved on 31 March, 2012 at
www.interscience.wiley.com
Ferreira, LIntroduction to Grid Computing with
Globus. International Technical Support
Organization, USA(2003).
Foster I, Kesselman C, Tuecke S. The anatomy of
the Grid: Enabling scalable virtual
organizations. International Journal oI
High PerIormance Computing
Applications 2001;15(2):200222.
Foster I, Kesselman C, Nick 1, Tuecke S. The
physiology oI the Grid: An open Grid
services architecture Ior distributed
systems integration. Retrieved on 10
May, 2012 at
http://www.globus.org/alliance/publicati
ons/papers.php |4 August 2008|.
Foster I, Kishimoto 1, Savva A, Berry D, Djaoui A,
GrimshawA, Horn B, Maciel F,
Siebenlist F, Subramaniam R, Treadwell
J, Von Reich J. The open Grid services
architecture, version 1.5. GFD.80, Open
Grid Forum, July 2006.
Raissa Medeiras, Wslfrado Cirme. Faults in Grids.
Why are they bad and What can be done
about it. Proceedings oI the Fourth
International Workshop on Grid
Computing, (2003)
Ross Wakefield Detecting Fault In Computational
Grids. ACS 451 Project Paper. (2007)
137
Framework for the Development of a Scalable Fault Diagnosis in Computational Grid Resources
Using Intelligent Probing Technique
ADELANWA, S.O.A. CITP, MBCS, CPN
Department of Computer Science, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
e-mail: yinka.adelanwagmail.com
Abstract
Computational grids have the potential Ior solving large-scale scientiIic application using heterogeneous, dynamic
and geographically distributed resources. In addition to the challenges oI managing and scheduling these applications,
reliability challenges arise because oI the unreliable nature oI the grid inIrastructures. Grids' being a collection oI
heterogeneous resources connected, through networks, to execute complex applications with high processing power
requirements is vulnerable to Iaults, which aIIects its perIormances and Quality oI Service (QoS). Surveys have
reveals that Iault diagnosis is still a major problem Ior Grid users.
This paper will address the problems oI existing probing techniques and propose a model to account Ior the prohibitive
cost oI Iindingthe optimal probe set Ior computational grid, using methods Irom artiIicial intelligence.
1.1Introduction
The role played by the existence oI a pervasive
intelligence is starred by what we call now a
Computational Grid (Frederic et al, 2009). The evoked
pervasive intelligence could monitor the status oI each
processor, assigning CPU power where needed in a
right-sized Iashion, thus reducing as much as possible
idle CPUtimes and allowing controlled access to large-
scale CPU Iacilities. Computational grids (CG) Iind
their origins and background in the Iield oI High-
PerIormance Computing (HPC), with the preeminent
goal oI linking supercomputing sites and optimally
exploiting CPU time available through a wide area
multidomain networking connection. It is a common
situation, indeed, that on a certain node, at a given
instant, a strong computational eIIort must be sustained,
while huge CPU-time amounts are leIt idle on remote
sites.
According to Weissman (1998), grids have the potential
to revolutionize computing by providing ubiquitous, on
demand access to computational services and resources.
However, grid systems are extremely large, complex
and prone to Iailures. Surveys have revealed that Iault
diagnosis is still a major problem Ior grid users. When a
Iailure appears at the user screen, it becomes very
diIIicult Ior the user to identiIy whether the problem is in
his/her application; somewhere in the grid middleware;
or even lower in the Iabric that comprises the grid
(Hwang & Kesselman, 2004).
The heterogeneous nature oI a grid creates a complex
application environment; the nature oI Iaults within this
environment signiIicantly complicates the liIe oI the
developer. Creating an application that can recognize,
aIter thorough diagnosis (Detection, Localization,

Repair, Management, etc) and handle these Iaults in
computational grids becomes non-trivial and complex
(Ross, 2007).
1.2Fault Diagnosis
Fault diagnosis is the process oI detecting a Iailure and
localizing the cause oI the Iailure Irom observed Iailure
indication. With the widespread usage oI computer
networks in Web services, telecommunications, grid
services, etc and increasing advances in developing
perIormance critical applications, increasing importance
on Quality oI Service(QoS), and growth oI
large/complex systems make quick detection oI Iaults
essential Ior robustness, reliability, system accessibility
andacceptability.
Fault Diagnosis consists oI locating the physical Iault(s)
in a structural model. In Computer science, diagnosis is
typically used to determine the causes oI symptoms,
mitigations Ior problems, and solutions to issues. More
speciIically, diagnosis is concerned with the
development oI algorithm and techniques that are able to
determine whether the behaviour oI a system is correct.
II the system is not Iunctioning correctly, the algorithm
should be able to determine, as accurately as possible,
which part oI the system is Iailing, and which kind oI
Iault it is Iacing.
Fault diagnosis solutions are applied in a variety oI
domains. Beloware list oI some example domains where
Iault diagnosis tools holdcritical importance:
1.2.1Diagnosing node and link failures
Tools are widely used Ior traditional Iault diagnosis to
localize node and link Iailures in a network (Steinder &
Sethi, 2004).
138
1.2.2 Web services and e-commerce
With the increasing emphasis on providing better quality
oI service, Iault diagnosis holds great importance in a
variety oI web services. Fault diagnosis tools in such
systems (Agarwal et al, 2005 & Agarwal et al, 2006)
investigate causes oI Service Level Agreement (SLA)
violations due to increased response time, decreased
throughput, and increased error rate.
1.2.3 Grid systems
A wide variety oI applications use grid computing Ior
computation intensive tasks. Such systems need a Iault
diagnosis tool to identiIy poorly perIorming clusters,
racks, or nodes, and to investigate the cause oI poor
perIormance at the network, system, or middleware level
within these nodes.
1.2.4 Telephone networks
Fault diagnosis is applied in telephone networks to
ensure high availability oI telephone services. Tools are
developed to localize switch Iailures in a telephone
network hierarchy.
1.2.5 Military networks
Military networks run various mission critical
applications in a dynamic environment (Kant et al,
2004). One example oI such networks is a mobile ad-hoc
network connecting soldiers, various ground, air, and
water vehicles and bases.
Various components in such networks are vulnerable to
node Iailures, link Iailures, poor connectivity, increased
noise, andother types oI Iaults.
1.3 Previous Approaches
Network monitoring can be separated into two broad
categories: Active and Passive monitoring. However,
much past works was based on passive monitoring, Ior
example (Jakobson & Weissman, 1993; Gruschke, 1998;
Liu et al, 1999 etc).
1.3.2 Passive monitoring
On the other hand, passive monitoring does not produce
additional traIIic. Rather it listens to traIIic that transits
through a particular point on a network. At its simplest,
counts are made oI packets; in more sophisticated
implementations, analysis is done by inspecting packet
headers. Passive measurements are mainly used to
measure metrics pertaining to a certain network element,
e.g., at-a-point metrics such as link throughput, and
packet size statistics. However Irom an application point
oI view, end-to-end quality oI service metrics might be
oI concern and Ior these, the passive approach is
inappropriate as the presence oI traIIic between the two
end-points is not guaranteed.
1.3.1 Active monitoring
This involves sending traIIic onto a network to sample its
behaviour. This traIIic is sent in the Iorm oI probes which
can vary Irom simple probes such as pings to complex
test transactions. Active monitoring is typically used to
obtain end-to- end statistics such as latency, loss, and
route availability. Active probing can be used to perIorm
eIIicient Iault localization where probes can be selected
in real time and sent to diagnose the root cause oI a
Iailure. Active probing solutions Ior perIorming Iault
localization involve three main steps: probe station
sel ect i on, probl em det ect i on, and probl em
determination.
2.1 Probing Technique
Probes are commands or test transactions that can be
actively selected and sent through the network Irom a
particular machine called a probing station to a server or
a network element in order to test a particular service,
parameter/measurement, or condition. Aprobe returns a
set oI measurements, such as response times, status code
/
(OK/OK), and so on. Probing technology is widely used
to measure the quality oI network perIormance, oIten
motivated by the requirements oI Service-Level
Agreements. Examples oI probes are HTTP requests to
speciIic servers (an e-mail message, or a Web-page
access request), Command or transaction (e.g. Pings,
Trace-routes command, and Complex test transactions),
etc. Probes could also be HTTP requests to speciIic
servers to collect inIormation about the response time
statistics Irom various servers Ior various types oI
requests (Frenkiel & Lee, 1999).
Probing is an inIormation gathering approach,
perIormed by using test transactions sent by a probe
station to the nodes in the network under observation.
The probe results are then analyzed to inIer the state oI
the network. Network parameters/measurements,
services and conditions can be inIerred Irom probe
results, e.g., the variance in delay, loss percentage, IP-
connectivity, database- or web-access, etc. Probing is
used in network monitoring in a variety oI ways and Ior a
variety oI purposes (I. Rish et al, 2004; I. Rish et al 2005;
B. HuIIaker et al, 2002).
Probing is typically used to obtain end-to-end statistics
such as latency, throughput, loss, and route availability.
For instance, a probe could be a ping to collect
inIormation about connectivity oI nodes. More
sophisticated probes could be a train oI probe packets oI
various sizes to collect inIormation about the total
bandwidth, or available bandwidth (Hu & Steenkiste,
2003).
Probing-based tools send probes in the network to
analyze the health oI network components, where probes
are test transactions designed such that success or Iailure
oI a probe depends on the success or Iailure oI the
network components visited by the probe. This approach
139
is intended to meet the above stated requirements oI a
Iault diagnosis tool.
To use probes, probing stations must Iirst be selected at
one or more locations in the network. Then the probes
must be conIigured;
(a) it must be decided which network elements to
target and which station each probe should
originate Irom. Using probes imposes a cost,
both because oI the additional network load that
their use entails and also because the probe
results must be collected, stored and analyzed.
Cost-eIIective diagnosis requires a small probe
set, yet the probe set must also provide wide
coverage, in order to locate problems anywhere
in the network.
(b) By reasoning about the interactions among the
probe paths, an inIormation-theoretic estimate
oI which probes are valuable can be
constructed. This yields a quadratic-time
algorithm which Iinds near-optimal probe sets.
And Iinally, linear-time algorithm which can be
used to Iind small probe sets very quickly will
be implemented.
2.2 Adaptive Probing
These existing Iault diagnosis and localization
techniques are inadequate to address various challenges
introduced by Grids and modern communication
systems, such as the ability to perIorm reasoning in the
presence oI uncertainty about the underlying network
inIormation, diagnosis oI multiple Iailures, low
management traIIic overhead, small deployment cost,
quick diagnosis, high accuracy, and high level oI
recovery.
Thus, an alternative to passive monitoring is probing,
which is based on actively sending out probes in the
network to inIer the health oI network components
(Natu, 2007).
Accordingto(Natu, 2007), probinghas beenusedbroadly
intwoways: preplannedprobingandadaptiveprobing.
3.1.1 Preplanned probing
(Brodie et al, 2001) stated, involves oIIline selection oI a
set oI probes which are selected such that all possible
Iailures can be diagnosed by observing the probe results.
A major drawback oI this approach is the large
management traIIic sent out on the network, a large part
oI which might be wasteIul as not all Iailures occur all
the time. Other drawbacks oI this approach include the
diIIiculty involved in envisaging such a probe set, and
the delay involved in sending a large set oI probes, and
collecting the probe results. These drawbacks lead to
inaccuracies and increased localization time (Brodie et
al, 2005).
3.1.2Adaptive probing
One promising approach Ior eIIective and eIIicient Iault
diagnosis is adaptive probing, where a probe set is
adapted to the observed network conditions by sending
Iewer probes in healthy areas and more probes in
suspicious areas. Instead oI sending probes to localize all
potential Iailures, a small set oI probes is Iirst sent to
monitor the health oI all network components. These
probes detect the presence oI a Iailure, but they are not
comprehensive enough to identiIy the Iailure's exact
location. Based on the probe results, suspected areas oI
Iailure are identiIied, and additional probes are selected
that Iurther help to localize the exact cause oI Iailure.
3.1 Intelligent Probing Approach
(Brodie et al, 2007) developed a methodology called
active probing that addresses the limitations oI adaptive
probing. This involves probing in an interactive mode,
where probe results are analyzed to determine the most
likely diagnosis, and then additional probes are selected
and sent in order to gain Iurther inIormation. This
process may repeat-once additional probe results are
obtained, the diagnosis is reIined, and, iI necessary, more
probes are selected, and so on, until the problem is
completely determined. The idea oI this approach is to
'askthe right questions at the right time.
Active probing selects and sends probes as needed in
response to problems that actually occur. It thereIore
avoids both the diIIiculty oI constructing probes Ior all
possible problems as well as the waste inherent in using
probes Ior problems that in Iact never occur.
Furthermore, because probes are selected on-line to
obtain Iurther inIormation about particular problems
that have occurred, they need not circulate regularly
throughout the entire network; instead they can be
targeted quickly and directly to the points oI interest.
Thus, Iewer probes are needed than in adaptive
approach, allowing Ior a considerable reduction in
probing costs.
Mark Brodie and team concluded that eIIective probing
requires minimizing the cost oI probing while
maximizing the diagnostic accuracy oI the probe set.
3.2 Model
Assumptions: (i) Let Computational grid be visualized
as a Distributed system.
(ii) The Distributedsystemcanbe represented
as a 'dependency graph, where nodes
can be either hardware elements (e.g.,
workstations, servers, routers) or
soItware components/services, and links
can represent both physical and logical
connections betweentheelements.
160
Suppose the network has n nodes. Each probe is
represented as a binary string oI length n, where a 1 in
position j denotes that the probe passes through node N.
j
This deIines a dependency matrix D(i; j), where D(i;
j) 1 iI probe P passes through node N , otherwise D(i;
i j
j) 0. (Kliger et al, 2007)
Note: D is an r-by-n matrix, where r is the number oI
probes.
Consider the network in Fig 1(a), where two probes, P
14
and P emanate Irom node, N and travelled along the
16 1
paths deIined by the arrows: N N N and
1 2 4
N N N N respectively.
1 3 5 6
II probes are indexed by their start and end nodes, the
resulting dependency matrix can be obtained as shown
in Fig 1(b).
Each probe that is sent out either returns successIully or
Iails to do so. In a noise-Iree environment, iI a probe is
successIul, then every node and link along its path must
be up; conversely, iI a node or link is down then any
probe passing through that node or link Iails to return.
Thus r probes result in a 'signal a binary string oI
length r, each digit denoting whether or not that probe
returnedsuccessIully.
II N is down, then both probes will Iail, and no other
1
single node Iailure causes both probes to Iail. Thus a
Iailure in N1 can be uniquely identiIied by these two
probes, as shown by the Iact that N 's column in the
1
dependency matrix is unique. In general, any problem
whose column in the dependency matrix is unique
generates a unique signal and as a result can be
unambiguously diagnosed.
However, the goal oI the research is to Iind the smallest
probe subset that can uniquely diagnose a Iailure in any

n
1
n
3
n
2
n
6
n
3
n
4

14

16

(a)
(b)




N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N
F14
F1
node. ThereIore, a probe selection will be Iormulated, as
a constrainedoptimization problem, as Iollows:
Given the initial probe set P and the dependency matrix
/
D. Let P be anysubset oI P.
/
DeIine, Ior j 1 to n, C D }, PP; C is the j'th sub-
j i,j i j
column oI D, with the extracted rows corresponding to
/
the probes in P. Then the number oI diagnosable
problems is given by counting the number oI unique
/
columns: h (P) c , c 1, iI C is distinct Irom C ,
j j j 1
........., C . Otherwise c 0.
j-1 j
The probe selection problem is to Iind the smallest probe
subset that can diagnose all the problems. Thus
/ /
evaluating min Psuch that h (P) n will yield the
desired result.
4.0 Conclusion
The intelligent probing technique presented will reduce
the number oI probes needed in large network, such as
Computational grid. The technique has advance the Iield
oI Iault localization by addressing these demands and
showing that an intelligent probing provides a promising
technique Ior developing Iault localization tools Ior
modern computational grid that is dynamic and
heterogeneous.
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measuring the end-to-end perIormance oI distributed
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162
USE OF GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEM(GPS) FOR CADASTRALSURVEYIN NIGERIA
Olowofoyeku, Olukemi Oyefunke
Department oI Surveying & GeoinIormatics
Yaba College oI Technology
Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
Email: oolowoIoyekuyahoo.com
&
1.0 ABSTRACT
Cadastral Surveying data is based on the planimetric and vertical coordinate systems oI the national survey. GPS
technology, has matured to the stage where it has become another tool Ior the proIessional surveyor. Commercial
products oIIer user-Iriendly hardware/soItware and suggest techniques that can improve productivity at a high
accuracy. Although some surveyors have embraced GPS survey methods into their businesses, many practitioners are
still reluctant to invest in the technology. This has been due to reasons such as prohibitive cost, a lapsed understanding
oI geodesy, conIusion about GPS surveying capabilities and best practice techniques, uncertainty over how to best
utilise existing GPS services, lack oI time/resources to invest into GPS surveying training, and Ior the cadastral
surveyor uncertainty over what is acceptable practice to satisIy current survey regulations in Nigeria. This paper
discusses the use oI GPS in Cadastral Surveying with its relative advantages in speed, cost, accuracy and simple Iield
operations. A brieI introduction on Cadastral Surveying and how GPS works is presented Iollowed by GPS
measurement techniques. The result oI a test site is also analysed. GPS being a high precision coordinate generator,
seems an obvious tool to use (in Iavourable conditions). It is hoped that this paper will encourage the survey regulating
body, Government and proIessional surveyors to include the use oI GPS in Cadastral Survey and use GPS more
eIIectively.
KEYWORDS: GPS, Cadastral
Akinpelu, Akinwunmi A.
Department oI Building Technology
Lagos State Polytechnic
Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria
Email: aaakinpeluyahoo.com
USE OF GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEM(GPS) FOR CADASTRALSURVEYIN NIGERIA
Olowofoyeku, Olukemi Oyefunke` and Akinpelu, Akinwunmi A.``
* Department oI Surveying & GeoinIormatics, Yaba College oI Technology; Yaba, Lagos
oolowoIoyekuyahoo.com
** Department oI Building Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos
aaakinpeluyahoo.com
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Cadastral surveying describes the exact course oI
property boundaries and thus provides the basis Ior
protecting landownership. Many areas in the private
sector, public administration and our daily lives depend
on cadastral surveying data. Landownership rights, Ior
example, which are entered in the land register, are
based on cadastral surveying, so it provides a
substantial contribution to saIeguarding real estate.
When planning a new building, precise boundary
inIormation as well as inIormation about possible
restrictions oI ownership rights, the location oI pipes
and cables and other Ieatures is required. The
proIessionals are able to Iind this inIormation in
cadastral maps and in a variety oI other sources such as
utility maps, local authority plans and zoning plans. As
part oI cadastral surveying, the terrain is surveyed
accurately and reliably. The public data thus captured,
Ior example property boundary points, the land cover
type (notably buildings, roads, Iields, woods and water
Ieatures) and the height oI the terrain are careIully
gathered, managedand continuously updated.
Computers have long since replaced the slide rule and
the ink pen in the surveying oIIices, and measurements
are increasingly being carried out with the aid oI
satellites. Data administration and management does
not require Iiling cabinets anymore, but rather
Geographic InIormation Systems and the Internet.
However, one thing still remains the same: in order to
163
show a building, a municipal boundary, or the edge oI a
Iorest on a map, points must be surveyed and their
coordinates calculated. The oldest land surveying
method makes use oI direct observations in the Iield.
The most common surveying instruments are the
theodolite, which measures angles and; Electro-
Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment or tape which
measures distances Irom which the coordinates oI the
surveyed objects can be computed. Modern digital
instruments carry out some oI these computations
directly in the Iield and store the results; these can then
be downloadedIor Iurther processing in the oIIice.
The Global Positioning Systems using signals Irom
satellites have become an integral part oI cadastral
surveying. Navigation satellites orbit the earth and
continuously emit signals, which can be picked up by
special receivers. Distances are determined Irom these
signals and thus the position oI the receiver calculated.
With specialized measurement and computation
methods, coordinates can be determined in seconds to an
accuracy oI a Iew centimeters with reIerence to the
national ReIerence Coordinate System.
As countries such as Nigeria move towards a
Geographical/Land InIormation System (GIS/LIS),
boundary deIinition oI millions oI parcels is required,
thereIore surveying methodology that is quick,
inexpensive and within the reach oI the existing
surveying proIessionals is required.
In recommending and testing a GPS methodology Ior
cadastral surveying the Iollowing criteria are
considered:
* speed (must signiIicantly outperIorm current
approaches)
* cost (must signiIicantly reduce current unit survey
costs)
* appropriate (must be within the reach oI surveyors)
* realistic accuracy (match real needs )
* simple Iield operation (data collection must be
simple toallowIor variable
* Iield conditions)
This paper will describe the perIormance ability oI the
GPS technology using a test site within Yaba College oI
Technology (YCT). This experience was used as a basis
Ior a call Ior GPS-based approach to cadastral
surveying, which is described in the latter part oI this
paper.
3.0 CADASTRALSURVEYING ANDITS USES
Cadastral surveying is the branch oI Surveying dealing
with the deIinition, measurement, relocation and
mapping oI land parcels to which registerable land rights
are attached, (Barnes & Mark, 2006). Many areas in the
private sector, public administration and our daily lives
depend on cadastral surveying data. Cadastral surveying
data serve as the basis Ior a wide range oI products and
applications which include:
Direct products:- Cadastral maps, Base maps, Digital
Terrain Models, Buildingaddresses.
Applications:- Land register, Cadastre oI Public Law
Restrictions on Landownership Rights, Public
Administration, Construction Projects, Land-Use
Planning, TraIIic Engineering, Fire and Rescue Services,
Geographic InIormation Systems (GIS), Environmental
Protection, Agriculture, Tourism, Marketing, etc.
Derived products:- Street maps, Zoning plans, Utility
asset maps, 3-Dcity models, etc.
Cadastral surveying data are available in both graphical
(on paper maps) and digital (computerized) Iorm. Digital
cadastral surveying data can be structured into various
independent thematic layers, which can be Ireely
combined, Ior example;
Control points: points providing the connection to the
national geodetic coordinate system; Land cover:
buildings, roads, water, woodland, etc.
Single objects: walls, wells, masts, bridges, etc.
Heights: Digital Terrain Model (DTM).
Local names: place names, locality names.
Land ownership: land parcels.
Pipelines: highpressuredistributionnetworkIor oil andgas.
Territorial boundaries: local, state, and national
boundaries.
The world is changing: newconstructions and roads are
being built, land parcels are divided or consolidated,
Iorests spread, streams Iind newcourses, and glaciers are
melting. All oI these changes have a direct impact on
cadastral surveying since its content must coincide
precisely and reliablywith reality.
3.1 CADASTRALSURVEYING PRACTICEIN
NIGERIA
The predominant technique currently used Ior cadastral
surveying in Nigeria is traversing. Coordinate control Ior
such traverses may be based on geodetic control stations
or minor control stations established by Federal or State
Government with a closing error oI 1:3,000. Although
current Cadastral Survey Regulations oI 2009 allows
connection to a local origin by Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) where connection to
Government control stations are not practicable, the
connection is still expected to be by the traditional
164
techniques oI traverse, triangulation, trilateration,
radiation or resection. Surveys oI curvilinear boundaries
(e.g. rivers) shall be done to within plotting accuracy.
Over the past IiIteen years GPS has emerged as a major
tool Ior undertaking precise surveys. More recently, it
has made inroads in those applications requiring lower
precision surveys and is Iast becoming a primary
technology Ior acquiring data Ior input into GIS/LIS.
GPS receivers can provide coordinates which are
suIIiciently accurate Ior cadastral purposes. More
importantly, these receivers oIIer an opportunity to
signiIicantly lower the cost and time typically required
Ior cadastral surveys. It involves the application oI legal
boundary principles, as well as measurement theory and
techniques. Boundary principles are used to assess
boundary evidence in the Iorm oI measurements,
historical records, verbal testimony Irom landowners,
physical monuments and accessories. In this sense (and
also because it aIIects people's legal rights to land), it is
Iar more complex than merely mapping ground Ieatures
or land-use boundaries.
With the rapid growth oI GPS usage many institutions
have not yet implemented or corrected their literature to
suit the technical advancement, (Worrall, 2007). Such
institutions include Surveyors Council oI Nigeria
(SURCON), who provides surveyors with instructions
as to how to perIorm cadastral surveys in accordance to
the legislation.
4.0 GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEM(GPS)
4.1 GPS Basics
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-
based system and consists oI a constellation oI 24
satellites orbiting the earth at an approximate altitude oI
20200 km every 12 hours that provide continuous
instantaneous position and time inIormation to users
around the world. The GPS system works with a receiver
(essentially a radio receiver) that acquires signal Irom
satellites in order to locate its position geographically.
The GPS receiver simply calculates the distance to the
satellite by measuring the travel time oI the signals
transmitted Irom the satellite and multiplying it by the
velocity.
Distance velocity(speed oI light) x Time
The GPS receiver computes its position and time by
making simultaneous measurements to the satellites. A
signal Irom three satellites will sort out a 2-dimensional
position or horizontal position. In order to get a 3
dimensional position (latitude, longitude and height) at
least Iour satellites are needed within signal range. For
each signal received there are two methods oI measuring
the distance between the satellite and receiver. These are
pseudorange or code measurements, and carrier phase
measurements (HoImann-WellenhoI, Lichtenegger, &
Collins, 2001).
GPS operates with two transmission Irequencies known
as the L1 and L2 carrier signals. GPS measurements on
these two Irequencies are known as the carrier phase
observables. The pseudorange observables result Irom
two other codes being modulated onto these Irequencies
This results in a total oI Iive GPS observables or
measurement types which can be used Ior positioning.
The L1 c a r r i e r i s modul a t e d wi t h t he
Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) code and the Precise (P) code
while the L2 carrier is modulated with only the P code.
Single Irequency receivers are capable oI measuring the
L1 carrier phase observable while dual Irequency
receivers measure carrier phase observations (that is,
single or dual Irequency receivers) as opposed to the
pseudorange observable.
GPS is suitable Ior a broad range oI surveying
applications including: cadastral/engineering set-out,
topographic mapping, and geodetic control. GPS comes
in many Iorms, Irom low accuracy stand alone
positioning to high accuracy diIIerential positioning,
and Irom stationary to moving applications.
4.2 GPS Positioning
Pseudorange positioning using code measurements
enables absolute or single point positioning using a
single receiver (Iigure 1). The single point positioning
has an accuracy anywhere between +10 metres and
+100 metres in the horizontal position component and
up to +150m vertical position components. Owing to
the achievable accuracy oI this technique, it is not
suitable Ior cadastral surveys.
II two receivers (and suitable soItware) are available,
then the pseudoranges Irom both receivers can be
processed in a diIIerential manner. This is known as
DiIIerential GPS (DGPS) (Iigure 2). This technique
enables various error sources to be reduced, thereby
improving position accuracy. Carrier Phase
measurements are processed diIIerentially to produce
the relative position between two stations. One receiver
is located on a known point (base station) while the
second (or several others), is a roving receiver in
motion. Since the base station receiver has known
coordinates, the true geometrical range between the
satellite and receiver can be computed. The computed
position oI the roving receiver will thereIore be oI
greater accuracy thana single point position.
Static positioning implies that both receivers are always
stationary and is the most precise Iorm oI GPS
163
positioning. However, iI certain conditions are
satisIied, then one oI the receivers (the roving receiver)
can be allowed to be in motion. This is known as
kinematic surveying.
Figure 1: Single point positioning
Figure 2: DiIIerential GPS
DGPS positions can be computed by either post
processing or in real time. Post processing occurs iI
the data Ior the two receivers is collected and
processed together at a later date. II processing
occurs in real time, then the data is processed by the
base station and transmitted via a communication
link to the roving receiver (Land InIormation New
Zealand, 1999).
5.0 C O M P A R I S O N O F G P S
TECHNOLOGY WITH CONVENTIONAL
TRAVERSING ATYCTTESTSITE
To test the application oI GPS in Cadastral
Surveying, a test was undertaken at a cadastral test
site on theYCTcampus. The test site consisted oI 6
points and coordinates Ior all these points were
determined using ProMark 3 GPS receivers and
South Total Station equipment which is a
combination oI theodolite and EDM.
In order to test Ior the suitability and Iunctionality
oI the GPS technology Ior the demands oI cadastral
surveying in Nigeria, the survey oI the site was
conducted twice, once using a conventional total
station and a second time using the GPS. Three
control points (YTT 28/414, YTT 28/415, YTT
28/416) existed around the area to be surveyed,
along theYaba-Ikorodu road, about 800 m away and
not visible Irom the site. The coordinates oI these
control points are known to a very high degree oI
accuracy as they are part oI the Nigeria Control
Network. The conventional total station traverse
involved six instrument set-ups beIore getting to
test site. At each set-up, one round oI Iace leIt and
Iace right observations were observed to each back-
sight and Iore-sight point. The observations took 4
hours to be completed. Closing the traverse
generated a misclosure oI 12 mm horizontal.
Once the survey was completed using the total
station, the same site was surveyed using GPS. The
control point was occupied by the base station
receiver and the test site by the rover receiver. The
observations took 1 hour to be completed. The base
station was used to determine the diIIerential
corrections that were applied to the rover positions
using GNSS solutions soItware Ior post-processing.
5.1 Summary of Test Results
Atable (table 1) has been prepared comparing, the
positions oI reIerence marks, as measured by both
Total Station and GPS.
A distinct advantage oI the GPS system is the
reduced time needed Ior Iield and oIIice work. To
Iacilitate comparison calculations, the same
stations were used as Ior traversing and GPS
observations. The time needed Ior the GPS survey
was /th that oI the traverse survey as Iewer set-ups
were required and intervisibility between stations
was not needed. The GPS equipment automatically
begins acquiring satellites and computing precise
positions by the time the instrument is leveled and
positioned over the station and turned on.
Table 1: Coordinate Comparison
(GPS - Total station)
166
ReIerence
Mar k
GPS

Ea sting (m)
Total St at ion

Easting (m)


DiIIerence
(m)
GPS

Nor thing (m)
Tot al Stat ion

Northing (m)


DiIIer ence
(m)
S 01
S 02
S 03
S 04
S 05
S 06
540316.234
540301.910
540206.809
540044.010
540239.916
540209.643

540316.245
540301.931
540206.834
540044.019
540239.926
540209.651
0.011
0.021
0.025
0.009
0.010
0.008
720187.238
720129.438
719958.641
719838.138
719726.304
719605.861
720187.245
720129.450
719958.653
719838.142
719726.319
719605.879
0.007
0.012
0.012
0.004
0.015
0.018
Average Easting 0.014 Northing 0. 011
Standard deviation 0.007155418 0.005125102

6.0 CONCLUSIONS ANDIMPLICATIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from these
tests:
As seen above the average Eastings and Northings are
30mm. GPS does not measure a traversed system oI
connection to marks, but measures their position
directly. This means that a GPS survey will be less likely
to observe an erroneous measurement, and hence
aIIecting the quality oI the cadastre.
Data evaluation Ior GPS is based on point accuracies as
opposed to loop closures. This is necessary given the
radial nature oI the data collection and non-networked
corner to corner measurements. The point accuracy can
be derived Irom least squares analysis, weighted mean
position averages, or considerations oI the control point
accuracy and manuIacturer speciIications.
The GPS technology tested can produce sub-meter
results with very short occupation times (60 seconds or
less), thereIore oIIering signiIicant eIIiciency
advantages over traditional methods.
Surveying with a total station, unlike GPS surveying, is
not disadvantaged by overhead obstructions; however, it
is restricted to measurements between inter-visible
points. OIten control points are located distant to the
survey area, and traversing with a total station to
propagate the control is a time consuming task.
Comparedtoconventional surveyingtechnology, GPS:
Is Iaster.
Requires less labor.
Requires less training.
Is more accurate.
Roberts (2005) noted that Surveyors are high precision
users oI GPS equipment and thereIore must understand
the system more Iully than other GPS users. It is hoped
that SURCONwill include speciIications Ior use oI GPS
in Cadastral Survey Regulations and encourage more
surveyors to utilise GPS surveying techniques in their
dailypractice.
REFERENCES
Barnes, G. & Eckl, M. (1996). Pioneering A GPS
Methodology For Cadastral Surveying:
Experience In Albania And Belize. Retrieved January
20, 2012 Irom
http://sIrc.iIas.uIl.edu/geomatics/publications/landcon
I96/barnes.pdI
Barnes, G. & Eckl, M. (1996). AGPS Methodology Ior
Cadastral Surveyingin Albania: Phase
II Final Report. Madison: University oI Wisconsin.
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., & Collins,
1. (2001), Global Positioning System:
theoryandpractice (5th rev. ed.). Springer-Verlag.
Inter-Governmental Committee on Surveying and
Mapping (2002). Standards and Practices Ior Control
Surveys (SP1). Retrieved January20, 2012 Irom
http://www.icsm.gov.au/icsm/publications/index.ht
ml
Land Information New Zealand (1999): GPS
Guidelines Ior Cadastral Surveys. Retrieved January 18,
2012 Irom
http://www.linz.govt.nz/docs/miscellaneous/gps-
guidelines-cadastral-surveys.pdf
Michael D. Londe (2002). Standards and Guidelines Ior
Cadastral Surveys Using Global
Positioning Methods. RetrievedJanuary 18, 2012 Irom
http://www.Iig.net/pub/Iig2002/JS2/JS2londe.pdI
Roberts, C. (2005). GPS Ior Cadastral Surveying
Practical Considerations. Paper presented at
The National Biennial ConIerence oI the Spatial Sciences
Institute. Melbourne: Spatial Sciences Institute.
Surveyors Council of Nigeria (SURCON) (2009).
Cadastral Survey Regulations. Galson Production.
Worrall, A. (2007). Development oI Quality Assurance
Procedures For Cadastral Surveying using GPS
Technology. (M.Sc. dissertation, University oI Southern
Queensland, 2007).
167
ROLES, CONTRIBUTIONS AND DANGERS OF TECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
1 2 3 4
Engr. Sangotola T.M, Olatinwo I.O, Ladipo O.A, Babarinde O.O.
Department oI Civil, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineering
The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Adeseun Ogundoyin Campus, Eruwa
Abstract
This paper is to examine and proffer the solution that could be adopted to avert most of the persistent dangers of our
technological development in Nigeria. It includes sustenance manpower development, government policy, lack of
functional equipment, inadequate funding and poor societal attitude as some of the dangers, this paper will attempt to
make analysis of respective issues, such as integrating of indigenous technology in our school programmes, upgrade
of technology education, motivation towards professional training curriculum planner, evolution method and award
for technological innovation.
Keywords: Manpower, Dangers oI Technological Development, Government Policy, Contribution.
Introduction
Various authorities have diIIerently deIined the term
technology. The OxIord Advanced Learner's Dictionary
deIines technology as the scientiIic study and use oI
mechanical arts and applied sciences. e.g. engineering
and its application oI the practical tasks in industry sees it
as a systematic application oI manuIacturing methods
and industrial arts to enhance eIIiciency in human
activities; Furthermore, technology can simply be
described as the result oI man's eIIorts to do things more
eIIiciently and eIIectively. Drucker (2007) deIines
technology as way or means oI accomplishing a task.
The Role of Technology in Nigeria
From the Beginning oI time, man has strived to improve
his way and quality oI liIe. The caveman discovered how
to make and use tools, developed a logical sequence Ior
activities, and evolved processes that added value to his
liIe. The totality oI the use and application oI his
knowledge, skills, tools, and materials constitutes what
we today describe as 'technology. II natural instinct
directs us and compels the application oI technology Ior
the well-being oI man, why is it that all human being has
not exploited this in equal capacity?
Technology plays a Iundamental role in wealth creation,
improvement oI the quality oI liIe, real economic growth
and transIormation in any society. For example, the
United States emerged Irom an agrarian economy into an
th
industrial superpower in the 20 century. Taiwan and
Korea became industrialized countries by exploiting
advances in silicon microelectronics Irom the early
1960s.
All oI these countries invested quite heavily in people
and Iactories, and their successes were based on
careIully designed plans and strategies. UnIortunately, in
many, iI not all, oI the non developed (or 'yet to
develop) countries, technology is viewed as a
consumable item, not something that can be produced or
created. Technology is the primary engine oI economic
growth and provides the key to unlocking any country's
potential. Hence, countries that want to develop must
invest signiIicantly in science and technology. This is
achieved by developing the talent, the human capacity
required to compete in a globally competitive world. A
countyis saidtobe technologically backward when:
(i) It cannot produce capital goods such as tractors,
lathe machines, drilling machine, cars, trains, and
other earthmovingequipments.
(ii) It is unable to exploit her natural resources except
with the help oI Foreigners who will normally
provide the technology and expertise to undertake
the exploitationoI her natural resources.
(iii) It is unable to mechanize her agriculture i.e. crude
implements are used Ior agricultural production
activities by a large percentage oI those who are
involvedin agricultural production.
(iv) It depends on other countries Ior the supply oI its
spare parts Ior industrial machinery.
(v) It exports raw materials to other countries as
against Iinished products.
(vi) It is unable to produce her own military hardware
with whichto deIend herselI iI the need arises.
A critical examination oI Nigeria reveals that all the
points itemized above are present in the country. Thus
Nigeria as spelt out in the items above is a technological
backwardcountry.
Historical Background of Technological/Industrial
Development in Nigeria
The concept oI technological development in Nigeria
evolved through the years aIter political independence in
1960; there was the concern Ior economic independence.
The aim was that Nigeria should gradually reduce her
dependence on Britain her Iormer colonial master that
dominated the production and distribution organization
in Nigeria at that time. Economic development was to
progress in an orderly manner and no dislocation to the
168
system was to be allowed. The existing companies were
to be encouraged and new ones were to be attracted to
increase investment in Nigeria.
The thinking oI Nigeria business policy makers up to the
end oI the civil war in 1970 was that Nigeria had a lot oI
resources (land and manpower) but lacked the capital to
eIIectively develop them. Foreign investments were
thereIore to be vigorously encouraged. Nigeria was to
be non-aligned so as to attract capital Irom both East and
West. This, it was thought, would gradually reduce the
grip Britain had on Nigeria's economy.
The Nigerian Enterprises Promotion (Indigenization)
decrees oI 1972 and 1977 Iorced the Ioreign Iirms
operating in Nigeria to sell a sizeable portion oI their
ownership stocks to Nigerians. AIter the Nigerian civil
war in 1970, capital Ior the government was given a big
boost by Iavourable developments in the oil industry.
The volume oI oil produced in the country increased
tremendously, with the development oI oil Iields in the
Western Region (Delta State) oI Nigeria. The Arab/
Israel war oI 1973 resulted in the Arab oil embargo on
the West This action shot the price oI oil to $42.00 per
barrel with consequent increase in revenue to Nigeria.
For what the lay men can see, a lot oI this revenue was
used to build bridges, construct highways, build vehicle
assembly plants, steel plants, Aluminium smelter plants,
the Kanji dam and other power generating stations,
Universities, Polytechnics, etc. Our Iraudulent and
visionless leaders also lavished a sizeable part oI this
revenue on the then notorious 'Festac 77, and the
remaining stashed away in Ioreign banks in Switzerland
and other countries. Today, even with our democratic
dispensation, the status quo has not changed.
The Need for Technology Development in Nigeria
Since we all know the importance oI technology we
should make wide spread oI it in our country so that we
can have a solid background in academic. Technology
helps in building a nation eIIectively and eIIiciently. We
should not Iorget that technology helps in opening
business relationship with other Iriendly Nations. And
also help the educational programmes oI our country
more productive and eIIective.
These are the importance oI technological development
oI educational sectors:
i. Technologymakes learning interesting.
ii. Technology makes learning process more suitable
and eIIective.
iii. It Iast in achieving educational pursuit in academic
background.
iv. Technological equipment stimulates interest and
assimilation inteaching process.
v. Technology is used Ior development and
improvement on the educational curriculum in
educational system.
The Iederal government should be more concern to
technological advancement to our country, Nigeria.
They should bring newmodern technological equipment
Ior school and train qualiIied personnel who can make
good use oI it in impacting or using it to teach eIIectively
and eIIiciently. Because new technological equipment
has opened up new opportunities Ior developing
countries like Nigeria, which possess the required skills
to provide expert-oriented service such as data entry,
data processingandsoItware development.
Achieving all these will provide job opportunities Ior
many Nigerians Ior the economic and social
development oI our nation.
Contributions of Technological Development in
Nigeria
Science and Technology (S & T) eIIort is usually
measured by indicators oI science and technology,
human resource development, research and
development, institutional inIrastructure and private
sector investment in science and technology activities.
The speciIic indicators normally include science
enrolment in secondary, technical, vocational and
tertiary institutions; national spending on science and
technology education, research and development
spending by government and private sector and tertiary
institutions; number and research and development
coverage oI institutions among other indicators.
As at 1995, about total oI 602 Research and
Development centers in AIrica, oI which 232 were
engage in research pertaining to Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries. Another 50 were in Health and Nutrition
Iields, while only 50 were involve with manuIacturing
research. AIrica has 90 Institutions doing social human
sciences research, while another 57 were multi-
disciplinary in their Iocus. The predominance oI
Agriculture Research Institutions is reIlected in the
signiIicant contribution oI S& T in the Agricultural
Sector oI many oI the countries.
Trained workers earn reasonable income and are
accorded recognition cum respect by the community. By
training individual, employments through technology
not only provide them with a source oI income but also
provide them with social contract and reasonable
participation in an organization. Also, it increases
employ ability and job mobility oI individual. An
individual who is well equipped with saleable skills is
versatile. As a result oI the versatility, new modern
technology will be able to utilized and better Iit into the
modernsociety dominated by the product oI technology.
Causes of Technological Backwardness in Nigeria
The reasons why Nigeria is technologically backward
today are manyand varied. They include the Iollowing:
169
(a) Discouragement of 1echnological Crowth by our
Colonial Masters: There are many reasons why the
British came to Nigeria. One oI the reasons is economic
(Boahen 1966). The British saw Nigeria as a ready
market Ior their sprits, dane guns, mirrors and other
goods. BeIore the advent oI colonialism Nigerians were
involved in many aspects oI industrial and practical arts.
They made their own hoes and other implements Ior
Iarming, were able to weave their own clothes, smelted
bronze and were able to cast an object as intricate as the
'Festac mask that was stolen by the British, undertook
tanning oI hides and skin amongst others. According to
Akaninwor (2008), the colonialists discouraged Iurther
development oI Nigerian technology as they reasoned it
was a threat to the smooth marketing oI goods imported
Irom Europe. He went Iurther to assert that 'ogogoro
was termed illicit gin by the colonialists, and whoever
was caught producing, marketing, or consuming it was
persecuted.
(b) Colonial Education: Formal education is the main
and proper channel Ior technological emancipation
provided it is built on appropriate philosophy oI
education. The philosophy oI Nigerian education during
the colonial period was built on the wrong philosophy as
can be conIirmed by the statements oI Lord Lugard and
Rev. J.C. Taylor who said respectively:
'The chief function of government primary and
secondary schools among primitive communities is to
train the more promising boys from the village schools
as teachers for those schools, as clerks for the local
native courts, and as interpreters. (Lord Lugard 1921)`.
'I looked upon them as the commencement oI our
missionary work. We lost no time and began to teach
them the A.B.C. (Taylor 1857). It is thereIore not
surprising that apart Irom the Yaba Higher College that
was established in 1947 to produce middle level
technical manpower, the colonialist only established
secondary schools that were meant to produce clerks,
missionaries, and interpreters. The aspect oI education
which emphasize skill and practical competence was
however not an integral part oI our colonial educational
system as at that time.
(c) Industrial Policies after Independence: The major
industrial policy that Nigeria embarked upon aIter
independence was import substitution industrial policy.
The major thrust oI this policy was:
(i) Building oI assembly plants in Nigeria.
(ii) Importation oI completely knocked down(CKD)
parts intoNigeria to be assembled in these plants.
(iii) The establishment oI steel plants, like Delta Steel
Plant and Ajaokuta Steel Plant, and associated
Ioundries that were to produce automobile parts
that would be assembled in already established
assembly plants.
(iv) The establishment oI machine tool companies (like
Oshogbo Machine Tool Company) that were
supposed toproduce capital goods.
The import substitution industrial strategy did not go
beyond the stage oI building the assembly plants, as the
technical partners know that iI Nigeria stops importing
CKD parts, their companies in Europe would
automatically stop production and eventually Iold up. It
meant that Nigeria would no longer be a market Ior
European cars.
(d) Inability to Commercialize Research Findings:
There are a good number oI research institutions in
Nigeria. Some oI these are Product Development
Agency, (PRODA) Enugu, Federal Institute oI
Industrial Research, (FIIRO) Oshodi, Nigerian Institute
Ior oil Palm Research, (NIFOR) Benin City, Rubber
Research Institute oI Nigeria, (RRIN) Benin-City
amongst others. These institutions have made a good
number oI Iindings or inventions but the lackadaisical
private sector has not thought it Iit to commercialize
these inventions. Our universities and polytechnics have
also invented diIIerent equipment, which nobody has
bothered to commercialize Ior eIIective productivity.
Today these Research institutions are a mere shadow oI
themselves, as the Nigeria Iactor has not helped them
develop Iurther.
(e) Refusal to Develop Military Invention made by
Biafra during the Civil War: It is generally believed that
necessity is the mother oI invention. Under the Iire
power oI the military government during the civil
war,(1966-1970) BiaIra produced a lot oI Iighting
machines equipment, bombs and other sophisticated
items using local technology trample the 'Red Devil
armored personnel carriers, Ogbunigwe (mass killer),
orange peel mosquito coil bombs etc. (The AIrican
Guardian July 23 1997). The BiaIrans even extracted
and reIined their own petroleum product. But because oI
pride and incept leadership Nigeria has not made a
positive eIIort to cash on this war time inventions, sit
down and Iind out how these skills can be Iurther
improved upon to enhanced productivity because oI the
greediness that has blind Iolded our visionless leaders.
(f) Covernment Attitude: Government attitude towards
breaking the jinx oI technological backwardness in
Nigeria is both disgusting and appalling. Nigeria is
probably the only country in the world where you can
Iind all brands oI cars without any one having been
designed and made by Nigerians. Policy makers take
technological decisions without consulting Nigerian
engineers and technologists. And where sometimes
good policies are taken, the Iollow up and
implementation becomes an uphill problem as out
implementation methodology in all Iacets oI our Nation
has never been adequately sustained.
170
(g) Poorly Equipped Educational Institutions: Our
universities, polytechnics and technical colleges that are
supposed to train proIicient engineers, technologists,
and technicians are nowIilled with obsolete and in most
cases non-Iunctional equipment. This aIIects the quality
oI products Irom these technological institutions. India,
it is claimed, ranks third to the United States and the
Iormer USSRin scientiIic and technical manpower (The
Nigerian Engineer, December 2003). It has over Iour
million scientists and engineers. In 1985, Indian
universities have 750,000 Engineering students
registered. There are Iive elite institutions called India
Institutes oI Technology, Iunded and equipped to the
highest standards, to provide high quality university
graduates in electronics, computer science and other
high technology disciplines. Their products emigrate in
large number to the United States and other countries to
apply their high skills where they are also valued and in
demand, like the Republic oI Ireland and Philippines It is
however not a surprise to see engineering graduates in
our Nigerian Universities who cannot diIIerential
between a bolt Irom a nut.
Conclusion
We must appreciate the Iact that no situation is totally
hopeless. Nigeria, as a nation, can leave the group oI
technologically backward nations to one oI the most
technologically advanced nations iI the Iollowing
suggestions are implemented.
(a) Copying items already in the Market: This method
requires that laboratories, workshops, and other
Iacilities be developed Ior component analysis and Ior
building prototypes oI items to be produced. The idea is
to knock down products oI interest in the workshops,
study and analysis each component in the laboratories to
ascertain chemical composition, physical properties and
other production parameters oI interest and replicate
such items. Government should encourage 'Igbo made
items and should assist in improving the quality oI their
products so as to compete Iavorably with the imported
ones.
(b) Industrial Espionage: Highly technical and military
technology is closely guarded by their proprietors. The
secrets can be obtained either by direct investments or
through espionage. Spies are oIten employed to collect
top secrets and company documents required Ior
developing such products, which they pass on to their
sponsors Ior a Iee.
(c) Provision of Infrastructural Facilities in our
Schools: The ideals oI the society are supposed to be
passed to the next generation by the school system.
Presently, the older universities in Nigeria have obsolete
tools and the newer ones cannot aIIord to equip their
laboratories and workshops. Otubanso (2005) in
'Education Ior Underdevelopment quoted a chemistry
proIessor as saying that 'students no longer do practical
but only the theory oI practical. II our students cannot
do basic practical how can we aspire to a technological
breakthrough? It is thereIore imperative that Ior us to
overcome the problem oI technological backwardness,
we (the public and private sectors) must invest
monumental resources towards upgrading our
educational inIrastructures. We should probably recall
the statement oI Martin Luther King, who said: 'The
prosperity oI a country depends not on the abundance oI
its revenues, nor on the strength oI its IortiIications, not
on the beauty oI its public buildings, but it consist in the
number oI its cultivated citizens, its men oI education
and enlightenment oI character.
(d) Adequate Financing of Research Institutions: A
good number oI research institutions in Nigeria are not
adequately Iunded. This continues to militate against
eIIective research undertaking. India Ior example
invested over three billion dollars in 1985 in some 1,300
research institutes working on electronics aeronautics
and space, atomic energy, etc In 1985, India spent 1.5
oI her GNPon research and development compared with
about 2.5 spent by the US. Nigeria's highest allocation
Iigure was 0.43 in 1983, which went down to 0.05 in
1992 and 0.23 in 2003 (The Nigerian Engineer, Vol. 35
No. 4 December 2003): This is very sad Ior a sector
whose responsibility is to research into areas that will
enhance development in the country.
REFERENCES
Drucker B. (2007), Technological Development for
Human Sustenance. Pg. 4-5.
Emmanuel O. E. (2007), The Role of Technology in
National development. Pg. 14-16.
Ezeji K.O. (1990), Mechanism for Enhancing
Technological Educationin Africa. Pg. 4-6.

Homby A.S. (2000), Oxford Advance Learner
Dictionary of Current English. London.
1ohnson P. (1987), The Shinto Civili:ation. London.
Ot u n b a n s o V. ( 2 0 0 5 ) , E d u c a t i o n f o r
Underdevelopment. Pg. 5-7
Ulinfun B. (1992), Problems of Technological
Education. Pg. 8-10.
171
Empirical and Neural network modeling of the Sorption Isotherms of African Catfish
(Clarias gariepenus)
Rufus R Dinrifo
(rdinrifoyahoo.com)
Agricultural Engineering Department
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu
Abstract
Moisture sorption isotherms oI AIrican catIish (Clarias gariepenus) Ilesh were determined at 23, 30, and 45Cusing
the standard gravimetric static method in the range 0.11 to 0.93 oI water activity. Although conventional mathematical
models are able to predict equilibrium moisture content (EMC) with high accuracy, such models can be complemented
and replaced with artiIicial neural networks (ANNs) method which is a simple mathematical model, mimicking the
human brain. Four empirical models: the BET), Oswin, Henderson and Guggenheim-
Anderson-De Boer (GAB) models were used to Iit the data obtained Irom our sorption experiments. The modified
GAB model perIormed best and appears acceptable Ior predicting adsorption moisture isotherms Irom the
2
experimental data, based on the coeIIicient oI determination (R 0. 0.932133), mean relative percent error
(MRE6.641), and standard error oI measurement (SEM3.966). Feed Forward Back Propagation (FFBP),
employing the training algorithm oI Levenberg- Marquardt (LM) was used in this work. By the use oI this optimized
2
network, R 0.9141 and mean relative error 3.56 were obtained. These results showthat mathematical models can
be replaced with theANNs Ior the prediction oI EMCintheAIrican catIish.
K e ywo rd s:
AIrican catIish, water activity, sorption isotherm, equilibrium moisture content, mathematical models, and artiIicial
neural network
Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (
1. Introduction
The popularity oI the AIrican catIish Iish has increased
substantially over the last Iewyears in Nigeria (Banjo et
al 2009). It is widely consumed as a snack in homes and
in hotels particularly during holidays. Although the
catIish is consumed as Ireshly harvested Iish in cities,
the bulk oI catches are preserved as dried or smokedIish.
As noted by Eyo and Awoyemi.(1988), Shimang (1990),
Adeleye, (1992) and Tobor (1994), a major production
constraint is the high post harvest and storage losses
recorded by Iarmers particularly during gluts.
The quality oI most Ioods preserved by drying depends
to a great extent upon their physical, chemical and
microbiological stability. The shelI liIe oI Iood materials
has been shown to be inIluenced by the temperature,
relative humidity and moisture content and thus the
water activity (a ) oI the material (Onayemi and
w
Oluwamukomi, 1987; Mazza, 1986). In Iact, Iood
products stability is mainly a consequence oI the
relationship between the equilibrium moisture content
(EMC) oI the Iood material, and its correspondence
water activity (aw), at any given temperature. Besides,
the water sorption isotherms are unique Ior individual
Iood materials, and can be used directly to solve Iood
processing design problems, predict energy
requirements, and determine proper storage conditions
(Myhara, et al 1998).
InIormation on moisture sorption isotherm is needed Ior
the prediction and practice oI drying and other thermo-
related processing. It is also required in the
determination oI critical values Ior processing such as
equilibrium moisture content, critical moisture content
and other moisture regimes. It is required in the selection
oI packaging materials and storage. It is to be noted that
it is the presence oI the absorbed moisture that
encourages the growth oI these spoilage micro-
organisms. Moisture interaction in stored or preserved
Iood is a complex system due to the complicated
interaction between various components. This makes it
more diIIicult to develop mathematical models, since in
principle it is necessary to understand the major
mechanisms involvedinthe process.
As a result oI the importance oI sorption properties
coupled with diverse environmental conditions,
literature abounds with extensive inIormation on
adsorption-desorption phenomena oI Iood materials.
Several equations have been proposed Ior modelling the
equilibrium data, diIIering in their empirical or
theoretical character, and in the number oI parameters
involved (Mulet et al., 2002). Isotherms oI agricultural
products are usually sigmoid-shape curves indicating
the nonlinear relationships between water activity and
moisture content, .which are diIIicult to draw and
manipulate (Janjai et al 2009, Bala, 1997). Several
complex mathematical models have been developed to
describe these curves (Janjai et 2006). Only a Iew, aIter
proper transIormations, can be rearranged into the linear
equations. So, generally speaking, to identiIy
parameters oI the model it is necessary to use either
172
nonlinear optimisation techniques or utilise a method Ior
solution oI a nonlinear equation system. In all the
proposed equations the identiIication oI the model
parameters is based on experimental data. The most
popular equations Ior Iood and related products are
GAB, Oswin, Chung PIost, Henderson, Halsey,
Iglesias-ChiriIe and their modiIications (Lopez et al.,
2000, Veltchev and Menkov, 2000, Hossain and Bala,
2000, Mulet et al., 2002).
Despite the criticism that it is not based on Iundamental
laws, an artiIicial neural network (ANN) is an eIIective
tool Ior developing mathematical models oI relatively
complex processes, mainly due to their ability to learn.
Neural networks are particularly recognized as good
tools Ior dynamic modeling, and have been extensively
studied since the publication oI the perceptron
identiIication methods (Rumelhart et al., 1986). The
interest oI such model includes the modeling without
any assumptions about the nature oI underlying
mechanism and their ability to take account non-
linearities and interactions between variables.
Igbabul et al 2009 studied the moisture sorption
isotherms oI salted Ireshwater catIish (heterobranchus
bidorsalis), using Ilours made Irom the Iish. No study
has so Iar been reported on predicting the sorption
isotherm oI catIish using ANNmethod. In this work, an
attempt has been made to predict the sorption
characteristics oI catIish at various temperatures and
water activities range employing neural networks to
model and predict the moisture transIer during storage
oI catIish Ilesh. The speciIic objectives oI this study
were to: develop an ANN model Ior the prediction oI
equilibrium moisture content oI catIish and to compare
the perIormance oI the ANN model with that Ior the
mathematical models.
2. MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
2.1 Sample Preparation
Samples oI live AIrican catIish (clarias gariepenus)
were obtained Irom a local market in Ikorodu Lagos.
The Iish were cleaned, gutted, dried and later cut into
sizes oI about 40grams. The water sorption isotherms
were determined by gravimetric technique, in which the
weight was monitored discontinuously within a
standard static system oI thermally stabilized
desiccators. 40.0g + 0.001g oI samples was placed in a
petri-dish inside the desiccators. Standard solutions oI
lithium chloride (a 0.11), potassium acetate (a
w w
0.24), magnesium chloride (a 0.34), potassium
w
carbonate (a 0.43), calcium nitrate (a 0.56),
w w
sodium nitrite (a 0.65), Sodium chloride (a 0.75),
w w
potassium chloride (a 0.88), potassium nitrate (a
w w
0.96), potassium sulphate (a 0.98) was used to
w
maintain the speciIied relative humidity inside the
o o
desiccators at temperatures oI 30 C and 45 C. At high
relative humidity (a ~ 0.7), toluene (1.5 ml) was placed
w
in desiccators to prevent microbial growth. The prepared
desiccators were kept in temperature controlled
Gallenkamp 300 plus cabinet oven at temperatures oI
o o
30 C and 45 C + 0.5. The samples were weighed within
interval 24 h, and were allowed to equilibrate until there
was no discernible weight change, as evidence by
constant weight values (+ 0.001 g). The samples were
equilibrated Ior approximately 10 days to reach a
constant weight. The total time required Ior removal,
weighing and replacing the samples in desiccators was
approximately 25s. This minimized the degree oI
atmospheric moisture sorptionduring weighing.
2.2. Modelingof Moisture Sorption Isotherms.
Four popular models: the Brunauer, Emmett, and
Teller (BET), Oswin, Henderson and Guggenheim-
Anderson-De Boer (GAB) models (Table 1) were used
to Iit the data obtained Irom our sorption experiments.
The isotherm Iitting was obtained by extrapolation using
the single-hydrate sorption model. The data were
transIormed by dividing the water activity (a ) with the
w
equilibrium moisture contents (M) earlier. A quadratic
curve oI polynomial Iunction was obtained Irom these
data points. The ratio aw/M against activity water (a ),
w
using the polynomial regression, was plotted and can
then be used to deduce the values M ,C, K and R2. The
goodness oI Iit Ior each isotherm was quantiIied through
2
three standards: the correlation coeIIicient R , the
standard error oI measurement SEM and the mean
relative deviation P().
Table 1: Empirical Models Ior Modelling Sorption
Isotherm
173
2.3 Neural Network Systems
An artiIicial neural network (ANN) is a computer
program capable oI learning Irom examples through
iteration, without requiring prior knowledge oI the
relationships between process and product parameters.
This technique has been successIully applied to the
prediction oI drying kinetics oI seeds, vegetables, and
Iruits (Jay and Oliver, 1996). Neural networks are
composed oI simple elements operating in parallel. As in
nature, the network's Iunction is determined largely by
the connections between the neurons, each connection
between two neurons has a weight coeIIicient attached to
it. The neuron is grouped into distinct layers and
interconnected according to a given architecture. The
standard network structure Ior Iunction approximation is
the multiple layer perceptron (or Ieed Iorward network).
The Ieed Iorward network oIten has one or more hidden
layers oI sigmoid neurons Iollowed by an output layer oI
linear transIer Iunctions to allow the network to learn
non-linear and linear relationship between input and
output vectors.
The number oI neurons in the input and output layers are
given by the number oI input and output variables in the
process under investigation. The optimal number oI
neurons in the hidden layer ns is diIIicult to speciIy, and
depends on the type and complexity oI the task, usually
determined by trial and error. Each neuron in the hidden
layer has a bias b, which is added with the weighted
inputs to Iorm the neuron input. Alearning (or training)
algorithm is deIined as a procedure that consists in
adjusting the coeIIicients (weight and biases) oI a
network, to minimize an error Iunction (usually a
quadratic one) between the network outputs Ior a given
set oI inputs and the right outputs already known. II
smooth non-linearities are used, the gradient oI the error
Iunction can be easily computed by classical back
propagation procedure (Rumelhart et al., 1986).
Previous learning algorithms used this gradient directly
in a steepest descent optimization, but recent results
show that second order methods are Iar more eIIective.
In this work, the Levenberg-Marquardt, optimization
procedure in the Neural Network Toolbox oI Matlab was
used. The algorithm oI Levenberg is an approximation
oI Newton's methods, this algorithm was designated to
approach second order training speed without having to
compute the Hessian matrix. Despite the Iact that
computations involved in each iteration are more
complex than in the steepest descent case, the
convergence is Iaster, typically by a Iactor oI 100. The
root mean square error (RMSE) between the
experimental values and network predictions were used
as a criterionoI model adequacy.
2.4 Database Preparation
Experimental data were obtained Irom sorption tests on
dried catIish Ilesh cubes. The experimental data were
split into learning and test databases. Samples' moisture
absorption data during trials were calculated Irom
sample weight gain using weight balance with accuracy
0.001g (Mettler Germany). The learning database was
obtained to optimize the neural network and the test
database was reserved Ior validation oI the predictive
capability oI the model.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 E.M.CforCatfishfleshat different temperatures.
Table 2 shows the experimental data obtained Ior the
values oI equilibrium moisture content (M) Ior the
respective water activities and temperatures and while
Table 3 shows the predicted values Ior corresponding
water activities and temperatures Ior the diIIerent
models.
3.2 Modelling of the Sorption Isotherms
The sorption isotherms exhibited the characteristics S-
shaped curve typical oI many sorption isotherms oI
Ioods. As expected the equilibrium moisture content
increases with decrease in temperature at constant water
activity. The eIIect oI temperature on the moisture
sorption isotherm has also been studied by Wang and
Brennan (1991) Ior potatoes, with result similar to ours.
o
Figure 1 shows the moisture sorption isotherms at 23 C,
o o
30 Cand 45 Crespectively, each temperature yielding a
sigmoidal type III isotherm
174
Table 2: Values of EMCforthe respective wateractivity and temperature.
Table 3: The predicted values of EMCforthe sorption models at respective wateractivityand temperature
The GABequation gave the best fit to the experimental data for a wide range of water activity (0.11 - 0.9), based
2
on the average values oI the coeIIicient oI determination (R 0. 0.932133), mean relative percent error
(MRE6.641), and standard error oI estimation (SEE3.966).. The results agreed with those reported by Lomauro et
al. (1985). Moreover, the GAB equation gives the closest Iit to the experimental data Ior sorption oI dried AIrican
catIish. From the nonlinear regression analysis carried out, the mean relative percentage deviation (P) and the SEM Ior
the GAB are lower compared to that oI the BET model and other models (ModiIied Henderson and Oswin), and the
GABequation is satisIactory in predicting the equilibrium moisture content oI driedAIricancatIish.
Salt Water
activity

EquilibriumMoisture Content
23
o
C 30
o
C 45
o
C
Lithiumchloride
Potassiumacetate
Magnesiumchloride
Potassiumcarbonate
Calciumnitrate
Sodiumnitrite
Sodiumchloride
Potassiumchloride
Potassiumnitrite
Potassiumsulphate
0.11
0.24
0.34
0.43
0.56
0.65
0.75
0.88
0.96
0.98
5.2
8.4
10.5
13.2
15.8
18.9
19.1
21.2
26.4
28.9
5.4
7.8
10.0
13.2
16.6
18.4
18.3
20.8
24.8
28.2
5.1
7.5
9.8
13.4
16.4
18.3
19.5
20.6
24.3
29.0


Water
activity

Moisture Sorption Models
GAB BET Oswin Henderson
23
o
C 30
o
C 45
o
C 23
o
C 30
o
C 45
o
C 23
o
C 30
o
C 45
o
C 23
o
C 30
o
C 45
o
C
0.11
0.24
0.34
0.43
0.56
0.65
0.75
0.88
0.96
0.98
5.8
7.2
10.5
13.3
14.6
18.7
19.7
21.3
25.7
28.3
5.6
7.9
9.93
12.8
14.8
17.2
19.6
20.6
26.4
28.2
5.3
7.4
9.4
12.9
13.9
18.6
18.9
21.5
25.4
26.8
4.22
7.78
10.5
13.2
15.6
16.3
19.3
22.7
25.1
27.1
4.37
7.85
10.4
13.1
15.3
17.8
18.3
22.5
24.6
26.1
4.36
6.92
8.63
12.3
14.6
16.2
19.3
22.3
23.4
26.3
6.05
9.95
9.77
11.1
13.2
15.0
17.6
23.8
35.4
45.0
5.68
7.83
9.26
10.6
12.6
14.4
16.9
23.0
34.5
44.0
5.28
7.34
8.79
10.1
12.2
13.9
16.5
22.7
34.7
44.8
5.81
7.23
9.45
10.5
13.2
15.5
18.3
23.6
27.3
31.5
5.77
7.18
9.34
10.2
13.1
14.7
18.0
23.4
27.1
31.2
5.68
7.10
9.33
10.9
14.3
15.3
17.8
19.8
25.3
30.3

173
Figure 1: The Sorption isotherm oI catIish: (A) Experimental Data, (B): GABmodel prediction
3.3 ANNPrediction
The ANN models were trained using data set with two inputs (air temperature, water activity) and one output EMC.
Various conIigurations oI the ANN model were tested. The learning rate which determines the amount oI weight
changes during series oI iterations to bring the predicted value within an acceptable range oI the observed values, were
adjusted between 0.01 and 0.08 with the hidden neurons kept constant at 2 in Iirst hidden layer and 2 neurons in second
hidden layer on trial basis. During training the neural network weights were initialized in order to obtain the smallest
possible predicting error. Asimple propagation network using the Levenberg-Marquarardt Ior training the network
was Iound to be very eIIective to generalize and predict the EMC.
Figure 2: The topology of theANN
In this work, the input layer consists oI two variables in the process air temperature (T ), and the water activity (Figure
m
2). The prediction perIormance oI all theANNmodels was validated using a data oI 20 cases, which were not used
in the initial training oI the ANN models. The simple ANN model (2 hidden neurons) predicted EMC with a mean
relative error oI 0.674, a standard deviation on relative error oI 0.114 and a coeIIicient oI determination oI 0.9415.
Figure 3 shows a plot oI perIormance oI the networkin predicting the experimental data obtained.
176
4.0 Conclusions The applicability oI an ANN
to model a hot air dryer was discussed and
illustrated with numerical simulations and
experimental data involving diIIerent conditions
operation. The results obtained in this work
showed that the proposed ANN could be
successIully applied to model the sorption
characteristics oI catIish Ilesh. The ANN showed
suitable accuracy and degree oI generalization to
predict the EMC oI the dried Iish when the ANN
was adequately trained. Hence, the artiIicial neural
networks can be used Ior the estimation oI sorption
kinetics and also predicting saIe storage conditions
Ior dried AIrican catIish.
References
Adeleye, O.A., 1992. Conservation needs oI
Iisheries resources and reorientation Ior
sustainable captive and culture practices.
t h
Proceedings oI the 10 annual
conIerence Iisheries society oI Nigeria
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O. O. Adegoke 2009. Improving Clarias
Productivity towards Achieving Food
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Nigeria: A Socioeconomic Analysis.
Figure 3: PerIormance oI the ANN
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storage on proximate composition,
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sundried Iish Irom Kainji Lake - Annual
Report NIFFR New Bussa, Kwara State,
Nigeria. pp. 17582
Hossain, M.A., Bala, B.K. (2000), Moisture
isotherms characteristics Ior red chilli,
Drying Technology, 18 (1&2), pp. 503-515
Janjai S., Bala B.K., Tohsing K., Mahayothee B.,
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Muller J. (2006): Equilibrium moisture
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Janjai,S P. Intawee, K. Tohsing, B. Mahayothee,
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Igbabul, B.D., Ariahu, C.C. and BadiIu, G.I.O.
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t r o p i c a l f r e s h w a t e r c a t f i s h
(Heterobranchus bidorsalis) Nigeria Food
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Jay S, and Oliver T.N1996. Modelling and control
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Lopez, A., Iguaz, A., Esnoz, A., Virseda, P. (2000),
Modelling oI sorption isotherms oI dried
vegetable wastes Irom wholesale market,
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monolayer moisture content oI raw peas,
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(2002), Equilibrium isotherm and isosteric
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isotherms oI apples at several temperatures,
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178
MICROBIALQUALITYOF STOREDYOGHURT PRODUCED FROMCOWAND TIGER
NUT MILK BLEND.
NOAH A. A. and ODUWOBI O. O.
Department oI Food Technology, The Federal Polytechnic,
P. M. B. 50, Ilaro, Ogun-State.
ABSTRACT
The microbial quality oI yoghurt produced Irom cow and tiger nut milk blend was investigated. The yoghurt was
produced Irom Iull milk oI cow origin blended with milk extracted Irom tiger nuts in the Iollowing rations; 80:20,
70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 respectively, while yoghurt produced Irom 100 cow milk was used as the control. The pH
range oI the yoghurt was Iound to decrease with increase in the replacements Irom 20 to 50 while there was also a
decrease in pH Irom day 1 to day 14 in the entire samples, though still within the standard range oI 4 - 4.5.
0
Microbiological analyses were carried out on the yoghurt samples which were stored at 5 CIor two weeks. The samples
were analyzed Ior total plate count, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, coliIirm and Iungi count. The result showed a
decrease in microbial load Irom day 1 to day 14 in the samples with 20 and 30 replacement as well as the control,
but showed an increase in the sample with 40 replacement. The latter also exhibited Iat separation during storage
which also destroyed its physical appearance. ThereIore, microbiologically, it can be inIerred that yoghurt made Irom
cowmilk with 20 and 30 replacement with tiger nut milk is saIe Ior consumption, even aIter 14 days oI preservation
0
at 5 C!
Keywords: Yoghurt, tiger nut, starter cultures, milkblend, microbial quality.
INTRODUCTION
Tiger nut (Cyperius esculentum), a tuberous plant
which belongs to the Iamily Cyperceae has been
cultivated since early times Ior beverages in West
AIrica. The tubers are edible with a slightly sweet
nuts Ilavor. They are quite hard and are generally
soaked in water beIore they can be eaten (Miguel,
1993). Tiger nuts are tubers with high energy
content (starch, Iats, and sugar), rich in minerals
such as phosphorus, potassium and vitamins E and
C. It is a relatively cheap commodity and always in
high supply. Tiger nuts can be used as diet,
ordinarily, by eating (Howea, 1951). In the past,
research on processing tiger nut has extended to a
wide variety oI human Iood which includes tiger
nut oil, tiger nut milk, tiger nut Ilour and so on. All
these products were developed in a bid to produce
new Iood items and also to eliminate the alarming
health problems which are threats to human
existence. One oI the novel Ioods in the dairy
industry is the yoghurt, which is a Iermented,
viscous drink with sharp and sour taste arising Irom
the presence oI lactic acid. Tiger nut milk that
resembles cow milk in appearance can be
introduced into the dairy industries as a substitute
Ior cow milk in yoghurt production; this will
automatically reduce the cost oI yoghurt
production (Harper and Hall, 1996).
Yoghurt is a Iermented milk product that evolved,
empirically, some centuries ago by allowing
naturally contaminated milk to sour at a warm
0 0
temperature, probably in the range oI 40 C - 50 C
(Prescott et al., 1996). Yoghurt is produced by a
special starter culture in which two major bacteria;
Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
bulgaricus, are present in a 1:1 ratio. With these
organisms present, acid is produced by the
Streptococcus and aroma components are Iormed
by the Lactobacillus. A typical proximate
composition oI yoghurt is 87.7 water, 1.8 Iat,
4.7 protein and 4.9 carbohydrates (Harley et al.,
1996).
Milk, on the other hand, is oIten described as
nature's most perIect single Iood. It is the only
natural Iood oI the new-born mammal Ior which it
provides the sole source oI nourishment directly
aIter birth. Milk contains a wide variety oI
constituents and most oI the Iood Iactors are
associated with bacterial nutrition (Kons, 1972).
Consequently, bacterial growth in milk is very
rapid. Milk in the udder oI even a healthy animal is
not sterile and may contain up to 500 organisms per
milliliter. II the udder is diseased, the count may rise
to greater than 20,000 cells per milliliter (Harper
and Hall, 1996).
Culture oI lactic acid bacteria, called starter culture,
is added to milk during the preparation oI many
Iermented dairy products. One oI the greatest
problems oI the dairy industries is the presence oI
179
bacteriophages that destroys these starter cultures.
Lactic acid production by a heavily-phage-inIected
starter culture can come to halt within 30 minutes.
In order to overcome this problem, aseptic
techniques must be in practice so as to reduce
phage contamination and also by selecting phage-
resistant bacterial cultures (Klein and Lortal,
1999).
This research work was carried out with the aim oI
determining the optimum ration Ior yoghurt
production using blend oI cow milk and tiger nut
milk, also to ascertain the inIluence oI this partial
replacement on the microbiological saIety oI the
Iinal products.
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
The materials used include Peak milk brand
purchased at a supermarket, Tiger nuts purchased
at a local market and bacterial starter cultures
obtained Irom Fadcol Yoghurt Company, all at
Ilaro town.
Processing of Tigernut milk
Tiger nut milk was extracted Irom the tiger nuts
according to the method oI Frazier and WesthoII
(1978). The tiger nuts were sorted and then
properly washed with clean water, they were then
soaked in water Ior about 12 hours, thereaIter,
blended. The corresponding shaIt was removed by
sieving with muslin cloth, and thereaIter
0
pasteurizedat 60 CIor 15mins.
Formulation of full milk/tigernut milk blend
The cow milk and tiger nut milk were blended to
produce yoghurt in the proportions given in the
table below:
Table 1 Cow mi l k/ t i ger nut mi l k
formulation foryoghurt production
Yoghurt preparation
The yoghurt was prepared according to the method
oI Harley et al. (1996). 1.6kg oI the powdered Iull
milk and tiger nut milk, in diIIerent rations
according to the Iormulation above, was dissolved
in 60mls oI warm water. The viscous solution was
vigorously agitated to make a Iine emulsion; this is
to prevent Iat separation and also to improve the
creamy properties oI the milk. It was then
0
pasteurized over water bath at 90 C Ior 15mins,
0
allowed to cool to 45 C and thereaIter inoculated
with 2 mixed yoghurt starter culture. The mixture
0
was stirred vigorously and then incubated at 45 C
0
Ior 9hrs. It was later cooled in a reIrigerator to 5 C.
Powdered milk
Dissolution in water
0
Pasteurization (90 C Ior 15mins)
0
Cooling (45 C)
Addition oI starter culture
0
Incubation (45 C Ior 9hrs)
0
Cooling (reIrigerator to 5 C)
Yoghurt
Fig. 1 Flow chart for the processing of yoghurt.
Source: Harley et al., 1996.
Microbial Analysis of theYoghurt
Microbes were isolated Irom the yoghurt by the pour
plate technique; ten-Iold dilutions oI each yoghurt
sample were prepared using peptone water as the
diluents. Appropriate dilutions were made and 1ml oI
each dilution was pour-plated aseptically in triplicates
using Nutrient Agar Ior the total variable count,
McConkeyAgar Ior the coliIorm test, Manitol Salt Agar
Ior the Staphylococcus count, Bismuth SulphiteAgar Ior
the Salmonella count, Potato DextroseAgar inIused with
Chloramphenicol (250mg/100ml) was used Ior the Iungi
and yeast count. All the plates were incubated Ior 48hrs
0
at 37 C, except Ior the Iungi count in which case the
0
plates were incubated at 28 C Ior 5 days. The colonies
were counted using Gallenkemp colony counter. Pure
cultures oI each isolate were obtained by streaking on
appropriate media and incubated thereaIter (Lynne,
2003).
180
Identification of the Microbial Isolates
The identiIication oI bacteria in the yoghurt samples
was done using the methods described by Harrigan and
McCance (1982), while yeast and Iungi present therein
were identiIied using the methods oI Beech et al. (1986),
Frazier and WesthoII (1978).
pH Determination
The pHoI the samples was determined according to the
method oI Harper and Hall (1996). The pH meter was
switched on Ior 30mins to get it ready Ior use, the
magnetic electrode was then sunk in distilled water and
then standardized in a buIIer solution. The pH oI the
samples was read by dipping the electrode in each
sample.
Sensory Evaluation
Each oI the milk blend Iormulation was subjected to
sensory evaluation by nine untrained panelists drawn
Irom The Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro. The parameters Ior
evaluation included aroma, colour, texture, taste,
physical appearance and general acceptability. The
labeled samples were served chilled and the panelists
were to check how much they either liked or disliked
each sample and then rate them as such. The Iive-point
hedonic scale (Larmond, 1977) was used Ior the
evaluation and the resulting data were analyzed using
analysis oI variance (ANOVA) to establish signiIicant
diIIerences among the treatments.
RESULTS
The results oI the pH determination, microbial load,
coliIorm count, yeast count, Staphylococcus count,
Salmonella count and the sensory evaluation oI the
milk-blend yoghurt are presented in the Iollowing tables
below:
Table 2: pH values of the yoghurt samples.
Key: A100:0, B80:20, C70:30, D60:40, E50:50
Table 3 Microbial load (cIu/ml) oI the yoghurt samples.
Storage
period
A B C D E
Day 1 4.20 4.15 4.14 4.13 4.08
Day 7 4.25 4.20 4.17 4.15 4.12
Day 14 4.31 4.23 4.21 4.18 4.15

Sample code Day 1 Day 7 Day 14
A 15.0 x 10
5
12.0 x 10
5
8.0 x 10
5

B 16.0 x 10
5
14.0 x 10
5
7.0 x 10
5

C 13.0 x 10
5
9.0 x 10
5
5.0 x 10
5

D 12.0 x 10
5
10.0 x 10
5
16.0 x 10
5

E 30.0 x 10
5
18.0 x 10
5
17.0 x 10
5


Key: A100:0, B80:20, C70:30, D60:40, E50:50
Table 4: ColiIorm count, yeast count, Staphylococcus
count and Salmonella count (cIu/ml) oI the yoghurt
samples.
Key: A100:0, B80:20, C70:30, D60:40, E50:50
I ColiIorm count, II Yeast count, III Staphylococcus
count, IV Salmonellacount
Table 5: Sensory evaluation oI the yoghurt samples.
Key: A100:0, B80:20, C70:30, D60:40, E50:50
Scale: 1Dislike slightly, 2Like slightly, 3Like
moderately, 4Like very much, 5Like extremely
Sample code Day1 Day7 Day14
AI
II
III
IV
Nil
5.0 x 10
5
4.0 x 10
5
Nil
Nil
3.0 x 10
5
2.0 x 10
5
Nil
Nil
2.0 x 10
5
1.0 x 10
5
Nil
B I
II
III
IV
Nil
7.0 x 10
5
3.0 x 10
5
Nil
Nil
4.0 x 10
5
3.0 x 10
5
Nil
Nil
3.0 x 10
5
2.0 x 10
5
Nil
C I
II
III
IV
1.0 x 10
3

4.0 x 10
5
1.0 x 10
5
Nil
2.0 x 10
3
3.0 x 10
5
1.0 x 10
5
Nil
2.0 x 10
3
1.0 x 10
5
2.0 x 10
5
Nil
DI
II
III
IV
Nil
4.0 x 10
5
5.0 x 10
5
Nil
Nil
2.0 x 10
5
13.0 x 10
5
Nil
1.0 x 10
3
1.0 x 10
5
12.0 x 10
5
Nil
E I
II
III
IV
Nil
5.0 x 10
5
2.0 x 10
5
Nil
3.0 x 10
3
13.0 x 10
5
12 x 10
5
Nil
4.0 x 10
3
14.0 x 10
5
10.0 x 10
5
Nil
Sample code Colour Taste Aroma Appearance Acceptability
A 5 4 5 5 4
B 4 5 4 4 5
C 4 5 4 3 4
D 3 2 3 3 2
E 1 2 2 3 2

181
DISCUSSION
The result Ior the pH determination (table 2)
showed a vertical increase in the pH(ranging Irom
4.08 4.31) oI all the yoghurt samples against the
period oI storage, indicating a decrease in the
acidity levels oI the samples, and a horizontal
decrease against each replacement (Iormulation).
This is in conIormity with Harley et al. (1996), who
reported that the pH oI yoghurt, when stored,
increases with time, but must be between the range
oI 4.0 4.5 Ior which it can still be consumable and
may not encourage the growth oI psychrophiles.
The microbial enumeration (table 3) indicated a
decrease in the total viable count Irom day 1 to day
14 with sample D recording the least count oI 12 x
5
10 cIu/ml and sample E recording the highest
5
count oI 30 x 10 cIu/ml, respectively, on the Iirst
day oI preparation. Samples C, D and E indicated
the presence oI coliIorms which indicated that the
quality oI the water used could have been
compromised by Iaecal contaminants, or perhaps,
post-water-treatment contamination. All the
samples were devoid oI Salmonella, but
staphylococci and yeast were reportedly observed,
though minimal on the Iirst day oI production. The
presence oI organisms like coliIorm, Lactobacillus
and yeast is not surprising, as they are known to
thrive in media rich in Iermentable substrates such
as sugar which oIten leads to the production oI
acids aIter Iermentation (table 4). The sensory
evaluation oI the samples revealed that samples A,
B and C with the Iormulation 100:0, 80:20 (20
replacement) and 70:30 (30 replacement)
respectively were more acceptable to the panelists
employed in the course oI this research work, the
three samples also satisIied other parameters used
in the sensory evaluation in terms oI colour, taste,
aroma and appearance (table 5). Samples B and C
with 20 and 30 replacements showed
phenomenal decrease in the microbial load Irom
day 1 through day 14, this is in agreement with
Pederson (1979), as Ireshly prepared yoghurt
9
typically contains around 10 organisms/ml and
6
which may reduce to 10 organisms/ml, especially
0
when stored at temperature oI 5 C. During storage,
sample E (50 replacement) showed Iat separation
i. e. the Iat Iloating up above the watery part oI the
yoghurt.
CONCLUSION
From the results obtained, it can be deduced that
tiger nut milk can be Iavourably incorporated into
yoghurt processing while still maintaining its
wholesomeness. The pHand microbial analyses oI
the yoghurt samples revealed that sample B and C
(20 and 30 replacements) are saIe Ior human
consumption even aIter storage Ior 14 days.
RECOMMENDATION
Further studies could be carried out on the shelI-stability
oI yoghurt produced Irom cow milk and tiger nut milk
blend using approved Iood additives (chemical
preservatives). Lastly, more research work could also be
done on the tiger nut milk with a bid oI reducing the
occurrence oI Iat separation to a minimum.
REFRENCES
Beeech, F. W., Davenport, R. R., Coswell, R. W. And
Burnett, 1. K. 1986. Two SimpliIied
Schemes Ior IdentiIying Yeast Cultures. In:
IdentiIication Methods Ior Microbiologists.
Part B(Eds. Gibbs, B. M. and Shapton, D. A.) Academic
Press, London. Pg. 151- 175.
Frazier, W. C. and Westhoff, D. C. 1978. Food
rd
Microbiology. 3 . ed. Hill PublishingCo., NewYork.

Harley, 1. P., Prescott, M. and Klein, D. A. 1996.
Microbiology. 3rd ed., WCB Publishers, NewYork. Pg.
26, 881, 892-893.
Harper, W. 1. and Hall, C. W. 1996. Dairy Technology
angEngineering. AVI Publishers, FAO
Rome. Pg. 520-523.
Harrigan W. F. and McCance, M. E. 1982
Laboratory Methods in Food andDairy
Microbiology. Academic Press London. Pg 452.
Howea, F. 1951. Nuts, their Production and
Everyday Uses. University Press, Pg. 229-230.
Kons, K. 1972. Milk and Milk Products in Human
nd
Nutrition. 2 ed. AVI Publishers, FAORome.
Klein, N. and Lortal, S. 1999. Attenuated Starters: an
eIIicient means to inIluence cheese ripening. Int. Dairy
J. 9: 751-762.
Larmond, E. 1977. Laboratory Method Ior Sensory
EvaluationoI Iood. PublicationNo. 1637,
Ottawa, Canada; CanadianDept. oIAgric. Pg. 12-16.

Lynne, M. A. 2003. Food Microbiology Laboratory.
CRCPress, U. S. A.
Pederson, C. S. 1979. Microbiology oI Food
nd
Fermentation. 2 ed. AVI Publishers, FAORome.
Pg. 241-242.
Prescott, M., Harley, 1. P. and Klein, D. A. 1996.
Microbiology. 3rded. W. M. C. Brow
Publishers, NewYork. Pg. 935.
182
Agriculture and Nation Building: Do students still use the University Library? Case study of
University of Ibadan agricultural economics graduate students
By
1 2
Ogunyemi, O. I. & Ajayi, T. B
1. Correspondence: Graduate Student, Agricultural Economics Department, University oI Ibadan, Ibadan &
Agricultural Extension and Management Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
woleogunsyahoo.com
2. Library Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos. (justdebbiesyahoo.com)
Abstract
The growing awareness of internet based information resources has made students to reduce their use of the physical
library in which university has invested huge financial resources for nation building. Past research efforts on the use of
library have mostly focused on the generality of students without localised study on a particular set of students. This
paper therefore looked at whether graduate students of agricultural economics still use the physical library in the face
of the growing efforts of promoting agricultural study and production in Nigeria. The factors that affect the length of
time students spend in the library were also established. Simple random sampling was used to select 60 graduate
students during the 2010/2011 academic session in Agricultural Economics Department, University of Ibadan. The
students were administered with structured questionnaire and 57 were successful for analysis. Mafority of the
respondents are female while 47.37 percent is single. Mafority of the students visit the university, faculty department
and outside library occasionally while 73.68 percent are of full time mode of study. Almost all the students, 96.49
percent use internet based library. The tobit regression revealed that full-time mode of study, increase in weekly
financial allowance on study, membership of registered group off- and on-campus encourage students to spend more
hours in the library. Full-time mode of study should be encouraged among the graduate students while the library
should be equipped with adequate and reliable internet facilities and personal computers to encourage students visit
and use of the library towards the promotion of agricultural scholarship for food sufficiency which is a valid aim of
agricultural development and nation building.
Key words: Agricultural Economics, Graduate Students, LibraryUse
Introduction
Agriculture does not aIIect individuals only, but also the
society and even the nation's welIare, security and
environmental sustainability. The search Ior
inIormation to meet particular needs cuts across every
individual irrespective oI social status. Young and old,
deaI and dumb, students, workers, key stakeholders and
decision-makers in the country have inIormation needs
and seeking behaviour which are oIten inIluenced by
their socio-economic characteristics that are either
external or internal to the person. Students in particular
rely on their University, Faculty or Department library
Ior resources and services Ior their academic pursuits
and general knowledge acquisition, especially nowthat
no student can aIIord to get all the recommended
textbooks and other inIormation materials because oI
the economic situation oI the country. Kumar (2010)
posits that agricultural scientists are really the people
who shoulder the responsibility oI nation building by
exercising their eIIorts in creating new inIormation Ior
improved productivity. In combating the problem oI
illiteracy, poverty, diseases and malnutrition, relevant
inIormation at all levels and in a Iormat that can be
assimilated must be regarded as absolute necessity
(Srikantaiah, 1993; through Bredekamp, 1996)
Some oI the activities carried out by the students in the
library were identiIied by Kayongo and Helm (2010)
which include the use oI library Ior journal, index and
abstract, Iinding dissertations and thesis and daily
library hours, these are inIormation materials that gives
current inIormation. Ajala (1997) reported that graduate
students use other libraries Ior materials not available in
the University Library. For graduate students that live on
campus, the use oI the library may not be a problem so
Iar it meets their needs but Ior those that live oII campus
or on part-time study have to contend with research
conduct Irom a distance. However, graduate students do
Iace challenges in the use oI library services and
resources intheir academic endeavours.
Based on the Ior-going, research eIIorts have been on to
expose and explain the situations oI students in the use
oI higher institutions' libraries. Some oI such studies
include Frascotti et al (2007), Kayong and Helm (2010),
Sagar (2006), Nagata et al (2011), Ajayi and Ogunyemi
(2011) and Ajala (1997). Nagata et al (2011) state that
library use is beneIicial and indispensable Ior students in
achieving their educational outcomes. Sagar (2006)
Iocus on computer science students and digital library
and established that gender, age, experience and
voluntariness moderately aIIects perIormance
expectancy while inIormation quality, eIIort expectancy
183
and social inIluence are part oI the Iactors that inIluence
student's behavioural use oI the library. Also, Whitemire
(2002) through Nagata et al (2011) identiIies gender,
age, race, class year, mode oI study (enrolment status),
library variables (resources, services) as Iactors that
aIIect library use: usage as a place, use oI indexes to
journal articles, developing bibliography, use card
catalogue or computer, Iind materials in browsing
stacks, check citations in materials, read and reading a
basic reIerence. Olanlokun through Omehia (2008)
reveals that students use the library Ior class work,
research, discussions, leisure and other purposes. Their
Iinding reveals that, students with low socio-economic
status made more use oI library services than those with
middle or high status. The problem oI non use and under
utilization oI the library by the users especially the
academic library is a general problem Iaced by libraries
globally.
YusuI and Iwu (2010) report that students reading Ior
examination and photocopying oI materials accounted
Ior most students visit to the library, not only this as
many oI the respondents that use the library can also
access the book on the shelI using the catalogue. This
negate the submission oI George et al (2006) that
students rely on the internet, online resources and hard
copy materials in the library and they are usually Iaced
with diIIiculty in locating inIormation on the shelI. The
basis Ior George et al (2006) may be because oI the rapid
growth in InIormation and Communication Technology
(ICT).
But Nagata et al (2011) mention that students use the
library in various ways: a place to rest, chat with Iriends,
kill time, use computers, a place Ior study, class
assignments, pleasure, reading guided by personal
whims and who never checked out library materials. For
these uses, Iour classes oI users were identiIied:
learners, socialisers, place and personal computers
(PCs) users and stroller group. These groups are
inIluenced by environmental Iactors which are the
internal and external socio-economic characteristics oI
the students. In this modern age oI internet based
inIormation resources, students will visit the library
with adequate PCs connected to the internet and use it
oIten iI access is Iree. Oyadonghan and Eke (2011)
identiIies that, the emergence oI inIormation
technology has improved the eIIiciency oI the
perIormance oI library task and routine. In their
submission, it was opined that the use oI these
inIormation technology in the library by Nigerian
students varies, based on the availability oI resources
and materials, management and administration and the
students attitude and disposition.
Another reason was identiIied why student do not use
the library by Frascotti et al (2007), this they reported as
inadequate materials in the library. They also mentioned
that, non- cooperative attitude oI library staII and
obsolete equipment was Iast phasing out. Library staIIs
are now more users Iriendly and obsolete equipment
were being replaced with modern ones in this era oI
moderntechnology.
It is worthy to note that all the literature cited, apart Irom
Sagar (2006), Iocuses on the generality oI students. With
the current emphasis oI developing countries including
Nigeria to promote agriculture towards Iood suIIiciency,
a study that target agricultural graduate students use oI
the library becomes expedient. Also in line with
Pimentel (2009), the status oI agricultural and natural
resources inIormation shows that there is a number on
institutional programmes and initiatives that demands
individual or collective collation, analysis, storage and
dissemination oI diverse data and inIormation on the
agricultural sector oI the country. This corroborates
Ajala (1997) that the use oI the University oI Ibadan
Library by graduate students and other libraries Ior
materials not available in the Iormer; a time when the use
oI the internet was either non available or non-common
in Nigeria as a whole and among students in particular.
The rising knowledge oI the internet among students,
either part-time or Iull-time, as a sure source oI
inIormation resources possibly gives rise to the question
that is to be address in this study: are the graduate
students still using the physical library oI the university,
Iaculty or the department?Apart Irom the Ioregoing, this
paper is set to address the Iollowing additional questions:
Which other libraries do graduate students use and what
Iactors inIluence the time spend in the library?
Consequently, the study will add to existing literature on
students library use and will assist promoters oI
agriculture and Iood security in knowing iI students oI
agricultural economics in a leading Nigerian University
still use the physical library and how they can be
encouraged to spend more time in the library Ior the
purpose oI enhancing agricultural scholarship towards
IoodsuIIiciencyin the country.
Methodology
The study purposively Iocused on the graduate students
oI agricultural economics, University oI Ibadan in the
2010/2011 session comprising oI M.Sc, and M.Phil/PhD
students. Simple Random Sampling was used to select
60 students on which structured questionnaire were
administered and oI which 57 were returned successIul.
The data were analysed with Stata 10.1 using descriptive
statistics: table, Irequency, percentage and tobit
regression. The regression was used to analyse the
Iactors that aIIect the length oI time in hours that students
spend inthe library and is describedas Iollows:
The tobit equationis as Iollows:
For , Y Y* iI Y* ~ T
i
Y* iI Y* T
Assuming T 0
ThusY Y* iI Y* ~ 0 or
i
0 iI Y* 0
184
where,
i 1, 2, ., n
Y Highest Time spent in the Library (Hours)
X SocioeconomicVariable, i
i
n total number oI independent variables
X Gender (Male Dummy: Male 1 and Female 0)
1
X Age (Years)
2
X Marital Status (Single Dummy: Single 1 andotherwise 0)
3
X UniversityEducation (Years)
4
X Study mode (Full Time 1 and Otherwise 0)
5
X Membership oI registered group on campus (Yes 1 andotherwise 0)
6
X Type oI group on campus (Social group 1 and Academic group 0)
7
X Membership oI registered group oII campus (Yes 1 and otherwise 0)
8
X Type oI group oII campus (Social group 1 andAcademic group 0)
9
X Weeklyallowance on study (Naira)
10
X Use oI Library with Iriend/colleague/pal (Yes 1 andNo 0)
11
X Library location discourages use oI the library(Yes 1 and No 0)
12
X Class workload discourages use oI the library (Yes 1 andNo 0)
13
X Class workload reduces the time spend in the library (Yes 1 andNo 0)
14
c Error term
Results and Discussion
Marital Status and Irequency oI library visit: As shown in Table 1, twenty seven (27) oI the respondents are single
while thirty (30) are either married or divorce representing 47.37 percent and 52.63 percent respectively. Among those
that are married, 38.60 percent is studying Ior MPhil and or PhDwhile 14.03 percent is studying Ior Master's degree.
For the single students, 26.32 percents is Ior the Iormer and 21.05 percents Ior the later. Moreover, those that go to the
library everyday is 5.26 percent, occasional visit is 42.11 percent, once a week 7.02 percent and Not at all 29.83. This
implies that most oI the students occasionally visit the University library.
Table 1: Marital Status, Degree in viewand Irequency oI library visit
Gender, mode oI study and Irequency oI visit to the library: Table 2 shows that 57.89 percent oI the
respondents are Iemale and 42.10 percent (24 respondents) are male. Among the Iemale respondents, 17.54
percent and 40.35 percent are on part-time and Iull time study mode but Ior the males, 8.77 percent and 33.33
percent are on the two study modes respectively. 12, 3, 6, 2
Frequency oI Library Visit
Marital
Stat us
Degree
InView
Not at
All
Once a
Week
Twice
a Week
Everyday Occasional Total Percent

Married
and
Divorse
M.Sc 03 - 01 - 04 08 14.03
MPhil/PhD 05 02 04 - 11 22 38.60

Single

M.Sc 03 01 01 03 04 12 21.05
MPhil/PhD 06 01 03 - 05 15 26.32
Total 17 04 09 03 24 57 100.00
Percent 29.83 07.02 15.79 05.26 42.11 100.00

183
Table 2: Gender, study mode and Irequency oI visit touniversity library
and 19 oI Iull-time students do not visit the library, visit once a week, twice a week, everyday and occasionally
respectively. Among part-time students, Irequency oI visit is 5, 1, 3, 1 and 5 respectively. This implies that majority oI
the students are Iemale (40); majority oI who visits the library occasionally Iollowed by those that do not go to the
library. Similar observation is deductable among the minority male students. Also there is no clear cut distinction
between the Irequency oI university library visit oI part-time and Iull-time students. This supports the observation that
most oI the students either Iull-time or part-time visit the university library occasionally.
Study mode, gender and Irequency oI visit to Iaculty and department library: Table 3 shows that 56 percent
representing 32 respondents visit the department library while 43.86 percent (25 respondents) do not visit the
department library. OI the later, 5.26 percent do go to the Iaculty library while Irom those that visit the department
library, 33.33 percent do visit the Iaculty library. Majority constituting 38.60 percent do not go to either Iaculty or
department library while 22.81 percent visit the department library but not Iaculty library. This implies that majority oI
the graduate students do not visit the Iaculty library. However, more Iull-time students visit the department and Iaculty
library more than the part-time students. Out oI the 15 part-time students only 5 visit both the department and Iaculty
libraries while 2 that visit department library do not visit the Iaculty library. Out oI the 42 part-time students, 3 visit the
Iaculty library but do not visit that oI the department while 11 visit the department library but not the library while 14
visit both. This implies that the Iaculty and department library still serve the graduate students especially those on Iull-
time mode oI study.
Table 3: Mode oI study, gender and Irequency oI visit toFacultyand Department libraries
Frequency oI visit to department and Iaculty libraries: As shown inTable 4, 29.82, 7.02, 15.79, 5.26 and 42.11 percents
do not visit, go once a week, twice a week, everyday and occasionally to university library respectively. OI those that
do not visit the university library, only 6 students do not visit the Iaculty and department library while 5 visit the
department library but not Iaculty library and 6 respondents visit both. OI the 32 students that go to the department
library, 7 visit the Iaculty library occasionally. The implication oI this is that the students visit both the Iaculty and
department libraries occasionally.
Frequency oI visit to University Library
Gender Study
Mode
Not at
All
Once a
Week
Twice
a Week
Everyday Occasional Total Percent

Female
Part-Time 02 01 02 01 04 10 17.54
FullTime 06 01 03 02 11 23 40.35

Male

Part-Time 03 - 01 - 01 05 08.77
FullTime 06 02 03 - 08 19 33.33
Total 17 04 09 03 24 57 100.00
Percent 29.83 07.02 15.79 05.26 42.11 100.00

Non Visit Department Visit Department
Library Library

Study
Mode
Gender Non Visit
to Faculty
Library
Visit to
Faculty
Library
Non Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Faculty
Library
Total Percent

Part-
Time
Female 06 - 01 03 10 17.54
Male 02 - 01 02 05 08.77

FullTime
Female 08 02 06 07 23 40.35
Male 06 01 05 07 19 33.33
Total 22 03 13 19 57 100.00
Percent 38.60 05.26 22.81 33.33 100.00

186
Marital status, use oI internet source, university library and library outside: According to Table 5, virtually all the
students use internet source as only 3.51 percent reported non-use oI electronic library, the balance oI 96.49 percent use
internet source. Also, thirty (30) respondents (52.63 percent) do not use library outside the university. This clearly
implies that most oI the graduate students depend on internet based inIormation sources Ior their academic pursuit.
This perhaps is contrary to the Iindings oI Ajala (1997) that graduate students use the University oI Ibadan Library and
other libraries Ior materials not available in the Iormer which is no more tenable in the present day reality oI internet
surIing.
Table 4: Frequency oI visit to Iaculty and Department libraries
Factors that aIIect hours spent in the library: The regression result as shown table 6 reveals that all the IiIty seven (57)
observations were used in the analysis with only Iour (4) representing students that spent less than 1 hour censored out.
The pseudo R-square shows that 4.61 percent
Table 5: Marital status, use oI e-library (internet source), university libraryand library outside the university
Non Visit Department Visit Department
Library Library

Visit oI
Univesity
Library
Non-Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Faculty
Library
Non-Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Facult y
Library
Total Percent
Not at all 06 - 05 06 17 29.82
Once a
week
01 - 01 02 04 07.02
Twice a
week
04 - 02 03 09 15.79
Everyday 01 01 - 01 03 05.26
Occasional 10 02 05 07 24 42.11
Total 22 03 13 19 57 100.00
Percent 38.60 05.26 22.81 33.33 100.00

Married and Divorce Single
Visit to
University
Library
Library
outside
University
Non Use
oI
E-library
Use oI
E- Library
Non Use
oI
E-library
Use oI
E-Library
Total Percent

Not at all
Non Use - 06 - 05 11 19.30
Use - 02 01 03 06 10.53

Once a
week
Non Use - - - 02 02 03.51
Use - 01 01 - 02 03.51

Twice a
week
Non Use - 02 - 04 06 10.53
Use - 02 - 01 03 5.26


Everyday
Non Use - - - 01 01 01.75
Use - 01 - 01 02 03.51

Occasional
Non Use - 05 - 05 10 17.54
Use - 11 - 03 14 24.56
Total - 30 02 25 57 100.00
Percentage - 52.63 3.51 43.86 100

187
oI the variability in the dependent variable, highest hour spent in the library, is explained by the independent variables
X to X . This perhaps explains why none oI the explanatory variables is signiIicant even at 10 percent level. Despite
1 14
this, the signs oI the coeIIicients show some relationships. Male graduate students spend more average hour in the
library than the Iemale at least by 0.92 hours on the average. This means that as one moves Irom male to Iemale
students, average hour spent in the library decreases. With age increase among the students, time spend in the library
increases same Ior years oI education. The average hour spend inthe libraryis higher
Table 6: Tobit regression
Log likelihood - 129.97 Number oI observation 57 LRchi2 (14) 12.56
Prob ~ chi2 0.5614 Pseudo R2 0.0461 4leIt-censoredobservations at highest1
53 uncensored observations 0 right-censored observations
among single, Iull-time, those that visit library with Iriends, and those that opined that class workload reduces time
spent in the library than their opposite categories that received zero value. Also more weekly Iinancial allowance on
study reduces time spent in the library. Whereas, membership oI registered social group on campus and oII campus,
those that are oI opinion that library location and class workload discourage time spent in the library spend lower time
in the library compared with their base categories that received zero value. OI particular note is the high coeIIicient oI
group membership which implies that the variable has highest magnitude in explaining length oI time spent in the
library.
Conclusion
The study has shown that graduate students oI agricultural economics are moving away Irom the use oI the university
library as they occasionally visit the library and department and Iaculty libraries. Graduate students, both part-time and
Iull-time, use electronic library mostly which is convenient at the comIort oI their table and room. Full-time status and
membership oI registered group on campus and oII campus encourage hours spent in the library while the more the
money available Ior study, that is, as students' weekly allowance increases, hours spent in the library decreases. At least
with more money, students could have more access to internet connection. To encourage the graduate students to spend
more time in the library, Iull-time mode oI study should be encouraged while internet wireless Iacilities with adequate
personal computers would also encourage the graduate students oI agricultural economics to spend more hours in the
library as the students now rely on electronic library which is internet based. The library should organise orientation
programmes Ior all students especially when new inIormation material is being purchased in the library. This is line
with Kumar (2010) that orientation programmes should be organised so that variety oI library resources could have
optimal use. The library management should also make necessary and adequate plan in ensuring that the use oI
inIormation technology is encouraged. Training should be organized Ior both the staII and the students on
how to use the internet. By so doing, eIIorts would be seen towards satisIying the inIormation needs oI
agricultural students Ior scholarship that aims at Iood suIIiciency.
Hours Spent in Library CoeI Std. Err T P~/t/
X1Gender 0.917 0.864 1.06 0.295
X2Age 0.043 0.074 0.58 0.564
X3Marital Staus 0.287 0.331 0.87 0.391
X4Years oI Education 0.053 0.127 0.42 0.678
X5Study Mode 0.230 1.117 0.21 0.838
X6Group Membership on Campus -23.774 17.556 -1.35 0.183
X7Type oI group on campus -2.832 2.050 -1.38 0.174
X8Group Membership oII Campus -2.873 2.568 -1.12 0.269
X9 GroupTypeoIICampus -0.206 0.302 -0.68 0.497
X10 Weekly Allowance on Study -0.000 0.000 -1.06 0.295
X11Visit Library with Iriends 1.031 0.852 -1.21 0.233
X12 Library locationDiscouarge -0.012 1.701 -0.01 0.994
X13 Workloaddiscourage -1.403 0.997 -1.41 0.167
X14WorkloadreducesTime 1.066 0.875 1.22 0.230
Constant 31.179 19.743 1.58 0.122
/Sigma 2.548 0.253

188
References
Agboola, J. Oand Bamigboye (2011) Students' level oI study and user oI library resources in Nigerian Universities: A
comparative study. Library Philosophy and Practices
http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/
Ajala, I. O. (1997). Use oI the University oI Ibadan Libraryresources by graduate students
Library Review.Vol 46 Iss:6, Pp 421-427. ISSN: 0024-2535
Ajayi, T. B. and Ogunyemi, O. I. (2011) Determinants oI library use among students oI agriculture: case study oI
Lagos State Polytechnic. Journal oI Library Philosophy andPractice. September Vol.
http://unllib.uni.edu/LLP/
Bredeka, L(1996) inIormation provision by special libraries andinIormationcentres in AIrica
www.,innovation.ukzn.ac.za/.../innovationpdI/no12. Retrieved on 13032012
Bredekamp, N. (1996) inIormation provision by special libraries and inIormation centres in AIrica
www.innovation.ukzn.ac.za/Innovation/.../No12pp39-43Bredekamp
Devendra, K. (2010). An analytical study oI inIormation seeking-behaviour among agricultural scientists in Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, University oI Agriculture and Technology
http://www.academicjournals.org/ijlis/pdI
Frascotti, J, Levenseler J, Weingarten C, and Karl W(2007) Improving library use and inIormation literacy at Caritas
Vath College. An interdisciplinary project report submitted tothe IacultyoI Worcester Polytechnic Institute
www.wpi.edu/pubs/E-project/Available/E. . ./ccvc report1.pdI
George, C., Bright, A., Hurlbert, T., Linke,E.C., St. Clair,G. and Stein,G.T. (2006). Scholarly use oI inIormation:
Graduate students' inIormation seeking behaviour. InIormation Research,11(4) Paper 272. Retrieved November 20,
2011 Irom http://inIormationRnet/ir/11-4/paper/272.html. Last updatedon June 13, 2006
Kayong, J. And Helm, C. (2010) Graduate students and the library: Asurvey oI research practices and library use at the
University oI Notre Dame. ReIerence and User services quarterly, Vol 49, No4: Pp. 341-349. American Library
Association. Retrieved November 20, 2011 Irom
www.rusq.org/wp- content/upload/2010/10/RUSQ49n410Kayongo.pdI
Kumar, D. (2010) an analytical study oI inIormation seeking-behaviour among agricultural scientists in Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, University oI Agricultural and Technology. International journal oI libraryand inIormation science.
http://www.academicjournals.org/ijlis/pdI. Retrievedon12032012
Nagata, H., Toda, A., and Kytomaki, P. (2011).Students' pattern oI library use and their learning outcomes: Astudy
outcomes assessment in college and university library. Journal oI Japan Society oI Library InIormation Science. 53:
17-34. docsdrive.com/knowledgia/ajaps/2011/53-62pdI
Omehia, Anthony E and Obi, Boma B (2008) student's characteristics and use oI library services in the University oI
Uyo. Journal oI Library Philosophy and Practice Oyadonghan, Joyce Chinyere and Eke, Felix Mmanuoma (2011)
Iactors aIIecting student use oI inIormation technology: a case study oI Federal University oI Technology, Owerri and
Niger Delta university, Amazoma. Journal oI Library Philosophy andPractice
Pimentel, Paula (2009). Initiative Ior development oI agricultural inIormation management to
policymakers: Acase study Irom Mozambique
www.iiam.gov.mz/documents/dIdtt/.../initiativeardpapersostino.pdI
Sagar, V.R.V. (2006). Adigital library success model Ior computer science students' use oI a meta-search system. M.Sc.
Thesis submitted to the Iaculty oI the Virgina Polytechnic, Institute and State University, Computer Science
Department.
YusuI, Felicia and Iwu, Juliana. (2010). Use oI academic library: A case study oI Covenant University, Nigeria.
Chinese Librarianship: an international Electronic Journal, 30
http://www.iclc.us/cliej/c130YI.pdI
189
THE PROXIMATEANALYSIS AND SENSORYEVALUATION OF ~OKPA PREPARED WITH
FLUTED PUMPKINAND SCENT LEAVES
Adumanya, O. C. U., Obi-Adumanya, G. A. and Nwachukwu, P. C.
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria.
E-mail, adumso2yahoo.com , Phone Number :+234-0803-7730-442
ABSTRACT
'Okpa is a well cherished Iood, especially among the inhabitants oI the eastern part oI Nigeria. It is prepared using
Ilour Irom Bambara nut. The proximate analysis and sensory evaluation oI the 'Okpa prepared with vegetables Iluted
pumpkin (TelIairia Occidentales) and scent leaves (Ocimum Viridis) were carried out. The results show that the
addition oI the leaves altered the ash and Iiber contents oI the 'Okpa compared with control at P0.5. Fluted pumpkin
leaI had the highest ash content (4.52 + 0.03) Iollowed by the combination oI the leaves (4.51+ 0.02), and then the scent
leaI (4.45 + 0.01) compared with the control (4.09 + 0.05), conIirming that the presence oI these vegetables boosted the
ash (mineral) contents oI the 'Okpa. The 'Okpa with scent leaI had the highest crude Iiber (11.92 + 0.20), Iollowed
by 'Okpa with combination oI these leaves (11.30 + 0.06), and then the Iluted pumpkin leaI (10.01 + 0.12) compared
with the control (3.37+0.11). This also shows that the presence oI these vegetables increased the crude Iiber content oI
the 'Okpa which could ease oII the dryness and hardness oI 'Okpa to the palate experienced by the consumers and
the constipation as a result oI ingestion oI 'Okpa. The percentage crude protein, Iats, carbohydrate, moisture and
energy values were not altered signiIicantly at p 0.05. The sensory evaluation oI the samples did not show any
signiIicant change at p 0.05. ThereIore, addition oI vegetables, especially Iluted pumpkin leaves could serve as a
boost to the nutritional value oI 'Okpa and ease oII the dryness, heaviness and hardness to palate experienced while
ingestion.
Keywords: Okpa, Bambara nut, Fluted pumpkin andScent leaves
INTRODUCTION
'Okpa is a well-cherished Iood, especially among the
inhabitants oI the eastern part oI Nigeria. However it is
derived Irom Bambara nuts. Bambara nut (Voandzeia
Subterranean (l) thouars) which is the botanical name
synonyms oI vigna subterranean and belongs to the
plantea oI the Iamily oI Iabaceae and subIamily oI
Iabiodea. It is a legume, an indigenous to the tropical
AIrica (Kay, 1979). Bambara is grown extensively in
Nigeria (Oguntunde, 1985, Enwere, 1998) but it is one oI
the lesser utilized legume in Nigeria.
In Nigeria, the Ireshly harvested pods are cooked,
shelled and eaten as a vegetable snack, while dry seeds
are either roasted and eaten as a snack (Kay, 1979; Alobo,
1999) or milled into Ilour and used in preparation oI moi-
moi (Olapade, et al, 2005) analogy called 'okpa' among
the Igbo tribe oI Nigeria (Enwere, 1988). For most Iood
uses, the seed coats oI legumes including Bambara are
removed to reduce the anti-physiological Iactors and
Iiber content, and this result in better appearance,
texture, cooking quality, palatability and digestibility oI
the products (Akinjayeju and Enude, 2002).
Dehulling can be accomplished manually or
mechanically depending on the type oI legume and /or
quantity involved (Ehiwe and Reichert, 1987).
Dehulling has been a limitation Iactor in the preparation
oI Ilour Irom Bambara that could produce acceptable
moi-moi substitute, most especially with respect to the
texture and Ilavour. The conventional method used
always result into a product with a very hard texture and
strong beans Ilavour (Alobo, 1999). Lack oI knowledge
oI the Iunctional, chemical and nutritional properties oI
some legumes grown in developing countries is
responsible Ior their less utilization in Iood Iormulations
(Udensi, et al, 1999). Bambara nut is a complete Iood
eaten in various Iorms either in mature or Iully ripe. The
seed is hard, smooth, usually round and varying in size
up to about 1.5cm in diameter (kay, 1979). It can also
vary in colour Irom white, cream, dark brown, red or
black and may be speckled or patterned with
combination oI these colours.
The extract Irom the nut oI Voandzeia subterranean
particularly the protein extracts can be used directly in
cosmetic Iormulation and provides speciIic properties
and notable particular eIIects. The nut can be used quite
Ireely to replace the high prized lumps oI meat Ior
adequate nutrition. The unique properties oI bambara
nut which 'Okpa' is been made Irom, make it serve as
balanced Iood which contain almost all the vital
nutrients that promotes good health Ior living in AIrica
(Obizoba and Egbuna, 1992).
190
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Fluted pumpkin, scent leaves and cream coloured
variety oI Bambara nut were procured Irom Ekeonunwa
market, Owerri, Imo-state Nigeria.
PREPARATIONOFBAMBARAFLOUR
The seeds were thoroughly cleaned and sorted to remove
extraneous matters. The clean seeds weighing 200grams
was used.
The seeds were stepped in cold water at room
0
temperature 25 C Ior 8hrs. The seeds were later dried in
0
air draught drier at 65 CIor 48hrs to moisture content oI
about 10. The seeds were separately dehulled using
plate milled with clearance oI 6mm between the plates.
The cotyledons were hammer mill to pass through
0.8mm screen size.
PREPARATIONOFTHE~OKPA SAMPLES
Fresh paste was prepared Irom Bambara Ilour. Flour oI
0
200g was hydrated with 300ml oI warm water (60 C)
and mix thoroughly. The paste was divided into Iour
equal parts. To the Iirst portion, plain paste was
dispensed into a clean banana leaI. To the second
portion, paste mixed with sliced Iluted pumpkin leaves
was dispensed into another clean banana leaI.
To the third portion, paste mixed with sliced scent leaves
was also dispensed into a clean banana leaI. To the Iourth
portion, paste with Iluted pumpkin leaves mixed with
scent leaves was also dispensed into a clean banana leaI.
Then steam Ior 45mins at ambient temperature.
SAMPLECODING
SAMPLE A- plain Okpa (control), Sample B- Okpa
with Iluted pumpkin leaI, Sample C- Okpa with scent
leaI, Sample D- Okpa with Iluted pumpkin and scent leaI
combined.
ANALYSIS
5g oI each sample was taken and were careIully coded as
shown above. The proximate analysis oI the samples,
that is the ash content, crude Iiber, protein moisture, Iat
and carbohydrate contents were determined using the
standard method as described by Association oI OIIicial
Analytical Chemist 1984. Also the sensory evaluation
was carriedout.
SENSORYEVALUATION
The 'Okpa samples (A, B, Cand D) were presented to a
ten panel oI judges who are Iamiliar with the product Ior
sensory evaluation. The trained panel scored the
appearance, Ilavour, taste, and texture and overall-
acceptability oI the 'Okpa using a nine point hedonic
scale. Where 9 indicate extremely like and 1 extremely
dislike.
STATISTICALANALYSIS
Data obtained were statistically analyzed using one way
ANOVAat 95 conIidence interval (P0.05).
RESULTS
Table 1.1: PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF THE 'OKPA
SAMPLES

SAMPLES
CRUDE
PROTEIN
%
CRUDE
FIBER
%
FAT
%
ASH
%
MOISTURE
%
CARBOHYDRATE
%
ENERGY
VALUE
{Kcal)
A
B
C
D
16.92 0.20
16.80 0.3S
16.680.+0
16.690.20
3.730.11
**

10.010.12
**

11.920.02
**

11.300.06
**

+.930.01
+.910.03
+.900.03
+.910.01
+.090.0S
*

+.S20.03
*

+.+S0.01
*

+.S10.02
*

+7.++0.92
+8.130.07
+7.9S0.08
+8.110.0+
26.620.77
2S.6+0.31
26.010.33
2S.800.16
216.282+.70
213.9823.90
21+.862+.71
21+.112+.31
Values Means + Standard deviation
Values with ** are highly signiIicant, and * are signiIicant at p 0.05,
Values without asterisk are not signiIicant at p 0.05.
Table 1.2: SENSORYEVALUATION OF THE ~OKPA SAMPLES.

SAMPLES
APPEARA-
NCE
TASTE FLAVOUR TEXTURE OVER ALL ACCEPTABILITY
A
B
C
D
3.+01.90
+.602.69
3.001.SS
3.001.8+
3.702.1S
S.102.07
S.001.89
3.601.96
S.302.72
+.202.86
S.902.+7
6.901.22
+.102.69
3.302.93
3.702.0S
+.+02.06
3.601.S6
+.601.62
+.601.S6
S.101.0+
191
Values mean+ standard deviation. Values are not
signiIicant at p0.05
DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
The results as shown in table 1.1 indicate that addition
oI the vegetables aIIected the ash contents signiIicantly
in the samples at p 0.05. Sample Bhad the highest ash
content (4.52 + 0.03), Iollowed by sample D, (4.51 +
0.02), and then by sample C, (4.45 + 0.01) compared
with the control sampleA(4.09 + 0.05). This shows that
addition oI vegetables could serve as a boost to the ash
content oI the 'Okpa. The ash content oI a sample is a
measure oI its mineral content.
Also, the crude Iiber contents oI the samples as shown in
table 1.1 were aIIected signiIicantly at p 0.05. Sample
C had the highest (11.92 + 0.20), Iollowed by sample D
(11.30 + 0.06), and then sample B (10.01 + 0.12)
compared with the control sample A(3.73 + 0.11). This
also indicates that addition oI vegetables especially
scent leaI to 'Okpa will increase its Iiber content which
will help in bowel movement. This could reduce or stop
constipation and ameliorate the dryness and hardness oI
'Okpa to the palate experienced by consumers while
ingestion. The percentage crude protein, Iats,
carbohydrate, moisture and energy values were not
altered signiIicantly at p0.05,as shown in table 1.1.
The results oI the sensory evaluation as shown in table
1.2 did not showany signiIicant change at p 0.05.
CONCLUSION
ThereIore, addition oI vegetables especially Iluted
pumpkin leaves or scent leaves to 'Okpa a delicacy
produced Irom Bambara nut increases its ash (mineral)
and Iiber contents. This increase could ameliorate the
dryness and hardness oI 'Okpa to the palate
experienced byconsumers during ingestion.
REFERENCES
Akinjayeju, O. and Enude, O.T (2002). Properties oI
Bambara (voandzeia subterranean.L thou) Ilours.
Italianjournal oI Iood Science N01, vol 14.53-58.
Alobo, A.P (1999) Production and assessment oI moi
moi I r om Bambar a gr oundnut ( voandzei a
subterranean.L thouars). Plant Ioods Ior human
nutrition 53.313-320.
Ehiwe ,A and Relchert, B.M (1987). Variability in
quality oI Bambara groundnut and other Cereals.
Cereals chemistry.64,86.
Enwere ,N.1 (1998) Foods oI plant origin: processing
and utilization with recipes and Technology proIiles.
AIro-orbits publishers. Nsukka, Nigeria P59-61.
Kay, D.E (1979): Food legumes. Crop and product
digest N0 .1. London: TPI, P. 142.
Nigerian Food 1ournals (2007). DiIIerent methods oI
producing Bambara Ilours Ior making moi-moi. Vol
25,No.2, (www.ajol.inIo/journals/niIog) ISSN0189
Obizoba, I.C and H.I Egbuna, (1992). nutritional
quality oI Bambara nut (voandzeia subterranean.L
thouars) and its product. plant Ioods human nutr, 42;13-
23.
Official Methods of Analysis(1984). Association oI
th
OIIicial Analytical Chemist WashingtonDC4 edition.
Oguntunde, A.O (1985). Development oI new Iood
products Irom readily available raw materials. Paper
present at the Nigeria institute oI Iood science and
technology training workshop Ibadan, Nigeria.
Olapade, A.A, Ugokwe, P.U, Ozumba, A.U, Solomon
H.M, Olatunji O. and Adelaja S.O (2005) proximate
analysis oI premixes Ior preparation oI okpa. Nigerian
Iood journal vol.22, 54-59.
192
FURTHER REMARKS ON THE DYNAMICS OF MACROPHAGES AND T CELLINFECTION BYHIV
1,` 1 1 1
S.A. EGBETADE , Y.A. FASASI , S.A. A1IBOLA , O.O. OLATUN1I ,
1 2
T. LADIPO-ABODUWA AND F.M. BABALOLA
1
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS,
2
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN, NIGERIA.
ABSTRACT
A mathematical model oI HIV (human immunodeIiciency virus) epidemic in macrophages and T cells is studied,
where we change some variables in Nowak et.al. (1999) model equations. Essentially, using some transIormations the
model equations is then analysed Ior stability oI the disease-Iree equilibrium and endemic equilibrium in terms oI the
basic reproduction number (R ). The results showed that the disease-Iree equilibrium is asymptotically stable iI R 1
o o
and the endemic equilibrium is unstable iI R ~1. Based on these results, we discuss optimal treatment strategies Ior
o
reduction oI prevalence oI HIVinIection in both cells.
Keywords: Macrophages, T cells, HIV/AIDS, Critical points, Basic reproduction number, disease-Iree equilibrium,
endemic equilibrium.
1. Introduction
Human immunodeIiciency virus (HIV) is the greatest
public disaster oI modern times. The global HIV/AIDS
pandemic is growing at a staggering rate worldwide. It
has continued to deIy medical science and public health
due to the strong nonlinearities in the transmission
dynamics oI HIVamong populations |2|. The extensive
spread oI the virus and the associated acquired
immunodeIiciency syndrome (AIDS) continues around
the world and the vast numbers oI HIV inIected
individuals are in sub-Saharan AIrica and are mainly
due to heterosexual transmission |8|. More than 40
million people worldwide are inIected with the HIV
virus; women account Ior 50 oI those inIected |14|.
During the course oI the disease, HIV may inIect a
variety oI cell types. The dynamics oI inIection by HIV
on macrophages and T cells has been studied by a
number oI authors |3,5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13|.
In this paper, we revisit the model oI Nowak et al |9|,
make a couple oI changes oI variable and then study the
transIormed equations Ior stability. We determine the
dynamics oI the extended model by a threshold quantity
called the basic reproduction number (denoted by R ),
o
which measures the number oI new cell inIections that
an inIected cell can generate in a completely susceptible
population. In particular, it is shown that the disease-
Iree equilibrium is asymptotically stable iI R 1 and the
o
endemic equilibrium is unstable iI R ~ 1.
o
2. Mathematical Formulation
We shall consider the diIIerential system that describes
the model oI macrophages and T cell inIection by HIV
which is proposed by Nowak et al. |10|
2 2 2 2 2
1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 1
1
2
2 1
1
1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1
1
) (
) (
y a y x y
y x x d y y r x
y y r f
y a y x y
y a x d x
=
+ =
+ =
=
=
|
| e
e e c e
|
o
where
x uninIected macrophages
1
y inIectedmacrophages
1
x uninIected Tcells
2
y inIected activated Tcells
2
e resting Thelpher Cells
c production rate oI resting Thelpher cells
r activation rate oI restingThelpher cells
f death rate oI resting Thelpher cells
o production rate oI uninIectedmacrophages
d death rate oI uninIected macrophages
1
d death rate oI uninIected Tcells
2
| transmissionrateoI HIVininIectedmacrophages
1
| transmissionrate oI HIVininIected Tcells
2
a death rate oI inIected macrophages
1
a death rate oI inIectedTcells
2
In this paper, we assume
AIter transIormation, equation(1) become
E
f x d e
c
o
q = = 1 , 1
1 1
193
2 2 2 2 2
1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 1
1
2
2 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1
) )( (
) )( ( ) (
) 1 (
) 1 (
y a y x y
y x x d y y E E
f
r
x
y y E E
E
r
E f
E
f
y a
d
y
y
y d
=
+ =
+ + +

=
+ =
|
| c
c c c
c
c
q o |
q | q q
In this paper, we revisit the model oI Nowak et al, make
a couple oI changes oI variable and then study the
transIormed equations Ior stability. We determine the
dynamics oI the extended model by a threshold quantity
called the basic reproduction number (denoted by R ),
o
which measures the number oI New cell inIections that
an inIected cell can generate in a completely susceptible
population. In particular, it is shown that the disease
Iree equilibrium is asymptotically stable iI R 1 and the
o
endemic equilibrium is unstable iI R ~ 1.
o
Lemma 1: The basic reproduction number oI the model
(2) Ior macrophages cell is
R (3)
o
Lemma 2: The basic reproduction number oI the model
(2) Ior Tcell is
R (4)
o
3. STABILITYRESULT
3.1 The Critical Points
The critical points oI equation (2) are
A (0,0,0,0,0) and
o
*
A
*
Where A is the disease Iree equilibrium and A is the
o
endemic equilibrium.
We shall need the Iollowing theorems in the analysis oI
the nature oI the critical points.
Theorem 3. 1 4].
Let P(x,y), Q(x,y) and X
1 1
1
a d
o|
=
) (
1 2
2
fa r d
rE
+
=
o
o |
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|


+

| ) |(
,
| ) |(
,
) ( ) 1 (
) (
, ,
1 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
d a E E r
a fd a
a fd
d a E E r
d a r E f a a f a
E a d a r
a
d a d a
o | c |
|
|
o | c
o | | | |
| o |
|
o |
o |
o |
dt
dx
dt
dy
|
|
.
|

\
|
y
x
Let x be a critical point oI the plane autonomous
1
system
X g(x)
1
where P(x,y) andQ(x,y) have continuous Iirst partial
derivatives in a neighbourhoodoI X
1
II the eigenvalues oI A (a) have negative
real part thenX is anasymptoticallystable critical point
1
II A (a) has an eigenvalue with
positive real part, then X is anunstable critical point.
1
3.2 Stability of the Disease-free equilibrium
(DFE)
Theorem 3.2
The critical point oI the DFE is asymptoticallystable iI
a ~ 0, a ~0, d ~0,
1 2 1
d ~ 0, r ~0, E ~ 0, I ~ 0, and R 1.
2 o
Proof
The Jacobian matrix oI disease Iree equilibrium at A is
o
J(A )
o
The eigenvalues are given by
(5)
By expandingequation(5), we have
|
|
.
|

\
|
1
1
y
x
|
|
.
|

\
|
) , (
) , (
1
y x Q
y x P
) (
1
1
X g
) (
1
1
X g
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
1
1
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
a
f
rE
f
rE
d
f
rE
E
f
r
a
d
( )( ) ( )( ) 0
2 2 1 1
= |
.
|

\
|
a d
E
f
a d
194
0
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
2 1
2 2 1 2 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
2 2 1 2 2 1
2 2
3 1
1 1
1
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1
2 2
2 2
4
1 1 2 2
5
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + + + + + +
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + + + + + +
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
E
f d d a a
E
f d a a
E
f a a
E
f d d a
d d a a
E
f d d
E
f d a
E
f a a
E
f d a
d d a d a a
E
f d d
E
fa d
a d d d a a
E
a fd
E
f a
d a
E
f d
d d d a d a a a
E
fd
E
fa
d a
d a
E
f
d a

(6)
which implies that there are no positive solutions oI equation(6). Hence, all the eigenvalues
are negative. Thus, we conclude that the disease Iree critical point A is asymptotically stable.
o
3.2 Stability of the Endemic Equilibrium
Theorem 3.3
*
The critical point A oI the endemic equilibrium is unstable iI r ~ 0, E ~ 0, o ~ 0, | ~ 0, a ~0, d ~0 , I~0 and R ~ 1.
1 2 o
Proof
*
The Jacobian matrix oI equation (2) at A is
*
J(A )
It us suIIicient toshowthat at least one eigenvalues oI the endemic equilibrium is obtained by solving
(7)
Clearly, iI E ~ 0, I ~ 0, r ~ 0, a ~ 0, a ~ 0 , d ~0, d ~0 | ~0, | ~0 and R ~ 1, then equation (7) has 2 negative
1 2 1 2 1 2 o
roots and3 positive roots given by

1

2

3
5 4 3 2 1
, , , ,
( )
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

1 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2
1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
2 1 1
) (
0 0 0
) (
0 0
0 0
) ( ) 1 (
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
d a E E r
a fd a
f
rE
a fd
d a E E r
d
d a r E f a a f a
E a d a r
f
rE d a
d
a
d a
o | c |
|
|
o | c
o | | | |
| o |
o |
o |
|
o |
0 = I A
1 1
1 1 1
a
d a
|
o |
o |
o |
1
1 1 1
d a
( )
) ( ) 1 (
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
d a r E f a a f a
E a d a r
+

o | | | |
| o |
193

4

5
*
Hence, the critical point A oI the endemic equilibrium
(2) is unstable.
4. RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
The mathematical analysis oI our dynamical system
revealed that there are two critical points: disease-Iree
equilibrium and endemic equilibrium whose stability
depends on the basic reproduction number R . Our
o
results show that the DFE is asymptotically stable iI
R 1 while the endemic equilibrium is unstable when
o
Ro~1. II R 1, an average inIections macrophages and T
o
cell is unable to replace itselI and the inIection is
temporal and dies out in time. II R ~1, the number oI
o
inIectious cells rises and an epidemic results. This could
lead to a wiping out oI the macrophage and T cell
populations and drive disease progression to AIDS.
Consequently, the instability oI the endemic
equilibrium is oI great concern to scientists and other
stakeholders in the spread and control oI HIV disease.
Since macrophages and T cells are human system
against attack by Ioreign particles, HIV prevention and
therapeutic strategies should be vigorously pursued to
combat the global spread oI the pandemic. Media alert
oI the disease, condom use, HIV vaccines and anti-
retroviral drugs could lead to a reduction in the
transmission oI HIViI eIIectively utilized.
REFERENCES
|1| Bukrinsky, M.I., Stanwick, T.L, Dempsey, M.P. and
Stevenson, M., Quiescent lymphocytes T as an
inducible virus reservoir in HIV-1 inIection, Science
254 (1991), 423 -427.
|2| Burattini, M.N. and Lopes, L.F., A mathematical
model oI the impact oI crack-cocaine use on the
prevalence oI HIV/AIDS among drug users, Math.
Comput. Modeling 28 (3) (1998), 21-29.
|3| DeBoer, R.J. and Perlson, A.S., Target cells limited
and immune control models oI HIV inIection: a
comparison, J. Theor. Biol. 170 (1994), 201-214.
|4| Dennis, G.Zill and Micheal, R. Cullen, DiIIerential
equations with boundary value problems, pp 395 - 417.
|5| Egbetade, S.A., The numerical treatment oI a
mathematical model Ior the dynamics oI macrophage
inIection by HIV, Nig. J. Sc. and Tech. Res. 1 (2) (2005),
154-157.
| |
1 1 2
1 1 1
) (
a fd
d a E E r
|
o | c
| |
1 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
) ( d a E E r
a fd a
o | c |
|
|6| Egbetade, S.A., Stability analysis oI equilibrium
state oI a mathematical model oI HIVinIection in Tcells,
proceedings oI mathematical Association oI Nigeria.
(2007), 103 - 106.
|7| Essunger, P. and Perelson, A.S., Modeling HIV
inIection oI CD4 () T cell sub-populations, J.Theor.
Biol. 170(1994), 367- 391.
|8| Gbolahan, B. and Adebayo, K.R., O the use oI delay
diIIerential equation in modeling the rate oI HIV/AIDS
InIection inNigeria, Abacus 38 (2) (2011), 76-86.
|9| Mclean, A.R., Amodel oI human immunodeIiciency
virus in T hepher cell clones, J.Thoer. Biol. 147(1992),
177-203.
|10| Nowak, M.A., Wodarz, D., Lloyd, A.L. and Jansen,
V.A.A., Dynamics oI macrophages and T cell inIection
by HIV, J.Theor. Biol. 196 (1999), 101 - 113.
|11| Nowak, M.A. and Wodarz, D., Mathematical
models oI HIV pathogenesis and treatment, BioEssays
24(2002), 1178 - 1187.
|12| Schuitemaker, H., Macrophage-tropic HIVvariants
initiators oI inIection and AIDS pathogenesis,
J.Leukocyte Biol. 56(1994). 218 - 224.
|13| Stevenson, M. and Gendelman. H.E., Cellular and
viral determinants that regulate HIV-1 inIection in
macrophages, J.Leukocyte Biol., 56(1994), 278 - 288.
|14| UNAIDS/WHO, Working group on global
HIV/AIDS and STD surveillance, Report on the global
HIV/AIDS epidemic, 2007.
196
BAUSES, E||EB! ANB PPE\EN!|BN. N|BEP|A AS A BASE S!UB\.
ENGR. FASANMADE P. A.
afasanmadeyahoo.com
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, ADESEUN OGUNDOYIN CAMPUS,
THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN.
AND
ENGR. I. O. OLADE1O
oladejooyeyemiyahoo.com
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to examine the causes, effects and how effectively road accidents can be prevented in the
developing countries. The study reveals that apart from the poor maintenance of the inadequate road infrastructure,
the people operating vehicles i.e. drivers, contribute a lot to the road accidents which could have been avoided if the
drivers were more careful. However, this paper recommends the principle of defensive-driving, which if strictly
adhered to, can prevent most of the avoidable accidents ranging from minor to fatal. The 28 years breakdown of the
recorded accidents shows that the rate of accident increases yearly despite all the regulatory efforts embarked upon by
the various governmental organi:ations of the day.
Keywords: Accident, road inIrastructure, deIensive-driving, vehicles.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Accident is an unintended event usually resulting in
personal injury or damage. (MicrosoIt Encarta
Dictionary) Nigeria has the second highest accident rate
in the World. The accident Iatality rate is about 2 to 3
times those oI other AIrican countries and 30 to 40 times
higher than rates in industrialized countries like USA
and U.K(National Transport Policy 1993).
From the deIinition oI transportation, that is, the
movement oI people and goods Irom one location to
another it conIirms the statement made by Lord Lugard
in 1922 on the development in Nigeria, that is, 'the
economic development in Nigeria can be summarized
with only one world Transportation. With this great
important place that transportation occupies in the
Nation, it is oI a great necessity that the danger imposed
by killer 'disease causing carnages on our roads be
given a great attention to avert as much as possible this
daily occurrence oI accident on our roads. This paper is
intendented to sensitize people oI the need to have as
much caution as possible while on the road, especially
along roads under construction or rehabilitation Take Ior
instance, in Ovia bridge area alone, along Benin Ore
Lagos road, road accidents have claimed 268 lives in less
than 3months, many oI which were avoidable. Also 18
people died on the spot in February 2012 when two
vehicles had head on collision at the construction site
(The Nation ,11.11.2011 p6). 20 people were burnt to
death along Ibadan - Abeokuta road in January
2012(Radio Nigeria).
According to a paper published by Emerald Group, The
World Health Organization (Peden et al, 2006) and
(Akanbi, et al, 2009) estimated that about 1.2 million
people die annually Irom road accidents oI which 1.07
million oI these are Irom low and middle income
countries oI which Nigeria is one. About 20 deaths per
100,000 people occur in low income countries while
about 13deaths per 100,000 occur in developed countries
(Pedenet al 2002).
Operational characteristics: Road transportation can
be divided into three major aspects, two in Engineering
and the thirdis the human operational.
The Iirst aspect is the vehicle and is deIined as a car, lorry
or other machine Ior transporting people and goods on
land. The vehicle is designed and constructed by
mechanical Engineers. The second aspect is the
highway or road (a wide track with hard surIace Ior
vehicle by civil engineers while the third aspect is the
vehicle operator, that is, the driver.
2.00 Chroni cl e of Road Transport at i on
Infrastructure, Equipment Invention and Accident:
The Iirst steam powered engine was designed by Nicolas
Cugnot and constructed by Brezin M in 1769. The
197
vehicle could only go on a speed oI 6km/hour.
However, two years later Cugnot designed a much
Iaster steem driven engine. This development however
made the driven engine to ram into a wall, which made it
the Iirst World car accident in 1771.
Ever since, attempts had been made to make the
automobile Iaster and saIer. In 1807 Ior instance, Isaac
De Rivaz oI Scoitzar designed the Iirst internal
combustion engine.
In 1860 Team Etienne Lenor commercialized the 2-
stroke gas drivenengine.
In 1876, Nikolaus August Otto built the Iirst successIul
2-stroke gas driven engine.
In 1883 Gottlleb Daimler experimented with a single
cylinder engine mounted in a bicycle Irame.
Karl Benze, the German Mechanical Engineer designed
and built the World Iirst practical automobile to be
powered by an internal combustion engine in 1885,
though his earlier design was in 1879.
Air conditioned car was invented by Packard in 1940,
car radio in 1929. The Iirst saIety belt was invented in
1849 by Volvo and patented to an American, Edward
Claghom in NewYork in 1885.
Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber in 1884.
John Dunlop invented the air Iilled tire in 1888. In
1911, Phillip Strauss invented the Iirst successIul tire
with Iilled inner tube and Iinally in 1903, P.W.
LitchIield oI Goodyear company invented the Iirst
tubeless tyre (Salawu, 2008).
2.02 The Conditions Of Road Transport
Infrastructure
Road inIrastructures comprise the basic structures and
Iacilities needed Ior the operation oI vehicular
movement Irom one point to the other. The conditions
oI these road inIrastructures have a long way to go in the
determination oI saIe driving on the roads. However,
the present states oI the road inIrastructure in the
country is very deplorable. This can contribute to the
high rate oI the road accident in this part oI the world.
The road inIrastructure include road pavement, road
drainages, bridges and culverts road sign and signals.
Road pavement: The three main types oI road
pavements in the country are paved asphalted roads,
macadam roads and the unpaved earth roads.
Accordingtothe National transport policy1991, there are
Iour mainmodes oI transportationinthecountry, vis.
Roads, Airports, Railways and parts, oI these Iour, the
road mode takes a total percentage oI 86 while the
remaining three modes share just 14 oI the total
budget. In spite oI this huge amount, Nigeria roads are
still leIt in a deep state oI disrepair oI damaged sections
on almost all our major highways.
The roads are characterized with potholes; waviness
eroded sections cut away sections and blocked
drainages.
Despite the engineering principle that, good
construction and adequate maintenance oI roads
inIrastructure enhance smooth and saIe running oI
transportation system, the bodies in charge oI the road,
disregard the principles. This has always impose a high
cost on road users as well as leading to expensive
rehabilitation works coupled with dangers encountered
by the road users.
2.03 Drainage and RetainingWall
A lot oI people think that these types inIrastructural
Iacilities are less important. This is a wrong assumption.
Many roads do not have this Iacilities, those that have
are not usually well maintained as the collapsed walls
are not repaired and the blocked drains not cleared. The
geotechnical properties oI the sub-grade and sub-base
are usually aIIected by pool oI water which should have
hitherto run down the drains. The pool oI water will Iind
its way to the sub-grade/sub-base soils hence, the
process oI ingress sets in, thereby destroying the base oI
the pavement causing an early deterioration oI the road
way. This is very commoninour cities.
2.04 Bridges and Culverts
These are the types oI structure designed and built across
streams river water logged or any other obstacle to allow
easy passage oI vehicle and people alonga highway.
3.00 CAUSES OFROADACCIDENT
3.01 Road Deficiencies
The deIiciencies commonly Iind on Nigerian roads
include damages and lack oI maintenance to the
Iollowing:
1. Road surIacing.
2. Drainage, shoulder and road space.
3. Road sign and Iurniture as well as structures
such as bridges, culverts, kerbs e t c.
3.02 Damages due to one or all oI the above
inIrastructures can cause road accident. The types oI
damages include shoulder damage due to the spreading
oI vegetation; shoulder can also be damaged due to
erosion.
Side drains:- This is usually Iilled up by Iine particles
due toerosion
198
Road space:- Dangerous crossroad due to
accumulating mud. This can endanger the traIIic.
Carriage ways: Destructions due to unstable side
slope.
Road sign and furniture: Damage to road sign, guard
rail due toaccident.
* Falling pole due to accident
* Obliterated marking due to lack oI maintenance.
* Culvert partially or Iully obstructed due to
progressive ciltation.
* Exposure oI steel reinIorcement oI bridge deck.
* Exposed ReinIorcement
* Pot hole
* Generalized corrugation
* Rutting without cracks due to heavy axle load with
twin wheels and wheel track rutting and cracking.
* Rutting without cracks rutting with crack
* Others are depression
* Cracks due to shrinkage oI base/sub-base.
* Edge distress with shoulder deIormation.
* Bleeding in wheel tracks.
From the above types oI damages or deIiciencies due to
lack oI maintenance, most accident do occur especially
in the night when motorists would not see Iar ahead the
impending dangers.
Poor road design/construction. This could be due to
poor vertical and horizontal alignment coupled with
poor construction like lack oI proper road camber where
necessary along the highway. This can cause skidding
due to the pull oI centripetal Iorce.
Poor constructional materials and poor workmanship
are all responsible Ior early deteriorations oI the road
ways.
3.03 Human Causes Human causes oI Road TraIIic
Accident RTAare due to the Iollowing Iactors:-
* Drunkenness and Drug use.
* High Illiteracy level.
* Not keeping to traIIic rules and regulations
such as saIe driving distance.
* Lack oI adequate rest by driver and physical
impairment, such as bad eye sight.
* Check points.
* Recklessness and over-speeding.
* Dangerous overtaking especially at bends
crests unbroken line sections.
* Other road users such as motor cyclists.
Bicycle riders and pedestrians.
According to a recently released journal AIrican
Technical Review cited by Salawu (2008) it described
Nigeria as the most dangerous country in terms road oI
hazards. The statistical data supplied by the Nigerian
Police command, the road Iatalities recorded aIter
independence in1960 is as Iollows:
1960-1969 - 18,748 personkilleddue toroad accident
While 104, 825 persons were injured.
1970-1979 - 57,136 killed while 209,089 injured.
1980-1987 - 78,783 killedwhile 208,600injured.
Fatal death recorded 154,667
Total injured recorded 522,514
Total actuality recorded 677,181
This recording is within a period oI 28 years, the
unrecorded accidents not inclusive.
Vehicularcauses
Another aspect to be considered Ior road accident is the
vehicle itselI.
The mechanically made equipment may develop a Iault
at point and at any time. The Iirst motor accident that
occurred in 1771, which rammed into a wall might be
due to poor trial design interms oI the braking system.
Poor design oI the vehicle itselI can cause accident take
Ior instance, iI the observation mirrors are not well
located.
Another point is tyre busting on a very high speed. For a
long time packed vehicles or imported Iairly used
vehicle which might have expired or deIective. Sudden
Engine Iailure along the roads may be due to lack oI
proper service or poor maintenance.
Accident prevention in Nigeria roads. Having
enumerated the three major causes oI roadaccident via.
(a) Human.
(b) Road Condition.
(c) Vehicle itselI.
The Iaults oI the above three aspects have caused a lot oI
accidents Irom minor toIatal accident.
The Iollowingantidotes are hereby recommended.
Defensive Driving:- DeIensive driving can be
adopted by drivers willing to avoidaccident.
The principle oI deIensive driving is that you, as a driver
realizes and accept the Iact that every other road user
posses a potential threat to you and that you in turn, are a
potential threat to all other road user is Iundamental to
199
practice oI deIensive driving, hence, the philosophy
behind deIensive driving is to reduce these potential
threats to 'saIe' level all the time.
One oI the most crucial aspects oI it is to avoid a
situation where your saIety depends mainly on the
response oI another driver or vehicle. For instance iI
you think you may have enough time to over take a
vehicle and even iI the time is not enough, the other
driver will move away Ior you when you are in danger
oI an on-coming vehicle. This means that you should
never take the response oI another driver Ior granted.
Always anticipate a possible danger Ior instance
when driving in a built up area, children or animal may
cross suddenly.
Always give other road users correct adequate and
advance inIormation about your intentions use correct
light signal.
Always merge with the traIIic Ilow as much as
possible that is, iI you are driving a ricketting vehicle or
trunk with low speed, move away Irom Iast lane where
we have Iast moving vehicles. Likewise, iI the general
speed limit is not high on that road say 40km. do not let
your maximum speed be higher simply because you
have a Iast moving vehicle.
Very careIul consideration should be given by a good
driver when undergoing the Iollowing activities.
(a) Overtaking.
(b) Crossing at junctions.
(c) Enteringinto traIIic Ilow.
(d) Slowing down or stopping in a traIIic stream.
Do not assume that other drivers are as skillIul,
careIul, observant and responsible as you are or that their
response will be the same as yours in any given situation.
Never develop an attitude oI conIrontation towards
any road situation but adapt to it, likewise, do not let the
behavior oI other road user annoy you so much that you
also loose concentration in which case you might drive
in such as way as it will annoy other road user or even
cause an accident. Some driver can so much annoy you
to extent that you will rain abuses on him. Reasons why
clergy men are not allowed to drive.
Never assume anything that you cannot see Ior
yourselI. For instance, do not accept invitation to
overtake when the truck driver or his motor boy passes
you to overtake. Without you seeing Iar distance called
overtaking distance.
Always be prepared Ior unexpected and non-signal
stopping.
Always drive at your comIortable speed, note that
the Iaster you are, the more riskysituation you are.
Finally, avoid as much as possible night driving.
The signiIicant diIIerence between night and day is the
level oI general illumination.
In conclusion, iI you pursue vigorously the above
principles, you will become a saIer driver with very little
likelihood oI ever having an accident because your
driving will become saIer, and you will beneIit more
medically because a lot oI stress will be removed Irom
you at the endoI the day.
Some cases oI stress related death have occurred to
driver along highways like heart attack or death. There
was a case oI a man driving to Lagos Irom Ibadan, aIter
leaving a bad spot where a man drove roughly Ior him, he
packed besides the road put his head on the steering,
passer- by thought he was resting not knowing that he
was alreadydeadprobably due to stress.
REFERENCES
Akanbi O. G,Charles Owaba, O. E., and
oluleye, A. E. (2009), Disaster
Prevention and Management, Emerald
Group Publishing Ltd. Vol. 18. No. 4.
PP397
Cesar Quiroz and Surhid Guatan (1999), Road
Infrastructure and Economic
Development. Some Diagnostic
Indication, The World Bank,
Washington, DC.
Peden, M.; McGee, R., and Sharma, G. (2002).
The infury chart book, A Graphical
overview of the Global burden of
infuries WHO, Genwa
Peden, M.; SourIield, R.; SleeI, D.; Hyder, A;
Jarwan, E and Mathers, C. (2006).
World Report on Road Traffic Infury
Prevention, WHO, Geneva
MicrosoIt Encarta 2009, Redmond W. A.:
MicrosoIt Corporation.
National Transport Policy (1993), Federal
Ministry oI Transport, Main Document
National Rolling Plan (1994-1996).
Lagos Vol. 1.
th
Radio Nigeria, (Jan. 20 2012.) News Report
Salawu R. O. A. (2008), Fundamental
Principles of Road Safety, Oke Ade
Publisher. Ibadan.
The Nation Newspaper. ( 2011) Eighteen
people die on Road accident Nov 11,
2011
200
HUMAN RELATIONS; AVITALTOOLFOR ORGANIZATIONALPRODUCTIVITY
( Case study oI Sheraton Lagos Hotel & Towers)
ND
A PRESENTATIONAT SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGY, 2 INTERNATIONALCONFERENCE
ON SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY
BY
Metilelu Olumide Olusola
DEPT OF HOSPITALITYMGT. TECHNOLOGY
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
E-mail molumidein.com
Tel: 08023157732, 07038172003
AND
Olaniyan Sulaimon Olanrenwaju
DEPT OF LEISURE & TOURISMMANAGEMENT
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
Tel: 08089122796
ABSTRACT
The survival oI the hospitality industry is largely dependent upon the quality oI it's employee. It has become a concern
oI many companies to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills oI employees, human relations skill are critical Ior
managers at all levels, as it contribute to manager's ability to bring out the best in people. The study observed that the
manager's role in human resources management system thereIore is to institutionalize sound policies aIIecting
recruitment, selection, perIormance, training, morale, job satisIaction and development all subordinates employee.
The study concludes that organizations should develop a critical human resources management and human relations
skills toget the very best out oI all staII members.
Keywords: Human Relations, Organizational, Productivity and Human Resources.
INTRODUCTION
Human as a Iactor Ior organization productivity is the
integration oI people into a work situation which
motivates them to work together productively, co-
operatively, and with psychological and social
satisIaction.
Manager and supervisor have a leadership role to play
which requires them to maintain acceptable level oI
social interaction with their dependence including
standard job perIormance.
Human relation deal with people. One needs not to be a
psychologist to observe and understand problem and
conIusion that oIten occur in human behaviour. Aperson
purpose oI human relations can be inIluenced greatly by
his viewpoints, experience and position in a group. Each
person needs psychological knowledge and experience
to analyze the behaviors oI others.
II a person is seen to be successIul in his social
disposition, he tends to believe that he is perIect in his
human relations practice thereIore; he may not like to
work on improving it, which is not admirable. II a person
has a diIIiculty in relating to others he may believe that
the Iault lies outside him. This may be true, but oIten,
such people try to rationalize their attitude toward selI-
perIection. At any rate, whoever contributes to group
eIIort successIully may not be able to claim such success
in human relation but when individual practices this
success and Iailure caneasilybe apportioned.
History, oI course, is Iull oI strike, turnover, deliberately
restricted production, and other Iorms oI unproductive
behaviour these seems, on the surIace the belieI that
human nature is hardly a worthwhile topic Ior a practical
manto study.
Until recently there were very Iew explicit theories oI
how people at work should be managed. However, two
main methods were employed, and these implied certain
underlying assumption about human nature. One oI
these was the method oI coercion, which used the threat
oI dismissal as a means oI compelling an economically
dependent individual to behave more or less as his
employer wanted. The other was the method oI
compensation, which used the reward oI money (or
other beneIit that cost money such as insurance) as a
means oI attracting the individual towards activities,
which would help his employer.
However, human relations in industry are not the study
201
oI human behavior Ior it use, the purpose oI this study is
to help achieve better understanding and more satisIying
result Irom group eIIorts, in the working place.
The subject human relations can be looked at Irom
diIIerent viewpoint oI inters relations between Iellow
human being in the work place.
The diIIerent level could be broken down as Iollows:
Employee and employers
Workers and guest'
StaII union and management
Management and government authority
Workers and suppliers
Within Iellow employees, that is, colleagues,
subordinates and superiors.
As a member oI staII in a hotel, there must be good
communication link between the organization structures
since much time will be spent on working hour and
interacting with guest.
In view oI this, the behavior which one exhibit in the
course oI perIorming the job is very crucial to the
achievement oI organizational objectives. The way staII
behaves to their colleagues and subordinate or even
superior will greatly inIluence their thinking and
subsequent behavior toward one another. Since we
knowthat one's attitude shapes his or her behaviour, it is
important that one should be mindIul oI the attitudes
he/she is Iorming.
Along the same line, the way one answer question Irom
and treat outsiders in the course oI perIorming his work
will aIIect their thinking and behavior towards him and
his department as a whole.
OB1ECTIVES OFTHESTUDY
The objectives oI this paper research are to:
1. Observe whether good human relations help to
increase the level oI eIIiciency and productivity.
2. To ascertain the importance oI human relations
towards achieving organizational goal in the
hotel with particular reIerence to Sheraton
Lagos hotel and Towers.
3. To recommend whether human relations helps
employees to get along with each other.
4. To determine whether human relations helps
employees to get along with their guest so as to
encourage them in patronizing the hotel again.
5. It will also decide how human relations can
aIIect the relationship between;
Superior
Colleagues
Subordinates
Guest and public at large
MATERIALS ANDMETHOD
The study was carried out in Lagos speciIically at
Victoria Island under Eti - Osa Local Government. Guest
and staII oI Sheraton Lagos hotel and towers are the main
respondent to the study, 100 questionnaires were
distribute and collected back Irom them aIter which their
opinions were compared. Questionnaire and personal
interview were conducted among the respondent. The
questionnaires were designedtocollect data Irom:
Employees
CompanyoIIicials
Customer / guest
Based on the inIormation gotten Irom the questionnaire,
a pre-tested structural interviewwas also used to collect
more data Irom the respondents chosen under the hotel
survey.
RESULTS ANDFINDINGS
Based on the response Irom customer and staII oI the
hotel establishment, the administration responses on
questionnaires, on Human Relations: a vital tool Ior
Organizational productivity.
The Iollowing Iindings were made:
1. Good human relations when properly
implemented among staII in the hotel will
promote good working environment that will
make the employees in diIIerent levels put their
best on the joband toenhance productivity.
2. When workers put their best on the job, the level
oI turnover will deIinitely increase, their
eIIiciency rate will increase positively and
proIitability will be enhances.
3. When personnel in establishment operate at
their best, customer's satisIaction will be
enhanced and customers will be motivated to
return on increase patronage because customer
re-visit only when theyhave value Ior money.
4. Good customer staII relations will reIlect a
quality image on the hotel establishment, the
hotel will gain more recognition and it will
positivelyaIIect the level oI productivity.
Determinatitinuous patronage? From the Iinding
analysis, 30 oI the respondent said the hotel name
202
motivate their continuous patronage whileon oI what
could motivate the customer con 60 said value Ior
moneymotive their continuous patronage.
Determination on whether good human relations among
hotel could boost customer's satisIaction? 94 oI the
respondent agrees that good human relations among
hotel staII could boost customers' satisIaction while 4
disagree.
It should be noted that man does not work Ior material
gratiIication oI liIe alone, most especially money hence
too much emphasis should not be placed on money as
sole source oI motivation.
It is important that employees derive satisIaction Irom
their job, so that this would increase productivity
because iI employees receive above average level oI
satisIaction Irom the management, this would make the
employees to be happy with their job, which will make
the job easier. And also the zeal would be there at all
times.
CONCLUSION
This study has revealed the human relations; as a vital
tool Ior business promotion. It is the study oI human
behavior at work or an eIIort to take action in producing
better result. A human relation tries to achieve three
things namely:
1. To make people more productive
2. To gain satisIaction Irom existing relationship.
3. To get co-operation through mutual interest.
However, the Iundamental concept oI human relations
include mutual, interest, individual diIIerence,
motivation and human dignity. There is need to study
and understand human behavior. The objectives oI
human relations includes: Creation oI group harmony,
to provide Ior viable work environment, to minimize
labour turn over, to increase level oI productivity, to
eliminate conIlict situations among individual, to
increase the level oI eIIiciency and to increase Ieelings
oI individual selI worth Ireedom to express himselI i.e.
recognition Ior his ability.
Also there must be a good public image oI the
organization in the way they deal with their customer is
being maltreated, he will not patronize the organization,
andthat might aIIect the organization goals.
In any organization, where there is good human relation,
there is always an environment oI good repot, peace and
unity. ThereIore, human relation is very essential Ior
hotel business promotion.
RECOMMENDATION
Business organization typically comprises oI people
with diIIerent perception, drives, desires, interest,
aspiration and motives. ThereIore, it could be said the
human beings are diIIerent Irom each other. There is the
need to understand and study each other to be able to get
along with one another. ThereIore, I have the Iollowing
recommendation tomake.
Leaders must not be selI-centered, they must bear in
mind the needs oI staII, thus will spur the subordinate to
give voluntarily a little or extra to the job.
To improve the needs oI their staII as they are the greatest
Iactors oI production.
Hotel staII must be sent Ior training on human relations to
improve relationship between his subordinates and also
withtheir guests.
There should be eIIective and Iree Ilow oI
communication between the management, staII and
guest or customers.
Employees must attend to customer/guest on time, and
must be polite, cheerIul, respective and courteous when
dealing with guest. They should always accept Irom time
totime that customer is always right.
REFERENCES
nd
Andrew 1. D (1962): Human relation at work,(2 Ed)
NewYork, Macmillan
nd
Baer E. (1079): The Sensitive people in business, (2
Ed) London, Edward Arnold
nd
Davis K. (1962): Human relation at work ( 2 Ed),New
York, McGraw Hill
Fagboungbe Longe (1993): Industrial psychology in
Nigeria Perspective, Lagos Kole consult
nd
Fred 1. C (1988): Human relations in business, (2 Ed)
Pittsburg, University OI Pittsburg
th
1oe K. (1989): Organizational behavior (5 Ed), New
York, Prentice Hall
Nancy H. (2003): Human relation Theory (1st Ed)
Macmillan & The Iree press NewYork
Nikolas R. (2003): Conventional textbook ( pg 44)
University oI Alabama press
Bello S. A. Etal (2009): PublicAdministration system in
Nigeria, (RevisedEd) Kotleb consult, Lagos.
203
Study on the participatory role of isolated organisms in biodeteoriation of cassava flour
ODETUNDE, S.K. 1 and L. O. ADEBA1O 2
Lagos State Polytechnic Department of Science Laboratory- Microbiology unit.
Abstract
An investigation was carried out to study in the participatory role oI isolated organisms in biodeteriaotion oI cassava
Ilour cassava Ilour was s obtained Irom six diIIerent states, Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Kwara, and Kano within
Nigeria. The bacterial isolates were, identiIied as Flavobacterium sp, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, B.
polymyxia, B. cereus and Escherichia coli, while the Iungal isolates include Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Fusarium
oxyporumand Rhi:opus sp. Deteriorative experiments on the cassava Ilour Irom various locations using the identiIied
isolated strains were carried out on weekly basis revealed a gradual Iall in the weight oI the cassava Ilour samples and
accompanied by changes in the coloration oI the Ilour. The signiIicance oI the various microorganisms and its relation
to biodeteriorative and health implications is discussed inline withthe current Iindings.
Introduction
Cassava is a single species, Manihot esculenta Crantz
(symnonymous with Manihot utilisima Pohl.). It is a
dicotyledonous plant belonging to the Iamily oI
Euphorbiceae (Onwueme, 1978). Cassava is believed to
have originated in Northern Brazil with likelihood oI an
additional center oI origin in Central America (Rogers,
1963). It has spread to various parts oI the world and it is
today cultivated in all tropical regions oI the world, thus
0 0
it is a tropical crop grown between 30 N and 30 S oI the
equator in areas with an annual rainIall oI 750 1300mm
0
and mean temperature oI greater than 20 C (Mayhem
and Penny, 1988; Indira et al., 1997). Cassava is a single
species, Manihot esculenta Crantz (symnonymous with
Manihot utilisima Pohl.). It is a dicotyledonous plant
belonging to the Iamily oI Euphorbiceae (Onwueme,
1978). Cassava is believed to have originated in
Northern Brazil with likelihood oI an additional center
oI origin in Central America (Rogers, 1963). It has
spread to various parts oI the world and it is today
cultivated in all tropical regions oI the world, thus it is a
0 0
tropical crop grown between 30 N and 30 S oI the
equator in areas with an annual rainIall oI 750 1300mm
0
and mean temperature oI greater than 20 C (Mayhem
and Penny, 1988; Indira et al., 1997). Most cassava is
consumed rawor as a snack when the plant is still young.
Recently, the crop has become tremendously important
industrially Ior production oI livestock Ieed, starch,
textile, industrial alcohol and Ior the manuIacture oI
cassava Ilour, macaroni variety oI Iood and beverage
(FAO, 1991 and IITA. 2005).In Nigeria, cassava is
grown in both southern and northern parts oI the country.
The vernacular names are 'ege in Yoruba, 'rogo in
Hausa, 'akpu in Igbo language.
Cassava is grown almost entirely within the tropics
(including the arid and semi arid tropics). In Nigeria, it
grows well even in the Iar North including the Southern
and Northern parts oI Sudan savannah vegetative zones
(Oyenuga, 1967). Now cassava is in more than 39
countries in AIrica including Nigeria, Benin, Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Republic
Democratic oI Congo and Mosambique (Oyewole,
2002). The wide spread cultivation and acceptance is as a
result oI its draught and poor soil tolerance, ease oI
cultivation and cheap planting materials (IITA, 1990).
Perishability and toxicity are major limiting Iactors in
cassava utilization as a Iood. Cassava, being a highly
perishable crop does not allow it Ior long term storage
(Kwatia,1986). The high perishability oI cassava is due
to its rapid physiological deterioration which occurs
within 2 3 days aIter harvest, (Beech et al., 1994)
physiological deterioration is Iollowed within 5 7 days
by microbial deterioration and root tissues soItening.
Cassava roots contain 30 40 dry matter, which is
mainly starch and sugar (carbohydrate). They also
contain signiIicant amount oI vitamin C oI about 35mg
per 100 Iresh weight. The amount oI protein in cassava is
very low, about 1 3 and probably because oI this
kwashiokor is believed to be prevalent in areas where
cassava is the staple item oI the diet. The main amino
acids presents in cassava protein are arginine, histidine,
isoluecine and lysine. Cassava is deIicient in sulphur
amino acid. Cassava also contains 10 490 per kg oI
cyanogenic glucoside.
Cassava is generally used directly Ior human
consumption in the producer countries where it is
processed on a small scale. The sweet varieties are simply
boiled, but the bitter varieties need Iurther processing.
Both varieties are prepared in various ways to make gari,
lafun, tapioca, attieke, chikwuangue or fufu and kwako
(Pierre, 1989). Other Iermented cassava products are
kunkun (cassava bulk), agbelima, akpu, leading (cassava
rice), kpokpo gari, pukuru, beer, alcohol, cassareep,
vinegar and cassava Ilour. Furthermore, unIermented
products obtained Irom cassava include kekonte, starch,
pellets and chips.
Booth (1976), reported that the microbial deterioration oI
cassava was due to the activities oI complex Iungi, such
as Phythium, Mucor, Rhi:ophus and Penicillium as well
as some bacteria, Bacillus and Xanthomonas spp. During
processing the cell structural integrity is usually lost, and
the cyanogenic glucosids come in contact with limarase
thus initiating the Iormation oI Hydrogen Cyanide. Since
204
Iood processing usually include heating, the HCN produced is likely to evaporate completely (Bokanga, 1996).
Various Nigeria daily newspapers reported in 1989 that cassava consumption had introduced acute intoxication while
diseases oI endermic and epidemic proportion have been reported in scientiIic literature (Nestle, 1973). Traditionally,
cassava roots are processed into diIIerent products according to local customs and preIerences (Hahn, 1987). Cassava
processing methods involve peeling, crushing, milling, slicing, and grating. Removal oI water by pressing, decanting,
sun and smoke drying or Irying, Fermentation by soaking in water, stocking or sedimentation; sieving and cooking,
boilingor steaming. DiIIerences in combinations oI these activities result in diIIerent product (Nweke, 1994).
Materials and Methods
Samples Collection: Atotal oI nine (9) samples oI cassava Ilour were collected Irom six (6) diIIerent states:- Lagos,
Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Kwara and Kano respectively:- One gram (1g) each oI cassava Ilour sample was weighed separately
inside sterile heat resistant glass tube. Ten milliliters oI sterile water was added to each cassava Ilour sample to dissolve
the sample. An homogenizer was used to ensure Ior proper mixing together beIore serial dilution oI each sample into
10 2 8
various sterilized screw cap test tube up to 10 dilution. From an appropriate dilution oI 10 to 10 , 1m oI each was
then inoculatedontothe Iollowing media as shown below.
Isolation of the associated microorganisms
One gram (1g) each oI cassava Ilour sample was weighed separately inside sterile heat resistant glass tube. Ten
milliliters oI sterile water was added to each cassava Ilour sample to dissolve the sample. An homogenizer was used to
ensure Ior proper mixing together beIore serial dilution oI each sample into various sterilized screw cap test tube up to
10 2 8
10 dilution. From an appropriate dilution oI 10 to 10 , 1m oI each was then inoculated onto the Iollowing media as
shown below. The diluted sample 1ml each was spread on to prepared Nutrient Agar (oxoid) by the pour plate method in
0
order to determine the total viable counts. Incubation oI the plates was carried out at 37 C Ior 24hrs 48hrs (Harrigan
and McCance, 1982).
Table 1: Cassava floursamples analyzed and place of collection,.
SAMPLECODE Place of collection States
AVL Albakem Nig. Ent. Sango Ogun
EF Achisa Musa Muhammed Nig. Enterprises Kano
FIR Federal Institute oI Industrial
Research Oshodi Lagos
FM Flour Mill Industry Apapa Lagos. Lagos
HLI Hillinson Nig. Enterprises Ilorin Kwara
MAL Ministry oI Agriculture Oko Oba, Lagos Lagos
RS Real processing unit IIe Ibadan Road Oyo
UPS Ultimate Processing Section, Shagamu
Rd., Ikorodu Lagos
YNE Yasima Nig. Enterprises CBUIFON
Road. IIon. Osun
2 -5
The diluted samples, (10 10 ) were also spread onto the Potatoes DextroseAgar (Oxoid) with lactic acid (2.5ml in
litre) Ior inhibition oI bacteria. The pour plate method was also observed in order to determine the various yeasts and
0
moulds present in the samples. The plates were then incubated at 30 C Ior 24hrs in the case oI yeast and 4 5 days Ior
moulds (Harrigan and McCance, 1982). The organisms were enumerated and puriIied by successive streaking on Iresh
0
agar plates to get pure cultures. The slants were stored in the reIrigerator at 4 C.
Starch hydrolysis
Soluble starch was separately prepared and added to nutrient agar to give a 1 soluble starch medium. The medium
0
was sterilized at 121 CIor 15minutes. Twenty milliltres oI molten starch agar was poured into Petri dishes and allowed
0
to cool, isolates were streaked once across the surIace oI the plates and incubated at 30 CIor 48hrs. AIter incubation the
plates were Ilooded with Grams iodine the plate were observed Ior zone oI clearance.
Sugarfermentation
The sugar solutions were 1 oI glucose, galactose, maltose, arabinose, Iructose and xylose. The medium used was 1
0 0
peptone water, glucose and Iructose solutions were sterilized at 115 C Ior 10minutes and the rest at 121 C Ior one
203
minute. Phenol red 0.1 was used as the indicator Ior
acid production. Ten milliliters oI the medium was
dispensed into test tube containing inverted Durham
tubes to detect the production oI gas by the isolates.
Identification of Fungi: Cultural characteristics
Each mould isolate was cultured on potato dextrose agar
and observed Ior the Iollowing pigmentation and
character oI the hyphae. Slide preparation oI the mould
were made, pieces oI the young mycelium Irom the
periphery oI the culture was made with a sterile
inoculating loop and put on a glass slide. The cut sections
were Ilamed brieIly to melt the agar and later stained
with lactophenol cotton blue, cover slips were placed
over them andexamined under the microscope.
Preparation of Innoculum for Biodeterioration of
Cassava Flour
Mould: From isolated growing mould 0.02g was
weighed both collectively and individually, asceptically
and was inoculated on a 2.00gms oI cassava Ilour
samples sterilized twice and incubated Ior a period oI a
month at a room temperature. It was observed weekly to
know the level oI deterioration caused by the isolated
organisms (moulds).
Bacteria: LoopIul oI bacteria colony was scrapped Irom
puriIied plates aseptically and introduced into already
twice sterilized 2.00g cassava Ilour samples individually
and collectively, in a pre-weighed sterilized glass jar and
0
it was incubated at 37 C Ior a period oI one month to
know the level oI deterioration caused by the isolated
organisms (bacteria) on the cassava Ilour sample.
Chemical Characterisation of Bacteria Isolated from
Cassava Flour
This was the method used to identiIy and classiIied the
organisms into their various species. And this was done
aIter puriIied the cultured plates into their single colony
on a newly prepared medium. The Iollowing
biochemical test were Iirst carried out namely: catalase
test, oxidase test, coagulase test, oxidation Iermentation
(aerobically and anaerobically) mobility, gelatine
hydrolyses, starch hydrolysis and casein hydrolysis, this
was Iollowed by sugar Iermentation reactions on each
isolated bacterials. The main sugar use Ior the reaction
were: lactose, arabinose, sucrose, Iructose, galactose,
maltose, xylose and Glucose and the results oI the
isolated organisms to each reaction was represented with
positive sign () and negative sign (-
Identification of Mould Isolates
The mould isolates were identiIied by initial sub
culturing as pure cultures and thereaIter stained with
lactophenol cotton blue reagent and examined under the
oil immersion objectives oI the light microscope. The
main characters employed in the identiIication oI
moulds are summarized as Iollows: Hyphae: Separate or
non separate. Mycelium: coloured or non coloured.
Types oI asexual spores, nature oI spores, presence oI
special structures such as stolon, rhizoids, and Ioot cells.
The various moulds isolated and identiIied Irom cassava
samples used Ior the analysedwere summarised.
Biodeterioration of Cassava FlourSample
The level oI biodeterioration oI isolated organisms both
on bacterial and moulds were carried out individually
and connectively Ior each organisms isolated Irom the
nine diIIerent cassava Ilour samples Ior the period oI Iive
week, to know the reduction in rates and their eIIect on
the colour changes oI the cassava Ilour samples on Table
7 and 8 data respectively.
The observation and the statistical analysis carried out
conIirmed that there was gradual reduction in weight and
the isolated organisms respond to the biodeterioration in
diIIerent ways. This reduction in weight might due to the
utilization oI the nutritive value in the cassava Ilour
samples by the isolatedorganisms.
Discussion
A total oI six (6) bacteria species were isolated. The
isolation oI Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus is an
indication oI possible health hazards (Olowoyo et al.,
2001). Escherichia coli is an indication oI possible
hazards in Iood samples although some strains are
normal inhabitants oI intestine oI man and other animals
(Frazier and WesthoII, 1994). B. cereus (a spore Iorming
organism) is widely distributed in nature and in Ioods.
Their spores have ability to withstand high temperature
and they produce enterotoxins which may cause Iood
poisoning (Olowoyo et al., 2001, Midura et al., 1990).
The aerobic spore Iorming bacteria have been
enumerated and used to investigate the quality oI cassava
Ilour 'lafun (Abba et. al., 1991). Bacillus spp can
survive and thrive on various kinds oI Ioods. Isolated
0
Bacillus spp in milk heated above 100 C, thus indicating
the ability oI their spores to withstand high temperature.
Most oI the organisms isolated might have been
introduced into the Iood samples Irom soil and water
used during processing. Among the requirements Ior
Ioods to be oI good sanitary quality is that they must be
Iree oI hazardous microorganisms or those present
should be at a saIe low level (Frazier and WesthoII,
1994). The occurrence oI lactose Iermenters such as
Esherichia coli indicate the presence oI coliIorms which
suggests a degree oI contamination with Iaecal
discharges oI human and animal (Anon, 1974, ReIai,
1979, Uriahand Izuagbe, 1990, Olowowo et al., 2001).
206
TABLE1: Participatory Roles of Isolated Moulds in Biodeterioration of Cassava FlourSample.
INCUBATION PERIOD/WEIGHT
Sample code Inoculated 0 7 14 21 28 35
organisms
AVL Fusarium spp 17.767 17.766 17.755 17.751 17.743 17.743
1
Aspergillus Ilavus 17.477 17.469 17.453 17.449 17.441 17.441
2
Aspergillus niger 17.568 17.567 17.544 17.538 17.442 17.431
3
Penicilliumspp 18.035 18.034 18.019 18.017 18.010 18.010
4
AC 17.712 17.711 17.699 17.695 17.675 17.675
EF Aspergillus niger 18.057 18.053 18.0358 18.0331 18.020 18.020
1
FIR Penicillium spp 17.910 17.903 17.868 17.861 17.860 17.854
1
Aspergillus Ilavus 17.574 17.560 17.528 17.524 17.522 17.515
2
FIR C 18.160 18.145 18.111 18.105 18.104 18.097
FM Penicillium spp 18.322 17.331 17.304 17.299 17.192 17.190
1
FM Aspergillus niger 18.306 18.298 18.279 18.275 18.177 18.175
2
Aspergillus Ilavus 17.684 17.675 17.658 17.633 17.635 17.631
3
Rhi:opus spp 18.066 18.059 18.040 18.038 18.035 18.033
4
FMC 17.811 17.800 17.779 17.774 17.773 17.772
HL Aspergillus niger 17.452 17.450 17.435 17.430 17.430 17.424
1
Rhi:opus spp 17.885 17.883 17.863 17.858 17.855 17.852
2
HLI C 18.365 18.359 18.336 18.334 18.332 18.330
MAL Aspergillus Ilavus 17.554 17.533 17.507 17.500 17.499 17.497
1
MAL Penicillium spp 17.428 17.408 17.378 17.371 17.370 17.368
2
17.578 17.564 17.525 17.516 17.515 17.513
3
Aspergillus niger 17.438 17.435 17.417 17.412 17.410 17.408
4
MAL C 17.750 17.701 17.649 17.640 17.640 17.638

RS Fusariumspp 17.980 17.959 17.920 17.911 17.910 17.907
1
Aspergillus niger 17.597 17.586 17.569 17.567 17.566 17.563
2
Aspergillus Ilavus 17.809 17.800 17.776 17.771 17.770 17.768
3
Peniccillium spp 17.627 17.575 17.507 17.494 17.490 17.488
4
RS C 17.735 17.733 17.720 17.717 17.714 17.715
UPS Aspergillus Ilavus 17.255 17.248 17.226 17.219 17.219 17.219
1
UPS Aspergillus niger 17.345 17.345 17.334 17.332 17.331 17.331
2
UPS C 17.543 17.543 17.533 17.528 17.526 17.520
YNE Aspergillus Ilavus 17.773 17.770 17.753 17.757 17.747 17.747
1
Aspergillus niger 17.863 17.861 17.846 17. 842 17.841 17.841
2
C 17.643 17.643 17.625 17.621 17.620 17.618
eight of substrate (Cassava flour) 2.00g Weight of isolated organisms 0.02g.
207
TABLE 2: PARTICIPATORYROLES OF ISOLATED ORGANISMS BACTERIA
IN BIODETERIORATION OF CASSAVAFLOUR SAMPLE
INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS)
Sample code Inoculated organisms 17/05 21/05 28/05 04/06 11/06 18/06
AVL Flavobacterium Sp 17.891 17.887 17.87 17.867 17.866 17.861
1
Flavobacterium Sp 17.770 17.760 17.735 17.730 17.730 17.722
2
Flavobacterium Sp 17.543 17.539 17.528 17.527 17.525 17.523
3
AVL C 18.059 18.046 18.019 18.015 18.014 18.007
EF Micrococcus lueus 17.702 17.664 17.590 17.580 17.577 17.569
1
Bacillus subtilis 17.834 17.809 17.774 17.768 17.766 17.761
2
Escherichia coli 17.928 17.907 17.865 17.857 17.855 17.848
3
Bacillus polymyxa 17.994 17.968 17.918 17.912 17.909 17.902
4
C 18.087 18.050 18.977 18.965 18.962 18.953
FIR Bacillus subtilis 17.8346 17.818 17.792 17.787 17.786 17.785
1
Bacillus subtilis 18.0847 18.057 18.012 18.005 18.003 17.709
2
Bacillus subtilis 17.7943 17.768 17.725 17.718 17.715 17.710
C 17.7008 17.678 17.637 17.630 17.628 17.621
FM Bacillus cereus 17. 8082 17.775 17.722 17.715 17.715
1
17.707 Bacillus cereus 17.4641 17.409 17.358 17.353 17.351 17.344
C 17.7503 17.719 17.624 17.607 17.601 17.588
HL Bacillus subtilis 18.4766 18.445 18.381 18.371 18.367 17.357
1
MAL Flavobacterium Sp 18.3750 18.341 18. 277 18.267 18.265 17.257
1
Flavobacterium Sp 17.7005 17.661 17.601 17.594 17.593 17.584
2
C 17.808 17.766 17.680 17.669 17.666 17.657
UPS Flavobacterium Sp 17.996 17.946 17.823 17.807 17.802 17.793
1
Flavobacterium Sp 17.638 17.615 17.576 17.570 17.568 17.562
2
Flavobacterium Sp 18.125 18.103 18. 073 18.069 18.068 17.061
3
Flavobacterium Sp 16.931 16.913 16.882 16.876 16.876 16.868
4
C 18.383 18.344 18. 281 18.272 18.270 17.262
YNE Flavobacterium Sp 17.728 17.711 17. 679 17.673 17.672 17.666
1
Flavobacterium Sp 17.762 17.739 17.698 17.691 17.689 17.683
2
C 17.739 17.722 17.681 17.672 17.670 17.661
Weight of substrate Cassava flour 2.00g
The most predominant moulds isolated in this investigation are Penicillium sp, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus,
Rhi:opus sp, and Fusarium sp. Kuku et al., (1984) and Abba Kareem et al .(1991), isolated similar Iungi such as
Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger Irom cassava Ilour. Species oI Aspergillus isolated in this work are
undesirable in Ioods. Some strain Aspergillus flavus have been reported to be toxin producing. These toxins are heat
stable and hence when consumed may result in Iood intoxication. Moulds are potential spoilage agents (Uriah and
Izuagbe, 1990). The genus Penicillium sp isolated in this study show one oI the three major mycotoxins producing
Iungi (Dicken and Jones, 1981, Olowoyo et al; 2001). The discoloration coupled with the oII Ilavour oI the cassava
Ilour as shown in Table 6 are due to the activities oI the inIecting mould species. Moulds are generously endowed with
extracellular proteolytic or lipolytic enzymes and so can cause soItening oI Iood products (Frazier and WesthoII, 1994,
Olowoyo, et al., 2001). Moulds growth also causes oII Ilavours in Ioods and change in appearance oI Iood have been
related to mould growth (Elmer,1990). Spores oI various species oI moulds are heavily suspended in air especially in
an untidy and unhygienic environment. These sporulating moulds thereIore easily get in contact with Ioods that are
openly displaced in baskets or bowls. The similarity in the types oI organisms isolated Irom the samples and those
reported by other workers conIirms the Iact that some oI the microorganisms are indigenous to cassava Ilour (Abba
Kareem et al. 1990). Alozie et al., (1980), have shown that Aspergillus flavus can grow and produce toxins in gari, a
cassava product. Okpokiri, et al., (1984), reported that Aspergillus have been implicated in problem oI aIlatoxicity in
cassava root meals in Thailand, Hong Kong, Brazil and India. Furthermore, Reiss, (1978), had shown that baking
0
temperature (120 C Ior 30 mins) as well as low amounts oI volatile acids in bread do not degrade aIlatoxin B to any
1
208
reasonable extent. A similar phenomenon can occur iI
cassava Ilour containing aIlatoxins is used in bread
making, with obvious consequence to the health oI the
consumers. Studies on the participatory roles oI the
mould isolates on cassava Ilour samples are as shown in
Table 7. The result revealed a gradual drastic reduction
in the weight oI the Ilour with time. This thus indicates a
rapid deterioration oI the cassava Ilour. The
deterioration may be as a result oI the utilization oI the
nutrients in the cassava Ilour Ior growth by the mould
isolates. This observation agrees with the submissions
oI Abba Kareem, et al., (1991). Studies on the
participatory roles oI bacteria isolates on cassava Ilour
samples are as shown in Table 8. The result revealed a
gradual reduction in the weight oI the cassava probably
due to the deteriorative role oI the Ilour samples. The
deterioration may be as a result oI the utilization oI the
Iood nutrients Ior growth by the bacteria species.
Conclusion
Studies carried out revealed the presence oI pathogenic
microorganisms which include bacteria species oI
Falvubacterium sp, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cerus, B.
substilis, B.polymyxia and Mixcrococus luteus. Also
pathogenic mould species which include Penicilliumsp,
Aseprgillus niger, A. flavus, Rhi:opus sp. and Fusarium
sp. were isolated Irom cassava Ilour. Contamination oI
Ilour samples by these pathogens could be eliminated by
some heat treatment and observing the necessary basic
sanitary rules oI hygiene. Also, the use oI sterilized
processing equipment should be given adequate
attention as this will go a long way at alleviating
problem associated with the presence oI these
contaminating and spoilage microorganisms.
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210
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM:-ATOOLFOR NATIONALDEVELOPMENT
BY
MRS EMUN HELEN OVOURAINI
aniemumyahoo.com
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITYMANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU, LAGOS
Sustainable tourism
'Sustainable tourism is envisaged as leading to
management oI all resources in such a way that
economic, social and aesthetic needs can be IulIilled
while maintaining cultural integrity, essential
ecological processes, and biological diversity and liIe
support systems. (World Tourism Organization).
Sustainable development implies 'meeting the needs oI
the present without compromising the ability oI Iuture
generations to meet their own needs (World
Commission onEnvironment and Development, 1987).
Sustainable tourism can be seen as having regard to
ecological and socio-cultural carrying capacities and
includes involving the community oI the destination in
tourism development planning. It also involves
integrating tourism to match current economic and
growth policies so as to mitigate some oI the negative
economic and social impacts oI 'mass tourism'. Murphy
(1985) advocates the use oI an 'ecological approach', to
consider both 'plants' and 'people' when implementing
the sustainable tourism development process. The is in
contract to the 'boosterism' and 'economic' approaches
to tourism planning, neither oI which considers the
detrimental ecological or sociological impacts oI
tourism development to a destination.
However, Butler questions the exposition oI the term
'sustainable' in the context oI tourism, citing its
ambiguity and stating that 'the emerging sustainable
development philosophy oI the 1990s can be viewed as
an extension oI the broad realization that a
preoccupation with economic growth without regard to
it social and environment consequences is selI-
deIeating in the long term. Thus 'sustainable tourism
development' is seldom considered as an autonomous
Iunction oI economic regeneration as separate Irom
general economic growth.
Tourism
Nigeria is endowed with a wealth oI rich varied human,
natural and cultural resources which are great asset to
the country's tourism development. However despite
the growth oI international tourismand its importance
in developing countries, in Nigeria the tourism
industry has not grown significantly. Peace and
stability are important prerequisites to tourism
development. The political instability, crime and ethno-
religious disputes in Nigeria have been a major
impediment to tourism development. Tourism, iI based
on the principles and good practices honed through
ecotourism, could be a power toll that would reduce the
country's dependence on oil. This type oI socially and
environmentally responsible tourism could also reduce
national instability by helping to create wealth, bridge
cultural diIIerences, Ioster peace among the diIIerent
ethic and religion groups, and develop rural
communities.
Tourism is travel Ior recreational, leisure or business
purposes. The World Tourism Organization deIines
tourists as people 'traveling to and staying in places
outside their usual environment Ior not more than one
consecutive year Ior leisure, business and other
purposes.
Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In
2010, there were over 940 million international tourist
arrivals, with a growth oI 6.6 as compared to 2009.
International tourism receipts grew to US$919 billion
(euro 693 billion) in 2010, corresponding to an increase
in real terms oI 4.7. As a result oI the late 2000s
recession, international travel demand suIIered a strong
slowdown beginning in June 2008, with growth in
international tourism arrivals worldwide Ialling to 2
during the boreal summer months. This negative trend
intensiIied during 2009, exacerbated in some countries
due to the outbreak oI the HINI inIluenza virus, resulting
in a worldwide decline oI 4 in 2009 to 880 million
international tourists' arrivals, and an estimated 6
decline in international tourism receipts.
Tourism is important and in some cases vital Ior many
countries, such as France, Egypt, Greece, Lebanon,
Israel, United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, and
Thailand, and many island nations, such as The
Bahamas, Fiji, Maldives, Philippines and the
Seychelles: it brings in large amounts oI income in
payment Ior goods and services and creates
opportunities Ior employment in the service industries
associated with tourism. These service industries
include transportation services, such as airlines, cruise
ships and taxicabs; hospitality services, such as
accommodations, including hotels and resorts; and
211
entertainment venues, such as amusement parks,
casinos, shopping malls music venues and theatres.
Tourism sectorcomprises the following:
a. Travel agency
b. Tour operations
c. Transport systems
d. Local craIts
e. Parks and other site attractions
I. Recreational Iacilities
g. Complex Iair ground, conIerences and
exhibitions in fiestas
Etymology
Theobald (1994) suggested that 'etymologically, the
word tour is derived Irom the Latin, 'tornare' and the
Greek, 'tornos', meaning 'a lathe or circle; the
movement around a central point or axis'. This
meaning changed in modern English to represent 'one's
turn'. The suIIix ism is deIined as 'an action or process;
typical behaviour or quality', while the suIIix-list
denotes 'one that perIorms a given action'. When the
word tour and the suIIixes-ism and ist are combined,
they suggest the action oI movement around a circle.
One can argue that a circle represents a starting point,
which ultimately returns back to its beginning.
ThereIore, like a circle, a tour represents a journey in
that it is a round-trip, i.e., the act oI leaving and then
returning to the original starting point, and thereIore,
one who takes such a journey can be called a tourist.
In 1941, Hunziker and KrapI deIined tourism as people
who travel 'the sum oI the phenomena and
relationships arising Irom the travel and sty oI non-
residents, insoIar as they do not lead to permanent
residence and are not deIinition was: 'Tourism is the
temporary, short-term movement oI people to
destination outside the places where they normally live
and work and their activities during the stay at each
destination. It includes movements Ior all purposes.
In 1981, the international Association oI ScientiIic
Experts in tourism deIined tourism in terms oI
particular activities selected by choice and undertaken
outside the home.
In 1994, the United Nations classiIied three Iorms oI
tourism in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics:
O Domestic tourism, involving residents oI the
given country traveling only within this country.
O Inbound tourism, involving non-residents
traveling in the given country.
O Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling
inanother country.
O World tourism statistics and rankings.
O Most visitedcountriesbyinternational tourist arrivals
O Mainarticle: World Tourism rankings.
In 2010, there were 940 million international tourist
arrivals, with a growthoI 6.6as compared to 2009.
The World Tourism Organization reports the Iollowing
ten countries as the most visited in terms oI the number
oI international travelers. In 2010, China overtook
Spain to become to become the third most visited
country. Most oI the top visited countries continue to
be those in Europe, Iollowed by a growing number oI
Asian countries.
Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts oI
the world, to see great buildings, works oI art, learn new
languages, experience new cultures and to taste
diIIerent cuisines. Long ago, at the time oI the Roman
Republic, places such as Baizes were popular coastal
resorts Ior the rich. The word tourist was used by 1772
and tourism by 1811. in 1936, the League oI Nations
deIined Ioreign tourist assomeone traveling abroad Ior
at least twenty-Iour hours. Its successor, the United
Nations, amended this deIinition in 1945, by including
a maximum stayoI six months.
Sustainable tourism will create opportunity Ior people
tovisit the country.
Accordingtothe Secretary General oI UNWTO.
'The one billioninternational tourists expectedto travel
this year are a vital Iorce Ior economic growth and
social welIare said UNWTO Secretary-General, Taleb
RiIai, openingITB(BerlinGermany, 6 March 2012).
'By the end oI 2012, one seventh oI the world's
population will have crossed international borders as
tourist in a single year; said my RiIai in his key note
speech at the oIIicial openingoI ITB.
This 'extraordinary number will contribute to more
jobs, higher income possibilities and countless less
opportunity Ior development, so critical at this time oI
economic uncertainly, he added. 'With growth comes
responsibility Mr.RiIai conIirm. Tourism, iI properly
planned and managed, can be one oI the most promising
sectors Ior achieving a more economically,
environmentally and socially sustainable Iuture.
Again Mr. RiIai continues in his statement imagine how
business models would be transIormed iI one billion
people demanded sustainable practices Irom hotels and
tour operators. Imagine howmany would beneIit iI one
billion people bought local produce or hired a local
guide. These are small actions, but given the size oI our
sector, their impact would be huge. ReIerring to the
challenges Iacing international tourism as it reaches on
billion; the Secretary General spoke oI the many people
still Iacingbarriers to travel.
212
Complicated, lengthy and overpriced entry Iormalities
are making it extremely diIIicult Ior tourist, especially
Iorm emerging economics which are leading growth in
terms oI out bound markets, to travel, Mr. RiIai, added
that obstacles such as burdensome visa processes are not
just a barrier to travelers, but to growth, job creation and
Iree trade.
The Secretary-General called on the Tourism sector to
unite around the issue oI travel Iacilitation as a means to
stimulate demand and, as a result create jobs, travel
Iacilitation must top our agenda and we must speak
together on this, iI we are to be heard at the highest levels
oI decision-making 'he said. It is in this belieI that
UNWTO has joined the voices oI the sector such as the
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). The
International Air Transport Association (IATA), and the
World Economic Forum (WEF) to advance this
important issue.
OI recent Nigeria have catch the Iire oI sustainable
tourism according to the organizer oI Abuja Bantaba
th
written by Wale Olapade on Wednesday 30 May, 2012
been the second edition oI the programme have this to
say. 'The second edition oI the Abuja Bantaba has gain
strengthened the northern travel & tourism market as the
one day Iair earned the organizer a prospect us to
prepare Ior the year ahead.
The eIIorts put together by the organizer oI Abuja
Bantaba to rally tourism and travel exhibitors, trade
buyers, sellers, visitors and the public and private sector
to a day speed dating event was also adjudged by
participant as a plate Iorm to promote the businesses oI
tourism stakeholders in Abuja viaAIrica to the world.
Despite the UK and US intelligence report oI a
suspected plan by Boko Haram to bomb big hotels in the
Federal capital Territory, Abuja, which ignited last
minute withdrawal oI some international exhibitors, the
nd
Abuja a Bantaba in its 2 year has doubled the success oI
st
the 1 edition, which broke the jink oI travel trade in
Abuja.
Indeed, the event recorded patronage oI prominent
Iederal government, state, private and corporate
stakeholders Irom Nigeria is save Ior tourism.
The event, which played host to stakeholders at the Ladi
Kwali; Hall oI the Sheraton Abuja Hotel and Tower,
recently, started with remarks by International players in
the tourism industry who did not only certiIy theATM as
a generational market Ior AIricans but also tagged iI a
signature Ior business growth and strategic
development.
With the towering trend oI Abuja Bantaba Nigeria as the
giant oI AIrica is gradually repositioning its market
platIorm to become the next destination Ior world
tourism, travel and hospitality sellers who are out to
capture genuineAIricanpatronage.
The 2012 event was a good testimony Ior the
government oI any country to practically key into the
development and strategic promotion oI tourism
because even with the Iear oI the insurgence oI the sect,
the ATM has proved that tourism is liIe, unite, rally and
create a platIorm to cross Iertilize ideas and synergise to
growthe industry.
Domestically, the Abuja Bantaba is creating a newvista
oI opportunities Ior the tourism industry in Nigeria ditto
a convergent regional market Ior AIrican to 1000 the
world to the next tourism destination.
The two-year old speed-dating and marketing round
table initiated by the organizer oI the one-stop regional
travel Iair, Akwaaba AIrica Travel market (AFTM) is
strategically establishing Iace to Iace business contact
and connection among diIIerent AIrican buyers and
sellers oI myriads oI tourism products and services.
The 2012 Bantaba, hosted at a time when section oI the
northern Nigeria were trying to recover Irom an
unprecedented and incessant boom scare top
personalities Irom Nigeria adAIrica at the one day event
have described the plate Iorm as tourism market that will
growbeyond its shore.
SUGGESTIONANDRECOMMENDATION
Tourism is a factorof sustainable development
All the stakeholder in tourism development should
saIeguard the natural environment with a view to
achieving sound, continuous and sustainable economic
growth geared to satisIying equitably the needs and
aspirations oI present and Iuture generations;
All Iorms oI tourism development that are conductive to
saving rare and precious resources, in particular water
and energy, as well as avoiding so Iar as possible waste
production, should be given priority and encouraged by
national, regional and local public authorities;
The staggering in time and space oI tourist and visitor
Ilows, particularly those resulting Irom paid leave and
school holidays, and a more even distribution oI
holidays should be sought so as to reduce the pressure oI
tourism activity on the environment and enhance its
beneIicial impact on the tourism industry and the local
economy;
213
Tourism inIrastructure should be designed and tourism activities/programmed in such a way as to protect the
natural heritage composed oI ecosystems and biodiversity and to preserve endangered species oI wildliIe;
the stakeholders in tourism development, and especially proIessionals, should agree to the regions coaster
area tropical Iorests or wetlands, propitious to the creation oI nature reserves or protected area;
Nature tourism and ecotourism are recognized as being particularly conducive to enriching and enhancing
the standing oI tourism, provided they respect the natural heritage and local populations and are in keeping
with the carrying capacity oI the sites;
REFERENCES
African Hospitality (2004), vol 1 No 1 pg 22-25, pg 27 -30.
African Hospitality and Tourism (2007), vol. 11 No. 3 pg 18-26
Butterworth Heinemann OxIord Huckland Boston Johannesburg
Davidson c.l.(1993) The business oI Tourism NewYork U.S.A. vol.2
Dawao D.N(2001) Development oI Tourism Igaco city ELBS Publications.
Deborah S.C.(2003), Exploitation oI Tourism London ABS Publication
1ohn O.F(2001) Travel and Tourism the Road ahead in AIrica, keystoneTourism promotion publication
1ohn Swarbrooke and Susan Horner, (1999). Consumer behaviour in Tourism
Kotler, P., Bowen, 1.T. and Makens, 1.C. (1996) Marketing Ior Hospitality and Tourism, Pearson
Education International, Prentice Hall, Canada.
Law, E. (1991) Tourism Marketing, Service and Quality Management Perspective, Stanley Thornes,
Leckhampton.
Magaji, B.M. (2005) Hotel and catering law. Badmus print Ltd. Kaduna, Nigeria.
Olumide O. Metilelu (2002). Principles and Practice oI Tourism. OMWpublisher Pp 4-7, 129-133
Owualah S. (2002) Entrepreneurs Lecture not Irom University oI Lagos www.ogunstate.gov.ng
www.google.com
www.oecd.org/document9/0,3746,en
214
GPS SYSTEM HUMAN TRACKING: ASOLUTION TO KIDNAPPING
EBOLEALPHAF.,
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
E-mail: alphaechoeyahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Nigeria's Niger Delta region has attracted global attention over the years, the region harbors one oI the largest world's
oil reserves which constitutes the engine room oI Nigeria's economy through Ioreign exchange earning and revenue
generation to the government and has witnessed various Iorms oI militancy, violence and crime, including kidnapping.
Kidnapping is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria, and has been ongoing since the early 1990s. Hostages have been
taken Ior two primary reasons: Political bargaining and economic gain. The use oI this tactic has not been entirely
political in nature, as there are reports oI signiIicant reason pigments which have been used to Iund the activities oI
these groups Iurther. The tactic has proven so lucrative that a number oI criminal groups appear to have taken on the
task in order to make money. Kidnapping have become a common occurrence in Niger Delta. In some cases, hostages
have been held Ior over a month without any traces oI where hostages are kept or the hideout oI the Iamous kidnappers
group. This paper explore the crime oI kidnapping in the region and how GPS (Global positioning Satellite) can help
combat crime oI Kidnapping in that region by using satellites in space as reIerence points Ior locating position on earth
and the distance Irom the satellite to earth is measured by calculating the time it takes Ior a radio wave to travel Irom the
satellite to the receiver oI GPS.
INTRODUCTION
Kidnapping poses a number oI deIinitional problems in
relations to a country's legal and moral view point as
well as the availability oI other various such as hostage
taking and hijacking. Kidnapping is a very serious crime
and it is relatively unheard just as many other crimes as
robbery, burglary and other Iorms oI societal crime. The
most unIortunate thing is that the perpetrators oI this
crime are more like a ghost because our security system
has Iailed in that regard. My motivation Ior this paper is
to explore the social problem oI kidnapping in its
various Iorms as a prelude to a more empirical study and
join in the course oI Iinding and listing solution to
kidnapping in Nigeria so our people ones again can
sleepwiththeir two eyes closed.
PREVIOUS WORK
Early version oI kidnapping were believed to be part oI a
wider liberation called the movement Ior the
Emancipation oI Niger Delta (MEND) Ior the
development oI the state. It was then an activity with no
monetary attachment as the key motivation Iactor and in
most cases part oI the outcome oI conIrontation between
MEND and oil interests or the Federal Government oI
Nigeria (FGN). The key grievances oItentimes
advanced by MEND Ior such conIrontations involved
three closely interrelated but analytically distinct issues
namely: 1 ) that all laws relating to oil exploration and
land ownership be abrogated to give the locals more
empowerment to have control oI their resources: 2) that
the issue oI natural resource control and selI
determination be recognized and operationalized as
cardinal principles Ior the protection oI their minority
status,
3. That appropriate institutional and Iinancial
arrangements be put in place Ior the development as well
as addressing the numerous environmental problems
associated with oil exploration and exploitation in oil
producing communities in Nigeria Delta. This reIusal or
inabilities oI the FGN to respond to these demands have
been at the core oI MEND's liberation struggle. These
struggles have historical roots in Isaac Adaka Boro and
Ken Saro Wiwa's earlier concerns and struggles Ior
resource control and environmental justice. Apart Irom
the Twelve day Revolution that was led by Isaac Boro,
against the FGNin 1966, Its is popularly believed that the
th
execution oI Ken Saro Wiwa by the FGN on the 10
November, 1995, has played key and Iundamental role in
Iostering MEND's strength and determination Ior such
liberation Iights. More so, government's Policies that
promote economic and environmental injustices against
the people oI the Nigeria Delta have also been responsible
Ior MEND's liberation Iights. Such policies include the
obnoxious and controversial land use decree and revenue
allocation policies oI government, which have tended to
place the oil rich regions in serious developmental and
environmental disadvantages (AkpanandAkpabio2003).
Kidnapping has come to play important role in such
Iights over the years. Initially, it could go without
ransom (iI the sources oI Iinance are guaranteed by their
sponsors) but these days, some Iinancial demands are
made beIore release could be aIIected. Such ransom
seems to be useIul in Iunding the organized groups
involved. From the cases cited above, target kidnappers
are Ioreign oil company workers, although key
government oIIicials have been targeted these days as a
direct conIrontationwiththe FGN.
213
There is no denying the Iact that militants in the Niger
Delta have demonstrated the ability to destroy large
parts oI the oil production Iacilities in the country and
some oI them have hereby taken to kidnapping as a way
oI getting back at the government or even satisIying
their own selIish desires. The undeniable Iact is that,
no strategy has been able to combat the crime oI
kidnappingin the region.
DiIIerent reports on kidnapping in Nigeria have been
written, but the most unIortunate thing about all these
reports is that they only remain reports. None oI these
reports whatsoever has proIIered a meaningIul solution
to this horrible crime perpetrated by criminals.
CONTRIBUTIONOFTHEPAPER
Incidence oI kidnapping in the Niger Delta has posed
many implications on the economy and the general
developmental eIIorts oI the region in part particular
and the Nigerian nation in general. As most
kidnappings involve Ioreign workers and development
partners, the eIIect on the economy is very enormous as
it scares away potential development partners and robs
the state oI the beneIit oI such development alliances
and opportunities.
The spread oI kidnapping as a business itselI has to do
with long period oI governmental neglects oI the
region, causing its people to aggressively adopt
militant conIrontation in a bid to Iorce government
attention to the plight oI the region. At the moment
various levels oI government have stepped up
developmental attention in the region in a bid to curb
the rising incidence oI the crime. However, the problem
lies in how political committed is the Federal
Government oI Nigeria on these developmental
interest. The paper believes that the Niger Delta
problem deserves serious governmental attention. The
current eIIorts oI government are welcome, but such
eIIorts will not be successIul without genuine
stakeholder participation and involvements.
Available development agencies Ior the region should
be strictly monitored to stem the rising case oI
corruption that has always been the hallmark oI such
agencies, e.g the Niger Delta Development
Commission (NDDC). Doing these will help to build
the capacities oI every stakeholders as well as engaging
them in meaningIul developmental activities.
This paper will give an overview oI development
implications oI kidnapping on the state economy and
how human tracking using GPS (Global positioning
satellite) can help combat the crime oI kidnapping in
that region.
GPS reIers to Global Positioning system, an electronic
satellite based system. The service is oIIered by the US
department oI deIense that has launched 24 satellites
into orbit above the earth to provide satellite based
navigation system. ITwas a system originally intended
Ior military applications beIore being made available
Ior civilians use in the 1980s. The GPS transmits signal
inIormation to the earth at all times, in any weather and
to any place on earth. GPS receivers use this
inIormation to calculate the user's exact location which
is displayedon the units map.
It is much saIer to use a GPS device than a map Ior the
electronic device is automated and lets the driver Iocus
on the road instead oI the map. The popularity oI the
system is due to the Iact that people who travel long
distances to get home or work are provided with the
shortest routes that can avoid highways Ior example.
People who buy items Irom estate or yard sales do not
have to keep Iollowing conIusing signs. All they do is
plugging in the address and get there in the shortest time
possible. For travelers the GPS device is ideal as it is
portable and easy to go places aIter renting a car in
Ioreignlocations.
With these Ieature, it is evident that this device will
serve well in locating the site oI kidnappers and
providing in capturing them. There has never been
another kind oI technology that can give appropriacy in
terms oI location detection and electronic map
navigation. This makes it the best solution to the issue
oI kidnapping in Nigeria.
BASICIDEABEHINDGPS
The basic idea behind GPS is rather simple. II the
distances Irom a point oI earth to GPS satellites are
known along with satellite location, then the location oI
the point or receiver can be determined by simply
applying the concept oI resection.
The system gets the distance to the satellites through
data transmission. Each GPS satellite continuously
transmits a microwave radio signal composed oI two
careers, two codes and a navigation message. When the
GPS receiver is switched on it will pick up the GPS
signal to the receiver antenna. Once the receiver
acquires the GPS signal it will process it, using its build
in soItware. The partial outcome oI the signal
processing consists oI the distance to the GPS satellite
through the digital code and the satellite coordinates
through the navigation message. Other uses oI GPS
include the determination oI the user velocity which
could be determined by several messages. The most
wildly used method is based estimating the Doppler
Irequency oI the received GPS signal (Kaplan 1990). It
is also known that the Doppler shiIt occurs as a result oI
216
the relative satellite receiver motion. GPS may also be
used in determining the altitude oI a rigid body, such as
an air craIt or a marine vessel. The word attitude means
the orientation or the direction oI the rigid body which
can be described by the three rotation angles oI the three
access oI the rigid body with respect to reIerences
system.
HOWGPS WORKS
The basic idea behind GPS is to use satellites in space as
reIerence points Ior locating positions on earth. The
distance Irom the satellites to earth is measured by
calculating the time it takes Ior a radio wave to travel
Irom the satellites to the receiver oI GPS. We multiply
this time by the speed oI light in order to calculate the
distance; the global positioning system is actually a
constellation oI 27 earth orbiting satellites, oI which 24
are in operation and three extras in case one Iails. Each
oI these 1500 kilograms solar powered satellites circle
the globe at about 19,300 kilometers making two
complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so
that at anytime, anywhere on earth there are at least Iour
satellites visible in the sky. A GPS receiver's job is
simply to locate Iour or more satellites and Iigure out the
distance to each and use the inIormation to deduce its
position. This operation is based on a simple
mathematical principal called 'Trilateration which is
the measure oI your location Irom three diIIerent
reIerence points. In order to make the calculation
simple, the GPS receiver has to know two things: The
location oI at least three satellites in the distance between
the receiver and the satellites. The GPS receiver Iigures
both oI these measurements by analyzing high Irequency
and low power radio wave signals Irom the GPS
satellites. Radio waves are electromagnetic energy
which means they travel at the speed oI light (300 000
kilometers/second in a vacuum). The receiver can Iigure
how Iar the signal has traveled by timing how long it
takes the signals toreach the device Irom the satellites.
Since the radio waves travel at 300 million meters a
second, the clocks used to measure the time must be
accurate and precise to an extreme level. For one satellite
the distance to the GPS receiver is equal to the time it
takes the radio signal to travel Irom the satellite the same
code is used at the receiver and the satellite, the satellites
and receivers are synchronized to generate same code at
the same time then we look at the incoming code Irom a
satellite and measure when the receiver generated the
same code. The same is done with a second satellite and
a third satellite to narrow the possible positions with
respect to the point in space. To be able to Iix our position
with only three satellites. The clock at the receiver unit is
also needed to insure the synchronization oI the signals.
Due to the high cost oI these clocks, it is not possible to
install them into every receiver, and thereIore a Iourth
satellite is used to calculate the measurement mitigating
the error. When a GPS receiver gets a series oI
measurements that do not intersect at one single point,
the computer inside the receiver would do the calculation
until it arrives at an answer that is common among the
satellites. Because oI this, Iour satellites are required to
remove time errors when measuring three dimensions.
Speaking oI errors, and since no system is perIect, we
have several main error sources that must be considered
when calculating a position with GPS. These sources
include the Iollowing: clock errors in which a small
amount oI diIIerence in the clocks and in their
synchronization can make large diIIerence in the
distance measurements. The ability oI a GPS receiver to
determine a location depends on its ability to determine
howlong it takes a signal to get Irom the satellite to the
receiver. The second error is the ephemeris error, which
is an error in predicted time, since the receiver expects
each satellite to be at a certain place at a particular given
time. II the satellite is not where it is predicted to be the
measurement oI the range Irom the receiver to the
satellite will be incorrect. The third error is the receiver's
errors. Because the computer in the receiver work with a
Iixed number oI digits and a subject to rounding and
calculating errors, them receiver cannot exactly measure
and calculate the distance to each satellite at the same
time. The Iourth error is the atmospheric error which is
an error due to a deceleration is speed caused by the
nature oI the atmosphere. Finally, the lion's share oI the
error in the GPS system is Irom selective availability,
which is a deliberate corruption oI the signal by the U.S
government since it is not to the interest oI the national
security oI the united state to allow potential adversary
to be able to use the GPS technology in an accurate
enough way to be used Ior the guidance oI weapons.
Despite the Iact that several errors might occur, when
you takes signal position with a GPS unit, you are 95
sure that you will be within hundred meters oI the point
true position. With using several satellites and averaging
the distance calculated, it is possible to drive down the
errors to Iewmeters.
WHYWEUSEGPS?
The global positioning system (GPS) has made
navigation systems practical Ior a number oI
applications, location tracking had played a great role in
military warIare and location tracking has been a great
importance since world war II, when military strategist
realized its useIulness Ior targeting, Ileet management
and navigation. Today, GPS has a wild range oI
applications in many Iields and can be Iound in diIIerent
devices that provides a wild range oI Iunctionalities.
Navigation systems can be Iound in motor vehicles,
Iarming and mining equipments and a variety oI other
217
land based vehicles. In addition, GPS has a growing
signiIicant in the Iield oI wireless communications.
GPS can also be used in tracking deliver package,
emergency response, exploration, surveying, law
enIorcements, recreation, wild liIe tracking, search and
rescue, roadsides assistances, recovery oI stolen
vehicles, resources management and even in sports.
Recently, the application oI GPS became very useIul
and provided many advantages in motor vehicles.
When the navigation system became more aIIordable
the percentage oI usage shiIted Irom aviation or
military application to consumer product. The concept
oI in vehicle navigation system is not newand started as
early as the seventies.
But since the inIra structure to support such a system
was too expensive, its practical application was delayed
until the late eighties. The U.S government in the late
eighties, lunch a campaign to promote high-tech
solutions to enhance road way eIIiciency. The purpose
was to reduce highway congestion, Iuel consumption
and the number oI traIIic accidents by providing
drivers with real time traIIic inIormation, guidance Ior
roads vehicle collision avoidance systems and the
notiIication to authorities in the even oI traIIic
emergency, as well as electronic toll collection on
bridges and paid road. Today many U.S. and Japanese
cars manuIacturers oIIer Iactory installed navigation
systems in many oI their models. Navigation systems to
a large extend is now used in chipping and
transportation industry to help Ileet tracking. Atypical
Ileet tracking system includes navigation and
communication equipment in each vehicle and
monitoring station. Each vehicle would contain
equipments comprised oI a set oI positioning sensors
on a computer and the radio link installed in the vehicle.
The vehicle's location is determined Irom the
navigation equipment by the computer. The location oI
the vehicle is related periodically to a monitoring station
in which the monitoring station can see a location in a
computer screen that shows a 3D view oI a local road
map.
Operators at the monitoring center would use this
inIormation and knowledge to dispatch members oI a
Ileet eIIiciently and guide drivers to their destination.
This improvement in travel eIIiciency thereIore has
signiIicant economic and environmental implications.
Moreover, the GPS system could have a liIe saving
potential, some systems started lately to combine GPS
receiver with a cellular phone. The system may include
a bottom that the user can push in situations oI panic
leading the cellular phone to relay the vehicles location
to a monitoring station where the operators at these
stations would notiIy authorities about the emergency.
In Iaming, GPS has also made remarkable contributions.
GPS has been installed on Iarm equipments Ior the
purpose oI optimizing the application oI Iertilizers.
Crop yield is a Iunction oI a position on the Iield and he
application oI Iertilizer on a way to maximize Iarm
equipments using the GPS system. Also GPS has been
applied in heavy equipment and mining as mentioned in
the previous section. Road construction equipment and
mining equipment beneIit Irom GPS navigation system.
And as mentioned beIore in sport the GPS system is
used Ior instance in GolIing. The simplest system
simply tells the golIer how Iar the next hole and the
characteristics oI a terrain in Iront oI him. More
aggressive applications consists oI a motorized gold bag
the Iollow the golIer automatically. This device would
require navigation accuracy at the sub-meter level in
order to navigate narrowpaths and avoid hazards region
oI the golI course.
The beneIits oI the navigations systems can be
augmented by utilizing data Irom a digital map database
to aid in navigation. Adigital map database is essentially
an electronic road map which is a digitization oI a local
road network with each road represented as a
collection oI points assume to be connected in a dote to
dote Iashion.
Map databases are Irequently used to show the vehicles
position to the driver. However, inIormation in a map
database can also signiIicantly improve navigation
accuracy. The soItware algorithm that combines the
sensor data with the map data to produce a position
estimate is reIerred to as a map marching algorithm.
Map marching algorithm is rules where the data and
inIormation Irom the map are used to determined the
road on which the vehicle is most probably using. This
algorithm involved pattern marching techniques that
correlate the pattern created by several positions Iixed to
a similar pattern oI connected roads on a road map
network. AIter a successIul correlation is done,
inIormation about the matched road can be retrieved
Irom the database and used to accentuate errors in the
navigationsensors.
The ability oI GPS is to determined the precise location
oI a user anywhere under any weather conditions,
attracted millions oI users worldwide Irom various
Iields and backgrounds. With advances in computer
technology and GPS technologies, GPS manuIactures
and system developers were able to come up with user-
Iriendly systems. However, one common problem that
GPS users Iace is the issue oI coordinated systems and
Datum.
218
CONCLUSION
This paper have explores the crime oI kidnapping in the
region and how Human Tracking using GPS (Global
Positioning Satellite) can help combat crime in that
region.
The purpose oI producing a Global Positioning System
is to provide navigational help to all mankind.
Basically, GPS was managed by the U.S. Department oI
deIense. In any time The GPS users can connect to at
least six satellites out oI twenty Iour, so we can consider
that this service is available 24/7. INaddition, we must
not Iorget that this service has many proIits such as.
Fuel Economy
For sure everyone is looking Ior a service that helps him
to minimize the consumption oI the Iuel while driving;
well the GPS oIIers this service. This service is very
wide and it canbe divided into many parts:
- Driving slowly is the easiest way to minimize the
consumption oI the Iuel. It is known worldwide
that 's your vehicle will burn up more Iuel iI you
drive Iaster, so Ior this issue, the GPS helps you to
control your speed monitor by altering you while
speedingup.
Another logical solution is to drive less, this service
is mostly provided to the company owner in order to
track their own vehicles and be sure that none is
using their vehicle to a personal proIit.
- And additional solution given by GPS would be
Iinding the shortest path. This service is the most
required one, and the main purpose oI using this
service is to reach the destination Iaster with less
Iuel consumption, so basically it works by leading
the user to a shortest path aIter receiving the current
location Irom the satellite and the destination point
Iorm the user.
- One more beneIit can be added in this category, and
it would be the traIIic service. We can say that this
service is very important, because we are all aware
that the vehicles consume a lot while trapped in
traIIic. And as Ior this problem, the GPS has Iound a
solution that alerts the driver beIore arriving to a
traIIic area, and Ior sure it guides him to a newroute
that leads him to his destination with less Iuel
consumptionand less time.
Directions
Many people travel across countries using their own
cars, as a trusted device will be sure needed in such
situations. And Ior sure none can recognize his current
location in a strange country. So in situations like this
everyone would be lost without a GPS device.
Moreover, GPS device can be used while practicing a
hobby at a sea or in the middle oI the woods. The GPS is
essentially neededtoavoidgettinglost.
Time
And not to Iorget, one oI the important beneIits is saving
time. Using GPS helps to get to the destination in a
direct way without any loss. Most oI the roads in the
same country get some detours, or an exit on the
highway has been shut down, and the worst is when we
are traveling to a newlocation, where we do not known
the detours and the routes with dead ends, so using the
GPS will lead you to the perIect route. It also Iinds the
shortest path to the destination the user is searching Ior,
to avoid long routes. Many people Iaces problem and
emergency in their travel, while using the GPS, they can
knowtheir exact location to get helpin a Iaster way.
Next generation of GPS satellites
The next generation satellites will have many
improvements on the present blocks satellites and they
are being designed nowadays. The newplans are based
on including the ability to transmit data between
satellites to make the system more selI-regulating.
According to this qualiIication, the satellites will be able
to position themselves Iar-reaching ground tracking.
These are some advantages of these satellites:
Routing exactness is kept Ior 6 months without the
support oI the ground. And it does not need any
user adjustment.
Blocking is minimized is the GPS inIormation based
on the satellite connection.
Usually spatial updates are taken one or even more
per day, these satellites minimized these updates to
one uploadper month
Overseas stations used to support the navigation
uploads, it is always required but not as much as the
previous generation.
Better navigationexactness is accomplished.
These Iacial appearances are important and more useIul
Ior the military use then the civilians. The latest
research was done by the National Research Council
about the Global Positioning System. They suggested
adding some Irequency that will be released to the
civilian users. This was studied in the 1995, and till now
this case is beingstudied and nothing is released yet.
219
ICT for Development: ATool for Marketing Artistic and Creative Expressions
in an Emerging Economy
by
Yomi Oguntoyinbo
Mass Communication Department,
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos.
Correspondence: 85513521 email: toplemon22yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Whao! Our big and very large world has now become a global village; and people oI the ends oI the world have now
become one, closer together Ior the better. All thanks to ICT InIormation Communications Technology. This study
thereIore, intellectually examines this all-important impact oI ICTin the development oI the society, the world at large
and more particularly an emerging economy like Nigeria's. Development in any society or economy can only be
achieved through artistic and creative ingenuity; and the power oI the impact oI ICTin marketing and strategizing this
cannot be over-emphasized. Its core values evolve Irom the ambience oI creativity. Creativity rules the world;
creativity is the hallmark oI industrialization; and creativity plus the marketing power oI ICTIor development and plus
industrialization equals to an emerging prosperous economy. Overall, this study concludes that iI ICTIor development
is generally embraced and properly utilized, it would serve as a catalyst Ior socio-political and economical
development in anemerging economy like ours.
Key Words: ICT, Development, Creativity, Communication, Industrialization
Introduction
Every emerging economy has its prospects and
challenges. This as true oI every emerging economy oI
the world is also true oI the Nigerian emerging economy.
Exploring these prospects and surmounting these
challenges can most oI the times prove a herculean task
(a very big headache) Ior any country in her nation
building, most especially in a developing country like
ours. So, in Iacing this herculean task, what is the way
out?
There is the need Ior every emerging economy
(Nigeria's inclusive) to embrace two things: Creativity
and I CT4D. Cr eat i vi t y and I nI or mat i on
Communication Technologies Ior development
(ICT4D) without any doubt have Iormed the backbone
oI successIul and prosperous economies oI the world.
These also will not only serve as catalyst Ior selI reliance
in an emerging economy like ours but will bring about
the much desired prosperous and successIul economy.
An in-depth intellectual study and critical analysis will
Iurther helpin driving home the points herewith made.
Definition and Characteristics of an Emerging
Economy
What is an emerging economy? The term emerging
economy is used to deIine and describe the economies oI
nations in socio-economic transition, with increase in
investment, rapid growth in socio-political and business
activities and a promise oI huge potentials Ior growth,
development and industrialization. The term was coined
in 1981 by Antoine W. Van Agtmeal oI the International
Finance Corporation oI the World Bank (Heakal, 2009).
It was Iirst reIerred to as 'Emerging Market Economy
(EME). But in recent studies, research and economic
analyses, the terms: 'Emerging Economy', 'Emerging
Market' and 'Emerging Market Economy' have been
relatively used. Whether used as emerging economy,
emerging market or emerging market economy, the term
still reIers tothe deIinitionas I have given above.
An examination oI other scholars' deIinitions helps to
provide a better perspective and understanding oI the
term's usage and relevance. In this regard, Reem Heakal
in his article What is an Emerging Market Economy?,
explains that:
'An Emerging Market Economy (EME) is
defined as an economy with low to middle per
capital income. Countries that fall into this
category. are usually considered emerging
because of their developments and reforms. As
an emerging market, a country is embarking
on an economic reform programs that will
lead it to stronger and more responsible
economic performance level" (Heakal, 2009).
The two key issues mentioned in this deIinition are: an
economy with low to middle per capital income and
country embarking on developmental and economic
reIorms. The Iirst characteristic describes the
economical power oI an emerging economy as against
that oI a Iully matured economy where the per capital
income is high. The second point on the other hand
describes the characteristics oI an emerging economy i.e.
the transitional prospects oI developmental and
220
economic reIorms and growth.
More so, according to the deIinition given by the
dictionary oI QFinance (an online resource), emerging
economy is described as a:
'Country experiencing development and
economic growth.a country that is becoming
industrialized and undergoing economic
growth." (QFINANCE, 2009)
Further more, in an article titled: What is an Emerging
Economy, Dennely Weller explains that: 'these are
typically economies in transition, moving Irom a closed
to an open economy, as they seek to integrate into the
world economy. From all these, it could be deduced
that emerging economies are nations with social or
business activity in the process oI rapid growth and
industrialization. Less developed nations throughout
Asia, AIrica (Nigeria inclusive), Eastern Europe and
Latin America are said to be emerging economies.
Nigeria as an Emerging Economy
Our concern here, with respect to this discuss is to
examine the Nigerian economy within the context and
content oI an emerging economy. Without any doubt, the
Nigerian economy Ialls among the emerging economies
oI the world as it is not a Iully matured economy. The
present status oI the Nigerian economy conIorms with
and suites the characteristics oI an emerging economy as
examined in the preceding subtitle. One, the Nigerian
economy is characterized with lowto middle per capital
income; two, it is an economy in transition; and three, it
is an economy set Ior rapid growth and development as it
is open toinvestment local and Ioreign.
But it is a known Iact that the Nigerian economy as an
emerging economy is Iaced with the problems oI
unemployment, poverty and more recently insecurity.
Our land, our country is ravaged by poverty and
unemployment; there is insecurity everywhere!
Thousands oI graduates year-in year-out are produced
Irom our polytechnics and universities with no
corresponding jobs or employments Ior them. More and
more Iamilies are in poverty, and more are joining them
as banks and other sectors are retrenching. Even the
luckily employed are mostly under-employed. Yet, Iuel
price in January this year, has drastically gone up as a
result oI the removal oI the so-called Iuel subsidy a
serious catalyst Ior spontaneous dramatic socio-
economic change. And with this the prices oI a lot oI
things have also gone up Iood stuII, accommodation,
transportation, energy, cost oI productions, apparently
cost oI living and other things one could think oI. To this
eIIect, the per capital income oI an average Nigerian is
Iurther lowered. And to crown all these, the Nigerian
economy is traumatized by insecurity the terror oI
Boko Haram.
However, with all these said about the peculiarity oI
Nigeria as an emerging economy with respect to its
characteristics, problems and challenges, this
presentation's emphasis is not to Iocus or dwell on these
but to suggest intellectual and practical solutions to
these. In this regard, some salient questions cannot but
be asked and looked into. What is the way Iorward Ior
Nigeria as an emerging economy? What are the things to
Iurther be done in order to improve the emergence oI the
Nigerian economy?What and what are the missing links
in the Nigerian emerging economy? Answers to these
questions are contained in the ambience oI the synergy
oI ICT Ior development and creativity the core points
oI discuss in this presentation.
ICT4D and Creativity: Catalyst for Nigerian
EmergingEconomy
As a matter oI urgency, what the Nigerian emerging
economy needs is what I call the 'creativity boom' a
boom in the creative and artistic expressions. Just as
experienced in the oil boom oI the 1960s, what the
Nigerian emerging economy drastically and urgently
needs is an experience in creativity boom. This boom in
creativity and creative expressions is to be nurtured and
enriched within the conIines oI ICT Ior development.
The duo oI creativity boom and ICT4D constitutes the
catalyst Ior selI reliance and prosperity in an emerging
economy. AIurther intellectual analysis oI this provides
a better explanation andclariIication.
Daniel Pink (2005) in his book A Whole New Mind
argues that we are entering a newage where creativity is
becoming increasingly important. The basis oI his
argument is that the world is moving Irom the
inIormation age to the conceptual age the age oI
creativity boom. What this means is that economies oI
the world (whether emerging or matured) are now
moving towards and embracing creativity and creative
expressions as catalyst Ior prosperous economies. To
Iurther reiterate the point herewith made, a renowned
economist, Richard Florida (2002) in his book The Rise
of the Creative Class postulates and popularizes the
theory oI the creative class. This theory is based on the
'3Ts oI economic development: Technology, Talent,
andTolerance. The creative class in contemporary times
has been described as an important driver oI modern
economies. Creativity and ICT4D Iorm the pillars oI
these thoughts and theories with respect to economic
development and industrialization.
The synergy oI creativity and ICT4D, today, has
emerged as the backbone and catalyst Ior desired
eIIicient, prosperous and successIul economy. The point
I am making here is that it is not enough Ior an emerging
economy to be ICT compliant but also to be creativity
compliant, employing the simulation oI this duo to
achieve prosperous economy. And this just as true oI
any emerging economy is the right antidote needed Ior
the Nigerianemerging economy.
221
Creativityand ICT4Das Tools forIndustrialization
Industrialization is one oI the key attributes oI an
emerging economy. And industrialization cannot be
achieved in any economy without the synergy oI a boom
in creativity and ICT Ior development. As earlier said,
this synergy Iorms the core activity oI a growing section
oI the global economy. Industrialization can only thrive
when built on the Ioundation oI creativity and ICT4D. In
supporting this, the UNCTAD Creative Economy
Report (2010) submits that:
"A new development paradigm is emerging.
central to the new paradigm is the fact that
creativity, knowledge and access to information
are increasingly recognized as powerful
engines driving economic growth and
promotingdevelopment in a globalizing world"
This synergy oI creativity and ICT4Dis what is needed
to provide the missing link in the Nigerian emerging
economy.
ICT4D: Tool for Marketing Creative Expressions in
Nigerian Emerging Economy
For the Nigerian economy to be prosperous it has to be
creative; it has to become a creative economy. What this
means is that everybody has to embrace the creativity
school oI thought. Creativity simply means the ability to
use one's imagination to produce or make new things.
According to Wikipedia, 'Creativity reIers to the
invention or origination oI a new thing.that has
value. On the other hand, ICT4Dsimply has to do with
the application oI InIormation Communication
Technologies to socio-economic development; the use
oI ICTto better the lives oI the people and to develop the
society economically and otherwise. ICT combines the
audio-visual, telephone, computer, wireless and
satellite networks.
The synergy oI creativity and ICT4D iI properly
employed can help to rapidly Iacilitate crucial economic
and social development objectives in all the sectors oI
the Nigerian economy. The gains oI such synergy are
hereby highlighted.
Productivity With creativity embraced productivity
is raised. II every sector oI the Nigerian economy is
creativity oriented and motivated, be it agriculture,
engi neer i ng, educat i on, energy, banki ng,
manuIacturing, etc., then the country's productivity will
deIinitely be on the increase leading ultimately to
industrialization. In this respect, government policies,
decisions, programmes and Iunds should be tailored
towards encouraging the people to be creative. Funds and
Programmes should be institutionalized to establish,
encourage, nurture, Iacilitate and monitor this. In moving
this nation and economy Iorward all hands must not only
beondeckbut becreativeandinnovative.
Interactivity and Marketability Another gain oI this
synergy is in the areas oI interactivity and marketability.
As the people become creative and productive, the
eIIective use oI ICT tools such as phones, internet,
computer, audio-visual, wireless, satellite networking,
etc., helps in creating a global platIorm Ior interaction
and marketability. In this regard, e-marketing, e-
banking, mobile-marketing, mobile-banking, e-
networking and mobile-networking, all come together to
enhance this interaction and marketability. With ICTthe
world is just a global village and the global market just at
one's Iingertips. With just a mobile phone which has
recently become common in Nigeria, creativity can be
showcased, marketed and businesses transacted. All
thanks to the ICT tools oI mobile-networking, e-
marketing, e-banking, andmobile-banking.
Globalizatio: There is the need to present and integrate
the creativity and productivity oI the Nigerian economy
with that oI the global economy oI the world at large; and
ICT4D provides this platIorm through globalization. A
good example to be cited here is that oI the creativity and
productivity oI computers and internet networking
which originated Irom a particular economy but has now
become a globalised phenomenon embraced by all. This
also is what is expected oI the Nigerian emerging
economy.
Industrialization: When an economy is creative,
productive and globally integrated, with the right
enabling environment Ior all these to thrive, the ultimate
point oI call Ior such economy is industrialization. With
a blend oI all these: a boom in creativity and productivity
synergized with ICT, globalization and industrialization,
the Nigerian economy will not only emerge as a
prosperous successIul economy but be able to surmount
the problems oI poverty, unemployment and insecurity.
Conclusion
"Adequately nurtured, creativity fuels culture,
infuses a human-centred development and
constitutes the key ingredient for job creation,
innovation and trade while contributing to
social inclusion, cultural diversity and
environmental sustainability." (Creative
Economy Report 2010)
In concluding this presentation, I would like to brieIly
tell the story oI a Nigerian graduate whom I had an
encounter with. This story becomes relevant here as it
helps to dramatize the salient points made in this
presentation. There is this Nigerian graduate who
graduated about some Iour years ago. Like thousands oI
thousands oI Nigerian graduates beIore her, she was
unable to secure a job unemployment and poverty
championed her cause in liIe. Without much ado, she
222
thought oI being creative, innovative and productive, so
she learnt the skills oI bead making and wire works.
Equipped with these creative skills and with just
her phone, she is able to showcase her products on
'Iacebook' and other social networks as display
pictures. With this, diIIerent customers started
getting in touch with her and she began transacting
business. To her surprise, she even got customers
who started taking her products abroad to sell
these were Nigerians who lived abroad but came
home Ior one thing or the other. Not only that, she
started having apprentices who paid her to learn the
trade. So, with this blend oI creativity, productivity,
ICT4D e-marketing and e-networking; mobile-
marketing and mobile-networking, she is able to
live a comIortable liIe, supporting herselI and her
Iamily. Though, not so big oI a business the only
missing link here is industrialization but iI giving
t he r i ght mot i vat i on and oppor t uni t y,
industrialization is sure, aIter all, most oI the big
companies and industries oI the world started
small.
ICTIor development iI properly employed as a tool
Ior marketing creative expressions can help to
Iacilitate crucial economic and social development
in an emerging economy, Nigeria's inclusive.
References
Cole, A. A. (2012). The New Age of Marketing in
th
Nigeria. Prospects and Challenges. The 26
Inaugural Lecture, Lagos State Polytechnic.
Florida, Richard (2002). The Rise of the Creative
Class. And How Its Transforming Work, Leisure,
Community and Everyday Life. Basic Books.
Heakal, Reem (2009). What is an Emerging
M a r k e t E c o n o m y ?
http//www.investopedia.com/../073003.asp
Oguntoyinbo, Yomi (2012). Criticism Arts and
Communication. Essays on Critical Writing,
Drama, Theatre, Media and Mass Communication.
Lagos: Aesthetics Communication.
Pink, Daniel (2005). A Whole New Mind. Moving
from the Information Age into the Conceptual Age.
Allen & Unwin
QFINANCE - the Ultimate Resource (2009).
Bloomsbury InIormation Ltd.
UNCTAD Creative Economic Report (2010) in
GLOBALon February 14, 2011. www.unctad.org
Unwin, Tim (2009). ICT4D. Information and
Communication Technology for Development.
Cambridge University Press.
Weller, Dennely (2012). What is an Emerging
Economy?Emerging Market.
www. dwc-emergingmarkets. com/what-ar. . .
Retrieved 2012-06-11.
Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/creativity
223
IMPLICATION OF DREDGING LOWER RIVER NIGER ON ITS ENVIRONMENT
By
Hassan, I. A.
Department of Science Laboratory Technology
School of Technology
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos
e-mail: iahassan2007yahoo.com
Tel.: 08055080565
ABSTRACT
This paper examined the implication and palliative measures oI dredging Niger Delta along the coastal region oI
Nigeria. Numbers oI implications were sampled as case study; most oI these are considered on the environment along
the River Niger. Though there are negative and positive impacts oI this project on people and the environment and iI it
is studied critically, it seems tilted to the negative side. Since the Federal Government is presently carrying on this
project, it is advised Ior them to seriously take care oI people and the environment should be ecologically
compensation.
KEYWORDS: Dredge, Environment, Coastal Region.
INTRODUCTION
The River Niger is the third longest in AIrica and the
eleventh in the world. It passes through Iour West
AIrican countries oI Guinea, Mali, Niger and Nigeria
where it empties into the GulI oI Guinea (Salu, 2000).
This river is very important because it breaks into a delta
as it empties into Atlantic (Salu, 2000).
The river had always served as a mode oI transportation
Ior people and goods. It was enroute oI slave trade
during slavery era in olden day.
The Niger Delta comprises states like Anambra, River,
Delta, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Edo, Ondo, Cross River,
Imo andAbia.
Niger delta is the home oI Nigeria oil, gas reserves and
bitumen. BeIore now, it was an increase oI bloody clash
between militant youths oI the area and the Nigerian
Government over allegation oI neglect and
environmental degradation.
Though dredging is not new in the Niger Delta or the
country at large; only that this is oI large magnitude and
covered a large kilometers compare to previous
between Lokoja and Warri in 1984 by the Inland Water
Way Department oI the Transport Ministry; but it was a
moribund. While the current dredging covers Baro
North Central Nigeria to Warri, South Nigeria, a
distance oI about 578km (Ogunbunmi, 2000) and
already on course; since 2010.
The project is oI two phases. The Iirst phase involves
dredging oI the river and the construction oI river ports
along its banks such as Baro, Lokoja, Bida and Onitsha.
The kind oI vessel expected to sail along the Niger are
barges and small vessels. At this junction, one may ask
the position oI the law on a major project like dredging
oI the River Niger. The relevant law is the
Environmental Impact Assessment Decree Number 86
oI 1992; which stated that 'An Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is to be established beIore a decision
is taken by any person or authority, corporate body or
un-incorporated body including the Federal
Government intending to undertake or authorize the
undertaking oI any activity that may likely or to a
signiIicant extent eIIect the environment.
Basically, an Environmental impact Assessment was out
beIore the commencement oI this project. The project
had already commenced about two years ago and since
no going back on the project, I would like us to critically
look at the pros and cons oI the project in my own
perspective; ignoring the early reports oI all committees
set up by Federal Government and the approval oI the
National Assembly.
ADVERSE IMPACT OF DREDGING IN NIGER
DELTA
Despite the Iact that EIA draIt report on the dredging
exercise is quite detailed and is a Iairly good one, it has
Ilaw and weaknesses and serious neglects; many
sensitive aspects or area oI the threatened Niger Delta
environment were not looked into these weaknesses and
lapses should be considered Ior remedy to ensure that
the dredging exercise succeeds.
The dredging would aIIect Anambra, Idemili and
Quashi River Basins; the geologic and hydrogeologic
phenomena; and the potential toxicity oI the river
bottom sediments. Floods soil and gully erosion
disasters that would be aggravate withinAnambra Basin
inKogi (Egboka, 2002).
224
Those geology along the dredge path is given
consideration but the geological implications are not
Iully taken into consideration. The basement rocks
along the dredge Ilowpath may be Iractured, Iaulted and
jointed with potentials Ior rock Ialls, slides or
engineering Iailures (Egboka, 2002). The excavated
sandy areas may be equally exposed to increase in soil
and gully erosion and landslides. There are very high
chances oI encounter mineralized geologic substances
like coal limestone, hydrocarbons, trace elements, heavy
metals, etc. which will economical waste; that could
have been a good source oI income and create job
opportunities Ior youth oI our dear country. The
exposed mineralized geologic materials may result in
creation oI continued leechates or inputs oI pollutants or
contaminates into the river Irom each point source.
There is paucity oI inIormation on this project, which
Ianned up people's Iear. It led to a lot oI conjectures;
most oI which are down right silly and improbable Ior
example the story which made rounds that the dredging
was to allow ships berth at Lokoja and Baro, a situation
that was supposed to render the Lagos and Port-Harcourt
redundant; iI this could be true, this would be great
economic disaster to have made these two gigantic ports,
the bedrock oI Nigeria economy; a great national
heritage oI ours to just go under carpet like that and make
useless.
One cannot rule the possibility oI presence oI heavy
metals, some oI which may be toxic in the bottom
sediment oI the River Niger; Ior a river like it, which
runs across about six countries and drains large, long
extensive basin oI various soil-rock types oI these
countries (Egboka, 2002). The physico-chemical
properties oI such dredged waste and soils that include
bottom sediment must know and determine extent at
which, it could cause harm to the ecosystem and host
community at which the dredging will pass. Because the
toxic metals could eIIect the ecosystem and cause a lot oI
damage in their body system be it animal or plant and
whichis a great economic loss.
AIter dredging, some place must be located as disposal
site as we had established the possibility oI heavy toxic
metal and other polluting agent or contaminant Irom the
river. It would surely be disturbing Ior hosting
community oI this disposal site. Is it the Ioul smelling,
nasty heap oI debris that does not appealing to human
spirit and host oI others; that is disturbing to
comIortability and health oI this community that we
want to be discussing about or what? Moreover, iI the
disposal site close to the river; their sediments shall
eventually Ilowor wash back into the river. It is not also
acceptable to deposit them on Iarm land iI we accept the
Iact that the dredge spoils may be polluting or
contaminating disposal site; hence this disposal site
should be located away Irom the River Niger and its
tributaries and proper chemical waste disposal
mechanism be employed to cushion the eIIect oI the
waste. The wastes or spoil can be transported away and
dumped into gullies where these can be used to Iill them;
reclaim the landIrom the raging and advancing gullies.
The dredging would aIIect eight local government out oI
twenty-one one local government in Anambra state Irom
the EIAreport. In this report there is an obvious neglect
in appraising the eIIect oI the environment oI Anambra,
Idemili and Orashi Rivers (Egbosa, 2000). Heavy load
oI sediment are tracked down by gully erosion into the
River Niger yearly Irom the lands by these River
particularly, the Anambra River (Egbosa, 2000). The
catchments areas oI these rivers are heavily built up the
soils and geologic units have easily erodible component,
average annual rainIall is over 2000mm; intense
agricultural activities and Iertilizer applications are
carried on yearly; industrial and commercial venture are
common place in both urban and rural area. Floods, soil
and gully erosion and environmental decadation
transport. Sands, clays, pollutants and contaminants
into the River Niger through these tributaries. The
Anambra Basin supplies quite a load oI sediments and
water products into the Niger Delta yearly. The
dredging oI the River Niger shall obviously exacerbate
incidence soil and gully erosion and sediment deposition
in Anambra and Kogi State unless something is
positively done to check them up stream oI the Anambra
Basin.
There is need to look into the eIIect oI the dredging on
the dam upstream oI the River Niger particularly, the
Kainji dam area. The new hi gher water Ilow that may
result aIter dredging may cause drastic Iall in reserviour
water level and increase saltation oI the hydroelectric
dam. These may adversely eventually aIIect the energy
generation capacityoI the dams.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING OF
NIGERDELTA
The dredging oI River Niger is not all that bad or
potential risk and hazard has most people touted it to be
but still there are some good sides oI it.
The River Niger would be dredged Irom Baro (North
Central Nigeria) to Warri (Southern Nigeria) a distance
oI about 578km and port work also be constructed at
Baro, Lokoja, Bida and Onitsha; these would open up the
areas Ior commerce and reduce the cost oI transportation
and eventually cost oI goods and stress oI taking goods
Irom Iar ports like Lagos and Port-Harcourt to Iar
location (Ogbonnaya, 2001). This could also reduce
accident on our road caused by trucks like trailer that are
designated Ior various parts oI the country. This could
also go Iar to solving the problem oI decongestion oI
Lagos port that rented air these days, iI the River could
be dredged.
Usage oI the river channel, it is hoped, would also take
223
the strain oII other Iorms oI transportation in the country;
especially the roads and rails, both oI which had been
expensive to maintain.
It could improve economic well being oI the people
either directly or indirectly. Directly in the sense oI
Iishing along the enroute oI the dredging and provide
sort oI livelihood Ior the people living along the
dredging. Indirectly, as the port would be built at those
places aIorementioned above; manpower would be
needed to handle and work in various departments hence
creating employment Ior the peoples. On the other
hand, the project is expected to make the River Niger
more navigable and also to increase activities on the
river e.g. irrigation and power generation, etc
(Ogbonnaya, 2001)
For the locality or state at which the dredging would pass
through stand to gain a lot; like the water could be used
as a sort oI rawwater Ior their major water works Ior the
supply oI well treated pipe-borne water Ior the whole
town or state.
Other advantages oI dredging the Niger are oI internal
economic and political importance. This is an
opportunity to have seaport in the north; which is oI
great disadvantage Ior them as they are predominant
Iarms and importer oI Iarm products and machineries
e.g. Rice, Sugar and Farm tractor, hence, the
psychological satisIaction oI the Baro port, thereIore it
would translate into a major boost to commerce and
industrial growth in the north as Ior the beneIit oI all
Nigeria.
RECOMMENDATIONANDCONCLUSION
With these points raised on this paper; one could see that
it is not advisable to dredge Niger Delta. Considering
the beneIits and demerits oI it. Since Government has
decided to embark on the project and silence oI
environmental non-governmental organisation and
aIIected communities could mean that government has
addressed satisIactorily all their ecological, land tenure
and economic objectives and Iear. It could also mean
that they have run out oI ideas to halt and alter the project
or get more compensation iI any or that they preIer to
work more quietly behind the scene.
There is a great need Ior more public education and
awareness to enable people Iully accepts the project.
People and community participation must be
encouraged Ior the entire project, Irom the present
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) appraisal
through the dredging exercise to monitoring and
maintenance (Salu, 2000). Nigerians must be involved
in one way or the other to dispel the present Iear oI severe
environmental dislocation vis-a-vis their culture
religion, agricultural, commerce, industry, etc. People
would then be persuaded to withdraw the existing court
cases and the impending ones (Ogunbunmi, 2000). The
monitor oI environment should energetically continue
by relevant agency like NASREA, etc. Review and
widen its consultations Iurther among to be aIIected
communities, politicians, engineers, environmentalist,
etc.
The leachates or inputs oI pollutants or contaminates into
the river as a result oI dredging Irom each point source;
such sources should be critically identiIied and
remediation action taken against it. Also care should be
taken in dredging across Iaulted rocks and severe
Iractures to avoid sudden rock Iall or slides or other
accidents (Egboka, 2002).
The already on going dredging contract should be
revisited, recalled redesigned recoated with the new
ideas and Iindings incorporated and new ideas and new
dredging project target set. While ensuring that Nigeria
Inland Water Authority (NIWA) is Iully involved; all the
aIIected state and their State Environment Protection
Agency (SEPA) are made Iull participants at various
levels. Adequate compensation must be worked out and
paid Iully to those environment badly aIIected. It is
believed that when the new Iindings incorporated and
approved, it will be possible that the dredging oI the
River Niger will have national support and acceptance
sometime later next year when Iully completed.
REFERENCES
Egboka Boniface (2002); Dredging River Niger matter
arising:
Guardian Newspaper
Obonnaya Obasi (2001) wanted: Alternative to
dredgingthe Niger.
Daily ChampionNewspaper p.24
Ogunbunmi Kayode (2000) To Dredge or Not to
Dredge.
Nature watchp.16-17
Salu Abimbola (2000) Dredging Controversy Nature
watch pp.18-19
226
PHYTOCHEMICALANALYSIS OFACALYPHAWILKESIANALEAF (COPPER LEAF)
BY
A1ETUNMOBI ASIBIALLAU OLADIPUPO
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGY
ABSTRACT
The study examined the phytochemical screening oI Acalypha heterophyla leaI (copper leaI)). Powered leaI oI
Acalypha heterophyla was subjected to screening using extraction system with Hot water, Cold water, Ethanol and
chloroIorm as polar solvents. The distribution oI the main active principles Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Saponins, Tannins,
Terpenoids, Steroids, Glycosides in Acalypha heterophyla were assessed and the plant was Iound to contain all the
above components which explained the medicinal actionoI the plant.
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants have long been utilized as a source oI
therapeutic and worldwide agents Ior herbal medicine.
In recent years, there has been a gradual revival oI
interest in the use oI medicinal plants in developing
countries because it has been reported saIe and without
any adverse side eIIect compared with synthetic drugs.
The detection oI active components in plants plays a
strategic role in the phytochemical analysis oI plant
extracts. Acalypha wilkesiana is evergreen shrub Irom
paciIic islands. It is oIten grown in a cool greenhouse or
as a short lived border plant in warm areas. It has striking
oval Ioliage, grows to a height oI 1.2m in width and
produces Ilowers during summer or autumn that are
clustered in shape and green in colour. The work
described here does not consist oI a new method oI
identiIying active principles in a given plant extracts,
since present day techniques are well developed, widely
accepted and allowed Ior adequate drug analysis. What
is intended, however, is to perIorm simple qualitative
analysis oI the plant.
Sampling
Fresh sample oI Acalypha wilkesiana was collected Irom
Ikorodu main campus oI Lagos State Polytechnic. The
identity oI the leaves was authenticated in the herbarium
oI the Department oI Botany University oI Lagos by a
renowned doctor, Dr. Kadiri, A.B.
Experimental
The leaves was washed to remove dirt and air dried in a
closed place Ior three weeks, pulverized into uniIorm
powdered using blender and extracted with the
Iollowing solvents such as chloroIorm, absolute ethanol,
cold and hot distilled water. 50grams each oI pulverized
leaI was added to 250mls each oI polar solvents Ior 24hrs
in separate 500mls conical Ilask aIter which Iiltration oI
the mixtures was done using two Iolds oI what man No.1
o
Iilter paper. All extracts were kept at 4 Cand subjected to
phytochemical tests to determine the secondary
metabolites present in the plant materials.
QUALITATIVEANALYSIS
Test forFlavonoids
1ml oI dilute Ammonia solution (Ammonium
hydroxide) was added to 4ml oI each extract. Yellow
colouration indicates the presence oI Ilavonoids.
Test forAlkaloids
1.0ml oI each extract was put in separate test-tubes, 3-
drops oI DragendoII's and Mayer's reagents were added
separately. An orange-red precipitate with DragendoII's
reagent and white precipitate reagent indicate the
presence oI alkaloids ineachextract.
Test forSteroids
2mls oI each oI the extract was placed into separate test-
tubes and evaporated to dryness. The residues were
dissolved in a mixture oI acetic anhydride and
chloroIorm. Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid was
added gradually to the side oI the container by Iitting. A
brown ring at the interphase oI the two liquids and the
appearance oI violet colour in the supernant layer
indicate presence oI steroids.
Test forTannins
2.0mls oI each oI diIIerent extracts was introduced into
separate test-tubes and two drops oI 5 Ierric chloride
solution were added. A greenish black or blue-black
colouration was Iormed which indicate the presence oI
tannins.
Test forSaponins
5mls oI distilled water was added to 0.5ml oI each extract
vigorously shaken. A persistent Irothing that tested Ior
about 10minutes was observed which conIirm the
presence oI saponins
Test forTerpenoids
5mls oI each extract was added to 2mls oI chloroIorm
and 3mls oI concentrated tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid.
Bluish-green colouration indicates the presence oI
Terpenoids.
Test forGlycosides
1.0ml oI each Iraction was taken in separate test-tubes
and diluted 2mls oI distilled water Iollowed by addition
oI mixture oI Iehling' solutionA&B and warmed. Brick-
red precipitate at the bottom oI the test-tubes indicates
the presence oI reducing sugars.
227
Results
Table 1: Quantity of extracts obtained from 50g of
plant material (leaves)
Key: CWE Cold Water Extract
HWE Hot Water Extract
EE Ethanol Extract
CE ChloroIorm Extract
Table 2: Results of phytochemical analysis of extracts
Key: present
Highly present
In table 1, the ethanol extract (2.20) was more or higher
than other extracts but insigniIicantly low when
compared with the weight oI the leaves oI the plant.
Others are chloroIorm extract 1.98, cold water extract
(1.83) and hot water extracts 0.94.
Discussion
The results oI the investigation showed that the plant
materials possessed almost all the important secondary
metabolites. Acalypha wilkesiana showed positive
results Ior all the constituents analyzed. Tannins,
Steroids, Saponins, Terpenoids, Glycosides and
Ilavonoids have been linked to be involved with
antibacterial and antiviral activity. Tannins and
Ilavonoids are responsible Ior antidiarrheal activity
because they increase colonic water and electrolyte re-
absorption and other phytochemical act by inhibiting
intestinal mobility. Steroids played the role oI anti-
inIlammatory andanalgestic agents.
Carbohydrates are the main components oI the cell-sap,
protoplasm and the cell wall while others accumulate as
insoluble storage products.
Further studies are on-going to extract other components
Solvents CWE HWE EE CE
Weight
of
extracts
(g)
1.83 0.94 2.20 1.98
Colour Dirty
green
Dirty
green
Dark
green
Dark
green

Test CWE HWE EE CE
Alkaloids + + ++ ++
Flavonoids + + ++ ++
Glycosides + + ++ ++
Saponins + + ++ ++
Steroids + + + +
Tannins + + ++ ++
Terpenoids + + ++ ++

using structural elucidation and comparative study with
the leaves oI cassava.
References
Association of Official Analytical Chemists(2006).
OIIicial Methods oI Analysis oI the A.O.A.C (Horwitiz
th
W, Editor), 18 Edition. Association oI OIIicial
Analytical Chemists, Washington DC,U.S.A
Apori, S.O.; Long, R.1.; Castro, F.B.; Orskov, E.R.
(2000). Chemical Composition and Nutritive value oI
Leaves and Stems oI Tropical Weed Chromolaena
Odorata. Grass Forage Science, 55(1): 77-81. Doi:
10.1046/j.1365-2494.2000
Basu, S.K.; Thomas, 1.E.; Acharya, S.N. (2007).
Prospects Ior Growth in Global Nutraceutical and
Functional Food Markets: A Canadian Perspective.
Aust BasicAppliedScience, 1(4): 637-649.
Best, B (2006). Phytochemical as Nutraceuticals.
th
Retrievedon 12 September, 2010.
Chaney, S.G. (2006). Principle oI Nutrition II:
Micronutrients. In: Delvin TM (Ed), 'Textbook oI
th
Biochemistry, with Clinical Correlation', 6 Ed. John
Wiley and sons, NewYork. Pp: 1091-1120
Christma, S. (2004). Acalypha Wilkesiama.
Floridata.com LC, Florida.
Dillard, C.1.; German, 1.B. (2000). Phytochemicals:
Nutraceutical and Human Health. J Science Food Agric,
80(12): 1744-1756.
Ejoh, R.A.; Nkonga, D.V.; Inocent, G.; Moses, M.C.
(2007). Nutritional Components oI Some Non-
Conventional LeaI Vegetables Consumed in Cameroon.
Park J Nutrition, 6(6): 712-717
FAO/WHO/UNU (1991). Energy and Protein
Requirements: Report oI a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU
Expert Consultation. World Health Organisation
Technical Report Series 724.
228
Agriculture and Nation Building: Do students still use the University Library? Case study of
University of Ibadan agricultural economics graduate students
By
1 2
Ogunyemi, O. I. & Ajayi, T. B
1. Correspondence: Graduate Student, Agricultural Economics Department, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan & Agricultural Extension and Management Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
woleogunsyahoo.com
2. Library Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos. (justdebbiesyahoo.com)
Abstract
The growing awareness of internet based information resources has made students to reduce their use of the physical
library in which university has invested huge financial resources for nation building. Past research efforts on the use of
library have mostly focused on the generality of students without localised study on a particular set of students. This
paper therefore looked at whether graduate students of agricultural economics still use the physical library in the face
of the growing efforts of promoting agricultural study and production in Nigeria. The factors that affect the length of
time students spend in the library were also established. Simple random sampling was used to select 60 graduate
students during the 2010/2011 academic session in Agricultural Economics Department, University of Ibadan. The
students were administered with structured questionnaire and 57 were successful for analysis. Mafority of the
respondents are female while 47.37 percent is single. Mafority of the students visit the university, faculty department
and outside library occasionally while 73.68 percent are of full time mode of study. Almost all the students, 96.49
percent use internet based library. The tobit regression revealed that full-time mode of study, increase in weekly
financial allowance on study, membership of registered group off- and on-campus encourage students to spend more
hours in the library. Full-time mode of study should be encouraged among the graduate students while the library
should be equipped with adequate and reliable internet facilities and personal computers to encourage students visit
and use of the library towards the promotion of agricultural scholarship for food sufficiency which is a valid aim of
agricultural development and nation building.
Key words: Agricultural Economics, Graduate Students, LibraryUse
Introduction
Agriculture does not aIIect individuals only, but also the
society and even the nation's welIare, security and
environmental sustainability. The search Ior
inIormation to meet particular needs cuts across every
individual irrespective oI social status. Young and old,
deaI and dumb, students, workers, key stakeholders and
decision-makers in the country have inIormation needs
and seeking behaviour which are oIten inIluenced by
their socio-economic characteristics that are either
external or internal to the person. Students in particular
rely on their University, Faculty or Department library
Ior resources and services Ior their academic pursuits
and general knowledge acquisition, especially nowthat
no student can aIIord to get all the recommended
textbooks and other inIormation materials because oI
the economic situation oI the country. Kumar (2010)
posits that agricultural scientists are really the people
who shoulder the responsibility oI nation building by
exercising their eIIorts in creating new inIormation Ior
improved productivity. In combating the problem oI
illiteracy, poverty, diseases and malnutrition, relevant
inIormation at all levels and in a Iormat that can be
assimilated must be regarded as absolute necessity
(Srikantaiah, 1993; through Bredekamp, 1996)
Some oI the activities carried out by the students inthe
library were identiIied by Kayongo and Helm (2010)
which include the use oI library Ior journal, index and
abstract, Iinding dissertations and thesis and daily
library hours, these are inIormation materials that gives
current inIormation. Ajala (1997) reported that graduate
students use other libraries Ior materials not available in
the University Library. For graduate students that live on
campus, the use oI the library may not be a problem so
Iar it meets their needs but Ior those that live oII campus
or on part-time study have to contend with research
conduct Irom a distance. However, graduate students do
Iace challenges in the use oI library services and
resources intheir academic endeavours.
Based on the Ior-going, research eIIorts have been on to
expose and explain the situations oI students in the use
oI higher institutions' libraries. Some oI such studies
include Frascotti et al (2007), Kayong and Helm (2010),
Sagar (2006), Nagata et al (2011), Ajayi and Ogunyemi
(2011) and Ajala (1997). Nagata et al (2011) state that
library use is beneIicial and indispensable Ior students in
achieving their educational outcomes. Sagar (2006)
Iocus on computer science students and digital library
and established that gender, age, experience and
voluntariness moderately aIIects perIormance
expectancy while inIormation quality, eIIort expectancy
and social inIluence are part oI the Iactors that inIluence
student's behavioural use oI the library. Also, Whitemire
(2002) through Nagata et al (2011) identiIies gender,
age, race, class year, mode oI study (enrolment status),
229
library variables (resources, services) as Iactors that
aIIect library use: usage as a place, use oI indexes to
journal articles, developing bibliography, use card
catalogue or computer, Iind materials in browsing
stacks, check citations in materials, read and reading a
basic reIerence. Olanlokun through Omehia (2008)
reveals that students use the library Ior class work,
research, discussions, leisure and other purposes. Their
Iinding reveals that, students with low socio-economic
status made more use oI library services than those with
middle or high status. The problem oI non use and under
utilization oI the library by the users especially the
academic library is a general problem Iaced by libraries
globally.
YusuI and Iwu (2010) report that students reading Ior
examination and photocopying oI materials accounted
Ior most students visit to the library, not only this as many
oI the respondents that use the library can also access the
book on the shelI using the catalogue. This negate the
submission oI George et al (2006) that students rely on
the internet, online resources and hard copy materials in
the library and they are usually Iaced with diIIiculty in
locating inIormation on the shelI. The basis Ior George et
al (2006) may be because oI the rapid growth in
InIormation and Communication Technology (ICT).
But Nagata et al (2011) mention that students use the
library in various ways: a place to rest, chat with Iriends,
kill time, use computers, a place Ior study, class
assignments, pleasure, reading guided by personal
whims and who never checked out library materials. For
these uses, Iour classes oI users were identiIied: learners,
socialisers, place and personal computers (PCs) users
and stroller group. These groups are inIluenced by
environmental Iactors which are the internal and external
socio-economic characteristics oI the students. In this
modern age oI internet based inIormation resources,
students will visit the library with adequate PCs
connected to the internet and use it oIten iI access is Iree.
Oyadonghan and Eke (2011) identiIies that, the
emergence oI inIormation technology has improved the
eIIiciency oI the perIormance oI library task and routine.
In their submission, it was opined that the use oI these
inIormation technology in the library by Nigerian
students varies, based on the availability oI resources and
materials, management and administration and the
students attitude and disposition.
Another reason was identiIied why student do not use the
library by Frascotti et al (2007), this they reported as
inadequate materials in the library. They also mentioned
that, non- cooperative attitude oI library staII and
obsolete equipment was Iast phasing out. Library staIIs
are now more users Iriendly and obsolete equipment
were being replaced with modern ones in this era oI
modern technology.
It is worthy to note that all the literature cited, apart Irom
Sagar (2006), Iocuses on the generality oI students. With
the current emphasis oI developing countries including
Nigeria to promote agriculture towards Iood suIIiciency,
a study that target agricultural graduate students use oI the
library becomes expedient. Also in line with Pimentel
(2009), the status oI agricultural and natural resources
inIormation shows that there is a number on institutional
programmes and initiatives that demands individual or
collective collation, analysis, storage and dissemination
oI diverse data and inIormation on the agricultural sector
oI the country. This corroborates Ajala (1997) that the use
oI the University oI Ibadan Library by graduate students
and other libraries Ior materials not available in the
Iormer; a time when the use oI the internet was either non
available or non-common in Nigeria as a whole and
among students in particular. The rising knowledge oI the
internet among students, either part-time or Iull-time, as a
sure source oI inIormation resources possibly gives rise to
the question that is to be address in this study: are the
graduate students still using the physical library oI the
university, Iaculty or the department? Apart Irom the
Ioregoing, this paper is set to address the Iollowing
additional questions: Which other libraries do graduate
students use and what Iactors inIluence the time spend in
the library? Consequently, the study will add to existing
literature on students library use and will assist promoters
oI agriculture and Iood security in knowing iI students oI
agricultural economics in a leading Nigerian University
still use the physical library and how they can be
encouraged to spend more time in the library Ior the
purpose oI enhancing agricultural scholarship towards
Iood suIIiciency in the country.

Methodology
The study purposively Iocused on the graduate students
oI agricultural economics, University oI Ibadan in the
2010/2011 session comprising oI M.Sc, and M.Phil/PhD
students. Simple Random Sampling was used to select 60
students on which structured questionnaire were
administered and oI which 57 were returned successIul.
The data were analysed with Stata 10.1 using descriptive
statistics: table, Irequency, percentage and tobit
regression. The regression was used to analyse the Iactors
that aIIect the length oI time in hours that students spend
inthe library and is describedas Iollows:
The tobit equation is as Iollows:
.......... (1)
For , Y Y* iI Y* ~ T
i
Y* iI Y* T
Assuming T 0
ThusY Y* iI Y* ~ 0 or
i
0 iI Y* 0
where,
i 1, 2, ., n
Y Highest Time spent in the Library(Hours)
X SocioeconomicVariable, i
i
230
n total number oI independent variables
X Gender (Male Dummy: Male 1 and Female 0)
1
X Age (Years)
2
X Marital Status (Single Dummy: Single 1 and otherwise 0)
3
X University Education (Years)
4
X Study mode (Full Time 1 and Otherwise 0)
5
X MembershipoI registered group on campus (Yes 1 and otherwise 0)
6
X Type oI group on campus (Social group 1 and Academic group 0)
7
X MembershipoI registered group oII campus (Yes 1and otherwise 0)
8
X Type oI group oII campus (Social group 1 and Academic group 0)
9
X Weekly allowance on study (Naira)
10
X Use oI Librarywith Iriend/colleague/pal (Yes 1 and No 0)
11
X Library location discourages use oI the library (Yes 1 and No 0)
12
X Class workload discourages use oI the library (Yes 1 andNo 0)
13
X Class workload reduces the time spend in the library (Yes 1and No 0)
14
c Error term
Results and Discussion
Marital Status and Irequency oI library visit: As shown inTable 1, twenty seven (27) oI the respondents are single while
thirty (30) are either married or divorce representing 47.37 percent and 52.63 percent respectively. Among those that
are married, 38.60 percent is studying Ior MPhil and or PhDwhile 14.03 percent is studying Ior Master's degree. For the
single students, 26.32 percents is Ior the Iormer and 21.05 percents Ior the later. Moreover, those that go to the library
everyday is 5.26 percent, occasional visit is 42.11 percent, once a week 7.02 percent and Not at all 29.83. This implies
that most oI the students occasionally visit the University library.
Table 1: Marital Status, Degree in viewand frequency of libraryvisit
Gender, mode oI study and Irequency oI visit to the library: Table 2 shows that 57.89 percent oI the respondents are
Iemale and 42.10 percent (24 respondents) are male. Among the Iemale respondents, 17.54 percent and 40.35 percent
are on part-time and Iull time study mode but Ior the males, 8.77 percent and 33.33 percent are on the two study modes
respectively. 12, 3, 6, 2
Table 2: Gender, study mode and frequency of visit to universitylibrary

Frequency oI Library Visit
Marital
Stat us
Degree
InView
Not at
All
Once a
Week
Twice
a Week
Everyday Occasional Total Percent

Married
and
Divorse
M.Sc 03 - 01 - 04 08 14.03
MPhil/PhD 05 02 04 - 11 22 38.60

Single

M.Sc 03 01 01 03 04 12 21.05
MPhil/PhD 06 01 03 - 05 15 26.32
Total 17 04 09 03 24 57 100.00
Percent 29.83 07.02 15.79 05.26 42.11 100.00

Frequency oI vis it to Univers ity Library
Gender Study
Mode
Not at
All
Once a
Week
Twice
a Week
Everyda y Occasiona l Total Percent

Fe male
Part-Time 02 01 02 01 04 10 17. 54
FullTime 06 01 03 02 11 23 40. 35

Male

Part-Time 03 - 01 - 01 05 08. 77
FullTime 06 02 03 - 08 19 33. 33
Total 17 04 09 03 24 57 100. 00
Percent 29. 83 07. 02 15. 79 05.26 42.11 100. 00

231
and 19 oI Iull-time students do not visit the library, visit once a week, twice a week, everyday and occasionally
respectively. Among part-time students, Irequency oI visit is 5, 1, 3, 1 and 5 respectively. This implies that majority oI
the students are Iemale (40); majority oI who visits the library occasionally Iollowed by those that do not go to the
library. Similar observation is deductable among the minority male students. Also there is no clear cut distinction
between the Irequency oI university library visit oI part-time and Iull-time students. This supports the observation that
most oI the students either Iull-time or part-time visit the university library occasionally.
Study mode, gender and Irequency oI visit to Iaculty and department library: Table 3 shows that 56 percent
representing 32 respondents visit the department library while 43.86 percent (25 respondents) do not visit the
department library. OI the later, 5.26 percent do go to the Iaculty library while Irom those that visit the department
library, 33.33 percent do visit the Iaculty library. Majority constituting 38.60 percent do not go to either Iaculty or
department library while 22.81 percent visit the department library but not Iaculty library. This implies that majority oI
the graduate students do not visit the Iaculty library. However, more Iull-time students visit the department and Iaculty
library more than the part-time students. Out oI the 15 part-time students only 5 visit both the department and Iaculty
libraries while 2 that visit department library do not visit the Iaculty library. Out oI the 42 part-time students, 3 visit the
Iaculty library but do not visit that oI the department while 11 visit the department library but not the library while 14
visit both. This implies that the Iaculty and department library still serve the graduate students especially those on Iull-
time mode oI study.
Table 3: Mode of study, genderand frequency of visit to Facultyand Department libraries
Frequency oI visit to department and Iaculty libraries: As shown in Table 4, 29.82, 7.02, 15.79, 5.26 and 42.11 percents
do not visit, go once a week, twice a week, everyday and occasionally to university library respectively. OI those that
do not visit the university library, only 6 students do not visit the Iaculty and department library while 5 visit the
department library but not Iaculty library and 6 respondents visit both. OI the 32 students that go to the department
library, 7 visit the Iaculty library occasionally. The implication oI this is that the students visit both the Iaculty and
department libraries occasionally.
Marital status, use oI internet source, university library and library outside: According to Table 5, virtually all the
students use internet source as only 3.51 percent reported non-use oI electronic library, the balance oI 96.49 percent
use internet source. Also, thirty (30) respondents (52.63 percent) do not use library outside the university. This clearly
implies that most oI the graduate students depend on internet based inIormation sources Ior their academic pursuit.
This perhaps is contrary to the Iindings oI Ajala (1997) that graduate students use the University oI Ibadan Library and
other libraries Ior materials not available in the Iormer which is no more tenable in the present day reality oI internet
surIing.
Non Visit Department Visit Department
Library Library

Study
Mode
Gender Non Visit
to Faculty
Library
Visit to
Faculty
Library
Non Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Faculty
Library
Total Percent

Part-
Time
Female 06 - 01 03 10 17.54
Male 02 - 01 02 05 08.77

FullTime
Female 08 02 06 07 23 40.35
Male 06 01 05 07 19 33.33
Total 22 03 13 19 57 100.00
Percent 38.60 05.26 22.81 33.33 100.00

232
Table 4: Frequency of visit to faculty and Department libraries
Factors that aIIect hours spent in the library: The regression result as shown table 6 reveals that all the IiIty seven (57)
observations were used in the analysis with only Iour (4) representing students that spent less than 1 hour censored out.
The pseudo R-square shows that 4.61 percent
Table 5: Marital status, use of e-library (internet source), university libraryand libraryoutside the university
oI the variability in the dependent variable, highest hour spent in the library, is explained by the independent variables
X to X . This perhaps explains why none oI the explanatory variables is signiIicant even at 10 percent level. Despite
1 14
this, the signs oI the coeIIicients show some relationships. Male graduate students spend more average hour in the
library than the Iemale at least by 0.92 hours on the average. This means that as one moves Irom male to Iemale
students, average hour spent in the library decreases. With age increase among the students, time spend in the library
increases same Ior years oI education. The average hour spend in the libraryis higher
Non Visit Department Visit Department
Library Library

Visit oI
Univesity
Library
Non-Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Faculty
Library
Non-Visit
Faculty
Library
Visit oI
Facult y
Library
Total Percent
Not at all 06 - 05 06 17 29.82
Once a
week
01 - 01 02 04 07.02
Twice a
week
04 - 02 03 09 15.79
Everyday 01 01 - 01 03 05.26
Occasional 10 02 05 07 24 42.11
Total 22 03 13 19 57 100.00
Percent 38.60 05.26 22.81 33.33 100.00

Married and Divorce Single
Visit to
University
Library
Library
outside
University
Non Use
oI
E-library
Use oI
E- Library
Non Use
oI
E-library
Use oI
E-Library
Total Percent

Not at all
Non Use - 06 - 05 11 19.30
Use - 02 01 03 06 10.53

Once a
week
Non Use - - - 02 02 03.51
Use - 01 01 - 02 03.51

Twice a
week
Non Use - 02 - 04 06 10.53
Use - 02 - 01 03 5.26


Everyday
Non Use - - - 01 01 01.75
Use - 01 - 01 02 03.51

Occasional
Non Use - 05 - 05 10 17.54
Use - 11 - 03 14 24.56
Total - 30 02 25 57 100.00
Percentage - 52.63 3.51 43.86 100

233
Table 6: Tobit regression
Hours Spent in Library CoeI Std. Err T P~/t/
X1Gender 0.917 0.864 1.06 0.295
X2Age 0.043 0.074 0.58 0.564
X3Marital Staus 0.287 0.331 0.87 0.391
X4Years oI Education 0.053 0.127 0.42 0.678
X5Study Mode 0.230 1.117 0.21 0.838
X6Group Membership on Campus -23.774 17.556 -1.35 0.183
X7Type oI group on campus -2.832 2.050 -1.38 0.174
X8Group Membership oII Campus -2.873 2.568 -1.12 0.269
X9 GroupTypeoIICampus -0.206 0.302 -0.68 0.497
X10 Weekly Allowance on Study -0.000 0.000 -1.06 0.295
X11Visit Library wit h Iriends 1.031 0.852 -1.21 0.233
X12 Library locationDiscouarge -0.012 1.701 -0.01 0.994
X13 Workloaddiscourage -1.403 0.997 -1.41 0.167
X14WorkloadreducesTime 1.066 0.875 1.22 0.230
Constant 31.179 19.743 1.58 0.122
/Sigma 2.548 0.253

Log likelihood - 129.97 Number oI observation
57 LRchi2 (14) 12.56
Prob ~ chi2 0.5614 Pseudo R2 0.0461
4 l e I t - c e n s o r e d
observations at highest1
53 uncensored observations 0 r i g h t - c e n s o r e d
observations
among single, Iull-time, those that visit library with
Iriends, and those that opined that class workload
reduces time spent in the library than their opposite
categories that received zero value. Also more weekly
Iinancial allowance on study reduces time spent in the
library. Whereas, membership oI registered social
group on campus and oII campus, those that are oI
opinion that library location and class workload
discourage time spent in the library spend lower time in
the library compared with their base categories that
received zero value. OI particular note is the high
coeIIicient oI group membership which implies that the
variable has highest magnitude in explaining length oI
time spent in the library.
Conclusion
The study has shown that graduate students oI
agricultural economics are moving away Irom the use
oI the university library as they occasionally visit the
library and department and Iaculty libraries. Graduate
students, both part-time and Iull-time, use electronic
library mostly which is convenient at the comIort oI
their table and room. Full-time status and membership
oI registered group on campus and oII campus
encourage hours spent in the library while the more the
money available Ior study, that is, as students' weekly
allowance increases, hours spent in the library
decreases. At least with more money, students could
have more access to internet connection. To encourage
the graduate students to spend more time in the library,
Iull-time mode oI study should be encouraged while
internet wireless Iacilities with adequate personal
computers would also encourage the graduate students
oI agricultural economics to spend more hours in the
library as the students now rely on electronic library
which is internet based. The library should organise
orientation programmes Ior all students especially when
new inIormation material is being purchased in the
library. This is line with Kumar (2010) that orientation
programmes should be organised so that variety oI
library resources could have optimal use. The library
management should also make necessary and adequate
plan in ensuring that the use oI inIormation technology is
encouraged. Training should be organized Ior both the
staII and the students on how to use the internet. By so
doing, eIIorts would be seen towards satisIying the
inIormation needs oI agricultural students Ior
scholarship that aims at IoodsuIIiciency.
References
Agboola, 1. O and Bamigboye (2011) Students' level oI
study and user oI library resources in Nigerian
Universities: A comparative study. Library Philosophy
andPractices
http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/
Ajala, I. O. (1997). Use oI the University oI Ibadan
Library resources by graduate students Library
Review.Vol 46Iss:6, Pp 421-427. ISSN: 0024-2535
Ajayi, T. B. and Ogunyemi, O. I. (2011) Determinants
oI library use among students oI agriculture: case study
oI Lagos State Polytechnic. Journal oI Library
Philosophy and Practice. September Vol.
http://unllib.uni.edu/LLP/
234
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233
E-LEARNING SECURITYAND PRIVACYIN THE NEWMILLENIUM
Aremu Idris Abiodun, Okunade Temitope Adijah and 1imoh Ishola Taylor
Lagos State Polytechnics Shagamu Road, Lagos.
changshoooyahoo.com

ABSTRACT
As e-learning increases in popularity and technical, more people preIer online courses and thus need to understand
security issues relevant to this topic. This paper discussed privacy and security issues associated with e-learning. It
also presents the basic principles behind privacy practices and legislation. Armed with the advanced inIormation
and communication technologies, e-Learning is having a Iar-reaching impact on learning in the new millennium.
Keywords: E-learning, web-based, extranet, Multimedia, cryptography, Iingerprint
Introduction
E-leaning reIers to using electronic application and
processes to learn. E-learning application and processes
include web-based learning, computer-based learning,
virtual classrooms, and digital collaborations. Content is
delivered via the internet, intranet, extranet, satellite TV,
and CD-ROM with multimedia capabilities. E-learning
is deIined as individualised instruction delivered over
public (intranet) computer networks.
Although security is an ensure part oI any system it
should not impede original objective oI that system.
However security mechanism and their poor
implementation have been Iound to present serious
usability problem. There are two principal security
issues authentication and privacy, were usability is a
source oI problem oI the online learning system (OLS).
Initially users, encounter a variety oI usability problems
oI authentication procedures, such as password which
incur high user overheads or are simply unworkable.
The result is that user either tries to circumvent the
mechanism or use other system to solve the problem.
User seeking to protect their privacy encounter Iurther
complex usability problem. The usability issues oIten
relate to concept oI ownership (e.g. intellectual property
rights, copyright and privacy rights). However many
online security learning do not provide adequate
Ieedbacks or control rights. Although some usability
issues only relate to speciIic online setting others are
more universally across environment.
For security mechanism in online security learning to
eIIective protects our inIormation they must be designed
appropriately to the user need. Usability, in this sense,
would relate to providing users with adequate control to
protect their data. In this context, user may be provider
oI material in which case the concern is commonly over
authorised access to proprietary learning material or user
may be learner in which case the concern may be over
their answer to question, their result or even their image
(notably in the video conIerencing systems, where even
matters are apparently trivial as the quality oI the video
image can eIIect perception enormously). Various online
learning system, however do not provide adequate
Ieedback or the control rights to allowthis control.
Security consists oI two primary components: physical
security and electronic security. The campus police have
clear responsibility Ior physical security. InIormation
security reIers mainly to protection oI electronic data and
networks, although inIormation exists in both physical
andelectronic.
UserAuthentication
Authentication is a common term expressed in the
inIormation technology security industry. The term
authentication has been deIined as the process oI
determining whether someone or something is, in Iact,
who or what it is declared to be. In private and public
computer networks (including the Internet), the process
oI authentication is commonly completed through the use
oI logon user identiIication and passwords, and the
knowledge oI the password is assumed to guarantee that
the user is authentic (Ramzan, 2007). Needless to say, iI a
password is shared between users, its use cannot be
viewed as an eIIective mechanism Ior veriIying user
identity. User IDs and passwords were called out Ior
having many well-known vulnerabilities, and security
analysts suggested that organizations should plan Ior
stronger authentication Ior system administrators and
other privileged users, by year-end 2007, and Ior primary
network login Ior all users by 2009 (Allen, 2007).
Security measure have centred on Iorcing the user
towards secure behaviour by enIorcing more restrictive
authentication regimes, such as
Increasingly change regimes (By changing the
password once a month)
Online training has become a way oI liIe in this new
millennium. Without time to attend school in this Iast-
pace world, many people begin to look Ior credible
institutes oI knowledge in a place previously thought to
contain anything but. With nationally recognised online
courses in management, business, human resources,
computing, selI improvement, HR, andmany more.
236
Longer and more complex password ( using Alpha-
numeric)
Reduction inallowinput error rate
In some industries, user ID and password may be
suIIicient Ior authentication because they are inherently
secured by the user. Some industries, such as banking
and online retail, invest in a second layer oI protection to
ensure risks are mitigated. In online banking, Ior
example, consumers reIrain Irom divulging their
assigned user ID and password to prevent others Irom
accessing their bank account. Resetting a password
usually triggers a second layer oI identity veriIication. In
online education, dishonest students willingly reveal
their user ID and password to others Ior the purpose oI
cheating, even iI it explicitly violates academic policies
on student conduct.
In response to growing concerns over academic honesty
in the online environment, Excelsior College oI Albany,
New York has included a speciIic statement about
identity Iraud in their academic honesty policy. The
policy states that all Iorms oI academic dishonesty are
considered serious violations oI the ethical standards oI
Excelsior College, but one that is considered
particularly egregious is identity Iraud. Any student who
has another person impersonate or in any other way
commit identity Iraud in any course, exam or other
academic exercise will be dismissed Irom the college.
(Excelsior College, 2009).
Over the past Iew years, varied approaches to user
authentication in the online learning environment have
been tested and are now being incorporated into online
learning ventures. In many cases, such alternatives have
served as substitutions to the conventional means oI on-
site, Iace-to-Iace examination sessions including:
- Even with these available alternatives, the pressure
continues to mount to Iind a trustworthy yet cost-
eIIective Use oI proctored assessments administered
through sanctioned testing centres;
- Use oI advanced technology intended to validate an
individual's biometrics including Iingerprint readers,
signature, Iacial, or voicerecognitionprograms;
- Synchronous monitoring including Web video
recording or monitoring, telephone call-back, IP
monitoring, or soItware that detects discrepancies in
response patterns such as howan individual types;
- Increased emphasis on student portIolios, papers,
projects and quizzes in exchange Ior high 'point
weighted midterm and Iinal examinations;
- Avoidance oI an objective assessment and controlled
testing settings by using various methods to assess
learning.
Even with these available alternatives, the pressure
continues to mount to Iind a trustworthy yet cost-
eIIective protocol to securely evaluate students engaged
in online learning. Also, given the wide variety oI
distance education venues and the varying assessment
methodologies nowavailable, one strategy will not Iit all
situations. In addition, proving identity in every
situation that a student perIorms is not realistic, practical
or cost eIIective. As oI May 2009, several
methodologies are available on the market to address
identity in distance education in addition to user id and
password. The Iollowing outlines the types oI solutions
andcriteria about each. 1hey are:
- Biometrics and Web Video Recording: Unique
typing style, signature, voice or Iingerprint plus
targeted recording oI student in exam via webcam
- Challenge Questions: Challenge questions based
on third-partydata
- Face-to-Face Proctored Exam: Face to Iace with
government or institutionissued identiIication
- Web Video Conference Proctor: Audio and video
conIerence proctoring via webcam. Screen
monitoringservice with live, certiIiedproctors.
Privacy: What is the privacy impact of each
methodology mentionedabove?
- Biometrics and Web Video Recording: These
solutions require capture and storage oI unique
identiIyingcharacteristics oI the student.
- Challenge Questions: Challenge questions based
on third-party data. Based on public and private data,
these solutions pose questions to a student just beIore
anassessment.
- Face-to-Face Proctored Exam: Proctored exams
typically require a photo id and have little impact on
privacy.
- Web Video ConIerence Proctor: Because the exam
session is not recorded, there are no signiIicant
privacyconcerns.
of security
To create a catalogue oI inIormation security criteria we
consider an extended model oI inIormation security, this
inIormation security services that must be enIorced in
order to create a secure environment are listed in the
Iollowing:
Confidentiality: To ensure that data stored in databases
and transmitted over a network, and cannot be read by
unauthorized thirdparties.
Integrity: To ensure that data stored in databases and
transmitted over a network, and cannot be changed by
unauthorizedthird parties.
Availability: To ensure that data is available to
authorized third parties all the times.
An architectural element
237
Identification and authentication: To ensure that
learner is properly identiIied and veriIied during login
process.
Authorisation: (logical control access) To ensure that
the user only has access to that data which is relevant to
him/her, and not to other data.
Non-repudiation: To ensure that data a user can be held
individually responsible Ior any action perIormed on the
system.
By apply these six pillars; we are Iollowing an
internationally accepted model Ior inIormation security
in InIormation Communication Technology systems,
which thereIore motivate our decision. Non-repudiation,
i.e. non-deniability oI undertaken action in the system is
one oI the most problematic things. Learn are very
inventive in exploiting some security issues and cannot
be prevented Irom sharing their account data like
username and password. For coping with these pillar we
have to go more indetail, which implementation could be
used to solve each pillar. It is obvious that not all security
services can be used singularly without applying other
ones. For example the system cannot the conIidentiality
and integrity oI some objects. II its does not even know
who is requesting to read and write. Authorisation and
non-repudiation as well depend on the identiIication oI
the user, since most oI the pillars represent a large Iield oI
the summarised in a single term. There are no
hierarchical dependencies. For example it can clearly
describe. The conIidentiality and integrity Ior example,
can be seen in two diIIerent areas. II only considered on
a system without network connection, these services
read respectively write protection Ior unauthorised
parties, iI considering them in the case oI network based
transmission, thus mostly reIers to as the Iield
cryptography. The application oI Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocols, the cryptography has to ensure
that an authorised party can read, transmitted cipher text,
but is not able to decrypt and thereIore understand what
is written. For the integrity oI the cryptography ensure
that authorised to the transmitted message can be
changes recognised. Because oI such wide deIinition oI
the security services cannot be placed in some kind oI
tree structure describing their dependencies, although
such dependencies do exist. Also note that other security
services still exist e.g anonymity, that be interested in
certain case The anonymity can be advantages to some
learner iI he/she does not want to be recognised as
someone who consume the provided material.
E-learningforthe next generation
From the time we are small children through our late
teenage years, we are continually in school. AIter
graduation Irom high school it is time to decide what it is
we want to do with the rest oI our lives, go to university,
get a degree and embark on our proIessional careers.
However, going to university costs money and many kids
are not ready to go straight to university aIter graduation.
For those who decide to take some time oII beIore going
to university to work and earn some money, there is still
an option available that will allowone to get an education
without having to sit in a classroom and adhere to a
stringent schedule.
Online study is the ideal solution Ior those who do not
want to go straight to university. Not only can you
continue to work and earn money but you can learn
valuable skills that will help you in your job and allow
you to advance proIessionally without having to go to
daily classes. In actuality, online classes can beneIit a
student greatly by allowing them the ability to gain
practical work experience coupled with a Iormal
education. This can serve them well once they do decide
to go to university or can help them continue their career
path with online degree programs where the knowledge
theylearncanbe immediately put to practical use.
When you take online classes, you have the advantage oI
not having to go to a physical classroom on a daily basis.
You can study on your time schedule and learn at your
own pace. The classes that are available Ior online study
also give you a much more practical advantage in the
work place with the variety oI classes that are available.
You can choose a diploma program in several areas, a
certiIicate program or you can take short courses Ior
continuing education. All classes are designed so that you
can learnandearn at the same time.
Some students who choose to go to university and work at
the same time have a diIIicult time juggling both. The
time constraints can put additional stress on a student and
they will Iind they are not excelling in either endeavour.
In a traditional classroom setting there are certain times
when you must attend class. This means you have to
physically be present, listen to the course material, absorb
it and understand it. Additionally, you will have tests to
prepare Ior and homework that is assigned and due with
stringent deadlines. Add this to a Iull work load and it is
nearly impossible to get everything done. Even iI you can
get everything Iinished and be in class when needed and
be on time Ior work, how much oI the course work is
actuallysinking in?
Conclusion
As illustrated in this paper, projects to Iurther
authenticate the identity oI online students have been
successIully piloted. While certainly not a panacea,
academic institutions involved in end user authentication
projects are hopeIul that the success oI these projects will
increasingly contribute to the credibility oI an
238
institution's online delivery options by adding yet another step toward identity veriIication oI online
students situatedthroughout the world.
References
Bruhn, M., Gettes, M. & West, A. (2003). Identity and access management and securityin higher education.
Cole, R. A. (2000). Issues in Web-based pedagogy. Acritical primer. Westport, CT:GreenwoodPress.
ExcelsiorCollege (2009). Academic Honesty Policy. Retrieved April 26, 2009
Heberling, M. (2002). Maintaining academic integrity in on-line education. Online Journal of Distance Learning
Administration, 5(2). Retrieved March 6, 2009.
Higher Learning Commission (2009). Summary of Policies Related to the Higher Education Opportunity Act.
RetrievedMarch 11, 2009.
Holohan, R., Fischbach, R., Fisher, R., Campbell, T., & Rohr, T. (2005). ILCCOResearch Report 2005. Quality,
Retentionand Expansion of Online Courses and Programs in Illinois Community Colleges. RetrievedMarch9, 2009..
1ortberg, M.A. (2009) Methods to veriIy the identity oI distance learning students. Acxiom White Paper. Retrieved
March 1, 2009.
King, C.G., Guyette, R.W., & Piotrowski, C. (2009). Online exams and cheating: An empirical analysis oI business
students' views. The Journal of Educators Online, 6(1). RetrievedMarch 5, 2009..
Nagy, A. (2005). The Impact oI E-Learning, in: Bruck, P.A., Buchholz, A., Karssen, Z., & ZerIass, A. (Eds). E-
content. technologies and perspectives for the European market. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
239
EFFECT OF STORAGE CONDITION ON QUALITYOF MALT DRINKS
PRODUCED IN LAGOS
Z. O. Apotiola Department OI Food Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu. Lagos
08028298044, zoapotiolayahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The study was to determine the eIIect oI recommended storage condition oI ambient(25-3) temperature on some malt
drinks consumed in Lagos. Four types were selected namely: Hi-malta, Amstel malta, Guiness malta and maltina.
Carbon dioxide, colour, original gravity, bitterness, pH and total air in bottle were the quality parameters used to test
Ior the keeping quality oI the products. Method oI analysis or tests stated in NIS 290/92 was adopted Ior the project.
Within this period, bitterness, original gravity, sugar, total air in bottle changes Irom 7.1+0.2 to 12.5+0.2, 106+1.5 to
109+0.0, 4.5+0.2 to 4.7+0.0, 2.0+0.0 to 3.5+0.1 respectively. Statistical analysis showed that there was signiIicant
diIIerence (P0.05) in sugar, original gravity, total air in bottle and bitterness but there was no signiIicant diIIerent
(P0.05) in colour, pH and ethanol. Meanwhile, within six the months oI storage none oI this parameter Iailed NIS
standard 290/92 requirement.
INTRODUCTION
Malt drink is a non-alcoholic beverage obtained Irom
unIermented work (Fortes et al, 1997). It is a very
common drink in Caribbean Island and Latin American,
but its consumption in Nigeria has been on the increase
(Miller, 1986).
Malt is also occasionally called 'champaque cola' by
some brands. However, there is a separate type oI drink
with this name having a Ilavor and consistency Owades
(1992). Due to its distinctive colour malt is sometimes
known as black brewed beer (Yates et al, 2003). Wort
Irom which malt is produce aIter cooling is IortiIied with
micronutrients to improve the nutritional quality oI the
drink (Calvo et al, 2004). Malt is high in B vitamins,
some breweries likeAlbani brewery oI Denmark, IortiIy
their non-alcoholic malt beverages with vitamin B
complex.
Malt drinks are produced Irom cereals such as sorgum,
barley, maize, millet, rice and wheat as grains or in
malted Iorm. Others are nutritive sweetness, the dry or
liquid Iorm oI sugar, invert, sugar dextrose, Iructose
syrup, sorbitol, honey, manitol and permitted non-
nutritive sweetners as permitted by the Food and Drugs
Administration and Control Department oI the Federal
MinistryoI Health and Human Services.
Malt drinks are required to be produced to standard
speciIied by Nigerian industrial standard Ior malt drinks
and other international standard such as international
organization Ior standard, codex standard etc.
The standard speciIied that malt drinks shall be stored in
a cool dry place, this speciIication is most oI time not
adhered to, while some will keep in the sun, other will
keep theirs in an environment where the temperature is
o
more than 35 c. These practices may lead to lost in
nutrients or change in colour and other chemicals in the
product, so the needIor this project andthe objective are.
Aims and objectives
To subject Iour malt sample to storage at room
temperature Ior six months.
To carryout some analysis on the malt samples at regular
intervals.
To determine the eIIect oI the storage on quality oI the
malt drinks.
MATERIALAND METHOD
MATERIALS
Four brands oI commercial malt drinks produced in
Lagos which include maltina, malta Gold, Hi-malt and
Amstel malt were used. The samples were purchased
Irom mini depot in Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria. The
samples were divided into six groups Ior each analysis.
METHODS
Storage Conditions
The samples were store at room temperature, at each
month, they were opened, degrassed, decolourised by
treatment with activated charcoal and Iilter, to give clear
Iiltrates usedIor analysis.
Analysis of Samples: According to NIS 290/92.
- PHDetermination
- Bitterness Determination
- Total air in Bottle Determinat
- Sugar Determination
- Ethyl alcohol using Distillation Method (Pearson,
1973)
- Determination oI Colour
- Original Gravity
240
RESULT
MONTH ZERO
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241
The same super script means no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH ONE
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242
The same super script means no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH TWO
243
S
a
m
p
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e
O r
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a v i
t y
E
t
h
a
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0
The same super script means no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH THREE
S
a
m
p
l
e
Or
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na
l
gr
avi
t y
E
t
h
a
n
ol
p
H
c
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Ca
rb
on
dio
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Bitt
ern
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T
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a
l
a
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i
n

b
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108
. 0+
0. 0
c
0.
0
+
0.
0
a
4
.
7
+
0
.
0
b
D
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br
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n
4.5
+0.
0
b
7. 1+
0. 0
a
3
.
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0
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1
b
1
0.
5
+
0.
0
b
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108
. 0+
0. 0
c

0.
1
+
0.
0
b

4
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7
+
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0
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D
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br
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4.5
+0.
0
b
10.0
+0. 0
b
3
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2
+
0
.
0
c
1
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3
+
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107
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0. 0
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1
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4
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d
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104
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A
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4
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0
d
8.
4
+
1.
0
a

244
The same super script means no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH FOUR
S
a
m
p
l
e
Or
igi
nal
gr
avi
ty
E
t
h
a
n
ol
p
H
c
o
l
o
u
r
Car
bon
diox
ide
Bitt
ern
ess
T
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t
a
l
a
i
r

i
n

b
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t
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108
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0. 5
c
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0
+
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0

4
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7
+
0
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1
b
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b
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4.6+0
.1
b
7.3+
0.01
a
3
.
0
+
0
.
1
b
1
0.
5
+
0.
0
c
M
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a
108
. 0+
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c

0.
1
+
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0
4
.
7
+
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0
b
D
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k

b
r
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4.6+0
.0
b
10.2
+0.2
b
3
.
3
+
0
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0
c
1
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2
+
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H
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4
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7
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0
d
7.
7
+
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1
a

243
The same super script means no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH FIVE
S
a
m
p
l
e
O r
i gi
n al
gr
avi
ty
E
t
h
a
n
ol
C
o
l
o
u
r
p
H
Car
b on
di o
xi d e
B itt
ern
ess
T
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t
a
l
a
i
r

i
n

b
o
t
t
l
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S
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g
a
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M
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a
108
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b
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4
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b
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a
3
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1
+
0
.
2
b
1
0.
2
+
0.
0
c
M
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a
108
. 0+
0. 0
b

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1
+
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0
b
D
a
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b
r
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4
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7
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0
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b
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b
3
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1
+
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1
b
1
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2
+
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1
c
H
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a
lt
106
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0. 5
b

0.
1
+
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b
D
a
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b
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a
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d
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+
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0
a
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+
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b
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c
3
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+
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.
0
c
7.
7
+
0.
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a

246
Column with the same super script means there is no signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
MONTH SIX
S
a
m
p
l
e
O
r i
g i
n a
l
g r
a v
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E
t
h
a
n
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p
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c
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o
u
r
C
a
r
b
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d
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o
x
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d
e
B i t t
e r n
e s s
T
o
t
a
l
a
i
r

i
n

b
o
t
t
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S
u
g
a
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a
l t
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10
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+ 0 .
5
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0
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0

4
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6
+
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b
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1
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3
+
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a
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+
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b
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5
5 1
0 -
1
6


247
Column with the same super script means there is no
signiIicant diIIerent at (P0.05).
DISCUSSION
The results oI the laboratory analysis Ior each oI the Iour
(4) malt brands tested are shown in Tables 1 to 6. The
values Ior the parameters tested Irom zero to 6 months
storage time are shown therein.
No signiIicant diIIerence occurred in the values Ior
original gravity Ior all the malt brands tested as well as
with the NIS standard at month zero. However, as
storage time increased, the values Ior original gravity
also increased Ior all the malt brands, with the exception
oI Amstel malta which showed irregularity in its values.
The values Ior the pH ranged Irom 4.4 to 4.7. The
required standard Ior pH is 4.5+0.5. Though,
Iluctuations were observed in the pH values Ior malta,
maltina, Hi-malt and Amstel malt, the results showed no
derivation Irom the required standard even as storage
time increased Irom zero to 6 months.
Ethanol values also showed similar pattern as month
content throughout the storage period while ethanol
values Ior other brands (maltina, Amstel malta and Hi-
malt) were negligible and belowthe required standard oI
0.2 throughout the analytical period.
There exist no diIIerence in colour, which was dark
brown Ior all the malt brands throughout the storage
period.
Concentration oI sugar ranged Irom 7.7 to 10.3. It was
observed that a gradual reduction occurred in the sugar
content as storage period increased. Moreso, the values
oI sugar in Hi-malt and amstel malta were below the
standardvalue.
Carbondioxide, a colourless gas which is odourless at
low concentration and has a sharp acidic odour at high
concentration was presence in all the malt samples. The
required standard Ior the gas in malts is 4.2 6.2 g/l at
o
20 c. The values Ior all the malt brands within the
storage periods were within the range oI standard
requirement. Although an increase was noted within the
brands as storage period increased, the increase was
slight and within the acceptable standard range.
CONCLUSION
The malt drinks (Amstel malt, Hi malt, maltina and
Malta) produce in Lagos Nigeria used Ior these study,
some parameter like sugar, carbondioxide, bitterness are
slightly aIIected by this storage condition (room
temperature). Since the NIS speciIied that malt should
stored in a cool dry place, within these six month oI
storage, the parameters are within NIS 290/92 standard
speciIication.
REFERENCES
Calvo, M.S., Whiting S1, Barton CN, (2004). Vitamin
st
Dand Health in the 21 Century: bone and beyond. Am.
J. Clin. Nutr. 80(6) 1710S-1716S.
Fortes, C., N. Agabit, V. Fano, R. Pacific, F.
Ferastiere, F. (1997). Zinc supplementation and
Iermentation oI Food Drinks and Beverages. Eur. J.
Clin. Nutrition 51: 97 101.
Miller, R. W (1986). Non-alcoholic Beer and Wine.
Drinks consumption, FDAconsumer, p.20.
Owades 1. L(1992). Preparation oI Non-alcoholic Malt
Beverage, UnitedStates Patent 5120557.
th
Pearson, D. (1996), Mashing Properties oI Food 7
Edition, Church Hill Edinburg.
Standard Organisation oI Nigeria oI Malt Drinks. NIS
290/92.
Yates, a. A. Schlicker, S.A., Suitor C. W. (2003).
Dietary ReIerence colourant: The New Basis Ior
Recommendations Ior Calcium and Related Nutrients, B
Vitamins, and Choline, J. Am. Diet Assoc., 98: 699
706.
248
HUMAN RELATIONS; AVITALTOOLFOR ORGANIZATIONALPRODUCTIVITY
( Case study of Sheraton Lagos Hotel & Towers)
A PRESENTATIONAT SCHOOLOF TECHNOLOGY,
ND
2 INTERNATIONALCONFERENCE ON SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY
BY
Metilelu Olumide Olusola
DEPT OF HOSPITALITYMGT. TECHNOLOGY
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
E-mail molumidein.com
Tel: 08023157732, 07038172003
AND
Olaniyan Sulaimon Olanrenwaju
DEPT OF LEISURE & TOURISMMANAGEMENT
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
Tel: 08089122796, 08154158402
ABSTRACT
The survival oI the hospitality industry is largely dependent upon the quality oI it's employee. It has become a concern
oI many companies to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills oI employees, human relations skill are critical Ior
managers at all levels, as it contribute to manager's ability to bring out the best in people. The study observed that the
manager's role in human resources management system thereIore is to institutionalize sound policies aIIecting
recruitment, selection, perIormance, training, morale, job satisIaction and development all subordinates employee.
The study concludes that organizations should develop a critical human resources management and human relations
skills to get the very best out oI all staII members.
Keywords: Human Relations, Organizational, Productivity and Human Resources.
INTRODUCTION
Human as a Iactor Ior organization productivity is the
integration oI people into a work situation which motivates
themto work together productively, co-operatively, and
with psychological and social satisIaction.
Manager and supervisor have a leadership role to play
which requires them to maintain acceptable level oI
social interaction with their dependence including
standard job perIormance.
Human relation deal with people. One needs not to be a
psychologist to observe and understand problem and
conIusion that oIten occur in human behaviour. Aperson
purpose oI human relations can be inIluenced greatly by
his viewpoints, experience and position in a group. Each
person needs psychological knowledge and experience
to analyze the behaviors oI others.
II a person is seen to be successIul in his social
disposition, he tends to believe that he is perIect in his
human relations practice thereIore; he may not like to
work on improving it, which is not admirable. II a person
has a diIIiculty in relating to others he may believe that
the Iault lies outside him. This may be true, but oIten,
such people try to rationalize their attitude toward selI-
perIection. At any rate, whoever contributes to group
eIIort successIully may not be able to claim such success
in human relation but when individual practices this
success and Iailure caneasily be apportioned.
History, oI course, is Iull oI strike, turnover, deliberately
restricted production, and other Iorms oI unproductive
behaviour these seems, on the surIace the belieI that
human nature is hardly a worthwhile topic Ior a practical
manto study.
Until recently there were very Iew explicit theories oI
how people at work should be managed. However, two
main methods were employed, and these implied certain
underlying assumption about human nature. One oI
these was the method oI coercion, which used the threat
oI dismissal as a means oI compelling an economically
dependent individual to behave more or less as his
employer wanted. The other was the method oI
compensation, which used the reward oI money (or other
beneIit that cost money such as insurance) as a means oI
attracting the individual towards activities, which would
help his employer.
However, human relations in industry are not the study
oI human behavior Ior it use, the purpose oI this study is
to help achieve better understanding and more satisIying
result Irom group eIIorts, in the working place.
249
The subject human relations can be looked at Irom
diIIerent viewpoint oI inters relations between Iellow
humanbeingin the work place.
The diIIerent level could be broken down as Iollows:
Employee and employers
Workers and guest'
StaII unionand management
Management and government authority
Workers and suppliers
Within Iellow employees, that is, colleagues,
subordinates and superiors.
As a member oI staII in a hotel, there must be good
communication link between the organization
structures since much time will be spent on working
hour and interacting with guest.
In view oI this, the behavior which one exhibit in the
course oI perIorming the job is very crucial to the
achievement oI organizational objectives. The way staII
behaves to their colleagues and subordinate or even
superior will greatly inIluence their thinking and
subsequent behavior toward one another. Since we
knowthat one's attitude shapes his or her behaviour, it is
important that one should be mindIul oI the attitudes
he/she is Iorming.
Along the same line, the way one answer question Irom
and treat outsiders in the course oI perIorming his work
will aIIect their thinking and behavior towards him and
his department as a whole.
OB1ECTIVES OFTHESTUDY
The objectives oI this paper research are to:
1. Observe whether good human relations help to
increase the level oI eIIiciency and
productivity.
2. To ascertain the importance oI human relations
towards achieving organizational goal in the
hotel with particular reIerence to Sheraton
Lagos hotel and Towers.
3. To recommend whether human relations helps
employees to get along with each other.
4. To determine whether human relations helps
employees to get along with their guest so as to
encourage them in patronizing the hotel again.
5. It will also decide how human relations can
aIIect the relationship between;
Superior
Colleagues
Subordinates
Guest and public at large
MATERIALS ANDMETHOD
The study was carried out in Lagos speciIically at
Victoria Island under Eti - Osa Local Government.
Guest and staII oI Sheraton Lagos hotel and towers are
the main respondent to the study, 100 questionnaires
were distribute and collected back Irom them aIter
which their opinions were compared. Questionnaire and
personal interview were conducted among the
respondent. The questionnaires were designed to collect
data Irom:
Employees
CompanyoIIicials
Customer / guest
Based on the inIormation gotten Irom the questionnaire,
a pre-tested structural interviewwas also used to collect
more data Irom the respondents chosen under the hotel
survey.
RESULTS ANDFINDINGS
Based on the response Irom customer and staII oI the
hotel establishment, the administration responses on
questionnaires, on Human Relations: a vital tool Ior
Organizational productivity.
The Iollowing Iindings were made:
1. Good human relations when properly implemented
among staII in the hotel will promote good working
environment that will make the employees in
diIIerent levels put their best on the job and to
enhance productivity.
2. When workers put their best on the job, the level oI
turnover will deIinitely increase, their eIIiciency
rate will increase positively and proIitability will be
enhances.
3. When personnel in establishment operate at their
best, customer's satisIaction will be enhanced and
customers will be motivated to return on increase
patronage because customer re-visit only when
they have value Ior money.
4. Good customer staII relations will reIlect a quality
image on the hotel establishment, the hotel will gain
more recognition and it will positively aIIect the
level oI productivity.
Determination oI what could motivate the customer
continuous patronage? From the Iinding analysis, 30
oI the respondent said the hotel name motivate their
continuous patronage while 60 said value Ior money
motive their continuous patronage.
Determination on whether good human relations among
hotel could boost customer's satisIaction? 94 oI the
respondent agrees that good human relations among
hotel staII could boost customers' satisIaction while 4
disagree
230
It should be noted that man does not work Ior material
gratiIication oI liIe alone, most especially money hence
too much emphasis should not be placed on money as
sole source oI motivation.
It is important that employees derive satisIaction Irom
their job, so that this would increase productivity
because iI employees receive above average level oI
satisIaction Irom the management, this would make the
employees to be happy with their job, which will make
the job easier. And also the zeal would be there at all
times.
CONCLUSION
This study has revealed the human relations; as a vital
tool Ior business promotion. It is the study oI human
behavior at work or an eIIort to take action in producing
better result. A human relation tries to achieve three
things namely:
1. To make people more productive
2. To gain satisIaction Irom existing relationship.
3. To get co-operation through mutual interest.
However, the Iundamental concept oI human relations
include mutual, interest, individual diIIerence,
motivation and human dignity. There is need to study and
understand human behavior. The objectives oI human
relations includes: Creation oI group harmony, to
provide Ior viable work environment, to minimize labour
turn over, to increase level oI productivity, to eliminate
conIlict situations among individual, to increase the level
oI eIIiciency and to increase Ieelings oI individual selI
worth Ireedom to express himselI i.e. recognition Ior his
ability.
Also there must be a good public image oI the
organization in the way they deal with their customer is
being maltreated, he will not patronize the organization,
and that might aIIect the organization goals.
In any organization, where there is good human relation,
there is always an environment oI good repot, peace and
unity. ThereIore, human relation is very essential Ior
hotel business promotion.
RECOMMENDATION
Business organization typically comprises oI people
with diIIerent perception, drives, desires, interest,
aspiration and motives. ThereIore, it could be said the
human beings are diIIerent Irom each other. There is the
need to understand and study each other to be able to get
along with one another. ThereIore, I have the Iollowing
recommendationto make.
Leaders must not be selI-centered, they must bear in
mind the needs oI staII, thus will spur the subordinate to
give voluntarilya little or extra to the job.
To improve the needs oI their staII as they are the greatest
Iactors oI production.
Hotel staII must be sent Ior training on human relations
to improve relationship between his subordinates and
alsowiththeir guests.
There should be eIIective and Iree IlowoI communication
betweenthemanagement, staII andguest or customers.
Employees must attend to customer/guest on time, and
must be polite, cheerIul, respective and courteous when
dealing with guest. They should always accept Irom time
totime that customer is always right.
REFERENCES
nd
Andrew 1. D (1962): Human relation at work,(2 Ed)
NewYork, Macmillan
nd
Baer E. (1079) : The Sensitive people in business, (2
Ed) London, Edward Arnold
nd
Davis K. (1962): Human relation at work ( 2 Ed),New
York, McGraw Hill
Fagboungbe Longe (1993): Industrial psychology in
Nigeria Perspective, Lagos Kole consult
nd
Fred 1. C (1988): Human relations in business, (2 Ed)
Pittsburg, University OI Pittsburg
th
1oe K. (1989): Organizational behavior (5 Ed), New
York, Prentice Hall
Nancy H. (2003): Human relation Theory (1st Ed)
Macmillan & The Iree press NewYork
Nikolas R. (2003): Conventional textbook ( pg 44)
UniversityoI Alabama press
Bello S. A. Etal (2009): PublicAdministration system in
Nigeria, (Revised Ed)
Kotleb consult, Lagos
231
LIKELIHOOD RATIO TESTAS ANAPPROXIMATE TO CHI-SQUARE TEST WHEN THE
SAMPLE SIZE n IS LARGE
`1 2 3
Amalare A.A, Nurudeen T.S, Adeniyi M.O
`1,2,3
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Nigeria
+2348023998403 (e-mail: amalareasmyahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
Several methods oI arriving at a reliable and authentic decision in hypothesis testing have been a subject oI discussion
among many researchers. The choice oI the critical region, level oI signiIicance, testing equality oI variances,
maximum likelihood estimate and multinomial distribution are also oI great importance. This research work Iocus on
likelihood ratio test as an approximate to chi-square test when the sample size n is large. The test Statistic T (X) oI
likelihood ratio test and its asymptotic approximation, 2log T (X), are also careIully studied in this paper. Our study
revealed that the
proposed chi-square method 2 as against the conventional chi-square
gives a better approximation oI Likelihood ratiotest ( -2log)
Keywords: Hypothesis testing, maximum likelihood estimate, likelihood ratio test, equality oI variances, multinomial
distribution, restricted MLE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The method oI maximum Likelihood was Iirst
introduced by Fisher (1945). Giving a collection oI r
observations each oI which is normal with population
2
mean and population variance o We want to estimate
2
and o , where both are unknown. The problem has
been addressed in literature by several researchers
Neyman and Scott (1948), Basu (1955), KraIt and
Lecam (1953) and Bahadur (1958). In this paper a very
simple example oI inconsistency oI maximum
likelihood method is presented that shows clearly one
danger to be wary oI in an otherwise regular looking
situation. The discussion oI this paper is centred on a
sequence oI independent, identically distributed and Ior
the sake oI convenience, real random variables, X , X ,
1 2
..., X , distributed according to a distribution F(X,u) Ior
n
some u in a Iixed parameter space .
Various problems that will lead to a reliable and
authentic decision in hypothesis testing shall be
discussed and the choice oI critical region testing,
equality oI variances, maximum likelihood estimate and
multinomial distribution shall also be considered.
1.1 DEFINITIONOFTERMS
Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE): A maximum
likelihood Estimate oI parameter u in the Irequency
Iunction I ( ; u) is an estimate that maximizes the
likelihood Iunction L (u)
n
.
u
that is, the parameter values that agree most closely with
the observeddata.
Restricted / Unrestricted M.L.E:
Let x be a sample drawn Irom a particular
distribution whose probability density Iunction is a
Iunction oI parameter u We say is restricted MLE oI u
iI and only iI subjects to some particular conditions
(restriction), otherwise it is an unrestricted MLE oI u
1.2 PROPERTIES OFMLE(ASYMPTOTIC)
- Under regularity conditions, maximum likelihood
estimates are consistent.
- Under regularity condition, MLE is asymptotically
normal with (asymptotic unbiasedness) and
variance equal to the crammer Rao Lower bound.
(Cramer and Rao(1965)).
the MLE oI u based on sample oI size n is weakly
consistent that is, converges in probability to u as n
tends toinIinity provided that is such that
- exists.
1.0 METHODOLOGY
2.1 LIKELIHOODRATIO TESTS
The method oI maximum likelihood estimate discussed
earlier in 1.0. is a constructive method oI obtaining
estimators which have desirable properties under certain
conditions earlier stated. Likelihood ratio test is a testing
procedure closely allied to MLE. This method was
( )
n
x x , ,
1

.
u
.
u
.
u
x
n
u
( ) u ; x f

( )
1
1
,
n
i
i
E Log f X
n
u
=
(
(

232
proposed by Neyman and Scott (1948). In the case oI
simple null hypothesis H and alternative hypothesis
0
, a likelihood ratio test is oIten most powerIul.
The procedure oI the likelihood ratio test (LRT) applies
to the testing oI hypothesis.
Suppose that the Iamily oI probability
density Iunction oI a random variable Xis deIined. II we
intend to test the hypothesis H : u W against the
0
alternative H: u W
I
Where W and are the distribution under and
respectively.
The procedure is Iormulated as Iollows:
The distribution oI T(X) under the null hypothesis must
be determined using the above test procedure.
Example 1
Let be a random sample Irom
normal distribution
N are both unknown. To Test the
hypothesis; H : against H :
0 1
Considering the Normal distribution, Let
(2)
Under H ;
0
(3)
Now taking the logarithm oI the likelihood Iunction in
(3 ) and maximizing with respect to o the maximum
likelihood estimate oI will be
(4)
Similarly,
Under H
1
(5)

By substituting where represent the
maximum likelihood estimate oI . and putting (4) and
(5) into(1), we get
W x f e u u , ;
}
W
( )
( )
( )
,
;
;
W
S up f x
W
T X
SUPf x
u
u
u
u
e
=
e
n
x x X , . ,
1
=
2 2
, , o o and
0
=
0
=
( )
( )
(

=
2
2
2
2
1
exp
2
1
, ,
o

t o
o
x
x f
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+

2
2
2
2
1
exp 2
1
2

o
t
o
x n x x
i n
n
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
2
0 0 2
1 1
, , 2 exp
2
n
i n
f x x x n x o t
o o
(
= +
(

.
2
o
2
o
( ) ( )

+ =
.
2
0
2
2
1
o x n x xi
n
( )

=
.
2
2
1
. x x
n
i
o
x =
.

( )
2
2
2
.
n
X T
(
(
(

=
.
.
o
o
(6)
(7)
Putting (4) and (5) into (6), yields

Which is equivalent to
where
Thus we accept H iI
0
2
Since is a monotonic decreasing Iunction oI t ,
2
H is rejectediI t ~ or equivalently iI
0
Example 2
Let x , ....., x be a random sample Irom normal
1 n
distributionN(u,1). We wish totest the hypothesis
H : u = u against
0 0
H : u = u
1 0
Considering the normal distribution with mean u and
variance oI 1, the density Iunction is
I(x; (u) =
L I(x ; (u) =
0
(8)
Under H
0
Sup
Under H ,
1
Sup I
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
0
2
2
n
i
i
x n x x
x x
X T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

( )
| |
2
2
1 / 1
1
n
n t
X T
+
=
( ) ( )
2
0
/ / 1
i
t n x x x n
| | | |
=
|
|
\ .
\ .

T X k s
X T
k t >
( )
2
1
exp / 2
2
x u t
( ) ( )
2
2 1
exp / 2
2
n
i
x u t

( ) ( )
1
, / 0
log
n
i
i
d f x d x u u u
=
= =

X
n
X
n
i
i
= =

=1
u
( ) ( )
( )
(

= =


=

n
i
n
i
x f
x
1
2
2
0
0 2
1
exp 2 ;
u
t u
W c u
( ) ( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=

2
1
2
2
1
exp 2 ;
n
i
i
n
x x x t u
,
W u e
233
Upon simpliIying this it becomes
T(X) exp (9)
Thus 5 critical region Ior the likelihood ratio test is
equivalent to the two equal tails oI the distribution
givenby the Iamiliar inequality
Example 3 Testing Equality of Variances
Let x , x , .. x be k independently normally distributed
1 2 k
variables with means and variances
. Let random sample oI sizes n , ... n be
1 k
drawn Irom those populations and let the hypothesis to
be tested be
H :
0
H :
1
th
The random variable corresponding to the j observation
Ior the variable x is represented by x . Thus, there are
i ij
random variables.
Considering the Normal distribution Iunction with
parameters and as Iollows
The likelihood Iunction is
L
L (10)
Where denotes the common value oI all
whenthe null hypothesis is considered.

Similarly,
Under H
1

L I (11)
n
Maximizing (11) with respect to the parameters and
I i,
the resulting expression will give
2
0
2
u x
n
X
96 . 1
0
> n X u
k

2 1
,
k
k
o o o , , ,
2
2
2
1

2 2
2
2
1
..
k
o o o = =
k
k
o o o = = =
2
2
2
1
n n
k
i
i
=

2
o
( )
H

=
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
2
i
i i if
i i if
x
x f
o
o
o
( )
( )
( )
nk
k
n
n
k
i
n
f
i i if
x
x
o o t
o
o

1
1
2
2
1 1
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
(
(

= =
( )
( )
( )
n
n
k ni
i if
x x
x
o t
o
o
2
2
2
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
(
(

( )
( )
( )
i
i
k
i
n
k ni
i i if
x
x
o t t
o
o
1
2
2
2
2
/
2
1
exp
, ,
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

(12)
and
(13)
respectively. Where
However,
thereIore,
Where L L
0 and 1 represent the likelihood Iunctions Ior null and alternative hypotheses respectively
. Which reduces to
(14)
3.0 Large - Sample Approximation
3.1 Application of Large-sample approximations
We shall state the Cramer theorem without
proof.
Theorem: Cramer(1946)
Subject to regularity conditions necessary Ior asymptotic
results Ior maximum likehood estimates, the likelihood
ratio statisticT(x) Ior testing
H : W: u against the alternative
0
H : (where r stands Ior restriction
1
imposed on
Parameter u is such that as the sample si:e n becomes
very large (i.e. )
- 2 is asymptotically Chi square with r
degrees oI Ireedom Ior all u . We now apply the
theorem as Iollows:
By taking the logarithm oI both sides oI (7), the
expression becomes
- 2logT
(15)
( )

= =
.
=
k
i
ni
f
i if
n x x
1 1
2
2
, / o

=
k
i
n n
2 2
i i
s =
.
o
( )

= =
.
=
k
f
ni
f
i if
n x x
1 1
2
2
/ o
n s n
i
k
f
i
/
2
1
2

=
.
= o
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1
1
2
2
2
2 2
1 1
2
2
0
2 /
2
exp
/ .. 2 /
2
exp
n
nk
k
n
n
i if
n
k k
n
i if
i
s s x x
n
n s n s n x x
n
L Sup
L Sup

+ +
=
t
t
X T
( )

=
2
2
2
2
1
/
ni
k
i i i
ni
i
k
i
n s n
s t
0 r
u
0
W :
r r
u u
I
=
( ) X T
log
W
234
The test statistics approximate to table oI critical
values. The critical value say C depends on the degree oI
0
Ireedom r and level oI signiIicance o chosen (r stands Ior
the number oI restrictions imposed on the parameter.
II the calculated value is greater than the value C ; we
0
reject the hypothesis H .
0
Recall (9) Irom example 2 and taking logarithm oI both
sides, we obtained

- 2logT (16)
For the sample size n, being the mean oI the
observations and given the value oI ; we reject H iI
0
table value say C degree oI Ireedom r and level oI
0
signiIicance o is smaller than the calculated value oI -
2log T(X)
Recall Irom example 3.That
T(X) in (14) can be reduced to
and takingthe logarithm oI both sides, we have,
-2 log T(x) (17)
The value on the R.H.S. is equally computable since we
knowthat
2
And s

Then, the value thus calculated is compared with the
critical value Irom the table with known degrees oI
Ireedom r and level oI signiIicance . We reject H iI the
0
calculated value is greater than the table critical value.
3.2 Approximation of - 2Log T(X) to Chi - Square
Statistics:
3.2.1 Multinomial Case:
Considering the multinomial distribution
(18)
Where
The likelihood Iunction oI (18) gives
L
2
_
x
0
u
2
1
2 2
1
n k
i
s s
=
t

2 2
log log
s n s n
i i i

=
k
i
n n
i i if i
n x x s /
2
2

=
n s n
i i
/
2
2
_
( )
ns
s
ni
s
n n
n
x f u u u

1
1
! !
!
, =

=
s
i
n n
1
1
=

=
s
i
i
u
( ) ( ) ( )
ni
i
s
i
i
i
n
n
x f u u u
1
5
1
!
!
,
=
=
H
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
H
= =
By taking the logarithm oI both oI sides, the expression
becomes
Log (19)
Then generalizing andmaximizing (19) with respect to
we have
Ior any i such that 1i s. Thus is MLE oI u
Ior a multinomial distribution
Again,
T
(20)
By taking the logarithm oI (20) and using the theorem by
Cramer (1946), we have
-2 (21)
But (22)
Thus, expanding (22) , using maclaurin series gives
(23)
By substituting (23) into (21), the resulting expression
yields
(24)
We thereIore concludedthat
Subject to some conditions as stated in (25) , where
is the observed Irequency and E is the expected
i
Irequency

3.3 Conditions forApproximation
According to Perlman (1972) and Rice (1967),
the series in (23) converges iI andonly iI
( ) ( )

=

=
+ + =
s
i
i s
s
i
i i i
n n n n
1
1
1
1 log ! log !
log log
u u u
i
u
n
n
i
i
=
.
u
.
i
u
( )
( )
( )
!
( ,
!
( , )
!
!
ni
i
ni
i
Sup
n
P
W f x
n
X
Sup f x
n n
n n
W
u c u
u
u c
I
H
H
= =
| |
H
|
H
\ .
( )
| | | |
ns n
ns
s
s
n
i
n n
n
P
n
p
X T
1 1
1
1
1


(

=
( )
i
i
s
i
i
E
X T
0
0 2
log log
1

=
=
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|
E
E
E
i i
i
i
0
1
0
log log
( ) ( ) ( )
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
4
4
3
3
2
2
0
4
1 0
3
1 0
2
1 0 0
1
log
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
i
i i
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
( )

~

=
2
2
0
2
log
_
i
i i
E
E
X T
( )


~
i
i i
E
E
x T
2
0
2
log
233
1
0
<

i
i i
E
E
(25)
And O ~ 0 or O 2E.
i i i
It Iollows that
- 2 logT(X) 2 should be used
instead oI
Since
2 is computationally
convenient and valid Ior all values oI 0 and E.
i i
This statistic should replace the conventional Neyman
Pearson's Statistic. which is valid only
iI
II this condition does not hold Ior even one cell, it
shouldnot be used.
6.0 RESULT, DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION
4.1 RESULTANDDISCUSSION
The multinomial distribution discussed in (section
3.2.1) and the examples 1,2 and 3 described earlier are
solved using the procedure oI likelihood ratio test
subject to some regularity conditions stated by Cramer
(1946) at which maximum likelihood estimates are
consistent and Best Asymptotically Normal Estimators
(BAN). The regionoI the test , where
is determinedso that the
where is the distribution under . Thus we
accept iI , otherwise is rejected.
However, subject to restriction imposed on parameters
and and the regularity conditions that are
satisIied as earlier stated by Cramer (1946).
The criterion under the null hypothesis is a large
sample approximation to , where
is the likelihood ratio test and r is the degree oI
Ireedom.

=
n
i i
i i
E
E O
1
2
2
_
( )

n
i i
i i
E
E O
1
2
i i
E 2 0 <
2
_
2
_
2
_
Consequently, the proposed Chi-square method 2
as against the conventional Chi-square
yields a better approximation result and valid Ior all
values oI and
4.2 CONCLUSION
Whenever the conditions Ior regularity are satisIied and
the sample size n is a large one, the approximation
-2 logT(x) to canalways be used.
This 'large sample approximation proves very
helpIul Ior easier determination oI critical region
(critical value) especially when we do not know the
distribution oI the test statistic and this critical value is
neededIor the decision making.
Moreso, since -2 logT(x) approximates to (r stands
(r)
Ior restrictions imposed on parameter) the critical value
with a Iixed level oI signiIicance o, r degrees oI Ireedom
is read Irom the table, thus we reject H iI the value
0
computed Irom the test statistic -2log T(x) is greater
than the table value, otherwise we do not have any basis
to reject H .
0
For multinomial distribution
-2logT
should be usedinstead oI
Since is computationally
convenient and valid Ior all values oI 0 and E. The
i i
statistic should replace the conventional Neyman
Pearson's statistic which is valid
only iI 0 2E.
i i
236
References
1. BAHADUR R.R (1958) 'Examples oI inconsistency oI maximum Likelihood Estimates sankhya, Vol.20, 207-
210 .
2. BASU,D(1955) ' An inconsistency oI the method oI maximum Likelihood Annals oI Mathematical Statistics ,
Vol.26, 144-145 .
3. CRAMERH(1946)Mathematical Methods oI Statistics', Princeton: Princeton University Press.
4. CRAMERHand RAOC.R(1965) '' linear statistical inIerence and itsApplications'', NewYork: John Wiley.
rd
5. FISHERR.A(1945) Statistical Method and ScientiIic InIerence (3 edition) NewYork, HaIner press
6. KRAFT, C.Hand LECAM L.M (1956) 'ARemark on the roots oI the maximum Likelihood Equation. Annals oI
Mathematical Statistics Vol. 27, 1174-1177 .
7. NEYMAN, J and SCOTT, E (1948) 'Consistent Estimator Based on partially consistent observations
Econometrica, Vol. 16 , 1-32 .
8. PERLMAN, M.D (1972) 'On the strong consistency oI Approximate maximum Likelihood Estimates'',
Proceedings oI the sixth Berkeley symposium onMathematical statistics andProbability , Vol.1 , 263-281 .
9. RICE, J. A(1967) Rates oI Convergence oI Estimates and Test StatisticsAnnals oI mathematical statistics, vol.
38 , 303-324.
237
PRODUCTIONAND EVALUATION
OF FERMENTED MILLETAS ARECIPE IN COMPOSITE BREAD
O.O. OGUNTOYINBO
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY
LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC, IKORODU
P.M.B 21606, IKE1A, LAGOS
Email: oludot2002yahoo.co.uk
Phone: 08027067748
ABSTRACT
0
Whole millet Ilour was Iermented (a Iive-day natural lactic acid Iermentation) and dried under Iorced draught at 60 C,
and evaluated Ior its eIIect on millet and wheat composite bread quality. In comparison with unIermented millet Ilour,
Iermentation decreased the Ilour pH Irom 6.2 to 3.4, decreased total starch and water-soluble proteins, and increased
enzyme-susceptible starch, total protein, and the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). In comparison with composite
bread millet Ilour decreased the pH oI the dough Irom 5.8 to 4.9, increased bread volume by 4 improved crumb
structure, and slightly decreased crumb Iirmness In Vitro Protein Digestibility oI the composite bread was also
improves. Mixing wet Iermented millet Ilour directly with wheat Ilour (sourdough-type process) Iurther increased loaI
volume and weight and reduced crumb Iirmness, and simpliIied the bread making process. It appear that the lowpHoI
Iermented millet Ilour inactivated amylases and increased the viscosity oI millet Ilour, thus improving the gas-holding
capacity oI millet and wheat composite dough. Fermentation oI millet Ilour, particularly in a sourdough bread making
process, appears to have considerable potential Ior increasingmillet utilizationin bread.
Keyword: millet, Iermentation, composite bread ,drying, enzyme, viscosity
INTRODUCTION
Millet is potentially suitable Ior use in composite Ilours
(FAO-ICRISAT 1996). Millet Ilour can have a deIinite
advantage over maize and other tropical cereals in
composite Ilours because oI its bland Ilavour and white
color in tanplant types (Rooney et al 1997). However,
due to its high starch gelatinization temperature and low
water-holding capacity, millet Ilour tends to give a drier,
more gritty, and Iirmer texture to breads and biscuits
made with millet and wheat composite Ilours (Munck
1995; Rooney et al 1997).
We have shown that the simple, traditional technology oI
malting can ameliorate these adverse millet Ilour
characteristics and improve its composite bread making
quality (Hugo et al 2000). Fermentation is also a simple,
traditional technology with the potential to improve the
composite bread making quality oI millet Ilour. In
Ethiopia, lactic acid Iermentation is applied in the
making oI the traditional millet or teI Ilour infera, a sem-
leavened bread (Murty and Kumar 1995). By decreasing
the pH to values as low as 3.4 (Chavan and Kadam
1989;CrawIord et al 2003) lactic acid Iermentation oI
millet could, as in rye and wheat sourdough, bring about
desirable changes in Ilour quality essentially because
low partly inactivates amylases (Brummer and Lorenz
1991; Seibel and Brummer 1991).
The low pH oI Iermented millet Ilour has been reported
to party inactivate amylases, especially A and B amylase
(El Tinay et al 1979) and to increases, although slightly,
the solubility oI cellulose and hemicelluloses (EI Tinay
et al 1979; Hugo et al 2000) and proteins (CrawIord et al
2003). Fermentation pH also increases the pasting
viscosity oI millet starch , presumably as a result oI
preIerential breakdown oI damaged starch where the
Iermentation pH is optimal Ior a-amylase activity. The
aim oI this study was to determine the eIIect oI
Iermentation oI millet Ilour on the Iunctional and
nutritional qualityoI millet and wheat composite bread.
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Flours
The millet was purchased Irom Ikorodu market Lagos
and was cleaned and milled with a hammer mill Iitted
with a 1-mm screen and then with a pin mill (Alpine).
The wheat Ilour had a protein content oI 12.9 (Nx 5.7)
and ash oI 1.9, db, a water absorption oI 63, and
mixogram mixing times oI 3.0 and 2.8 min Ior peak time
and stability to mixing, respectively. The particle size
distribution oI the Ilours was determined by sieving
Ilour (50 g) Ior 10 min with a Ro-tap shaker using
standard sieves with sieve apertures oI 500, 212, 180,
and 75 um. The percentage oI each sieve. The particle
size distribution oI millet Ilour was ~95 212 m and
~5 75um, whereas the particle size distribution oI
238
wheat Ilour was ~98 212 um and ~32 75um. Thus
the millet Ilour was slightly coarser than the wheat Ilour
but still within the acceptable range Ior wheat Ilour.
Fermentation of Millet Flour
Milled millet (15kg) was weighed into a large stainless
vessel and mixed with tap water at a ratio oI 1:1.4 (grain
to liquid) (Mosala inoculum, which had been prepared
Irom a previous Iermentation and maintained through
back-slopping, as described by Taylor and Taylor (2002).
The contains were stirred, covered with aluminum Ioil,
0
and allowed to Ierment at room temperature (25 C) Ior
Iive days. The pH and titratable acidity (TA) were
measured during the period oI Iermentation. TA was
determined as milliliters oI 0.1M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) required to raise the pHoI a 100-g sample to pH
6.3.
At the end oI the Iermentation period, the Iermented
material was transIerred to aluminum pans. Each
aluminum pan contained a thin layer (0.5 cm thick) oI the
Iermented materials, which was dried in a Iorced draught
0
oven set at 60 C. The drying time varied between 24 and
30 hr. AIter drying, the Iermented and dried material was
0
remilled as described above and stored at 10 C. The dry
matter losses due to Iermentation and drying were 4,
within the range oI 1.4-8.2 Ior one to Iive days oI
natural Iermentation, respectively.
A second batch oI Iermented millet Ilour was prepared
by mixing in buckets, in duplicate, the milled millet (1
kg/bucket) with tap water (1:1.2, grain to liquid) and
Iermenting as described above. However, whereas the
0
content oI one bucket was dried at 60 C as described
above, the contents oI the other bucket was not dried.
FlourAnalyses
Flour pasting properties were determined using a Rapid
Visco Analyser (RVA 3D, Newport ScientiIic,
Narrabeen, Australia). Flour (4g. 14 moisture) was
suspended in 25mL oI distilled water and heated. The
0
temperature proIile used heat Irom 25 to 91 C in 8 min,
0 0
hold at 91 CIor 10 min, cool to 50 Cin 9 min.
The RVAparameters measured were pasting temperature
(Temperature at which paste viscosity), starts to
increase), peak viscosity (maximum hot paste viscosity),
0
and Iinal viscosity (viscosity aIter cooling to 50 C and
holding the temperature) Batey et al 1997). Flour
moisture, protein, and optimum absorption were
determined according to Approved Methods 44-15A,
46-12, and 54-21, respectively (AACC 2000). Soluble
nitrogen was determined by Approved Method 46-23,
except that the protein content was estimated by
converting nitrogen to protein (Nx 6.25). In vitro protein
digestibility (IVPD) was determined by pepsin
hydrolysis, as described by Hamaker et al (1987), using
Sigma pepsin (cat P-700 with 543 units oI activity/mg.
Total starch (TS) and enzyme susceptible starch (ESS)
were determined using an a-amylase and susceptible
starch (ESS) were determined using an a amylase and
amyloglucosidase (Novo BAN 480L and AMG 3000L,
respectively, Enzymes SA, Benmore, South AIrica)
hydrolysis method (Taylor 1992). The colour oI Ilour
was determined by measuring the energy reIlectance oI
the sample, using an Agtron M-35 process analyzer
spectrophotometer (Filper Magnuson, Reno, NV),
where Ois black and 90is white, set in redcolour mode.
Bread making
Bread was produced using the Iormulation wheat Ilour
(70), millet Ilour (30), water (63), active dried
yeast (1), salt (2), sugar (6), ascorbic acid (20
ppm), and Iat (1), based on Ilour weight, by a straight-
dough process. The dough was mixed to optimum
development Ior 15-20 min with a spiral mixer, rested Ior
15 min, divided into 950-g pieces, molded, and placed in
0
baking pans. The dough was prooIed Ior 90 mins, at 40 C
0
and 95 rh, and baked at 230 CIor 30 min.
The same Iormulation and baking procedure was used to
produce bread with wet Iermented millet Ilour
(sourdough type process), except that the Iermented
millet Ilour, which already contained 60 water, was
added directly when mixing the dough. The dough was
divided into 500-g pieces, molded, and placed into
proportionallysmaller baking pans.
Bread Analysis
Moisture content oI breads was determined using the
two-stage air-oven method, Approved Method 44-15A
(AACC2000). Bread volume was determine by rapeseed
displacement. SpeciIic volume was calculated Irom the
volume and weight oI bread. Crumb Iirmness was
determined by measuring the Iorce required to compress
bread slices using the Instron universal testing machine
(Approved Method 74-09, AACC2000). The instrument
was Iitted with a 28-mm diameter cylinder probe. The
crosshed speed was 100-mm per min. Samples were
prepared, allowed to cool to ambient temperature Ior 2 to
3 hr, and then wrapped in polyethylene bags and stored in
0
ambient conditions (25 C) until required Ior testing.
Measurement oI crumb Iirmness began 4 hr baking day
0, and thereaIter at one-day intervals until the third
Consumer sensory evaluation oI bread samples made
with millet grain Ilour (30), Iermented and dried millet
Ilour (30), and boiled millet malt Ilour (Hugo et al
2000) was perIormed. The testing methodology was
based on liking and preIerence ranking test (Jellinek
1990), with slight modiIications to suit semi-illiterate
consumers. The panel members sixty two (62), all
residents oI the community oI Ikorodu Lagos who were
Iamiliar with cereals Ioods.
239
Statistical Analysis
All analyses were repeated at least twice. The data were
analyzed by one-way analysis oI variance and
signiIicance was measured at the 5 level using a
computer program (StatSoIt. Tulsa, OK). The
signiIicance oI liking judgments and the degree oI
ranking preIerence were determine using the 'Roesster
Table Ior Paired PreIerence Test (Stone and Sidel)
1993) and the 'Table oI Rank Total (Kramer
1963),respectively.
RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
Effect of Fermentation on flourProperties
With Iermentation, the pHoI millet Ilour decreased Irom
6.2 to 3.5, with an increase in TitratableAcidity Irom 0.9
to 11.7 mL (Table 1). Typically, with inoculated millet
Ilour Iermentations values oI pH 3.6 and Titratable
Acidity 10 are attained aIter two days at room
temperature, and thereaIter the decrease in pH and
increase in Titratable Acidity are slower. (Taylor and
Taylor 2002). The low pH oI Iermented millet Ilour has
been attributed mainly to the Iormation oI lactic acid
(Hamad and Iields 1979; Chavan and Kadam 1989). The
colour oI the Iermented and dried millet Ilour was
slightly but signiIicantly (p 0.05) lighter compared
with unIermented millet grain Ilour. Low pH brightens
anthocyanin pigments by increasing methylation (Von
Elbe andSchwarz 1996).
Fermentation decreased the starch content oI millet Ilour
by 2.8 percentage points, but increased the Enzyme
Susceptible Starch. Engine susceptible starch content
signiIicantly, Irom 1.5 to 11.4, whereas it increased the
total protein and decreased the water-soluble proteins (as
a oI total 1). In inoculated millet Ilour Iermentations,
water soluble proteins are lowest aIter two days, and
thereaIter increase slightly (Taylor and Taylor 2002). The
In Vitro Protein digestibility oI millet Ilour also increase
Irom 34.6 to 51.7 The maximum increase In Vitro
Protein digestibility is generally attained aIter two days
oI Iermentation protein oI millet Ilour with Iermentation
has been attributed to utilization oI the products oI starch
and protein hydrolysis by the Iermenting microIlora (El
Tinay et al 1979). However, the slight but signiIicant
increase in total proteins can simply be due to a decrease
in total carbohydrate. According to FAO (1996) the
increased In Vitro Protein digestibility oI Iermented
millet Ilour with a subsequence decrease in a water
soluble proteins, can be attributed to structural changes
in the millet storage proteins (prolamins and glutelins).
These modiIications, apparently brought about by rapid
lowering oI the pH, make the storage proteins oI millet
more accessible to pepsin attack.
Drying the Iermented millet Ilour at elevated
temperature could have increased its ESS content.
Heating oI carbohydrates at low pH causes random
depolymerization, that is breakage oI glucosidic bonds oI
the starch molecules (Bemiller and Whistler 1996).
Ahamed and Ramanathan (1988) and Wanink et al
(1994) have reported the inactivation oI both grain and
bacterial amylases with the low pH oI Iermented millet
Ilour thus. This the increase in the Enzyme Susceptible
Starch could not be due to amylase action.
The absence oI browning oI the Iermented and dried
millet Ilour, as evident Irom that Iact it was lighter than
the unIermented Ilour (Table 1), can be explained by the
absence oI simple sugars and water-soluble proteins aIter
a Iive-day Iermentation. During Iermentation, the
Iermenting bacteria utilize the simple sugars, water-
soluble proteins, and amino acids (Chavan and Kadam
1989; Taylor 2002). ThereIore, the Maillard type oI
browning reaction, which occurs between reducing
sugars and proteins or amino groups (BeMiller and
Whistler 1996), could not occur.
Bread making Properties of Fermented Millet Flour
Fermenting and then drying millet Ilour did not change
the water requirement oI millet Ilour but decreased the
pH oI millet and wheat dough Irom 5.8 to 4.7, increased
the bread volume Irom 2,998 to 3,227cm3, and slightly
increased the weight and the moisture content oI breads
(Table II). The millet Ilour can be attributed to an
improvement oI the gas-holding capacity oI sorghum and
wheat composite dough caused by the increased
viscosity oI the Iermented and dried Ilour (Fig.1). An
increased oI dough viscosity results in improvement oI
the gas-holding capacity oI millet and wheat dough with
Iermentation and drying oI the millet Ilour. In rye and
wheat sourdoughs, the low pH increases the swelling
power oI pentosans, thus increasing the moisture content
oI breads (Seibel and Bruummer 1991). The decreased
crumb Iirmness oI the breads made with Iermented millet
Ilour (Iermented and dried and sourdough-type process)
can be attributed to the increased volume and improved
crumb structure oI these breads. The low pH oI rye and
wheat sourdough contributed to a more cohesive and
staling resistant crumb by inactivating the amylases
(Seibel and Brummer 1991). Siljestrom et al (1988) and
Seibel and Brummer (1991) also reported that low pH
represses the activity oI intrinsic amylases in sourdough.
ThereIore, the low molecular weight dextrins, which
have been reported to prevent staling oI bread by
interIering with crystallization oI starch (Martin and
Hoseney 1991), cannot account entirely Ior the decreased
crumb Iirmness oI bread made with Iermented and dried
millet Ilour.
Acomparison between the breads made with Iermented
anddriedmillet Ilour (Iig.2) shows that the bread made
260
with millet Ilour, the unIermented millet grain Ilour, and
boiled millet malt Ilour (Iig.2) shows that the bread made
with Iermented and dried millet Ilour, as described by
Hugo et al (2000), had smaller loaI volume, denser
crumb, anddarker colour.
Heating and drying Iermented millet Ilour obviously
increases energy costs and takes times. Time. As an
alternative to drying, millet and wheat composite bread
was prepared by mixing the wet Iermented millet Ilour
slurry directly with the wheat Ilour, as in the rye or wheat
sourdough process (Seibel and Brummer1991).
Fig 1. EIIects oI malting and Iermentation on the volume,
crumb structure, and colour oI wheat and wheat
composite breads (950-g dough loaves) LeIt to right:
wheat composite breads (950-g) dough loaves). LeIt to
right wheat Ilour (100); millet grain Ilour (30); whole
boiled millet malt Ilour (30 ); Iermented and dried
millet grain Ilour (30).
As shown in Table II, the sourdough process signiIicantly
increased the volume, weight, and moisture content oI
the bread and decreased the one-day crumb Iirmness
compared with Iermented and dried millet Ilour. The
slightly higher weight oI bread made with Iermented
millet Ilour with heating and drying. This adverse eIIect
oI heating and drying on the bread making quality oI
Iermented millet Ilour was probably due to protein and
carbohydrate condensation reactions (Damodaran 1996).
Such reactions could bring about structural changes in
the Ilour polymers that interIere with swelling power and
solubility. This is sourdough process not only had a
higher volume than the bread made with Iermented and
dried millet but had a more open crumb structure and a
lighter crumbcolor (Fig.2).
Protein Quality of millet and wheat composite Breads
As also shown in Table II, bread making with Iermented
and dried millet Ilour improved the protein quality oI
millet and wheat composite bread. Although the total
protein oI composite bread increased that the dry process
oI baking retains more oI the beneIit oI Iermentation on
millet protein digestibility than are retained in traditional
wet cooking Pamodoran this is important because
Iermentation oI millet Ilour can also be used to improve
the nutritional quality oI millet and wheat composite
bread.
Sensory Evaluation
Although the composite bread made with Iermented and
dried millet Ilour had a higher volume and a soIter crumb
compared with bread made with unIermented millet
grain Ilour, consumer panel members liked it less and
preIerred it less and preIerred it less (Table III). Panel
members likedand preIerred more the bread made with
boiled millet malt Ilour, which had a lower bread volume,
a soIter crumb, and a Iine malt Ilavor compared with the
bread made with Iermented and dried millet Ilour (Hugo
et al 2000). Apparently, they did not like the very sour
taste oI the bread made with Iermented and dried millet
Ilour. This suggests that a shorter Iermentation time to a
slighter higher pH and lower Titratable Acidity could
improve the acceptability oI Iermented millet- with
composite bread. Base on the data on inoculated millet
Ilour Iermentations Irom Rooney et al, (1997) a
Iermentation time oI two days would probably be
adequate.
Fig. 2. EIIects oI Iermented millet Ilour on the volume,
crumb structure, and colour oI sorghum and wheat
composite breads (500g dough loaves). LeIt to right:
WW, wheat Ilour (100) DFM, Iermented and dried
millet grain Ilour (30); SFM, Iermented millet grain
Ilour (sourdough process) 30).
Improve the acceptability oI Iermented millet wheat
composite bread. Based on data on inoculated millet
Ilour Iermentations Irom Rooney et al (1997)
261
TABLE I
Effect of Fermentation and Drying on Properties of millet Flour
Effect of Fermentation and Drying on Properties of millet Flour
Bread Ingredient Colour Titratable Soluble
a
pH (Agtron) Acidity (mL) Starch() ESS () Protein ()
b
IVPD ()
Millet grain Ilour 6.2a 8.4b 0.9b 67.3a 1.5b 1.6 (13.1a)d 34.6b
Fermented and dried millet 3.5b 8.7a 11.7a 64.5b 11.4b 1.0 (7.9b) 51.7a
grain Ilour
a. Enzyme susceptible starch, expressed as oI total starch.
b. In vitro protein digestibility, expressed as oI total protein.
c. Values Iollowed by the same letter in the same column are not signiIicantly diIIerent (p ~ 0.05).
d. Soluble protein as a percentage oI total protein.
TABLE II
Breakmaking Properties (crumb) of Composite Breads with Millet, Fermented and Dried millet, and
a,b
Fermented millet (sourdough process)

pH oI LoaI Vol. LoaI Weight SpeciIic Vol. Crumb Moisture Total
Protein IVPD
3 c
Bread Ingredient Dough (cm ) (g) (cm 3/g) Firmness (g) ()
() ()
Wheat Ilour (100)c 5.9a 4,008a 835c 4.8a 11.5c 42.6a
13.2a 74.8a

Millet grain Ilour (30) 5.6a 2,998d 855b 3.5d 24.1a 36.2c
12.6c 63.0c

Fermented and dried
Millet grain Ilour 4.8b 3,217c 860a 3.6c 20.6b 38.0b 13.9b67.0b
(30)

Fermented millet grain 4.1c 3,295b 867a 3.8b nd nd nd
nd
Ilour (30) sourdough process)
a Values Iollowed by the same letters in the same column are not signiIicantly diIIerent (p~0.05).
b Dough loaves 950 g; in parentheses, dough loaves 500g.
c One day crumb Iirmness.
d In vitro protein digestibility, expressed as oI total protein.
e. Not determine determined.
I. Values recalculated to dough loaves 950 g.
TABLE III
Sensory Evaluation of Fermented and Dried and Nonfermented millet and Wheat Composite Breads
a,b
Bread Ingredient (dmb) PanelistLiking Bread (n62) Rank Sun of Sample
Millet grain Ilour (30) 47 111a
Fermented and dried millet grain Ilour (30) 38 136b
Whole boiled millet malt Ilour (30) Hugo et al 2000 53 86c
a. Rank sum oI the sample (number oI panelists x the respective rank position). Lower rank sum indicates the better-like
sample.
b. Values Iollowed by the same letters in the same column are not signiIicantly diIIerent (P ~ 0.05).
262
CONCLUSIONS
Natural lactic acid Iermentation oI millet Ilour increases
the bread volume, decreases the crumb Iirmness, and
improves the protein digestibility oI millet and wheat
composite bread, apparently by lowering the pH oI
millet Ilour, Natural lactic acid Iermentation,
particularly iI the Iermented Ilour is applied in a simple
sourdough bread making process, appears to have
considerable potential Ior increasing the utilization
millet Ilour inbread.
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264
SENSITIVITYANALYSIS ON VARYING ERLANG-PARAMETERS WITH
APPLICATION TO ACALLCENTER DATA
By Ajala Bolarinwa Olumide, Lagos State Polytechnic,
School of Part 1ime Studies, Surulere Campus, Surulere.
Email: ogafomiyahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Call centre operation is a means devised to enable customers oI a particular Iirm (say telecommunication) make
enquiries via their telephone by dialing special numbers oI their service provider. In Nigeria, the general problem that is
mostly encountered is either dropped calls or abandonment Irom the tele-queue in which prospective callers were
subjected to, due to under staIIing oI employees or negligence on the part oI the agents (servers). Using the Erlang A
model, the emphasis oI this research work is on sensitivity analysis on varying number oI agents, arrival rate, service
time and patience time oI callers as a measure to Iind out Iraction oI abandoning inbound calls, average time spent on
queue and the average queue length Ior a speciIied period. We obtained the appropriate staIIing oI agents in order to
reduce Iraction oI abandoning inbound calls Irom 8 to a minimum oI less than or equal to 2.Graphical analysis oI
the results obtained were also displayed. . Conclusively, as the arrival rate increases, the number oI agents should also
increase Ior the call center to perIorm optimally
Keywords Call center; Tele-queue; Abandonment; Voice response unit; Erlang A. Erlang. C.
1 INTRODUCTION
Telephone call centers allow groups oI agents to serve
customers remotely, via the telephone. They have
become a primary contact point between customers and
their service providers and, as such, play an increasingly
signiIicant role in developed economies. For example, it
is estimated that call centers handled more than 70 oI
all business interactions and that they employ more than
3.5 million people, or 2.5 oI the workIorce, in the
U.S.A. (Uchitelle, 2002; call centre statistics, 2002).
This service is typically operated with the help oI
automated voice response unit (VRU) or the interactive
voice response (IVR) which screen and Iorward the calls
to the service agents.
While call centers are technology-intensive operations,
oIten 70 or more oI their operating costs are devoted to
human resources, and to minimize costs, their managers
careIully track and seek to maximize agent utilization.
Well run call centers adhere to a sharply deIined balance
between agent eIIiciency and service quality, and to do
so, they use queuingtheoretic models.
Inputs to these mathematical models are statistics
concerning system primitives, such as the number oI
agents working, the rate at which calls arrives, the time
required Ior a customers to be served, and length oI time
customers are willing to hold one beIore they hang up
the phone and abandon the queue. Outputs and
perIormance measures, such as the distribution oI time
that customers' wait 'on hold and the Iraction oI
customers that abandon the queue beIore being served.
In practice, the number oI agents working becomes a
control parameter which can be increased or decreased
toattainthe desired eIIiciency.
In Europe, the number oI call centre employers in 1999-
2000 was estimated, Ior example, 600,000 in the UK
(2.3 oI the total workIorce) and 200,000 in Holland
(almost 3) Bain P. and Taylor; (2002). Bittner et al
(2002) assess that, in Germany in 2001, there were
between 300,000 to 400,000 (1-2) employed in the
call centre industry.
In a large perIormance leader call center, many hundreds
oI agents could serve many thousands oI calling
customers per hour; agents' utilization levels exceed
90, yet about 50 oI the customers are answered
immediately upon calling; callers who are delayed
demand a response within seconds, the vast majority
gets it, and scarcely Iew oI the rest, say 1 oI those
calling, abandon during peak congestion due to
impatience. But most call centers are Iar Irom achieving
such levels oI perIormance. To these, scientiIic models
are pre- requisites Ior climbing the perIormance ladder,
hence the ErlangAmodel.
Brown, L.D et al (2002) discovers that, the times
required to serve customers oI various type have
lognormal distributions which led to developing new
methods Ior parametric estimation oI regression models
involving lognormal errors, as well as Ior the generation
Whitt, W. (2004) calculates elasticities in Erlang-A,
which measures the percentage change oI a perIormance
263
measure caused by a small percentage in parameter. Both
exact numerical algorithm and several types oI
approximations were used. It turns out that Erlang-A
perIormance is quite sensitive to small changes in the
arrival rate, service rate or number oI agents, but
relatively insensitive to small changes in the
abandonment rate.
Sergey Zeltyn (2004) used a markovian model Ior a call
center with IVR. He calculated operational perIormance
measures, such as the probability Ior a busy signal and
average wait Ior an agent. Finally, he developed an
algorithm Ior optimal staIIing and trunk level. The
algorithm is then used to analyze ways Ior reducing the
operational costs oI a call center, to understand the eIIect
oI a call center's size on its service level, and to
investigate the eIIect oI changes in system parameters on
perIormance oI conIidence and prediction intervals.
Garnett et. al (2002) analyzed the Erlang A model, in
which customers' patience is exponentially distributed.
'Rules oI thumb Ior the design and staIIing oI medium
to large call centers were then derived.
Palm. C (1957) introduced a mathematical model Ior
irritation which postulated a Weibull distribution oI
patience times. Then he presented some real data that
conIirmed this hypothesis. Kort B.W. (1983) also used
the Weibull distribution to model patience while waiting
Ior a dialing tone.
Whitt, W. (2004) calculates elasticities in Erlang-A,
which measures the percentage change oI a perIormance
measure caused by a small percentage in parameter. Both
exact numerical algorithm and several types oI
approximations were used. It turns out that Erlang-A
perIormance is quite sensitive to small changes in the
arrival rate, service rate or number oI agents, but
relatively insensitive to small changes in the
abandonment rate.
Sergey Zeltyn (2004) used a markovian model Ior a call
center with IVR. He calculated operational perIormance
measures, such as the probability Ior a busy signal and
average wait Ior an agent. Finally, he developed an
algorithm Ior optimal staIIing and trunk level. The
algorithm is then used to analyze ways Ior reducing the
operational costs oI a call center, to understand the eIIect
oI a call center's size on its service level, and to
investigate the eIIect oI changes in system parameters on
perIormance.
2 QUEUEING MODELS OFCALLCENTERS
Call center agent provides tele-services. As they speak
with customers over the phone, they interact witha
computer terminal, inputting and retrieving inIormation
related to customers and their requests. Customers, who
are virtually present, are either being served or are
waiting in what we call a tele-queue, a phantom queue
which they share, invisible to each other and to the
agents who serve them. Customers wait in this queue
until one or two things happen: an agent is allocated to
serve them (through supporting soItware), or they
become impatient and abandonthe tele-queue.
Queuing theory was conceived by A.K. Erlang (Erlang,
th
1911; Erlang, 1917) at the beginning oI the 20 century
and has Ilourished since to become one oI the central
research themes oI operation research ( Ior example see
WolII (1989), Buzacott and Shanthinkumar (1993) and
Whitt 2002). In a queuing model oI a call center, the
customers are callers, the servers are telephone agents or
communication equipment, and queues are populated by
callers that await service.
The queuing model that is simplest and mostly used in
call centers is the so called M/M/N system sometimes
called the Erlang C model. Given the arrival rate ,
average service duration , and N servers working in
parallel, the Erlang C Iormula C(, , N), describes,
theoretically, the long run Iraction oI time that all N
servers will be simultaneously busy, or the Iraction oI
customers who are delayed in queue beIore beingserved
The Erlang-C is quite restrictive, however it assumes ,
among other things, a steady-state environment in which
arrival conIorm to a Poisson process, service duration
are exponentially distributed, and customers and servers
are statistically identical , and customers abandonment
behavior, time independent parameters , or customers
heterogeneity.
Garnett et al. (2002) develops both exact and
approximate expression Ior 'Erlang A system, which
explicitly model customers patience (time to
abandonment) as exponentially distributed. Data
analysis oI the arrival process , service times , and
customers patience can conIirm or reIute whether
system primitive conIorm to the Erlang-Cand Amodels'
assumption s. Empirical analysis oI waiting times can
help us to judge how well the two models predicts
customers delay-whether or not their underlying
assumptions are met.
3 DESCRI PTI ON OF CALL CENTER
OPERATION
AsimpliIied description oI the part each call Iollows in
the center is as Iollows; A customer calls one oI the
several telephone numbers associated with the call
center, except Ior rare busy signals, the customer is then
266
connected to VRU and identiIies herselI. While using the VRU, the customer receives recorded inIormation, general
and customized. It is also possible Ior customers to perIorm some selI service transaction here, and whenever a
customer indicate interest to speak to an agent, he/she dial up another number as recorded in the voice machine. II there
is an agent Iree who is capable oI perIorming the desired service, the customer and the agent are matched to start service
immediately; otherwise the customer joins the tele-queue.
Customers in the tele-queue are normally served on a Iirst-come-Iirst-served (FCFS) basis, and customers' places in
queue are distinguished by the time at which they arrive to the queue. While waiting, each customer periodically
receives inIormation on his/her progress in the queue. More speciIically, he/she is told the amount oI time that the Iirst
caller has been waiting, as well as her approximate location in the queue. The announcement is replayed every 60
seconds or so, withmusic, news, or commercial intertwined.
The diagram belowgives a schematic summary oI the events historyoI calls through the system.
SCHEMATICREPRESENTATIONOFATELEPHONECALLCENTER
End oI
service
Service
Abandon
End oI
Service
VRU/IVR Queue
Incoming
calls
Each call that crosses the dashed line can be thought oI as
passing through up to three stages, each oI which
generates distinct data. The Iirst is the arrival stage,
which is triggered by the calls exit Irom the VRU and
generates a record oI an arrival time. II no appropriate
answer is available, then the call enters the queuing
stage. Three pieces oI data are recorded Ior each call that
queues: the time it entered the queue, the time it exited
the queue; and the manner which it exited the queue, by
being served or recorded are the starting and ending
times oI the service. Note that the calls that are served
immediately skip the queuing stage, and calls that
abandonnever enter the stage.
Illustration: When an agent is ready to answer an
incoming call, there is a ring time during which the agent
typically receives inIormation about the customer beIore
he actually answers the call. II the agent is being Iorward
a call Irom another agent, there is a delay time while the
agent converse beIore the customer is taken on hold and
talks to the second agent. Furthermore, aIter the agent
has Iinished providing active service and the customer
has leIt, there is the wrap up time during which the agent
completes registering the transaction and during which
he is not yet Iree to take a newcall.
5 BIRTH ANDDEATH PROCESS
REPRESENTATION
Recall that the Erlang Amodel is characterized by Iour
parameters.
* - Poisson arrival rate ( > 0)
* - individual service rate ( > 0)
* n- Number oI agents (n 1, 2, 3.)
* u - individual abandonment rate (u > 0)
More Iormally, in the Erlang Amodel, customers arrive
to the queuing system according to a Poisson ()
process. Customers are equippedwithpatience time ()
267
that are exp (u), i.d.d across customers. And service
time is i.d.d exp (). Finally, the process oI arrivals,
Patience and service are mutually independent.
For a given customer, is the time that the customer
is willing to wait Ior service: a wait that reaches
results in abandonment. Let V denote the oIIered
waiting time: the time a customer, equipped with
inIinite patience, must wait in order to get service.
The actual waiting / queuing time then equals W
min V, )
6 ERLANG -A: DESCRI PTI ON OF
PERFORMANCEMEASURES
Sergey Zeltyn (2004) gave the Iollowing derivation:
6.1 DISTIBUTIONOFTHEWAITING TIME
An important dimension oI the service quality oI an
inbound call centre is the waiting time oI its
customers. DeIine the waiting time 'W as the time
spent by customers who opt Ior service, Irom just
aIter they Iinish the 'VRU process until they start
service byan agent.
P W~0}: we start with the delay probability
PW~0}, which represents the Iraction oI customers
who are Iorced to actually wait Ior service. (The
others are served immediately upon calling).This
measure identiIies operational regimes oI
perIormance.
Following Palm.C. (1957), we have that
....(1)
OIten reIerredto as average time in queue.
Where , which is reIerred to as the traIIic
intensity, i.e. the probability oI the station being busy at a
given moment. Hence, in queuing the condition Ior
stability is thus p1 and unstable iI , the arrival rate is
less than n, the maximum possible service rate.
E W =
1 ,
1 ,
,
1
1 , 1
n
n
n
E A
n E
A

u u

u u
| |
|
\ .
(
| |
+
|
(
\ .
1 1 1
1
,
n
A

u

u u
(
(
( +
| |
(
|
(
\ .

n

=
6.2 AVERAGEWAITING TIME
Average waiting time oI delayed customers oIten called
average speedoI answer (ASA) is computed as
......... (2)
all the values can be calculated by using a simple to use
soItware called4callcentre soItware.
6.3 PROBABILITYTO ABANDONMENT
We proceed with calculating the probability, which
represents the Iractionabandoning.
.....(3)
6.4 AVERAGEQUEUELENGTH
.....(4)
where:
7 PERFORMANCEMEASURES
The parameters , are on an hourly basis, between
11:00am 12:00 noon on the June 01, 2009 data, are
given below:
TABLE 1
/ 0 EWW>
1 1 1
1
,
n
A
u

u u
(
(
( +
| |
(
|
(
\ .
{ }
1,
1,
,
1 1 1
. 1
1 , 1 ,
n
n
n
E A
p Ab
n E n
A A

u u

u u u u
| |
|
\ .
= +
( ( | | | |
+
| | ( (
\ . \ .
| |
1,
1,
,
1 1 1
. 1
, 1 , 1
n
n
n
E A
E Q
n n E
A A

u u
u

u u u u
( | |
| (
\ .
( = +
( | | | | (
+
| | (
(
\ . \ .
1,
0
( / )
!
( / )
!
n
n f n
f
n
E
f


=
=

( )
1
1
/
, 1 , 0, / 0
f
f
f
k
n n
A
n
k
u
u
u u u
u

=
=
| |
= + > >
|
| | \ .
+
|
\ .

[
Inputs Erlang A
Arrival rate/hour (11:00-12:noon) 144
Avg. service time /hour (11:00-12:noon) 191seconds
Avg. patience time/hour (11:00-12:noon) 540 seconds
Number oI agent (11:00-12:noon) 8
268
TABLE 2
In the above table 2, the abandonment rate within the interval 11:00am-12noon is 8 and the average wait oI delayed
customer within that interval is approximately 45seconds per caller and 87 oI the agents were Iound busy ( attending
to callers ).
7.1 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS OF VARYING AVERAGE CALLER'S PATIENCE AS A MEASURE TO
CALLCENTREPERFORMANCE
In the graph below, we considered what the Iraction oI all inbound calls that abandoned would have been when the
average caller's patience was varied Ior 297, 324, 351, 378, 405, 432, 459, 486, 513, 540, 567, 594, 621, 648, 675,
702, 729, 756, 783 all in seconds respectively Ior diIIerent callers. We discovered that, as the patience time increases,
the average queue length and the time spent in queue also increases but there is a decrease in the Iraction oI all inbound
calls that abandoned.
Number
of
Agents 1/ 1/
Agent's
Occupancy %Answer %AB ASA AQL
8 191 144 540 0.871430144 0.912 0.088 45.3708 1.890144
Average Queue Length vs. Average Patience
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
297 347 397 447 497 547 597 647 697 747
Average Patience (secs)
Average
Queue
Length
269
Average Time in Queue vs. Average Patience
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
297 347
397 447 497 547 597 647 697 747
Average Patience (secs)
%Abandon vs. Average Patience
.0%
2.0%
4.0%
6.0%
8.0%
10.0%
12.0%
297 347
397
447 497 547 597 647 697 747
Average Patience (secs)
7.2 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS OFVARYING NUMBER OFAGENTAS AMEASURE TO CALL
CENTRE PERFORMANCE
In the graph below, we consider what the Iraction oI all inbound calls that abandoned would have been when the
number of agent was varied Ior 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 agents respectively attending to callers. In the analysis, we
discovered that, as the number oI agents' increases; the average queue length, the time spent in queue and the Iraction oI
all inbound calls that abandoned decreased.
270
% A b a n d o n v s . N u m b e r o f A g e n t s
. 0 %
1 0 . 0 %
2 0 . 0 %
3 0 . 0 %
4 0 . 0 %
5 0 . 0 %
6 0 . 0 %
4 6 8 1 0 1 2
N u m b e r o f A g e n t s
%
A
b
a
n
d
o
n
A v e r a g e T i m e i n Q u e u e v s . N u m b e r o f
A g e n t s
0
5 0
1 0 0
1 5 0
2 0 0
2 5 0
3 0 0
4 6 8 1 0 1 2
N u m b e r o f A g e n t s
A v e r a g e Q u e u e L e n g t h v s . N u m b e r o f
A g e n t s
0
2
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
4 6 8 1 0 1 2
N u m b e r o f A g e n t s
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
Q
u
e
u
e
L
e
n
g
t
h
271
7.3 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS OFVARYING AVERAGE HANDLING TIMEAS AMEASURETO
CALLCENTREPERFORMANCE
In the graph below, we consider what the Iraction oI all inbound calls that abandoned would have been when the service
time was varied Ior 105, 115, 124, 134, 143, 153, 162, 172, 181, 191, 201, 210, 220, 229, 239, 248, 258, 267, 277 all in
seconds respectively by the agent. In the analysis, we discovered that, as the handling time increases; the average
queue length, the time spent in queue and the Iraction oI all inbound calls that abandonedincreased.
A v e r a g e Q u e u e L e n g t h v s . A v e r a g e
H a n d I i n g T i m e
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 0 5 1 5 5 2 0 5 2 5 5
A v e r a g e H a n d I i n g T i m e ( s e c s )
%Abandon vs. Average HandIing Time
.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
105 125 145 165 185 205 225 245 265
Average HandIing Time (secs)
272
A v e r a g e T i m e i n Q u e u e v s . A v e r a g e
H a n d I i n g T i m e
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 4 0
1 6 0
1 8 0
1 0 5 1 5 5 2 0 5 2 5 5
A v e r a g e H a n d I i n g T i m e ( s e c s )
7.4 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS OF VARYING ARRIVALRATES PER INTERVALAS A
MEASURE TO CALLCENTRE PERFORMANCE
In the graph below, we consider what the Iraction oI all inbound calls that abandoned would have been when the arrival
rate was varied Ior 79, 86, 94, 101, 108, 115, 122, 130, 137, 144, 151, 158, 166, 173, 180, 187, 194, 202, 209, calls per
hour. In the analysis we discovered that, as the arrival rate increases; the average queue length, the time spent in queue
and the IractionoI all inbound calls that abandoned increased.

%Abandon vs. CaIIs per IntervaI
.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
79 129 179
CaIIs per IntervaI
%Abandon
273
A v e r a g e T i m e i n Q u e u e v s . C a I I s p e r
I n t e r v a I
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 4 0
1 6 0
1 8 0
7 9 1 2 9 1 7 9
C a I I s p e r I n t e r v a I
A v e r a g e Q u e u e L e n g t h v s . C a I I s p e r
I n t e r v a I
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
7 9 1 2 9 1 7 9
C a I I s p e r I n t e r v a I
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
Q
u
e
u
e
L
e
n
g
t
h
8.0 ANALYSIS OF STAFF QUERY AS A MEASURE TO CALL CENTRE OPTIMUM
PEFORMANCE
In the graph below, we are able to obtain the appropriate staIIing levels as arrival rates varies Irom 144 callers per hour
to 250 callers per hour in a step oI 10 callers per hour and the number oI agent is varied Irom 8 agent to 25 agent in a step
oI 1 agent within the interval as shown graphically below:
%Abandon vs. CaIIs per IntervaI for various Number of Agents
.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
40.0%
45.0%
144 164 184 204 224 244
CaIIs per IntervaI
%
A
b
a
n
d
o
n
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
274
Average Time in Queue vs. CaIIs per IntervaI for various Number of Agents
0
50
100
150
200
250
144
164
184
204 224 244
CaIIs per IntervaI
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
A v e r a g e Q u e u e L e n g t h v s . C a I I s p e r
I n t e r v a I f o r v a r i o u s N u m b e r o f A g e n t s
0
2
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 4
1 6
1 4 4 1 9 4 2 4 4
C a I I s p e r I n t e r v a I
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
Q
u
e
u
e
L
e
n
g
t
h
8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
CONCLUSION
In general, an increase in the patience time when the arrival rate, service time and the number oI agent remains constant
improves the perIormance and a decrease aIIects the perIormance oI the call centre; an increase in the arrival rate when
service time, patience time and number oI agent remains constant aIIects the perIormance, but a decrease improves it
perIormance. An increase in service time when arrival rate, patience time and number oI agent remains constant aIIect
its perIormance and a decrease in service time improves it perIormance; an increase in the number oI agents, when
arrival rate, patience time and service time remain constant improve its perIormance and a decrease aIIects its
perIormance. Conclusively, as the arrival rate increases, the number oI agents should also increase Ior the call center to
perIorm optimally.
273
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|15| Palm, C. (1943), 'intensitatsschwankungen im
Iernsprechverkehr, EricssonTechnics, 44, 1-189.
|16| Palm, C. (1953) 'Methods of fudging the
annoyance causedby congestion`, Tele, vol.4, 189-208.
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carried by full availability groups, Tele vol.1 107.
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|19| Sergey Zeltyn (2004) Call centers with impatient
customers. exact analysis and many server asymptotic of
the M/M/NG queue, PhD dissertation, Technion-Israel
institute oI technology.
|20| Sivan Aldor-Noiman (2006) Forecasting demand
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|21| Taylor, 1.W (2006) A comparison oI univariate time
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276
SOLVING POWER SUPPLYPROBLEMIN NIGERIAUSING NANOTECHNOLOGYAPPLICATIONS
1 2
Ogunji, B. Abdulrahaman. Atilade, A. Oluwafemi
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria
School of Technology
Department of Science Laboratory Technology
1 2
Emails: , atiladeadesanyayahoo.com
Abstract
Irregularity and inconsistency oI electricity supply had been a major problem Ior the populace and industries in some
part oI the world, especially in developing countries (Nigeria). With the increasing demand oI energy by every sector oI
the economy in developing countries, to generate more energy Ior a sustainable and reliable economy is needed in
which nanotechnology is the answer. In this Paper, the use oI nanotechnology to generate, transmit and distribute a
sustainable, renewable and reliable energy (which is one oI the most important scientiIic challenges oI the 21st
century) is discussed accordingly.
st
Keywords: Electricity, Nanotechnology, Renewable, ScientiIic challenges, 21 century
1.00 Introduction
Electricity plays a very important role in the socio-
economic and technological development oI every
nation. Shortage oI power has been a great barrier Ior
commercial and domestic usage oI electricity in Nigeria.
The country is Iaced with acute electricity problems,
which is hindering its development notwithstanding the
availability oI vast natural resources in the country.|1| It
is widely accepted that there is a strong correlation
between socio-economic development and the
availability oI electricity.
Industries and households have tremendously engaged
in using generating set so as to cover Ior this short
coming in power supply. Incomplete combustion oI the
Iuel used in generating sets lead to production oI carbon
monoxide, which is emitted to the atmosphere; this
increase the amount oI greenhouse gases, which are
linkedtoclimate change and global warming.
Nigeria currently has 14 electricity generating plants,
which supply electric energy to the national grid. OI the
14 generating plants, 3 are hydro and 11 are thermal
(gas/steam). The national grid is made up oI 4,889.2km
oI 330kV line, 6,319.33km oI 132kV line, 6,098MVA
transIormer capacity at 330/132kV and 8,090MVA
transIormer capacity at 132/33kV|2|.
Due to the importance oI the sector, late President
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, immediately aIter he was sworn
in on May 29th 2007, recognized the need by
speciIically addressed the problems oI the Sector in an
urgent and immediate basis on eliminating the usual
bureaucratic time wasting procedures oI treating issues
oI the sector, while ensuring that Due Process is not
compromised |2|.
In August 2010, Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan
approved the construction oI a $3.5 billion grid aimed at
addressing power transmission problem in Nigeria. The
700-kilovolt 'super grid will be completed within Iour
years. This grid will improve the sustainable energy
source, reduce power loss per transmitted megawatt, and
improve power voltage across the country |3|.
2 . 0 0 P R O B L E M O F E L E C T R I C I T Y
GENERATI ON, TRANSMI SSI ON AND
DISTRIBUTIONINNIGERIA
Electricity generation in Nigeria Iaces challenges such
as: Inadequate generation availability, lack and delayed
maintenance oI Iacilities, insuIIicient Iunding oI power
stations, obsolete equipments and tools, inadequate and
obsolete communication equipments, lack oI
exploration to tap all sources oI energy Irom the
available resources andlowstaII morale|2|.
2.10 Generation
The Total Installed Capacity oI the currently generating
plants is 7,876 MW, but the Installed available Capacity
is less than 4,000MWas at December 2009||. Seven oI
the Iourteen generation stations are over 20 years old and
the average daily power generation is below 2,700MW,
which is Iar below the peak load Iorecast oI 8,900MW
Ior the currently existing inIrastructure. As a result, the
nationexperiences massive loadshedding |2|.
2.20 Transmission
The transmission system in Nigeria does not cover every
part oI the country. Currently it has the capacity to
transmit a maximum oI about 4,000 MW, technically
weak and very sensitive to major disturbances. The
major problems identiIied are: It is Iunded solely by the
Federal government whose resource allocation cannot
adequately meet all the requirements, it is yet to cover all
parts oI the country, It current maximum electricity
wheeling capacity is 4,000 MWwhich is awIully below
the required national needs, some sections oI the grid are
outdated the government lack the required Iund to
277
update, modernize, maintain and expand the network,
regular vandalization oI the lines, associated with low
level oI surveillance and security on all electrical
inIrastructure, the technologies used generally deliver
very poor voltage stability and proIiles, the transIormers
deployed are overloaded in most service areas and
inadequate oI spare-parts Ior urgent maintenance |2|.
2.30 Distribution & Marketing
In most locations in Nigeria, the distribution network is
poor, the voltage proIile is poor and the billing is
inaccurate. As the department, which inter-Iaces with the
public, the need to ensure adequate network coverage and
provision oI quality power supply in addition to eIIicient
marketing and customer service delivery cannot be over
emphasized. Unwholesome practices by staII, very poor
Customer relations, inadequate logistic Iacilities such as
tools and working vehicles, low staII morale, lack oI
regular training and insuIIicient Iunds Ior maintenance
activities |2|.
3.00 NANOTECHNOLOGY: SOLUTION TO THE
PROBLEMOFELECTRICITYINNIGERIA
3.10 Nanotech Solarcell forelectricity generation
BeIore introducing new solar products which use
nanotechnology, it is necessary to explain the basic
process that a normal solar cell uses. Conventional solar
cells are called photovoltaic cells. These cells are made
out oI semiconducting material, usually silicon. When
light is incident on the cells, they absorb energy (i.e
photons). This absorbed energy released electrons in the
silicon, allowing them to Ilow. Additional oI impurities to
the silicon such as phosphorus or boron, an electric Iield
can be established. This electric Iield acts as a diode,
because it only allows electrons to Ilowin one direction.
Consequently, the end result is a current oI electrons,
better known to us as electricity. Conventional solar cells
have two main drawbacks: they can only achieve
eIIiciencies around ten percent (10), and they are
expensive to manuIacture. The Iirst drawback /
ineIIiciency, is almost unavoidable with silicon cells.
This is because the incoming photons, or light, must have
the right energy, called the band gap energy, to knock out
an electron. II the photon has less energy than the band
gap energy then it will pass through. But iI it has more
energy than the band gap, then that extra energy will be
wasted as heat |6|.
Nanotech solar cell is unique both Ior its energy
eIIiciency and cost eIIectiveness. Deposited thin-Iilm,
copper indium gallium diselenide CIGS-based PV
semiconductor is used to create an eIIicient, durable solar
cell. This semiconductor is 100times thinner than a
silicon waIer and the printing process is 10times Iaster
than the conventional thin-Iilm process oI high-vacuum
deposition. It brought the economics oI printing to
semiconductor manuIacturing, printing its copper
indium gallium diselenide CIGS semiconductor on low-
cost conductive aluminium Ioil. The solar cells were
lightweight, pliable, easily interconnected, adjustable,
and capable oI supporting up to 25 amps oI current per
cell (up to 25times more than was possible with other
thin-Iilm technology available at the time) and its
standard size is 165x 135mm |4|.
Due to its Ilexibility, Nanotech solar cell created solar
cell units independently oI solar panel units. The process
oI creating a solar panel unit included assembling the
cells into circuits and then laminating them into panels
(encapsulating the solar cells between two panes oI
tempered glass). A panel oI Nanotech solar cells
included 84 cells on a panel measuring 2 square meters
and weighing8.6Kg |7|.
3.11 Electricity Conversion Efficiency
The use oI copper indium gallium diselenide-based PV
thin-Iilms had reached sunlight-to-electricity
conversion eIIiciencies oI about 19.9 percent in
laboratory tests. This is Iar superior to other thin-Iilm
technologies and even better than most mono-crystalline
silicon based solar cell and the cost oI the silicon was
much greater than that oI thin-Iilm cells |5|.
Nanotech solar cell CIGS roll-printing technology
resulted in eIIiciencies Ior electricity generation ,cheap
in production, longevity and easy to install due to
Ilexibility and light weight as conIirmed by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), oI 17.1 percent
active-area on Ioil in 2011. This is a world record Ior any
printable solar cell |5|.
3.20 Nanotechnology and Transmission
The application oI nanotechnology will help to improve
the eIIiciency oI electricity transmission wires. There are
numerous nanomaterials and other nano-related
applications relevant to electricitytransmission.
Aluminium conductor steel reinIorced (ACSR) wire is
the standard overhead conductor against which
alternatives are compared. In 2010, the development oI
new overhead conductors increased the capacity oI
existing Right(s) oI Ways (ROWs) by Iive times that oI
ACSRwire at current costs and developed nanomaterial-
based metal-matrix overhead conductor known as the
aluminium conductor composite reinIorced (ACCR)
wire, which is designed to resist heat sag and provide
more than twice the transmission capacity oI
conventional conductors oI similar size. The diIIerence
is that ACCR wire is based on the use oI aluminium
processed in new ways to create high-perIormance and
278
reliable overhead conductors that retain strength at high
temperatures and are not adversely aIIected by
environmental conditions |6|.
Another example is the use oI armchair Carbon Nano
Tubes (CNTs) ? which is a special kind oI single-walled
CNTthat exhibits extremely high electrical conductivity
(more than 10 times greater than copper). Also
possessing Ilexibility, elasticity, and tremendous tensile
strength, CNTs have the potential, when woven into
wires and cables, to provide electricity transmission
lines with substantially improved perIormance over
current power lines |7|.
The current wires can equally be replaced with
nanoscale transmission wires, called quantum wires
(QWs) or armchair QWs, which revolutionize the
electrical grid. The electrical conductivity oI QW is
higher than that oI copper at one-sixth the weight, QWis
twice as strong as steel. A grid made up oI such
transmission wires would have no line losses or
resistance, because the electrons would be Iorced
lengthwise through the tube and could not escape out at
other angles. Grid properties would be resistant to
temperature changes and would have minimal or no sag
|7|.
3.30 OtherElectrical Transmission Infrastructure
Nanotechnology applications will also help to improve
other components oI the electric transmission
i nIrast ruct ure, t hereby pot ent i al l y reduci ng
environmental impacts. The examples below pertain to
transIormers, substations and sensors.
(a) TransIormers. Fluids containing nanomaterials could
provide more eIIicient coolants in transIormers, possibly
reducing the Iootprints, or even the number oI
transIormers. Nanoparticles increase heat transIer and
solid nanoparticles conduct heat better than liquid.
Nanoparticles stay suspended in liquids longer than
larger particles and they have a much greater surIace
area, where heat transIer takes place. Using
nanoparticles in the development oI High Temperature
Superconductors (HTS) transIormers could result in
compact units with no Ilammable liquids, which could
help increase it Ilexibility |6|.
(b) Substations. Substation batteries are important Ior
load-leveling peak shaving, providing uninterruptible
supplies oI electricity to power substation switchgear
and Ior starting backup power systems. Smaller and
more eIIicient batteries, which will reduce the Iootprints
oI substations and possibly the number oI substations
within a ROW|7|.
(c) Sensors. Nanoelectronics have the potential to
revolutionize sensors and power-control devices.
Nanotechnology-enabled sensors would be selI-
calibrating and selI-diagnosing. They could place
trouble calls to technicians whenever problems were
predicted or encountered. Such sensors could also allow
Ior the remote monitoring oI inIrastructure on a real-time
basis |7|.
Miniature sensors deployed throughout an entire
transmission network could provide access to data and
inIormation previously unavailable. The real-time
energized status oI distribution Ieeders will speed outage
restoration, phase balancing and line loss would be
easier to manage. Also help to improve the overall
operation oI the distributionIeeder network.
4.0 EnergyStorage
The ability to store energy locally can reduce the amount
oI electricity that needs to be transmitted over power
lines to meet peak demands. Energy storage allow
downsizing oI base load capacity and is a prerequisite Ior
increasing the penetration oI renewable and distributed
generation technologies such as wind turbines at
reasonable economic and environmental costs. Suitable
energy storage is critical to the increased use oI
renewable energies, particularly solar and wind.
Nanotechnology plays a role in distributed generation
through the development oI cost-eIIective energy
storage in batteries, capacitors and Iuel cells.
4.10 Batteries. Carbon Nano Tubes (CNTs) have
extraordinarily high surIace areas, good electrical
conductivity and has a linear geometry that makes their
surIace areas highly accessible to a battery's electrolyte.
These properties enable CNT-based electrodes in
batteries to generate an increased electricity output as
compared to traditional electrodes. This ability to
increase the energy output Irom a given amount oI
material means not only that batteries could become
more powerIul, but also that smaller and lighter batteries
could be developed Ior a wider range oI applications.
The battery technology utilizes 25-nm nanostructured
lithium titanate spinel (a hard, glassy mineral) as the
electrode material in the anode oI a rechargeable lithium-
ion battery, replacing the graphite electrode typically
used in such batteries and contributing to perIormance
and saIety issues. The new battery oIIers vastly Iaster
discharge and charge rates, meaning that the time to
recharge the battery can be measured in minutes rather
than in hours. The nanostructured materials also increase
the useIul liIetime oI the battery by 10 to 20 times over
current lithium batteries and provide battery
perIormance over a broader range oI temperatures than
currently achievable, over 75 oI normal power would
be available at temperatures between -40C and 67C
|7|.
279
4.20 Capacitors. While batteries, which derive electrical
energy Irom chemical reactions, are eIIective in storing
large amounts oI energy, they must be discarded aIter
many charges and discharges. Capacitors, however,
store electricity between a pair oI metal electrodes. They
charge Iaster and longer than normal batteries, but
because their storage capacity is proportional to the
surIace area oI their electrodes, even today's most
powerIul capacitors hold 25 times less energy than
similarly sized chemical batteries. Presently, capacitor
electrodes have been covered with millions oI nanotubes
to increase electrode surIace area and thus the amount oI
energy that they can hold |7|. This new technology
'combines the strength oI today's batteries with the
longevity and speed oI capacitors and has broad practical
possibilities, aIIecting any device that requires a
battery.
Use oI lightweight, low gauge carbon nanotube wire in
place oI conventional copper wire will signiIicantly
reduce the weight oI power distribution systems in
homes and industries. In addition, nanotube wires do not
corrode and are more ductile than copper thereby leading
to more durable and saIer wiring. Lightweight carbon
nanotube wires and electrical cables have been
demonstrated and the long-term durability oI these
cables are also tested to raise this technology.
Conclusion
Based on the inIormation discussed in this paper, it is
worthy oI note that in order to tap into the
nanotechnology solution to electricity generation,
transmission, storage and distribution in Nigeria, the
three tiers oI government in Nigeria (Federal, State and
Local government) should provide Iunds Ior research on
nanotechnology and provide a conducive atmosphere Ior
adaptation oI the technology in Nigeria. The people
should also be inIormed about the technology and
possible adaptation to electricity generation. Also, the
researchers should work more on this new proIitable
technology that is useIul in many Iacet oI the economy.
REFERENCES
|1| Sambo, A.S : 'Matching Electricity Supply with
Demand in Nigeria Paper presented at the National
Workshop on the Participation oI State Government in
the Power sector, 2008, Abuja.
|2| Sambo, A.S, Garaba B, Zarma, I.H and Gaji,
M.M : 'Electricity Generation and the present
challenges in Nigeria Power Sector. 2009. Energy
CommissionoI Nigeria, Abuja Nigeria.
Energy Distribution
|3| Richardson, P: 'Nigerian President Approves
Construction oI $3.5 Billion. Electricity Grid August,
2010. http://www.bloomberg.com/News/2010-08-
10/~
|4| P r i a u l x , M : ' S o l a r c e l l s a n d
Nanotechnologyhttp://www.tahan.com/nanosociety
|5| Nanosolar
http://www.wikipedia/org/wiki/Vanosola
|6| Chang Jun liu, Uwe Burghaus, Flemming, B
and Zong Ling Wang : 'Preparation and Characterization
oI Nanomaterial Ior Sustainable Energy Production.
American Chemical Society Journal Nano Iocus Vol 4 Pg
5517 5526, 2010.
|7| Deborah Elcock: 'Potential Impacts oI
Nanotechnology on Energy Transmission Application
and Needs. Argonne National Laboratory USA,
November 2007.
280
COMPARATIVE STUDYOFASOLAR DRYER WITH OPENAIR DRYER IN DRYING UNRIPE
PLANTAIN (musa paradisiaca)
1 2 3
Atilade, A. O.*, Onanuga, O. K. and Olaitan, H. M.
Department oI Science Laboratory Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria.
1. atiladeadesanyayahoo.com
2. olukehinde1yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Preserving Iruits, vegetables, grains, and meat has been practiced in many parts oI the world Ior thousands oI years.
Various methods oI preservation include: canning, Ireezing, pickling, curing (smoking or salting), and drying. In this
work, a solar drying system was constructed. Unripe plantain (musa paradisiaca) was dried with the solar drying
system and open air drying system. The moisture content oI banana reduced Irom 539g to 233g within 15hours oI
drying using the solar drying system (56.8 moisture content loss) and 539g to 238g within 15hours oI drying using
the openair drying system (55.4 moisture content loss).
Keywords: Moisture content loss, musa paradisiaca, openair drying, preservation, solar drying, unripe plantain.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Drying is one oI the most important post-harvest
operations Ior produce. It is mainly aimed at reducing
the moisture content oI the produce Ior preservation. For
some spices such as banana, Iish, maize e.t.c, drying is
not only Ior preservation purposes but also Ior
modiIying the tastes and Ilavors in order to increase their
market values (Rosello e tal, 1990). In developing
countries, natural sun drying method is commonly used
Ior drying produce. Although negligible investment is
required by this method, products being dried are usually
contaminated by insects, birds and dusts. Due to
rewetting oI the products during drying by rain and too
slow drying rate in the rainy season, toxic substances
such as alphatoxil produced by molds is oIten Iound in
the dried products (AIolabi, 2010 and Grupp etal, 1995).
This is one oI the main problems obstructing the growth
oI exports oI this produce in international markets.
Consequently, the utilization oI a solar drying
technology is considered to be an alternative solution to
the problem oI drying agricultural products (Sankat etal,
1996).
As Iarmers usually have a Iarmhouse with galvanized
iron sheets as rooI Ior use in various agricultural
activities, with a proper design it is Ieasible to use this
rooI to produce hot air Ior drying agricultural products.
Such a drying system will provide space Ior the solar
collectors and reduce the total investment cost (Rosello e
tal, 1990).
The basic traditional drying method is called open air
drying, characterized by direct solar radiation and
natural air circulation on the product. The open air
drying method is known to have certain disadvantages,
such as exposure to contamination Irom sources such as
dirt, wind, rain, insects, rodents and birds. Quality
deIiciencies, such as changes in colour, oII-Ilavours,
Ioreign and high surIace microbial contamination may
occur. Heavy microbial contamination can aIIect the
produce aIter rehydration, when suIIicient moisture Ior
renewed bacterial growth is available, as this will lead to
product deterioration andevenpossible Iood poisoning
Drying crops by solar energy is oI great economic
importance the world over, especially in Nigeria where
most oI the crops and grain harvests are lost to Iungal
and microbial attacks. These wastages could be easily
prevented by proper drying. Nigeria lies within the
equator and is blessed with abundant solar energy all the
year round (AIolabi, 2010).
This solar energy can easily be harnessed by a proper
design oI solar dryers Ior crop drying. This method oI
drying requires the transIer oI both heat and water
vapour (Amon, 1965). Most oI our crops and grain are
harvested during the peak period oI rainy season and so
preservation proves diIIicult and most oI these grains
and crops perish.
A solar dryer is an enclosed unit, to keep the Iood saIe
Irom damage, birds, insects and unexpected rainIall.
o
Solar dryers are normally designed Ior use below 55 C
(Minh-Hue andWilliams, 2007).
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The dryers considered in this research paper are the solar
dryer and open air dyer. Here in solar dryer the product is
placed on trays inside a drying chamber. Solar radiation
is thus not incident directly on the crop. Preheated air
warmed during its Ilow through solar energy air heater,
is ducted to the drying chamber to dry the product.
Because the products are not subjected to direct
sunshine as in open air drying, localized heat damage
does not occur (Anon, 198,. The Solar energy dryer is
made up oI the Iollowing basic units:
(a) A drying chamber: This is a space within the
solar dryer where the produce is placed Ior drying. There
are three drying trays in the drying chamber but the
281
topmost chamber is used in order to prevent moisture
settlement on the other trays.
(b) An air-heating solar energy collector, which
consists oI cover plate, absorber plate made oI
polycarbonate sheet and insulator Ior prevention
oI heat loss by the dryer.
2.1 MATERIALS ANDTOOLS
The materials and tools used Ior the construction oI solar
dryer include: polycarbonate sheet, micrometer screw
gauge, thermometer, hand gloves, ''1 by 2'' wood (3
pieces), ''2 by 2'' wood (4 pieces), razor blade, kniIe,
screws and watchers, pots, particle board, screw driver,
blackpaint andlatch.

2.2 CONSTRUCTIONPROCEDURE
The size oI the constructed solar dryer was 121.92cm
long by 45.72cm wide. This was the size that could be
covered with one sheet oI 60.96cm 243.84cm
polycarbonate. 3 lengths oI 5.1cm x 10.2cm wood were
cut into 111.76cm long and 2 lengths oI 121.92cm.These
make the horizontal beams oI the Irame. Another 2
lengths oI 86.36cm long was cut and 2 lengths oI
55.88cm Ior the upright pieces oI the Irame, the two
86.36cm upright was placed on a level surIace, and each
oI the 7.62cm were marked Irom bottom and 25.4cm
Irom top. The 111.76cm was placed between the upright
below the 7.62cm mark and nail it in place. Another
beam was placed between the 2 upright above the
25.4cm mark and was nailed in place; this is the Iront (or
door) panel.
The 55.88cm upright was joined between the 112.92cm
beams to Iorm a big rectangle; the beam was placed
above the uprights so that it will come out to be
112.92cm long, this makes the back Irame. The panel
was stand up vertically on a level surIace. For the bottom
sidepieces, two 20" lengths oI wood was cut and laid
butted against the back panel, one on each side. The Iront
panel stands vertically on top oI these sidepieces
Iorming a square; the bottom sidepieces with the
uprights were arranged vertically and nailed in place.
Because the Iront is taller than the back; these two top
sidepieces are angled at the latitude oI Ikorodu (). The
unit was laid down so that the door Irame is on the Iloor.
The last 111.76cm horizontal beam was inserted into the
bottom, about 10.2cm up Irom the Iront Irame.
Two 119.38cm beam and 49.53cm was cut upright, and
was placed over the opening oI the Iront.The
polycarbonate sheet was cut into two 60.96cm by 121.92
sheets, each piece was clamped to the outside or the
jointed Irame, one on top and one at the back. Apiece oI
particleboard (45.72cm 121.92cm) was used to cover
the bottom oI the solar dryer. 10.2cm gap was leIt at the
Iront door panel oI the bottom plate; this gap is used as
the intake vent. 2 pieces oI net (15.24cm by 127cm)
which cover the intake and exhaust vents to prevent
insect Irom enteringthe dryer
The drying trays were made by cutting 2.54cmby
5.08cm wood to 8 lengths oI 116.84cm and 12 lengths oI
49.53cm. The woods were nailed together into 4
rectangular tray Irames, measuring 116.84cm by
54.61cm (8).
Fig. 1: Front view oI the constructed
solar dryer
Fig. 2: Drying the plantain by open air and solar
dryers respectively
282
Unripe plantain Iruit (green banana) bought Irom Ikorodu main market was used Ior this study. It was washed, peeled
and sliced uniIormly. Random samples Irom the chips were dried in the kiln dryer, metal solar dryer and open air dryer.
The initial weight was measured using a top pan digital balance. It was then divided into three equal parts Ior the three
dryers. The ambient and chamber temperatures throughout the duration oI the process were measured using a
thermometer. The weight loss during drying which was assumed to be only moisture loss was monitored periodically
by weighing the samples until the weight was constant. This was used to determine moisture content loss by the
product in each method oI drying.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
The metal solar dryer, open air dryer and kiln dryer were used Ior drying green / unripe banana in the month oI October
Ior three days. The drying was carried out in Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu campus. Ikorodu area oI Lagos State,
Nigeria with Latitude 6.666667N. The solar Dryer was placed outside with the collector Iacing the direction oI the
sun. About 3.42kg oI Ireshly harvested unpeeled banana and a total mass oI sliced banana sampled Ior drying was
1.078kg. The sample was dried by arranging them on the drying tray in a single layer to avoid moisture being trapped in
the lower layer and spreading on a tray Ior open air drying. The drying chamber door was closed and seals placed in
position. The results obtained Ior hourly reading oI 6hours (12noon to 5pm) everyday at a maximum temperature oI
45Care tabulated. The moisture content loss by the produce in each hour oI drying is deduced Irom the measurement
oI mass recorded.
3.1 RESULT
1. Mass oI unpeeled plantain 3.42kg
2. Mass oI Pot 0.41kg
3. Mass oI peeled plantain Pot 2.31kg
4. Mass oI peeled plantain 2.31kg 0.41kg 1.9kg
5. Mass oI sliced plantain pot 1.488kg
6. Mass oI sliced plantain 1.488kg 0.41kg 1.078kg
7. Average thickness oI sliced plantain 2.14mm
8. Average mass oI each sliced plantain 1.1g
th
Table 1.0: Variation oI mass and temperature with time on 28 October 2011.
TIME/hr SOLAR DRYING OPENAIR DRYING
MASS/g TEMP/C MASS/g TEMP/C
12.00 539 41 539 35
13.00 488 41 481 36
14.00 465 40 437 34
15.00 442 42 419 36
16.00 391 39 363 35
17.00 352 34 323 32
th
Table 2.0: Variation oI mass and temperature with time on 29 October 2011.
TIME/hr SOLAR DRYING OPENAIR DRYING
MASS/g TEMP/C MASS/g TEMP/C
12.00 352 37 323 36
13.00 306 32 323 33
14.00 301 35 323 32
15.00 301 34 289 33
16.00 289 38 261 33
17.00 278 34 255 34
283
th
Table 3.0: Variation oI mass and temperature with time on 30 October 2011
TIME/hr SOLAR DRYING OPENAIR DRYING
MASS/g TEMP/C MASS/g TEMP/C
12.00 278 44 255 38
13.00 255 40 250 33
14.00 244 45 244 38
15.00 233 44 238 36
16.00 233 44 238 36
17.00 233 42 238 34
Table 4.0: Table oI time variation and moisture content loss in both dryers
TIME OF SOLAR MCLFOR OPENAIR MCLFOR SOLAR AMBIENT
DRYING/hr DRYING SOLAR DRYING OPENAIR DRYER TEMP/C
MASS/g DRYING/g MASS/g DRYING/g TEMP/C
0 539 0 539 0 41 35
1 488 51 481 58 41 36
2 465 74 437 102 40 34
3 442 97 419 120 42 36
4 391 148 363 176 39 35
5 352 187 323 216 37 36
6 306 233 323 216 32 33
7 301 238 323 216 35 32
8 301 238 289 250 34 33
9 289 250 261 278 38 33
10 278 261 255 284 34 34
11 255 284 250 289 40 33
12 244 295 244 295 45 38
13 233 306 238 301 44 36
14 233 306 238 301 44 36
15 233 306 238 301 42 34
Fig 3. : Graph oI Mass against Time oI Drying Ior both dryers
284
Figure 4.3: Agraph oI Moisture Content Loss (MCL) against Time oI Drying Ior both dryers
Figure 4.4: Agraph oI Temperature Variation against Time oI Drying Ior both dryers
3.3 CALCULATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT LOSS
Moisture content loss percentage oI the dried banana was calculated using the Iormula;
Where: M Moisture Loss
MCL
M Initial Mass
i
M Final Mass
I
3.3.1 MOISTURE CONTENT LOSS FOR SOLAR DRYER
M 539g 0.539kg
i
M 233g 0.233kg
I
283
56.77
3.3.2 MOISTURE CONTENT LOSS FOR OPENAIR DRYER
M 539g 0.539kg
i
M 238g 0.238kg
I
55.84
Fig. 3: Dried banana Irom solar dryer and open air dryer respectively
4.0 DISSCUSSION
The solar dryer harnesses the energy oI the sun with the aid oI a translucent polycarbonate sheet that traps the energy
and preventing direct ultraviolet light to drain the nutrient oI the produce it dried banana oI mass 539g Ior 15hours
removing 56.8 oI moisture at a maximum temperature oI 45 C. Open air drying in which produce is exposed to
direct ultraviolet light which drains the nutrient in the produce is used to dry unripe plantain weighing 539g Ior 15hours
removing 55.8 oI moisture at a maximum temperature oI 38 C.
5.0 RECOMMENDATION
In order to make good use oI the solar dryer Ior drying diIIerent produce a thermostat, Ian and humidity sensor
could be incorporated in the solar dryer to ensure that drying is done under prescribed conditions.
REFERENCES
1. AIolabi O.S (2010), Design and constructionoI kilnIor drying Claris gariepinius Pp 4, 5
2. Anon R. (1965), How to make a solar cabinet Dryer Ior Agricultural produce Do it yourselI leaIlet L6.Brace
research Institute, SainteAnnede Bellevue, Canada.Pp. 9.
3. Grupp, M. et. al. (1995), Comparative Test oI Solar Dryers. Technology Demonstration Center Serial Report
2/95. PlatIorma Solar deAlmeria (PSA), Synopsis. 22 pgs. (Quantitative comparisonoI 7drying methods).
4. Minh-Hue Nguyen and William E. Price (2007), Air-drying oI banana: InIluence oI experimental parameters,
slabthickness, banana maturity and harvesting season. Journal oI Food Engineering, 79, 200207.
5. Rossello, C., Berna, A., and Mulet, A. (1990), Solar Drying oI Fruits in a Mediterranean Climate, Drying
Technology, 8 (2), pp: 305-321.
6. Sankat, C. K., Castaigne, F., & Maharaj, R. (1996). The air drying behaviour oI Ireshly and osmotically
dehydrated banana slices. International Journal oI Food Science and Technology, 31, 123135.
286
Comparative Study of The Hypoglycaemic Effects Of Ethanol and Aqueous Extract Of 1atropha
Curcas (Punging Nut Root) in Alloxan-induced Hyperglycaemic Wistar Rats
Akoro, Seide Modupe and Awe Omotunde
Science Laboratory Technology Department, School of Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos
State.
Email: modupe2309yahoo.com
Mobile phone number: +2348023216177
ABSTRACT
This study compared the hypoglycaemic eIIects oI ethanol and aqueous extract oI Jatropha curcas root (punging nut
root) in alloxan-induced hyperglycaemic Wistar rats. The phytochemical analysis oI the crude extracts oI the plants
was carried out, the results shows the presence oI alkaloids, Ilavonoids, tannins, saponins, and reducing sugar.
Quantitative analysis oI the powdered roots oI Jatropha Curcas shows the Iollowing results: Alkaloids (1.4 + 0.00 5
), Tannins 0.6 + 0.03 , Phenol 1.06 + 0.02 , Ilavonoids 0.82+ 0.01 . Diabetes was induced in the rats at 150 mg/kg
body wt using alloxan monohydrate in normal saline Ior 72 h. The rats with glucose level oI 200mg/dLand above were
used Ior the study. Treatment was started with 100mg/kg body weight, oI the aqueous and ethanol extract on the Wistar
rats and glucose level was taken aIter 7 days. The results show a great reduction in the glucose level Ior the ethanol
extract aIter 7 days. The Iollowing mean blood glucose result were recorded aIter 7 days, group A (non-diabetic
control) 97.0 + 5.60, group B (diabetic control untreated) 557.5 + 43.49, group C (Aqueous Jatropha root extract)
307.8 +87.36, group D Ethanol Jatropha root extract) 75.8. + 17.29, Group F (Diabetic control treated with standard
drug) 92.5 + 6.45. The results aIter 14days at 100mg /kg body wt Ior the ethanol extracts and at 200mg/kg body wt Ior
the aqueous extracts are as Iollows: group A(non-diabetic control) 95.8.0 + 4.35, group B(diabetic control untreated)
567.5 + 34.03, group C (Aqueous Jatropha root extract) 105.5 +3.42, group D Ethanol Jatropha root extract) 74.3 +
4.35, Group E (Diabetic control treated with standard drug) 96.8 + 5.38. Change in dosage oI the extract aIter 7 days
Irom 100mg/kg body weight to 200mg/kg body weight gave a result similar to that oI the ethanol extract in 7days.The
results shows that the extracts is very eIIicacious inthe treatment oI diabetes side by side with a known standard drug.
Keywords: Jatropha curcas root extract, hypoglycaemic eIIect, alloxan-induced, hyperglycaemic Wistars rats,
phytochemical analysis, diabetes,
Introduction
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by inherited
and/or acquired deIiciency in production oI insulin by
the pancreas, or by the ineIIectiveness oI the insulin
produced.(WHO, 2012). Recent data shows that
approximately 150 million people have diabetes mellitus
worldwide, and that this number may well double by the
year 2025, (WHO, 2012).There are two main Iorms oI
diabetes mellitus: Type 1 diabetes (Iormerly known as
insulin-dependent) results Irom the Iailure oI the
pancreas to produce the insulin and this develops most
Irequently in children and adolescents diabetes and Type
2 diabetes (Iormerly named non-insulin-dependent)
however, results Irom the body's inability to respond
properly to the action oI insulin produced by the pancreas
(WHO, 1985). The symptoms are excessive secretion oI
urine (polyuria), thirst (polydipsia), weight loss and
tiredness. The quest Ior a solution to this disease which
has remained very expensively to manage has lead to the
usage oI herbal therapy as a way out. The World Health
Organisation has recommended the use oI alternative
therapy (use oI plants) where the conventional drugs are
not readily available, (WHO, 2002).
Jatropha curcas L. (physic nut or purging nut) is a
drought resistant shrub or tree belonging to the Iamily
Euphorbiaceae, which is cultivated in Central and South
America, South-East Asia, India and AIrica (
Dal:iel,1955). Some oI the ethnomedical uses oI the
extracts oI Jatropha curcas leaves and roots include use
as a remedy Ior cancer, as an abortiIacient, antiseptic,
diuretic, purgative and haemostatic.(
The nut oI
the plant has also been used traditionally Ior the
treatment oI many ailments including burns,
convulsions, Iever and inIlammation
In spite oI the ethnomedical uses to which various parts
oI the Jatropha curcas plant had been put, it is important
to note that toxic properties has also been attributed to
parts oI the plant, especially the seeds (Badwi et
al.,1995). The decoction oI root bark is used to rinse the
mouth to relieve toothache and sore throat among the
tribal inhabitants oI southern Andhra Pradesh (Parotta,
2001). The coagulant, anticoagulant and antibacteria
activities were reported in Jatropha curcas and Jatropha
Lin et al. 2003;
Olowokudejo et al., 2008, Mishra et al. 2010).
(Osoniyi, and
Onajobi.,2003; Debnathet al., 2008).

287
multifida (Aiyelaagbe, 2001; Osoniyi and Onajobi,
2003). The analgesic activity oI the metabolic leaI
extract oI Jatropha curcas in vivo was studied using
analgesic models (Omeh and Ezeja, 2010). Antidiabetic
eIIect oI Jatropha curcas leaves extract in normal and
alloxan-induced diabetic rats was reported by Mishra et
al. (2010). This present study compared the
hypoglycaemic eIIects oI ethanol and aqueous extract oI
Jatropha curcas root (punging nut root) in alloxan-
induced hyperglycaemicWistar rats.
SAMPLECOLLECTIONANDPREPARATION
Fresh roots oI Jathropha curcas (Purging nut root) were
excavated and harvested Irom a Iarm at Ogijo
community, Ogun state, Nigeria. They were identiIied
and authenticated by a Botanist at the Department oI
Botany, University oI Lagos. The roots were thoroughly
washed to remove debris oI the earth remains. The roots
were then chopped into bits and allowed to dry in the
o
oven at a temperature oI 40 C Ior 78 h. This was then
blended into Iine powder using a manual blender
(corona).
Ethanol Extraction of 1athropha Curcas
80 g oI the blended root oI Jathropha curcas was
macerated in 1200ml oI ethanol (70 ethanol) agitated
then allowed to stay Ior 72 h. The mixture was then
Iiltered with sterile white cotton cloth. The Iiltrate was
concentrated to 10 oI its original volume using a
o o
Rotary Evaporator (Model RE52B, China) at 37 C- 40
C. This was Iurther concentrated to complete dryness,
o
using the oven at 40 C, Yield: 8.572g (10.72 ).
Aqueous Extraction of 1athropha Curcas
100 g oI the blended root oI Jathropha curcas was
extracted in 1LoI distilled water using soxhlet extractor
o
Ior 1 h at 100 C The mixture was then Iiltered with
sterile white cotton cloth and concentrated to 10 oI its
original volume in vacuo using Rotary Evaporator
o o
(Model RE52A, China) at 37 C - 40 C. This was
concentrated to complete dryness, using the oven at
o
40 C, yielding 9.22g (9.22).
PHYTOCHEMICALANALYSIS
Phytochemical compositions oI the roots were
determined using the various methods described by
SoIowara (2008). The presence oI saponins, tannins,
alkaloids, Ilavonoids, glycosides and reducing sugars
were determined by the simple and standard qualitative
and quantitative methods The simple quantitative
analysis oI the extract was based on the intensity oI the
colour change.
QuantitativeAnalysis
Tannins Determination
The sample (10 g) was weighed into a 50ml plastic
bottle. 50ml oI distilled water was added and shaken Ior
1 hour, in a mechanical shaker. This was Iiltered into a
50ml volumetric Ilask and made up to the mark. Then
5ml oI the Iiltrate was pipette out into a test tube and
mixed with 2ml oI 0.1mFeCl in 0.1m HCl and 0.008M
3
potassium Ierrocyanide. The absorbance was measures
as 120nm (Van Burden And Robbinson, 1981).
Alkaliods Determination
The sample (5 g) was weighed into a 250 ml beaker and
200 ml oI 10 acetic acid in ethanol added. The beaker
was covered and allowed to stand Ior 4 h. It was then
Iiltered and the extract concentrated on a water-bath to
one-quarter oI the original volume. Concentrated
ammonium hydroxide was added dropwise to the
extract until the precipitation was complete. The whole
solution was allowed to settle and the precipitate was
collected and washed with dilute ammonium hydroxide
(2M) and then Iiltered. The residue is the alkaloid which
was dried and weighed. (Harborne, 1998).
Determination of Total Phenol
The Iat Iree sample (10g) was boiled with 50ml oI ether
Ior the extraction oI phenolic component Ior 15min . 5
ml oI the extract was pipette into a 50 ml Ilask, then 10
ml oI distilled water was added. 2 ml oI ammonium
hydroxide solution and 5 ml oI the concentrated
amylalchol were also added. The samples were made up
to mark and leIt to react Ior 30minutes Ior colour
development. This was measured at 505 nm. (Harborne,
1998; Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001).
Flavonoid Determination
The plant sample (10 g) was extracted repeatedly with
100 ml oI 80 aqueous methanol extract at room
temperature. The whole solution was Iiltered through
Whatman Iilter paper No 42 (125mm). the Iiltrate was
later transIerred into a crucible and evaporated into
dryness over a water bath and weighed at a constant
weighed . Boham and Kocipai, 1994).
Animal Study
Collection and acclimatization of rats
Wistar rats aged between three to Iour months and
weighing between 100 to 150 g were used as
experimental model. The rats were kept in groups oI
Iour rats per group and each group oI rats were given
Iree access to the recommended rat Ieeds (Adeneye and
Adeyemi, 2009) and to pure drinking water and
maintained in a good condition in compliance with the
Guidelines Ior Care and Use oI Laboratory Animals in
Biomedical Research. They were kept Ior a period oI
two weeks to acclimatize beIore being used Ior the
experiment. They were later induced with diabetes and
treated Ior 14days.
288
Experimental Induction of Diabetic rat
Alloxan monohydrate dissolved in Ireshly prepared
normal saline was injected into each rat and it was given
as a single intraperitoneal dose oI 100 mg/kg oI body
weight (Al-Shamaony et al, 1994; Pari and
Venkateswaran, 2002). Blood samples were collected
Irom the 'tail vein' oI each rat Ior blood glucose analysis
Blood glucose was`` measured aIter 72h oI
alloxanisation by collecting blood samples Irom the 'tail
vein' oI each rat. Blood glucose concentrations were
determined by means oI 'Accu-check glucometer and
Blood glucose test strips. Rats showing Iasting blood
glucose (FBG) levels 500 mg/dl and above were used Ior
the study.
Antidiabetic Assay: Four (4) healthy non-diabetic
adult Wistar rats and Sixteen (16) adult diabetic induced
Wistar rats totalling 20 (ages three to Iour months)
weighing between 100-150g was divided into Iive (5)
groups consisting oI Iour rats/group |1 group oI healthy
non-diabetic and 4 groups oI diabetic induced rats-
giving a total oI 5 groups|. The diabetic induced rats
were treated with aqueous and ethanol extract oI the
extract (100 mg/kg body wt Ior 7 days and then 200
mg/kg body wt Ior another 7 days) while the group oI 4
healthy non-diabetic rats which served as the control was
treated with only normal saline. A group oI 4 diabetic
induced rats were treated with 'glibenclamide' an oral
anti-diabetic drug (10mg/kg body wt) to compare the
eIIicacy oI the extract (Merina et al, 2010). The body
weight oI the rats were taken beIore and aIter treatment.
Group A: Normal control(non-diabetic rats) normal
saline; Group B: Diabetic control (alloxan induced)
normal saline; Group C: Diabetic(alloxan induced)
extract(aqueous) ; Group D: Diabetic(alloxan induced)
extract (ethanol); Group E: Diabetic (alloxan induced)
oral diabetic drug.
Statistical analysis
All determinations Ior phytochemical analysis were
replicated three times and results were reported as mean
values + standard deviation. For the animal study Data
were subjected to analysis oI variance (ANOVA). The
signiIicance values were expressed as Mean + SD at the
p0.05 level
RESULTS
Table 1a: Quantitative Analysis oI Phytochemical
Contents
Phytochemical Content Result
Alkaloid 1.4 + 0.005
Tannin 0.60+ 0.03
Flavonoid 0.82+ 0.01
Total Phenol 1.06 + 0.02
.
Table 1b-Phytochemical analysis result
Alkaloid Tannin Saponin Flavonoid Glycoside Steroid Reducing Terpenoid
sugar
+ + + + + + + +
Table 2: Animal Study Results
GROUPS Treatmen Glu(mg/dL Glu(mg/dL(AfterWk1of Glu(mg/dL(AfterWk2of
t )Day Zero Treatment Treatment
Before (100mg/kgbwt of (200mg/kgbwt of
Treatment Extract) Extract)
GROUP Normal 94.5+7.42 97-0+5.6 95.8-0+4.35
A Non-
Diabetic
Control
GROUP Diabetic 537.5+67.5 557.5+43.49 567.5+34.03
B Control 5
GROUP Diabetic 575+20.80 307.8+87.36 105.5+3.42
C
Aqueous
Extract
289
GROUP Diabetic 547.5+25.0 75.8+17.29 74.3+4.35
D Ethanol 0
Extract
GROUP Diabetic 507.5+45.7 92.5+6.45 96.8+5.38
E + 3
Glibencla
mide
Values are expressed as Mean + SEM oI 4 rats in each group
DISCUSSION
The phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts
of the ethanol and aqueous extract of Jathropha
curcas(Purging nut)root shows the presence oI
alkaloids, Ilavonoids, tannins, saponins, and reducing
sugar as shown in table 1b . Quantitative analysis oI
phytochemical contents shows the presence oI
Alkaloids: 1.4 0.00 5 , Tannins: 0.6 0.03 ,
Phenols: 1.06 0.02 and Ilavonoids: 0.82 0.01 .
prevent and treat type 2 diabetes
. The biological Iunctions oI
Ilavonoids include protection against allergies,
inIlammation, Iree radicals, platelet aggregation,
microbes, ulcers, hepatoxins, viruses and tumors
(Farquar, 1996). Alkaloids in plants are known Ior
their medicinal properties and many oI them had been
reported to have anti-diabetic properties (Yin et al.,
2008; Wanget al., 2010).
The reduction in glucose levels observed in groups
C,D and E was due to the Iact that these group oI
animals were being treated either with the use oI
extracts or with the use oI the standard drug
(Glibenclamide) |Table 2 and Figure 1|. Figure 2
shows that increase in dosage will increase eIIicacy in
the aqueous extract while the ethanol extracts was
eIIicacious even at a lower concentration. There is a
good comparative reduction in sugar level in animals
treated with the ethanol extract when compared with
those treated with the standard drug |Table 2 and
Figure 3|. The results shows a greater reduction in the
glucose level Ior the animals treated with the ethanol
extract aIter 7 days when compared with those treated
with the aqueous extract.
Change in dosage oI the aqueous extract aIter 7 days
Irom 100 mg/kg body weight to 200 mg/kg body
weight gave a result similar to that oI the ethanol
extract in 7 days suggesting that the ethanol extract is
more eIIicacious at a lower dosage. Generally Irom
the results, the extracts showed good eIIicacy in the
treatment oI diabetes side by side with the known
standarddrug.
Tannins and polyphenols have been reported to
(Tsuneki et al., 2004.,
Liu et al., 2005)
Fig 1: Glucose level oI all groups compared with
Group Cand Dat the two dosage levels
Figure 2: Change in Mean Glucose level at different
dosage
Figure 3: EIIect oI Change in Glucose at constant
Dose oI Standard Drug
290
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Jatropha multifida roots. Fitoterapia72(5): 544-546.
Boham, A.B. and Kocipai, A.C. (1994). Flavonoids and
condensed tannins Irom leaves oI Hawaiian Jaccininum
vaticulumand vicalycinium. Pacific Sci., 48:458-463.
Dal:iel J.M, The Useful Plants of West-Tropical Africa.
Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and
Administration, London, pp. 147 1955
Farquar, J.N(1996) Plant sterols; their biological eIIects
in humans. Handbook oI lipids in Human Nutrition.
BOCARotan FL) CRCPress Pp. 101-105.
3rd Edn.
Chapman andHall Ltd., London, pp: 135-203.
Merina,A.J; Sivanesan, D;Begum V.H and Sulochana,N
(2010) Antioxidant and Hypolipidemic Effect of
Pl umeri a Rubra L. i n Al l oxan Induced
Hyperglycemic Rats. E-1 Chem.7(1),1-5.
Adeneye, A. A., & Adeyemi, O. O. (2009).
Hypoglycaemic eIIects oI the aqueous seed extract oI
Hunteria umbellata in normoglycaemic and glucose-
and nicotine-induced hyperglycaemic rats. International
Journal of Applied Research in Natural Products, 2(1),
9-18.
Al-Shamaony, L., Al-Khazraji, S. M., & Twaij, H. A.
(1994). Hypoglycaemic eIIect oI Artemisia herba alba.
II. EIIect oI a valuable extract on some blood parameters
in diabetic animals. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
43(3), 167-171.
Debnath, M., & Bisen, P. S. (2008). Jatropha curcas L., a
multipurpose stress resistant plant with a potential Ior
ethnomedicine and renewable e n e r g y .
Current pharmaceutical biotechnology, 9(4), 288-306.
Harborne, A. J. (1998). Phytochemical methods a guide
to modern techniques of plant analysis.
Liu, X., Kim, J. K., Li, Y., Li, J., Liu, F., & Chen, X.
(2005). Tannic acid stimulates glucose transport and
inhibits adipocyte diIIerentiation in 3T3-L1 cells.
The Journal of nutrition, 135(2), 165-171.
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Mishra, S. B., Mukerjee, A., & Vijayakumar, M. (2010).
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Obadoni, B.O. and Ochuko, P.O. (2001). Phytochemical
studies and comparative eIIicacy oI the crude extracts oI
some homeostatic plants in Edo and Delta States oI
Nigeria. Global J. Pure and Appl. Sci. 8:203-208.
Omeh Yusuf S and Ezeja Maxwell.I. (2010)
Analgesic Activity of the Methanolic Leaf Extract of
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291
CRITERIAFOR EVOLUTION OF STANDARD NIGERIAN ENGLISH
By Olaide Olapade
B.A.(Linguistics) Ilorin.
M.A. (English Language) Lagos
Senior Lecturer (Use of English and Communication Skills)
Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu
ABSTRACT
Nigerian English includes the varieties oI the English language used in the Federal Republic oI Nigeria, the most
th
populous country in AIrica. The varieties have been used Ior the purposes oI trade since at least the 18 century, at
th
Christian missions since the 19 century, and continually in education, administration, the media, and work place,
especially since the Iormation oI a uniIied Nigeria in 1914. Nigeria is culturally and linguistically heterogeneous, and
in spite oI this, English remains pre-eminent in the comity oI all native tongues. Debates are ongoing on the existence
oI a single English within Nigeria. It is on this score that this paper considers a number oI criteria Ior evolution oI a
model variety that may be embraced by all users oI English in Nigerian linguistic continuum. Such model variety
expectedly should be the one intelligible to, and accepted by internal and international users oI the English language.
KEY WORDS
Nigerian English, varieties, English language, Federal Republic of Nigeria, linguistic continuum, heterogeneity,
international acceptance and intelligibility.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
English is the primary language oI the majority oI people
in the United Kingdom, the United States oI America,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, other Iormer colonies
oI Britain and territories oI the United States oI America.
The English language spread as Britain expanded its
colonial empire Irom 1600 on, established legal,
military, and educational systems in many countries
along English philosophies. British expansion ended
aIter World War II (1939-1945), when many colonies
sought independence. Since World War II, American
English has dominated as World language, largely due to
the economic and political inIluence oI the United States
oI America, as well as the advance oI technology,
especially, computing and the internet. At the turn oI the
st
21 century, English has prevailed as the most widely
used international language. At the same time as English
became a world language, the number oI English
speakers learning a second language dropped
substantially. English was blamed Ior the death oI some
minority languages such as Gaelic and various
aboriginal languages.
The English language is set to dominate the world
communication Ior a long time to come. Although
dominance brings with it, a degree oI standardization, it
is not the case that English is losing its variety within
countries or across the globe. Current research suggests
that rather than dwindling, diIIerences in vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation continue to allowpeople to
express multiple identities. The Iear in some quarters
that mass communication would lead to the death oI
English dialects appear to be unIounded.
English came to be used Ior trading activities in Nigeria,
th th
since the 18 century, at missions since 19 century, and
th
increasingly in education, the media, and the 20 century
work place, especially so, since Iormation by the British
oI a uniIied Nigeria in 1914. The evolution oI a single
Nigerian English continues to be debated and disputed
within the country, in which there is a spectrum oI usage
Irom West AIrican Pidgin English through varieties
inIluenced by local languages, such as Hausa, Igbo and
Yoruba, to a general usage similar to other English
speaking West AIrican countries. All varieties do not
pronounce 'r' in words such as 'art, door and worker.
There is a tendency toward Iull vowels in all syllables,
e.g. ('seven pronounced as ('seh-ven', not sevn`). There
is oIten no distinction between words like chip and cheap
and ones like caught, cot and court. In grammar, there is
a tendency toward pluralizing nouns that are singular in
British English (as I gave them some advices) and the
pronoun themselves is oIten used instead each other( as
in The boys love themselves) Distributive vocabulary
includes borrowings and loan translations Irom local
languages e.g. danshiki Irom Hausa, (' a gown worn by
men) and throw water (' to oIIer bribe). All oI these
may characterize English as used in Nigeria but it is
opined that certain criteria may be set to situate Nigerian
English in the same mode that there are British English,
American English, AustralianEnglish, etc.
2.0. LITERATUREREVIEW
In this section, we present a brieI contact history between
English and Nigeria, the contextualization oI Nigerian
English, Nigerian English as a brand oI English all in
eIIorts to situate eventual evolution oI the English as
292
competently equal to other world recognized Englishes.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
That English Iunctions as the oIIicial language oI
Nigeria today, according to Jowitt, (1991:21) is not a
result oI a conscious eIIort oI the Nigerian Central
Government to make it so, rather because the language
serves as the vehicle oI oIIicialdom in the country. He
states Iurther that English has England as its Iirst mother
and, Nigeria as its second mother and the language has a
divine nature by undergoing a gynecological
reprocessing. McArthur (2002) posits that the variety oI
English used in Nigeria is a collection oI Standard
English, evolved through more general English,
inIluenced by mother tongues, the Indian English and
West AIricanPidgin English.
Nigeria, according is the most populous country in
AIrica, the seventh most populous country in the world,
and the most populous country in the world in which the
majority oI the population is black (Library oI Congress-
Federal Research Division, 2011: 9).WolI (2001) posits
that Nigeria's overwhelming dominance in terms oI
population makes her variety oI English the proto-type
oI West AIrican English. WolI quotes (Gorlach, 1984:
39) as Iollows:
'the future of English in West Africa will more or less
be decidedby what forms
and functions it will take in this state, whose
population and economic power
surpasses[sic] those of all neighbouring coastal
states taken together`
The West AIricans, according to (Kachru, 1995: vi) are
said to have over a period oI time given English a
Nigerian identity. The history oI what actually may be
conceptualised as standard English is shrouded in
controversies (Honey, 1997, 1989; Cameron, 1995)
drawing inIerences on ideological precincts between
Britain and America principally on the plain oI
education, and on the other hand between what may be
reIerred to as British English, and other usages outside
the shores oI Britain or closely speaking, the London
Court or the Queen's English. The controversies are still
on as InIormation Technology which is American based
has beendragged into the ideological war Iare.
Debates on Standard Nigerian English began in the
1960s against the background oI two realities (Jowitt,
2007)- new learners oI English versus exponents oI
reIinedRP. Jowitt is quoted as Iollows:
'On the one hand, by the time large numbers of
Nigerians were learning English. As learners they
inevitably produced errors or did not learn all that there
was to learn. On the other hand, in Britain, from which
Nigeria had fust obtained independence, the existence
of a Standard variety and its pre-eminence over non-
Standard varieties was a long-standing fact of life.`
The debates still continue presently, but what all oI the
proponents agree on is that there is a brand oI English
used in Nigeria which has its own core Ieatures that can
distinguish it as patently Nigerian in the same manners
there are American English, British English, Canadian
English, etc.
2.2. CONTEXTUALI ZI NG NI GERI AN
ENGLISH
th
By the close oI the 20 century, most Nigerians had
become proIicient in English and many more craves
some growing consciousness Ior acquisition oI, and
proIiciency in the language. This led to the
transmutation oI English Irom Ioreign to second
language in the country. Akere (1998) writes 'Nigeria
has the largest population oI second-language speakers
oI English in the world. According to Graddol
(1997:11), there are well over 63 countries where
substantial second-language speakers oI English exist.
Nigeria tops the list ahead oI India and Philippines with
an estimated population oI 43 million L2 speakers. Both
India and Philippines come behind with 37 and 36.4
millions respectively. This is the global picture with
which Nigeria is viewed and looked upon as a world
leader among those who use English as a means oI
communication. However, the reality on ground today
would show that more speakers oI English have
emerged in their millions in Nigeria judged by the
geometrical swell in the number oI Senior Secondary
School CertiIicate (SSCE), OND, NCE, HND and
Bachelor holders.
One conclusion that may be given to N.E. is the English
that belongs to Nigerians. This is so going by the pre-
eminent status harped on it and the linguistic privileges
it enjoys over other native tongues in the country.
English is a species oI language and N.E.is a breed oI
that species. This bread has the same hereditary trait and
genetic coding (i.e. common core-Ieatures) as other
breeds like British, American and Australian Englishes
but has undergone some sort oI mutation due to the
prevailing linguistic ecosystem. It has however
developed some adaptative Ieatures which have made it
toIit into, andsurvive inits present environment.
Thus, Akere (1990) reacting to the antagonists oI N.E
writes as Iollows 'Ior a considerable number oI
scholars, English was seen, not as a language
establishing its roots within the socio-cultural milieu oI
a diIIerent environment, among a diIIerent nation oI
users who are bound ultimately to Iashion it to their
immediate Iunctional needs, but as the 'kind's or
293
Queen's English whose original purity must be
preserved.
We subscribe to Akere's in the pursuit oI English in
Nigeria as a brand oI language which should be allowed
to adapt to the ingenuity and quotient oI its environment.
2.3. THE NIGERIAN ENGLISH AS ABRAND OF
ENGLISH
The N.E. is a breed oI English Language. The concise,
OxIord dictionary (1990) deIines the noun 'breed' as 'a
stock oI animals or plants within a species, having a
similar appearance and usually developed by deliberate
selection or may be looked at in this way. The English
Language as a whole represents a race oI language; the
N.E. is a lineage oI that race. This lineage now has
diIIerent oIIsprings which eventually became Iamilies.
These Iamilies oI Nigerian English capture the meta-
structure, called Nigerian English. Bamgbose (1971)
comments as Iollows:
'The point about English in Nigeria is not just that it is
diIIerent Irom British or American English. It is rather
that there are several varieties oI English, ranging Irom
something very near Standard English to the patois oI
the market place. (Grieve, 1964) and Banjo (1971)
thereIore, suggests Iour varieties which are obviously
based on the extent oI mother-tongue inIluences and oI
proximity to a world standard. Brosnahan (1958) suggests
a Iour-variety typology strictly based on educational
achievements. Thesearepresentedas Iollows:
Level I: Pidgin-used by the illiterates:
Level II- English oI high school graduates (it is
characterized by some degree oI communicative Iluency
and a wide range oI lexical items).
Level III- Primary school English (the greatest number
oI users) and
Level IV- University English-English used by
university graduates, and characterized by linguistic
Ieatures close to Standard English.
The Brosnaham's classiIication is dated and inadequate
because it classiIies pidgin, which belongs to an entirely
diIIerent linguistic setting, as a variety oI English in
Nigeria. Although Banjo's (1971) classiIication may not
be very adequate too by the reason oI the time lag in the
data on which its analysis is based, it can serve the
purpose oI this study with minor modiIications as all
varieties should constitute a linguistic continuum.
3.0. TOWARD EVOLUTION OF STANDARD
NIGERIANENGLISH
Banjo (1985) commenting on (Adesanoye, 1973) writes,
'he examines the data in terms of proximity to, or
distance from, Standard (British) English and discovers
a close correlation between performance and
educational attainment. Moreover, he finds a set of
common-core features running through all his data, but
also indexical markers which enable him to posit three
varieties which appear to be the written equivalents of
Banfos varieties II, III and IJ of spoken Nigerian
English`.
Aje (1994) posits that the Standard English is the variety
oI English that is written or spoken in close compliance
with the linguistic norms that characterize native
English - a prestige dialect used exclusively by the
wealthy, public school educated and properly bred upper
socio-economic members oI the society. There is a
breed oI English known as N.E and this breed has a
number oI varieties and all exist in one linguistic
continuum. It is one out oI these many varieties that is
expected to serve as a model. It will also serve as the
ideal N.E. which every speaker oI English in the country
will seek to acquire and use in at least every Iormal
context oI communication. Such target variety is
reIerred to as the Standard Nigerian English. Anumber
oI authors have opined in negative sense, the expression
'Standard Nigerian English'. Their argument is that a
standard language by deIinition is a variety used by a
certain group oI native speakers. This argument is
however porous considering the Iact that there are
certain Nigerians who speak and probably understand
only English language.
The Standard Nigerian English is a distinct Nigerian
variety oI English that possesses the common-core
Ieatures oI the world Standard English complemented
by Nigerian socio-cultural realities and also serves as a
model Ior Nigerian users. The view that exists in the
British or American society is considerably diIIerent
Irom that oI the Nigerian society; Ior instance some
climatic realities like snow, winter, autumn do not have
perIect correspondences in theAIrican context and vice-
versa. Achebe (1973) writes,
For an African, writing in English is not without its
serious setbacks. He often finds himself describing
situations or modes of thought which have no direct
equivalent in the English way of life. Caught in that
situation, he can do one of two things. He can try and
contain what he wants to say within the limit of
conversational English or he can try to push back these
limits to accommodate his ideas. The first method
produces competent, uninspired and rather flat work.
The second method can produce something new and
valuable to the English language as well as to the
material he is tryingtoput over.
The second method which serves the interest oI the
literary writer oI Nigerian socio-cultural conIiguration is
294
the 'nigerianism' in English usage. Also buttressing this
AIolayan (1979) writes,
For us then, competence in any language can be
acquired by foreign as well as native speakers of
the language. We concede that competence is a
tree that would naturally grow on native rather
than foreign soil, but we insist that the tree can
also grow on a foreign soil that has acquired the
proper ties of the native.
Returning to Banjo (1971), the identity oI the SNE may
be situated within the grid oI the variety III. It should
however be noted that this matrix could also extend
midway into the adjoining regions oI variety II and IV
respectively. The parameters Ior identiIication oI the
Standard Nigerian English are presented in the
Iollowing sections.
4.0. CRITERIA FOR STANDARD NIGERIAN
ENGLISH
Okoro (1986) writes 'Once an acceptable criterion for
determining what the standard should be, is established,
then any Nigerian user, whatever his educational
qualification can be viewed either as speaking the
standard Nigerian English or not, based on his linguistic
performance`. The Iollowing criteria could be
considered Ior the identiIication oI Standard Nigeria
English.
i. Grammaticalness
ii. Education
iii. Social acceptability
iv. Spread oI usage
v. OIIicial Parlance Usage
vi. Government's recognition/saction
vii. Linguists' consent/consensus.
It is necessary to indicate that the Standard Nigerian
English does not contain, among other things, items
which are clear indexes oI morphological and syntactic
errors as some scholars opine. According to Bamgbose
(1995), the most prominent Ieature oI Nigerian English
is nativization. This means that English has been
adopted, acculturated, acclimatized and naturalized in
Nigeria. Thus, Nigeria is now the state oI origin oI the
English Language in the content oI Nigeria English. He
then goes Iurther to highlight the characteristic oI the
Standard Nigerian English as composed in three
elements: linguistic, pragmatic and creative. The seven
criteria highlighted may be expatiated presently.
4.1. GRAMMATICALNESS
The term 'grammar' which Iorms the root oI the Iirst
criterion Ior the identiIication oI a Standard Nigerian
English as stated above could be considered Irom three
diIIerent levels all oI which work together Ior the
identiIication oI the concept.
- Grammar (a)- the 'mental grammar': This is the
internal linguistic knowledge that operates in the
production and recognition oI appropriately
structured expressions in a language. This
'grammar' is subconscious and is not the result oI
any teaching. For an identiIication oI a Standard
Nigeria English both the speaker and the listner
must be equipped with the 'mental grammar' that
is associated with the Iorm oI a language.
Users should be aware that words are not just strung
together at random; they Iollow some kind oI
canonically and mentally established rules and Iorms
which have beenentrenched inthe subconscious.
- Grammar (b): This involves considered linguistic
etiquette, that is, the identiIication oI the 'proper'
or 'best' structures and choices to be used in
expressions.
The grammaticalness oI a language could be considered
Irom this point oI view.
Nigerian English cannot be an exception to this rule. One
could identiIy the standard and or substandard in a wide
spectrum oI the varieties predicated upon choices and
best traditions.
- Grammar (c): This involves the study oI the
structure Iound in a language. Thus the standard
Iorm oI Nigerian English in addition to the two
sub criteria stated above, must be analyzable in
terms oI its structures and lexical ordering and
relations.
II it satisIies all these, then one begins to accept it as
grammatical and consequently map it out Ior
consideration as standard. II it inIringes on the rules oI
grammar oI any sort, then it Ialls short oI being a
standard Iorm.
4.2. EDUCATIONCRITERION
Education, although not the sole means, is a veritable
medium oI acquiring competence and proIiciency in the
use oI a language, especially a Ioreign or a second-
language, which to an extent, English is in Nigeria.
Expectedly, it is the model variety that should be taught
in the schools and the various education cadres in the
country. This implies that the English spoken by
graduates and some exceptional Senior Secondary
School leavers represents the Standard Nigerian English.
The on-going cannot be admitted whole-sale because
cases oI incompetence in English utilization are notable
in the discourses oI primary school pupils, secondary and
university students as teachers and lecturers are not
excluded.
293
4.3. SOCIALACCEPTABILITY
This implies language used in social domains covering
all members oI the society. Marriage, Ior instance, is an
important social discourse in Nigeria. The Nigerian
English is instantiated in discourse oI marriage in the
Iollowing analogy:
When a man desires a term oI Iriendship with a lady and
goes Ior her, he says 'I want to chase that lady` or I want
to toast her. BeIore marriage, the couple's Iamilies will
cause to occur, a Iormal occasion Ior introduction, oI
core members oI Iamilies oI the bride and the bride-
groom. AIter this, 'engagement would be arranged with
'relatives and 'well-wishers attending. This is Iollowed
by the wedding proper, where there would be in
attendance, oIIicials like 'fathers of the day, 'mothers of
the day and 'ladies of the wardrobe. BeIore this, the
bridegroom would have paid the 'dowry to the bride's
parents. Few months aIter this, the bride would have
'taken in and people who see her during this period may
observe that she is 'heavy. However, iI the lady becomes
pregnant without being married she would be said to
have been 'put in the family way. A married woman
could be made to 'smell pepper Irom her husband or the
in-laws iI the relationship goes 'sour and the husband or
in-law would become a troubleshooter. The pregnant
woman is said to be 'expecting and when she has given
birth to the baby, the woman is said to have 'delivered
The above is one oI the very many examples oI the
English language discourse realities in Nigerian socio-
cultural milieu. Such usages are commonly and socially
acceptable. They should serve as indicators oI the SNE
usage. Socio-cultural discourses will entail societal
norms and such necessarily must be included and
accepted as patent realities oI the SNE. Nevertheless, iI
lexical items are Iound to be alien to English old norms,
such should be considered as exceptions and
exempliIications oI dynamisms conveying local
contents in the English discourse.
4.4. INTERNATIONALINTELLIGIBILITY
This reIers to using NE in such a way that it can be
understood by user Irom outside Nigeria. 'Without some
measure oI international intelligibility, the very idea oI
English as an international language would be a
misnomer (Adegbija, 1994). The SNE should not
portend incomprehensibility in international
interactional discourse engagements. It is observable
that some expressions might Iall short oI international
intelligibility. Such traits should be treated in like
manners the American English parts ways with the
British English, inspelling, vocabulary, etc.
4.5. SPREADOFUSAGECRITERION
The SNE should not be a deIacto variety that is imposed
on the citizenry through administrative Iiat or
government's sanctions rather it should be that variety
that already enjoys the good will oI the populace through
widespread usage. Thus, one can recognize the variety oI
English that enjoys widespread use in the important
domai ns oI educat i on, j our nal i sm, publ i c
administrations, and any other recursive or reproductive
discourses. In other words, as the standard brand oI
Nigerian English cannot be the one oI Banjo's (1971)
near native English spoken by only a handIul sample oI
Englishusers' population.
4.6. OFFICIALSANCTION
The Iormal work situations serve as a set oI Iorum Ior
identiIication oI S.N.E. This is because the work place is
a veritable place where the Iormal variety oI the
language is used. The type oI English spoken in the law
court, the legislative proceedings, banking or insurance
business transactions, news broadcasts, conIerences etc
in the country are usually the standard Iorm which
should attract oIIicial recognitions.
For any variety oI language to be the standard, it needs to
enjoy oIIicial stamping oI the government oI the day.
This enhances enIorcement oI its recognition and
teaching in the curricula oI the entire educational system
oI the country. It will in turn enhance its widespread
within the linguistic community. The oIIicial
recognition may however not be possible without
linguists' consent and consensus, and this brings us to the
next criterion.
4.7. THELINGUISTS' CONSENT/CONSENSUS
Linguists have a vital role in evolving a standard
Nigerian English especially in language policy
Iormulation. This can be done through embarking on
intensive research on the varieties oI the language that
exist and map out criteria and reasons Ior identiIying
whatever variety that can come up as standard. From the
criteria above, it is quite obvious that the standard
variety oI Nigerian English lies between the variety II
and III oI Banjo's postulation. The two varieties are
reproduced below.
Variety II- Syntax close to that oI Standard British
English, but with strongly marked phonological and
lexical peculiarities spoken by up to 75 percent oI those
who speak English in the country. This is socially
acceptable withrather lowinternational intelligibility.
Variety III - Close to standard British English both in
syntax and in semantics, similar in phonology, but
diIIerent in phonetic Ieatures as well as socially accepted
and internationally intelligible. It is spoken by less than
10percent oI the population.
296
We could see that these two varieties meet at least the criteria oI education, international intelligibility, social
acceptability, widespread usage, oIIicial parlance usage andeventhe linguists' consent, to a large extent.
We present brieIly some N.E usage in contrast to the B.E. Most oI the data used here were culled Irom Bamgbose
(1971). Some modiIications have been made as well as a Iewdata added Ior contemporary relevance in order to portray
socio-linguistic realities obtainable in the Nigeriancontext.
NIGERIANENGLISH
I have seenhim beIore
I branched at my uncle's house
She is going to lesson
He rides ina bus
I drop Irom a bus
She is a student in the university
They have stolen my book
May I Iollowyou home?
Had it been that he listened
I ask/beg Ior a liIt
I have a lot oI toasters in this class
Uncle, meet my girlIriend
I'm going to barb my hair
Give it backto me
I am saving against the raining day
The baby is Ieeling hot
I like her head tie
She is a tale-bearer
He wears sunshade
The globe is bad
I don't take hot drinks
I need some empty cassette Ior the recordings
Hip! Hip! Hip - Hurrah
CONTRAST BETWEEN THE NIGERIAN ENGLISH
AND THE STANDARD BRITISH ENGLISH USAGE
STANDARDBRITISH ENGLISH
I have met him beIore
I called on myuncle
She is going Ior a private tuition
He rides on a bus
I alight Irom a bus
She is a student at the University
My book has been stolen
May I come home withyou?
Had he listened/were he to have listened
I hitch a ride
I have a lot oI admirers in this class
Uncle, meet my Iiancee
I'm goingIor a hair-cut
Returnit tome
I am saving Ior the raining day
The baby is running a temperature
I like her headgear
She is a tell-tale
He wears sunglasses
The bulb is bad
I don't take spirits/strong drinks
I need some blankcassettes
Hip! Hip! Hip - Hurrah
TABLE 1: CONTRAST BETWEEN THE NIGERIAN ENGLISH AND THE STANDARD BRITISH
ENGLISH USAGE
In all, the criteria discussed above are not mutually exclusive. All oI them may not be applicable at the same time.
While one or two may agree in some communicative situation, others may not. Nevertheless, Ior any standard Iorm oI a
language to be identiIied, grammaticality plays a vital role. ThereIore, a standard Nigeria English should be
grammatical even iI that alone will be the only criterion Ior its standardization. Non grammatical utterances cannot be
tracedto, and identiIied as Nigerian English.
CONCLUSION
From the Ioregoing, we have taken a synopsis oI the incidence oI Nigerian English, an overview oI the varieties oI
Nigerian English that exist; the notion oI S.N.E and the deIinition oI it, and lastly, the criteria Ior determining standard
NigerianEnglish. One could thereIore discern as Iollows:
- There is a language known as English
- This language has global coverage
- It has regional verities
- It has a standard which is not regionally based, but rather globallybased.
297
This global standard variety should be World Standard
English and not Standard British English or Standard
American English, which are both regional verities.
- The World Standard English is a common pool
Irom which each oI the regional variety draws
and also contributes to.
- This common pool comprises what should
reIer to as the common-core Ieatures and each
variety's socio-linguistic inputs
- Standard Nigerian English is one oI such
regional varieties
It may be submitted that none oI the Regional varieties-
British, American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian,
Nigerian etc.- is the global standard, and no one oI it
should be considered as superior or inIerior to another.
All oI them maintain equal status as Iar as their
geographical Irontiers are concerned. The Standard
Nigerian English should not be seen as constituting
errors, or that all Nigerian English usages that are
deviations Irom the British English norm are errors as
Salami (1968) posits. The standard is neither British nor
American but the world Standard English. Thus, iI
British says hooligan, American says 'gangster' and
Nigeria says 'Area boy' do you say one is inIerior to
another?
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298
EFFECT OF PARTIALREPLACEMENT OF MAIZE WITH BISCUIT WASTE ON THE
GROWTH PERFORMANCE OFAFRICAN GIANT CATFISH
(CLARIAS GARIEPINUS).
Fakunmoju .F.A, Babalola.O.A, Anjola.A.O.
Department of Fisheries Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic. Ikorodu,
Lagos State Nigeria. E - mail : folajuwonayahoo.com. Phone :08033279470.

ABSTRACT
Feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the perIormance characteristics oI AIrican Giant CatIish(Clarias
Gariepinus)Ied Iive treatment experimental diet containing varying Levels oI biscuit waste meal. Three hundred (300)
pieces oI juveniles catIish were randomly allotted into Iive Treatments which were replicated thrice using a complete
randomized design(CRD). The experimental diets were Ied to the Iish Ior 84days till satiationand the result Shows that
there were no signiIicant diIIerence(P~0.05) between treatments in Terms oI weight gain, Ieed intake, length gain and
Ieed conversion ratio. T1 had the highest weight gain value oI 26.42gm Iollowed by T2 , T3, T4 and T5., T3 recorded
the highest consumption rate Iollowed byT4, T2, T1 and T5. Length gain was highest in T1 with a value oI 2.13cm
Iollowed by T2, T3, T4 and T5. The Ieed conversion ratio was best at T3 with a value oI 0.56 Iollowed by T5, T4, T2
and T1. Hence T3 requires less Ieed to gain halI unit weight. The result obtained Irom diIIerential analysis oI the
cholesterol level oI each experimental Iish shows that increasing level oI biscuit waste in the experimental diets
inIluenced the gradual increase in the cholesterol level oI the experimental Iish which was 200mg/
Conclusively, it was observed Irom the experiment that biscuit waste can best replace maize at 50 as it was
economically proIitable.
KEYWORD: Protein, Energy, Biscuit waste, Clarias gariepinus
INTRODUCTION
Fish Iarming reIered to as Aquaculture is the rearing oI
Iish and other aquatic organisms in man made ponds,
reservoir, cages, or other enclosures in lakes and coaster
waters (Moses,1983). Aquaculture mainly in Nigeria is
usually practiced on a subsistence level with a Iamily or
village operations in ponds.
The low production output oI Iish produced by Iarmers
in AIrica especially Nigeria is due mainly to the
constraints in getting a better Ieed. This arises due to
high cost oI Ieed inputs (ingredients).
Fish Iarming depends to a large extent on the amount oI
supplementary Ieed used. The major concern oI Iish
Iarmers is to produce good quality Iish at a lower cost oI
production so as to maximize proIit. This can best be
achieved by reducing the operational cost, part oI which
is to supplement maize with other source such as Biscuit
Waste.(Olomola 1990).
Thus, these have no eIIect on the nutritive value and
hence increase the proIit margin oI the Iarmer, which
will Iurther boost the interest oI the Iish Iarmers in the
area oI Iish Iarming (Igborugagha, 1979).
Utilization oI the Ieed will be due to the composition oI
Ieed and how closely it matches the nutritional
requirement (kure et al.1988).
The development oI alternative Livestock Ieeding
system which makes greater use oI locally available
resources in an environmentally sustainable way is very
desirable to support livestock production, as Ieed
constitutes 65-70 total input in Iish production. It is in
Iurtherance oI this that the utilization oI biscuit waste in
the diet oI cat Iish was investigated. Biscuit waste mael
was Iound to have high level oI energy 3526.790Kcal/kg
and crude protein oI18.63 when compaired to maize
which is 3434Kcal/kg, and 10 C.P and relatively
cheaper thanmaize (Olatunde,1986).
Hence the need Ior the study to evaluate the use oI maize
and biscuit waste as the main source oI energy in catIish
Ieed.
MATERIALS ANDMETHOD
The experiment was conducted at the experimental pond
oI the Iisheries technology department oI lagos state
polytechnic Ikorodu between March and may 2011. The
pond was properly washed and disinIected using copper
salt and industrial salt. It was then allowed to rest Ior 2
weeks beIore it was limed and Iilled with water. Abag oI
poultry manure was hanged at a corner oI the pond to
allowIor phytoplankton growth.
Three hundred juveniles were procured Irom a reputable
hatchery in Ikorodu local government area oI lagos state
with an average weight oI 230gms. They were then
randomly assigned into experimental treatments and
299
replicates. An adaptation period oI one week was given to them in the experimental ponds and the water parameter
were taken at an interval oI 2 days to determine the state oI the physiochemical constituents (levels) oI the water.
The biscuit waste and the other ingredients such as maize, groundnut cake, soya bean meal, salt, vitamin C, Iish meal,
and premix were all procured Irom Sabo market in Ikorodu lagos state. These Ingredients were then mixed together in
the mixer aIter being crushed in the Hammer mill at varyinglevels oI inclusionto obtain the experimental diets.
Table 1
T1R1 T2R1 T3R1 T4R1 T5R1
T1R2 T2R2 T3R2 T4R2 T5R2
T1R3 T2R3 T3R3 T4R3 T5R3
The mixed Ieeds were then micro milled to obtain a Iine mixture which were later mixed together with a binder and
then pelletized, using the pelletizing machine. The pelletized Ieeds were later sundried and readyIor use.
The experiment was carried out using 300 juveniles catIish and a complete randomized design was used to assign Iish
into replicate and treatment. There were three variables which were treatment eIIect, location, and weight. There were
5 levels oI inclusion oI experimental diet which were replicated thrice with 20 numbers oI juvenile catIish in each oI
the replicate.
300 juvenile CatIish were obtained and assigned into 5 treatment blocks replicated thrice. Each oI the treatment were
Ied their experimental diets ad libitum which was done twice in a day between 9 10am and 5 -6pm in the evening.
The Ieeding trials were carried out Ior 12 weeks, in which data were collected on Ieed intake, weight gain, Ieed
eIIiciency and size (length gain) weekly. Also the production cost and the cholesterol estimation oI the experimental
Iish were alsoevaluated at the end oI the experiment.
Data generated were subjected to statistical analysis usingAnalysis oI Variance (ANOVA).
TABLE2
COMPOSITIONOFEXPERIMENTALDIETS
Ingredients T1(0Bw,100M) T2(25Bw,75M) T3(50Bw,50M) T4(75Bw,25M) T5(100Bw,0M)
Biscuit waste 0 5 7.5 10 15
Maize 15 10 7.5 5 0
Wheat OIIals 13 13 13 13 13
Groundnut Cake 25 25 25 25 25
Fish meal 15 15 15 15 15
Soyabeanmeal 25 25 25 25 25
Blood meal 5 5 5 5 5
Fish premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamin C 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Starch Binder 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Energy 2630.1 2632.20 2638.49 2650.01 2669.72
Crude protein 40.76 41.32 41.40 41.75 42.05
Crude Fiber 4.54 4.54 4.54 4.53 4.53
Ether 4.11 4.23 4.79 4.85 5.39
300
RESULTANDDISCUSSION
The analytical results in table 3 shows that biscuit waste
used in this experiment had higher crude protein and
energy than maize. The average Ieed intake(
g/Iish/week), average length gain (cm/Iish/week) and the
average Ieed conversion ratio(Iish/week) are
summarized in table 4. The nutrient composition oI the
experimental diet are within the range oI the nutrient
requirement oI Iish which is in consonance with the
report oI (Omole et al 2006); that the protein requirement
oI juvenile clarias gariepinus ranges Irom 40 - 55 crude
protein and 2.5 - 4 crude Iibre. Feed intake on diet 3
(50Bw,50M) was higher with Ieed intake value oI
13.91g, Iollowed by T4, T2, T1, and T5 with an intake
value oI 13.70, 13.40, 13.36 and 13.32 respectively,
which may be due to the palatability oI the Ieed. It was
also noted that odour and taste determines palatability.
The crude protein and energy in the diets increases with
the signiIicant level oI biscuit waste. Statistical analysis
revealed no signiIicant diIIerence (p~0.05) in the
perIormance oI the Iish Ied with experimental diet, which
could be attribute also to relatively similar nutrient
composition oI the diets. It was also revealed that Iish on
diet T1(0Bw,100M) had the highest average weight
gain oI 26.42g per week which was Iollowed by diet T2,
T3, T4, and T5 with average weight oI 25.00, 24.26,
24.20, and 24.00 respectively. No signiIicant diIIerences
(p~0.05) was observed in the overall weight gain oI the
Iish by body weight. The average weight gain oI the Iish
Ied with diets containing maize only was higher than that
oI biscuit waste combination only (T2, T3, and T4 )
which enhances better growth. This could be due to the
Iaster digestibility oI maize as compared to that oI biscuit
that brings better perIormance oI the experimental diet.
In terms oI length gain, the Iish in diet T1 had the highest
length gain oI 2.13 and was subsequently Iollowed by
T2, T3, T4, and T5 , with an average gain oI 2.09, 2.06,
2.03, and 1.95 respectively. The Ieed conversion ratio
tend to improve as the level oI biscuit waste increases. T3
had the best Ieed conversion ratio oI 0.56 Iollowed by T4,
T5, T2, and T1 with a value oI 0.55, 0.55, 0.54, and 0.48
respectively. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) revealed that
there were no signiIicant diIIerence (p~0.05) in the Ieed
conversion ratio oI Iish Ied with the experimental diet.
Likewise body weight did not aIIect Ieed conversion ratio
oI Iish signiIicantly. Thus indicating that biscuit waste
could best be included in clarias gariepinus ration at
varying levels.(Micheal.1987). Table 5 revealed the
cholesterol estimation level oI the Iish Ied the diIIerent
dietarytreatment IeedwithT5havingthehighest oI200mg/dl
Iollowed by T4, T3, and T2, and least in T1 respectively.
Although it was spelt out that human cholesterol level ranges
Irom200 300mg/dl and that the cholesterol oI Iish does
not raise the cholesterol level oI human. Thus indicating
that Iish Ied with the dietary treatment is saIe Ior
consumption as reported by(Kure et al 1988).
TABLE 3. THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF
BISCUITWASTEANDMAIZE
Biscuit waste Maize
Dry matter 88.90 87.00
Crude protein 18.63 9.50
Ether Extract 12.06 4.00
Crude Fibre 1.95 2.00
Total Ash 4.12 2.00
Nitrogen Free Extract 52.14 72.00
Metabolizable Energy(Kcal/Kg) 3526.79 33.00
PARAMETERS T1(0Bw,100M) T2(25Bw,75M) T3(50Bw,50M) T4(75Bw,25M) T5(100Bw,0M)
TABLE 5. CHOLESTEROL ESTIMATION OF AFRICAN GIANT CATFISH( CLARIAS GARIEPINUS)
FEDWITH DIETARYTREATMENTS.
Average initial weight(g)
Average Iinal weight (g)
Average Ieed intake (g)
Average Ieedconversion ratio
Average length gain(cm)
40
26.42
13.36
0.48
2.13
40
25.00
13.40
0.54
2.09
40
24.26
13.91
0.56
2.06
40
24.20
13.42
0.55
2.03
40
24.00
13.30
0.55
1.95
WEEK T1(0Bw,100M) T2(25Bw,75M) T3(50Bw,50M) T4(75Bw,25M) T5(100Bw,0M)
1
2
3
EX
X
140.00
153.00
170.00
463.00
154.33
150.00
160.00
160.00
470.00
156.67
171.00
182.00
143.00
476.00
165.33
180.00
190.00
150.00
530.00
176.67
193.00
199.00
208.00
600.00
200.00
CONCLUSION
There were no signiIicant diIIerences (p~0.05) in Ieed intake, weight gain, Ieed conversion ratio as well as the
cholesterol estimation level oI the Iish Ied with diets containing varying levels oI inclusion oI Biscuit waste. Biscuit
waste have no adverse eIIect on the perIormance characteristics oI clarias gariepinus. More so, it is economically good
Ior maize to be replaced with biscuit waste as it is eIIectively utilized by the Iish and that it could best be replaced at
50 inclusion.
301
REFERENCES
IGBORUGAGA(1979): The eIIect oI supplementary diet on the growth and perIormance oI heterobrachus niloticus.
NiomeTechnical paper 15 Pp 3-6.
KURE.O.M,BAHAG.E.J,DANIEL.E.A.(1988): Studies on the proximate composition and eIIect oI Ilour particle
size on acceptability oI biscuit product Irom blends oI soya beans and plantain Ilour namida Tech-scope Journal 3: 17-
21.
MICHEAL.B.(1987): Feed and Ieeding oI Iish and shrimps. A manual on the preparation and presentation oI
compoundedIeeds Ior shrimps and Iish Aquaculture printedin Rome Pp24 and107.
MOSES.B.S.(1983): Introduction to tropical Iisheries studies in the biologyoI AIrica Ibadan university press.
OLATUNDE (1986): Interaction between nutrition and reproduction in Iish. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry Pp
129
OLOMOLA.A.A.(1990): Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture in Nigeria. Acomparative Economic Analysis AIrica
Rural Social Sciences Series Report No 13.
OMOLE.A.1, FAPOHUNDA.1.B, BANKOLE.M, OWOSENI.A, OMIDIRAN.V.A (2006): Practical catIish
nutrition and growth guides. Green choiceAgric publication. Pp 15
302
ANTIBACTERIALACTIVITYOF METHANOLIC LEAF EXTRACT OF 1atropha curcas ON
STRAINS OF METHICILLIN RESISTANT Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
Momoh 1ohnson
Department of Science Laboratory Technology (Biochemistry unit), School of Technology, Lagos
State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria.
`E-mail: mjohnson_2008yahoo.com.
ABSTRACT
The methanolic leaI extract oI Jatropha curcas was investigated Ior its antibacterial activity against strains oI
methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a gram positive bacteria. Jatropha curcas is a plant which is
employed to cure various inIections in traditional medicine. The methanolic extracts oI this plant was analyzed
phytochemically and screened against strains oI methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus which is responsible Ior
various inIections. The phytochemical components oI J. curcas shows the presence oI saponins, alkaloids, phenolics,
Ilavonoids and steroids. The results revealed that the methanolic leaI extract oI J. curcas had a zone oI inhibition oI
18.3 mm to some strains oI methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. 85.1 oI the isolates were sensitive to
Jatropha curcas while 14.9 were resistance. 36.2 oI the isolates were resistant to streptomycin, 34 to
tetracycline, 42.6 to ampicillin, 38.3 to gentamicin, 40.4 to chloramphenicol and 29.8 to nitroIurantoin.
Vancomycin (78.7) is highly sensitive to the isolates and Co-trimoxazole (38.3) has the least sensitivity. Large
zone oI inhibition exhibited by the extracts on S. aureus justiIied their use by traditional practitioners in the treatment oI
dysentery, diarrhea and sores. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the maximum bactericidal
concentration (MBC) oI the leaI extract oI J. curcas are 5.7 and11.4 g/mLrespectively).
Key words: Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Jatropha curcas, and antimicrobial susceptibility.
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants constitute an eIIective source oI both
traditional and modern medicines, herbal medicine has
been shown to have genuine utility and about 80 oI
rural population depends on it as primary health care. The
increase oI microbial resistance to antibiotics threatens
public health on a global scale as it reduces the
eIIectiveness oI treatments and increases morbidity,
mortality and health care costs. Evolution oI highly
resistance bacterial strains has compromised the use oI
new generation antibiotics. The research on the use oI
medicinal plants Ior therapy is also assuming increasing
popularity in both advanced and developing countries in
clinical and biologicalsciences(EjechiB.O.,etal.,1990).
Jatropha curcas belong to the Iamily Euphorbiaceae, it is
an ornamental, medicinal and multipurpose shrub and is
use in traditional medicine to cure various bacterial and
Iungal inIections in AIrica, Asia and Latin America. The
non-edible vegetable oil oI Jatropha curcas has been use
Ior the Iollowing: As an alternative to diesel oil since it
has desirable physicochemical and perIormance
characteristics comparable to diesel; cars could be run
with Jatropha curcas; as an illuminant without being
reIined and it burns with clear smoke Iree Ilame. The
latex has been used in the management oI oI skin
u l c e r , g o n o r r h e a , r i n g wo r m a n d e n z y me
( E l i z a b e t h A . , e t a l . , 2 0 0 8 ) .
Staphylococcus aureus is a Iacultative anaerobic, Gram
positive coccal bacterium which appears as grape-like
cluster when viewed through a microscope and has large,
round, golden-yellow colonies, oIten with hemolysis,
when grown on blood agar plates. S. aureus causes a
range oI illness Irom minor skin inIections, such as
pimples, impetigo, cellulitis Iolliculitis, boils, scalded
skin syndrome, carbuncles and abscesses, to liIe-
threatening disease such as pneumonia, mastitis,
osteomyelitis, ulcers and burns, septicaemia, endocardits
and toxic shock syndrome(TSS). Methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one oI a number oI
greatly-Ieared strain oI S. aureus which have become
resistant to methicillin and related penicillin and are
particularly diIIicult to treat because they are also
resistant to most other common antibiotics. MRSA
strains cause hospital inIections, particularly wound
inIections and septicaemia. S.aureus produces many
toxins, one oI which the staphylococcal u-toxin, is a
major virulence determinant encoded by the hla gene
(Bhakdi.S.,et al.,1991).
.,et
al.,1995)
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Preparation of Methanolic leaf extract of 1atropha
curcas
Fresh leaves oI Jatropha curcas were rinsed in distilled
water to remove the dirt; the leaves were dried in a hot air
oven (Memmer Equipment Ltd, Germany) at 40C Ior 3
It has been shown that growing
S. aureus in the presence oI the b-lactam antibiotic,
naIcillin, induces a-toxin expression and increases the
lethal activity oI broth Iiltrates in rats (Kernodle .DS.
. These Iindings led to the speculation that b-
lactam therapy might enhance the virulence oI some S.
aureus strains, in turn worsening the symptoms oI serious
staphylococcal inIection.
303
days. The driedleaves was pulverized using a pestle and
mortal, stepped (50g/500mL) in 70 methanol Ior 5
days under aseptic condition and Iiltered through a
0.45m Millipore Iilter. The Iiltered extract was
subsequently concentrated in vacuum at 40C using a
rotary evaporator (Bohreinger Mannheim, Germany).
The resulting extract was stored in sterile capped brown
tubes at 4Cuntil ready Ior analysis.
Phytochemical analysis of Methanolic leaf extract of
1atropha curcas
The presence oI saponin, tannins, alkaloids, Ilavonoids,
anthraquinones, glycosides and reducing sugars were
determined by the simple and standard qualitative and
quantitative methods described by Trease and Evans
(1989) and SoIowora (1993). The simple quantitative
analysis oI the extract was based on the intensity oI the
colour change. The qualitative phytochemical analysis
oI the crude leaI oI Jatropha curcas was determined as
Iollows:
1annins: 200 mg oI the plant material was dissolved in
10 mL oI distilled water and then Iiltered. A 2 mL oI
Iilterate was pipetted into a test tube aIter which 2 mLoI
15 FeCl3 was added. Colour change was observed.
Blue-black presence indicated the presence oI tannins.
Alkaloids: 200 mg oI the plant material was extracted
with 200 mLoI methanol Ior 20 minutes on a water bath
and then Iiltered. To 2 mL oI the cold water extract in
diIIerent tubes, was added 6 drops oI diIIerent alkaloids
reagents, namely: DragendorII's or Mayer's or
Wagners's reagent. Presence and colours oI any
precipitate were noted. Creamish precipitate or
brownish-red precipitate or orange precipitate indicated
the presence oI respective alkaloids.
Saponins:
- Frothing test: Water extract was obtained by boiling on
water both. The extract was transIerred into a test tube
and shaken vigorously then was leIt to stand 10 minutes
and the result noted. Frothing persistence meant
saponins were present.
Flavonoids:
200 mg oI the powdered sample was boiled in 10 mLoI
absolute ethanol Ior 10 minutes. The solution was
allowed to cool and then Iiltered. To 2 mLoI the Iilterate
was added concentrated hydrochloric acid and
magnesium ribbon. Pink-tomato red colour indicated
the presence oI Ilavonoids.
1est for steroids
The method oI Igwe et al. (2007) was used to test Ior
steroids. About 0.5 g oI the extract was dissolved in 3 ml
oI CHC1 and Iiltered. To the Iiltrate was added
3
concentrated H S0 to Iorm a lower layer. A reddish
2 4
brown colour was taken as positive Ior steroid ring.
Confirmation of Staphylococcus aureus isolates
A total oI 47 Staphylococcus aureus isolates Irom the
Microbiology Division and Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology Division, NIMR as well as Central Ior
Public Health Laboratory, Yaba were studied. Prior to
screening, these isolates were tested Ior viability by sub-
culturing onto blood agar, mannitol salt agar and
Chocolate agar to produce yellow or cream colonies
suspected to be S. aureus. They were subjected to gram
staining test; isolates were conIirmed to be gram
positive bacteria. Isolates were Iurther subjected to
biochemical tests: isolates gave a positive test to
catalase, coagulase and deoxyribonuclease (DNase) ,
these conIirms that the 47 isolates were Staphylococcus
aureus.
Inoculum preparation
AloopIul oI isolated colonies was inoculated into 4 ml
oI peptone water, incubated at 37C Ior 4 hours. This
actively growing bacterial suspension was then adjusted
with peptone water so as to obtain a turbidity visually
comparable to that oI 0.5 McFarland standard prepared
by mixing 0.5 ml oI 1.75 (w/v) barium chloride
dihydrate (BaCl . 2H O) with 99.5 ml oI 1 (v/v)
2 2
sulphuric acid (H SO ). This turbidity is equivalent to
2 4
8
approximately 12 10 colony Iorming units per ml
(CFU/ml).
Determination of antibacterial activity by disk
diffusion method
Sensitivity oI diIIerent Staphylococcus aureus bacterial
strains to stock leaI extracts oI Jatropha curcas
(200mg/ml) was measured in terms oI zone oI inhibition
using disk diIIusion method as described by Kirby-
Bauer (1996). Here the disk was soaked in the leaI at 4c
Ior 2 hours beIore use. The plates containing Muller
Hinton were smear with 0.1ml oI the inoculums using
swab stick. This was Iollowed by mounting oI the
extract pre-soaked disc. The agar plates inoculated with
diIIerent isolates were incubated at 37C Ior 24 hours
and diameter oI any resultant zone oI inhibition was
measured. For each combination oI extract and the
bacterial strain, the experiment was perIormed in
duplicate. The bacteria with a clear zone oI inhibition oI
more than 17 mm were considered to be sensitive. The
antibacterial activity oI Jatropha curcas plant extract
(200mg/ml) was compared with eight commonly
employed antibiotics vi:. ampicillin (10 g/disc),
chloramphenicol (30 g/disc), streptomycin ( g/disc),
gentamicin (10 g/disc), tetracycline (30g/disc), Co-
trimoxazole ((25 g/disc) vancomycin (30g/disc) and
nitroIurantoin (200 ug).
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
determination
Minimum inhibitory concentration oI the leaI extract
was determined using the micro broth dilution method
in a 96-well microlitre plate containing MH broth and
304
serially diluted extracts at 39-2500g/ml. The lowest
5
concentrated extract was inoculated last with 5 x 10
cIu/ml density Ior each S. aureus strains. The inoculated
plates were then incubated aerobically at 35C Ior 24
hours. Minimum inhibitory concentration was deIined
as the minimum concentration oI the extract at which no
turbidity was seen aIter 24 hours (Toda et al, 1989). The
results were compared with that oI control using
sterilized distilled water or acetone. The experiment
was perIormed in duplicate and repeated three times.
Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)
determination
Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) oI the leaI
extract was determined by agar diIIusion method on MH
agar according to Chopra et al (1997). Here, 0.1 ml
aliquots oI samples, taken Irom the non-turbid tubes and
MICtubes in the MICassay, were used to swab MHagar
plates. The inoculated plates were then incubated
aerobically at 35CIor 24 hours. Minimum bactericidal
concentration was deIined as the minimum
concentration oI the extract at which no colonies oI
isolates were seen on plate aIter 24 hours (Toda et al,
1989).
RESULTS
Table 1. Phytochemical analysis oI the methanolic
leaI extract oI Jatropha curcas.
Tests Results
Tannins -
Alkaloids +
Reducing sugar -
Flavonoids +
Saponins +
Anthraquinone -
Phenolics +
Steroid +
-: absent and : present
Table 2. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern oI
methanolic leaI extract oI Jatropha curcas and
antibiotics on 47 isolates oI Methicillin resistant strains
oI Staphylococcus aureus.
J. curcas extract/ Staphylococcus aureus
antibiotics Methicillin Methicillin sensitive
resistant S. aureus
S. aureus
J. curcas extract
J. curcas extract
Streptomycin
Tetracycline
Ampicillin
Gentamicin
Vancomycin
NitroIurantoin
Chloramphenicol
Co-trimoxazole
Table 3. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern oI
Methanolic leaI extract oI Jatropha curcas and antibiotics
on strains oI methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus,
showing the zone oI inhibition (mm)
J. curcas extract/ Zone oI inhibitionoI growth on
antibiotics MRSA by J. curcas extract and
some selectedantibiotics
antibiotics
J. curcas extract 20.3+ 2.1
Streptomycin 13.2 + 2.1
Tetracycline 15.4 + 1.2
Ampicillin 14.1 + 2.1
Gentamicin 10.1 + 1.2
Vancomycin 16.4 + 3.2
NitroIurantoin 17.0 + 1.9
Chloramphenicol 12.3+ 2.2
Co-trimoxazole 7.3+ 2.2
Table 4. Minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal
concentrations oI methanolic leaI extracts oI Jatropha
curcas against Methicillin resistant strains oI
Staphylococcus aureus.(MRSA)
MICand MBCoI Methicillinresistant strains
Jatropha curcas oI Staphylococcus aureus
MIC (g/mL) 5.7
MBC( g/mL) 11.4
Discussion
Medicinal plants constitute an eIIective source oI both
traditional and modern medicines, herbal medicine has
been shown to have genuine utility and about 80 oI rural
population depends on it as primary health care. Over
years, the World Health Organization advocated that
countries should interact with traditional medicine with a
view to identiIying and exploiting aspects that provide
saIe and eIIective remedies Ior ailments oI both microbial
and non-microbial origins. The methanol extract oI the
plant exerted great antibacterial activity. The
7 (14.9)
17(38.2)
16(34)
20(42.6)
18(38.3)
10(21.3)
14(29.8)
19(40.4)
29(61.7)
40(85.1)
30(63.8)
31(66)
27(57.4)
29(61.7)
37(78.7)
33(70.2)
28(59.6)
18(38.3)
303
phytochemical screening oI Jatropha curcas extract
indicates the presence oI saponin, alkaloid, phenolic,
Ilavonoid and steroid (Table 1).Tannins have been Iound
to Iorm irreversible complexes with proline-rich protein
(Shimada,2006) resulting in the inhibition oI cell protein
synthesis. Alkaloid which is one oI the largest group oI
phytochemicals in plants has amazing eIIect on humans
and this has led to the development oI powerIul pain
killer medications (Kam and Liew, 2002).Steroidal
compounds present in Jatropha curcas extracts are oI
importance and interest due to their relationship with
various anabolic hormones including sex hormones
(Okwu,2001). Saponin was Iound to be present in
Jatropha curcas leaI extracts and has supported the
useIulness oI this plants in managing inIlammations.
Flavonoids have been shown to have anti-inIlammatory,
anti-allergic, cytostatic and antioxidant properties
(Hodek et al.,2002). The presence oI these secondary
metabolite compounds may be responsible Ior the
antibacterial activities oI the extracts oI Jatropha curcas
on the test organisms (MRSA). Table 2 shows that 85.1
oI the isolates were sensitive to Jatropha curcas while
14.9 were resistance. 36.2 oI the isolates were
resistant to streptomycin, 34 to tetracycline, 42.6 to
ampicillin, 38.3 to gentamicin, 40.4 to
chloramphenicol and 29.8 to nitroIurantoin. Table 2
shows clearly that vancomycin (78.7) is highly
sensitive to the isolates and Co-trimoxazole (38.3) has
the least sensitivity. Table 3 revealed that large zone oI
inhibition exhibited by the extracts on S. aureus justiIied
their use by traditional practitioners in the treatment oI
dysentery, diarrhea and sores. Among the antibiotics
used, Vancomycin has the highest zone oI inhibition while
Co-trimoxazole has the least (Table 3). Table 4 indicates
the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) oI the
methanolic leaI extract oI Jatropha curcas on
Staphylococcus aureus is 5.7 g/mL while the minimum
bactericidal concentration(MBC) is 11.4g/mL.
Conclusion
This study has revealed the presence oI some secondary
metabolites (saponin, alkaloid, phenolic, Ilavonoid and
steroids ) in the leaI extracts oI Jatropha curcas. It has
Iurther conIirmed that the methanolic leaI extracts oI J.
curcas could be used Ior the treatment oI methicillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus inIections and shows
that J. curcas could be exploited Ior new potent
antibiotics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wish to acknowledge the technical support oI
Dr. B. Iwalokun, a senior research Iellow in the
Department oI Biochemistry, National Institute oI
Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. Special thanks
also goes to Micheal Elizabeth Anu my project student
Irom Department oI Science Laboratory Technology
(Microbiology unit), School oI Technology, Lagos State
Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria.
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Antimicrobial Properties oI Aqueous Garlic Extract
Against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria and Candida
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(3): 327 - 333.
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nd
for Tropical Countries. (2 edition). Butterworths-
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for antibacterial agents effective against bacteria
resistant to multiple antibiotics. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother 1997, 4:497-503 (renewed intersect in
natural products due todrug resistant bacteria evolution)
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Brasil. IBDF, Rio de Janeiro. Pp. 63
Ejechi, B.O., Akpomedaye, D.E. (1999). Wood
Prot ect i on Pot ent i al s oI Acal ypha hi spi da
(Euphorbiaceae) LeaI phenolic extract against
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307
Hypoglycaemic Effects of Ethanol and Aqueous Extract of Vernonia Amagdalina root (bitter leaf root) in
Alloxan-induced Hyperglycaemic Wistar Rats
Akoro, Seide Modupe
Science Laboratory Technology Department, School of Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu,
Lagos State
Email: modupe2309yahoo.com
Mobile phone number: +234802321617
ABSTRACT
This study compared the hypoglycaemia eIIects oI ethanol and aqueous extract oI Vernonia Amagdalina root (bitter
leaI root) in alloxan-induced Hyperglycaemic Wistar rats. The phytochemical analysis oI the crude extracts oI the
plants was carried out and the results shows the presence oI alkaloids, Ilavonoids, tannins, saponins, and reducing
sugar. Quantitative analysis oI the powdered roots oI Vernonia Amygdalina contain the Iollowing: Alkaloids (1.6 +
0.007 ), Tannins 4.06 + 0.05 , Ilavonoids 0.58 + 0.03 and Phenol 0.9 + 0. 02 . Diabetes was induced in the rats
at 150mg/kg body wt using alloxan monohydrate in normal saline Ior 72 h. The rats with glucose level oI 400mg/dL
and above were used Ior the study. Treatment was started with 100mg/kg body weight, oI the aqueous and ethanol
extract on the Wistar rats and glucose level was taken aIter 7 days and then dosage was changed to 200mg/kg body
th
weight. The results show a great reduction in the glucose level Ior the ethanol extract aIter 7th and 14 day with no
signiIicant diIIerence in the values . The Iollowing mean blood glucose result were recorded aIter 7days, group A(non-
diabetic control) 96.5.0 + 3.11, group B(diabetic control untreated) 545.5 + 41.23, group C(Aqueous Vernonia
Amygdalina root extract) 440.0 + 48.59, group D(Ethanol Vernonia Amygdalina root extract) 63.8 +5.06, group E
(Diabetic control treated with standard drug) 92.5 + 6.45. The results aIter 14days at 200mg /kg body wt are as
Iollows: group A(non-diabetic control) 95.5.0 + 4.20, group B (diabetic control untreated) 562.5 + 35.00, group C
(aqueous Vernonia Amygdalina root extract) 181.0 + 6.27, group D(Ethanol Vernonia Amygdalina root extract) 64.5
+3.32, group E (Diabetic control treated with standard drug) 96.8 + 5.38. Change in dosage oI the aqueous extract aIter
7 days Irom 100mg/kg body weight to 200mg/kg body weight gave a result similar to that oI the ethanol extract in
7days. The results show that the extracts are very eIIicacious in the treatment oI diabetes side by side with a known
standarddrug.
Keywords: VernoniaAmygdalina root extract, Hypoglycaemic eIIect, alloxan-induced, hyperglycaemic Wistars rats,
phytochemical analysis, diabetes.
Introduction
Diabetes mellitus has been deIined by the world health
organization (WHO), on the basis oI laboratory
Iindings, as a Iasting venous plasma glucose
concentration greater than 7.8 mmol/L (140mg/dL) or
greater than 11.1 mmol/L (200mg/dL) two hours aIter a
carbohydrate meal or two hours aIter an oral ingestion oI
the equivalent oI 75g glucose, even iI the Iasting
concentration is normal (Nwanjo, 2004). It is a
metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycaemia and
glycosuria due to absolute or relative lack oI insulin
(Mathur et al., 2010).Diabetes is a term used to describe
multiple distinctive disorders that have the symptom oI
excessive urination in common. Although there are
multiple Iorms oI diabetes, the most common Iorm is
diabetes mellitus. The disease's clinical maniIestations
include hyperglycemia, glucosuria, polyuria,
polydipsia, and the appearance oI ketone bodies in
breath and urine (ketonuria). These metabolic
disturbances are predisposing Iactors Ior cardiovascular,
hepatic, and renal complications (Mehanna, 2003).
According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
there are approximately 150million diabetics
worldwide, the number is expected to double once again
in the year 2025 (WHO, 2012). The disease remains
incurable and can only be controlled with drugs. Over the
years, several animal models have been developed Ior
studying diabetes mellitus or testing anti-diabetic agents
(Etuk, 2010). These models include chemical, surgical
(pancreatectomy) and genetic manipulations in several
animal species to induce diabetes mellitus. The
diabetogenic drugs used include: alloxan monohydrate,
streptozotocin with or without nicotinamide , Ierric
nitrilotriacetate, ditizona and anti-insulin serum (Etuk,
2010). Alloxan is the next most commonly used
chemical Ior induction oI diabetes mellitus and it is
widely used to induce Type 11 diabetes in animals (Viana
et al., 2004). Alloxan is a urea derivative which causes
destruction oI the pancreatic islet -cells. It is used to
produce experimental diabetes in animals such as
rabbits, rats, mice and dogs.
308
Jernonia amygdalina (popularly known as bitter leaI is a
shrub oI 2.5m tall with petiolate leaves oI about 6.0mm
(Ojiako and Nwanjo, 2006). Much work has been
Iocused on the hypoglycaemic activities oI the Jernonia
amygdalina leaves (Taiwo et al., 2008, Michael et al.,
2010). Some other studies has been Iocused on the
comparative glycemic eIIects oI Jernonia amygdalina
leave extracts with known Glicliamide (Taiwo et al.,
2008, Michael et al., 2010). The combined extracts oI
Jernonia amygdalina and A:adira chat indica was
studied as a likely substitute Ior Insulin requirement in
the management oI type 1 diabetes (Atangwho, 2010).
Jernonia amygdalina root has been suggested to reduce
t h e d e v e l o p me n t o I h y p e r l i p i d a e mi a ,
hypercholesterobemia and hyperketongenia associated
with diabetes mellitus, (Nimenibo-Uadia, 2003).This
present work was carried out to investigate and compare
the eIIect oI the aqueous and ethanol extracts oI the
Jernonia amygdalina root on alloxan induced Wistrar
rats.
MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
Sample Collection and Preparation
Fresh roots oI Bitter leaf (Jernonia amygdalina) were
excavated and harvested Irom a Iarm at Ogijo
community, Ogun state, Nigeria. They were identiIied
and authenticated at the Department oI Botany,
University oI Lagos. The roots were thoroughly washed
to remove debris and the earth remains. They were
chopped into bits and allowed to dry in the oven at a
o
temperature oI 40 C Ior 78 h aIter which they were
blended into Iine powder using a manual blender
(corona).
Ethanol Extraction of Jernonia amygdalinaroot
The blended root oI Jernonia Amygdalina (80 g) was
macerated in 1200mLoI ethanol (70 ethanol) agitated
then allowed to stay Ior 72 h. The mixtures were then
Iiltered with sterile white cotton cloth. The Iiltrate was
concentrated to 10 oI its original volume using
o o
Rotary Evaporator (Model RE52A, China) at 37 C- 40
C. This was then concentrated to complete dryness,
using the oven. Yield: 8.572g (10.715 ).
Aqueous Extraction of Jernonia Amygdalinaroot
The blended root oI Jernonia Amygdalina root (100 g)
o
was extracted with 1L oI distilled water Ior 1h at 100 C
using a soxhlet extractor . The mixtures were Iirst Iiltered
with sterile white cotton cloth and concentrated to 10
oI its original volume in vacuo using the Rotary
o o
Evaporator (Model RE52B, China) at 37 C - 40 C. This
was concentrated to complete dryness, using an oven,
yielding9.22g (9.22 )
PHYTOCHEMICALANALYSIS
Phytochemical compositions oI the roots were
determined using the various methods described by
SoIowora (2008). The presence oI saponins, tannins,
alkaloids, Ilavonoids, glycosides and reducing sugars
were determined by the simple and standard qualitative
and quantitative methods The simple quantitative
analysis oI the extracts was based on the intensity oI the
colour changes.
Quantitative analysis
Alkaliods Determination
5 g oI the sample was weighed into a 250 ml beaker and
200 ml oI 10 acetic acid in ethanol added. The beaker
was covered and allowed to stand Ior 4 hours. It was then
Iiltered and the extract concentrated on a water-bath to
one-quarter oI the original volume. Concentrated
ammonium hydroxide was added dropwise to the extract
until the precipitation was complete. The whole solution
was allowed to settle and the precipitate was collected
and washed with dilute ammonium hydroxide (2M) and
then Iiltered. The residue is the alkaloid which was dried
andweighed. (Harborne, 1998).
Tannins determination
10g oI the sample was weighed into a 50ml plastic bottle.
50ml oI distilled water was added and shaken Ior 1 hour,
in a mechanical shaker. This was Iiltered into a 50ml
volumetric Ilask and made up to the mark. Then 5ml oI
the Iiltrate was pipette out into a test tube and mixed with
2ml oI 0.1M FeCl in 0.1M HCl and 0.008M potassium
3
Ierrocyanide. The absorbance was measured at 120 nm
(Van BurdenandRobbinson (1981).
Flavonoid Determination
10g oI the plant sample was extracted repeatedly with
100ml oI 80 aqueous methanol extract at room
temperature. The whole solution was Iiltered through
Whatman Iilter paper No 42 (125mm). The Iiltrate was
later transIerred into a crucible and evaporated into
dryness over a water bath and weighed to a constant
weight (Boham andKocipai, 1994).
Total Phenol Determination
10g oI the Iat Iree sample was boiled with 50ml oI ether
Ior the extraction oI phenolic component Ior 15min. 5ml
oI the extract was pipetted into a 50 ml Ilask, then 10ml oI
distilled water was added. 2ml oI ammonium hydroxide
solution and 5ml oI the concentrated amy lalcohol were
also added. The samples were made up to mark and leIt to
react Ior 30minutes Ior colour development. This was
measuredat 505 nm. (Obadoni andOchuko, 2001).
309
ANIMALSTUDY
Collection and acclimatization of rats
Wistar rats aged between three to Iour months and
weighing between 100 to 150 g were used as
experimental model. The rats were kept in groups oI Iour
rats per group and each group oI rats was given Iree
access to the recommended rat Ieeds (Adeneye and
Adeyemi, 2009) and to pure drinking water and
maintained in a good condition in compliance with the
Guidelines Ior Care and Use oI Laboratory Animals in
Biomedical Research. They were kept Ior a period oI two
weeks to acclimatize beIore being used Ior the
experiment. They were later induced with diabetes and
treated Ior 14 days.
Experimental Induction oI Diabetic rat
Alloxan monohydrate dissolved in Ireshly prepared
normal saline was injected into each rat and it was given
as a single intraperitoneal dose oI 100mg/kg oI body
weight (Al-Shamaony et al, 1994; Pari and
Venkateswaran, 2002). Blood samples were collected
Irom the 'tail vein' oI each rat Ior blood glucose analysis.
Blood glucose was evaluated aIter 72 h oI alloxanisation
by using 'Accuchek Active Glucometer (Roche
Diagnostics) and blood glucose test strips. Rats showing
Iasting blood glucose (FBG) levels 400 mg/dLand above
were used Ior the study.
Antidiabetic Assay: Four (4) healthy non-diabetic adult
Wistar rats and 16 adult diabetic induced Wistar rats
totalling 20 (ages three to Iour months) weighing
between 100-150g were divided into Iive (5) groups
consisting oI Iour rats/group |1 group oI healthy non-
diabetic and 4 groups oI diabetic induced rats- giving a
total oI 5 groups|. The diabetic induced rats were treated
with aqueous and ethanol extracts oI the extract
(100mg/kg body wt Ior 7days and then 200mg/kg body
wt Ior another 7 days) while the group oI 4 healthy non-
diabetic rats which served as the control was treated with
only normal saline. A group oI 4 diabetic induced rats
were treated with 'glibenclamide' an oral anti-diabetic
drug (10mg/kg body wt) to compare the eIIicacy oI the
extract ( Merina et al., 2010). The body weight oI the rats
were taken beIore and aIter treatment.
Group A: Normal control(non-diabetic rats) normal
saline; Group B: Diabetic control (alloxan induced)
normal saline; Group C: Diabetic(alloxan induced)
extract(aqueous) ; Group D: Diabetic (alloxan induced)
extract (ethanol); Group E: Diabetic (alloxan induced)
oral diabetic drug.
Statistical analysis
All determinations Ior phytochemical analysis were
replicated three times and results were reported as mean
values + standard deviation. For the animal study data
were subjected to analysis oI variance (ANOVA). The
signiIicance values were expressed as Mean + SD at the
p0.05 level.
310
DISCUSSION
The phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts of the ethanol and aqueous extract of Jernonia Amagdalina
root (bitter leaf root) shows the presence oI alkaloids, Ilavonoids, tannins, saponins, and reducing sugar. Quantitative
phytochemical analysis oI the powdered roots oI VernoniaAmygdalina contain the Iollowing: Alkaloids (1-60 + 0.007
), Tannins 4.06 + 0.05 , Ilavonoids 0.58 + 0.03 and Phenol 0.9 + 0. 02 . Generally the presence oI Alkaloids
showthat the plant exhibits all the medicinal properties that have been earlier attributed to it (Nimenibo-Uadia, 2003,
Sharma et al., 2008). prevent and
treat type 2 diabetes conIirm the
eIIicacy oI the plant in the treatment oI diabetes mellitus.
As indicated in Figs. 1 and 2 Ior the animal studies, a reduction in the glucose levels in groups C,Dand E was observed
|Table 3|. This is because they are undergoing treatment either with the use oI extracts or with the use oI the standard
drugs. The results shows that increase in dosage will increase the eIIicacy oI the aqueous extract while the ethanol
extracts is eIIicacious even at a lower dosage oI the extract |Table 3 and Figure 3|. Acomparative reduction in glucose
with the ethanol extract and the known standard drug was also observed Irom the result |Table 3, Figure 4|. The results
th
indicates a great reduction in the glucose level Ior the ethanol extract aIter the 7 and the 14th day.
Change in dosage oI the aqueous extract aIter 7 days Irom 100mg/kg body weight to 200mg/kg body weight gave a
result similar to that oI the ethanol extract in 7days suggesting the ethanol extract is more eIIicacious than the aqueous
extract. From the results it can be concluded that the extracts are very eIIicacious in the treatment oI diabetes side by
side with the known standard drug (Glibenclamide) used as control.
Figure 1 EIIect oI Treatment at 100mg/kgbwt extract Figure 1EIIect oI Treatment at 100mg/kgbwt extract
Tannins and polyphenols are reported to have anti-diabetic eIIects and can be used to
(Tsuneki et al., 2004., Liu et al., 2005), hence their presence in the root of this plant
311
Figure 3. Change in Mean Glucose level at different
dosage
Figure 4 : EIIect oI Change in Glucose at constant Dose
oI StandardDrug
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oxidative status in diabetic rat models. Nigerian Journal
oI Physiological Sciences, 20(1), 39-42.
Ojiako, O. A., & Nwanjo, H. U. (2006). Is Vernonia
amygdalina hepatotoxic or hepatoprotective? Response
Irom biochemical and toxicity studies in rats. AIrican
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activity oI Scopariadulcis L. extract in alloxan induced
hyperglycaemic rats. Phytotherapy Research, 16(7),
662-664.
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Obadoni, B.O & Ochuko, P.O., (2001): Phytochemical
studies and comparative eIIicacy oI the crude extracts oI
some homeostatic plants inEdo and Delta States oI
Nigeria. Glob.J. PureAppl. Sci., 86: 2003-2008
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Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic eIIects oI Ilavonoid rich extract Irom Eugenia jambolana seeds on streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats. Food and chemical toxicology, 46(7), 2376-2383.
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Taiwo, I. A., Odeigah, P. G. C., & Ogunkanmi, L. A. (2008). The glycaemic eIIects oI Vernonia amygdalina and V.
tenoreana with tolbutamide in rats and the implications Ior the treatment oI diabetes mellitus. Journal oI ScientiIic
Researchand Development, 11, 122-130.
Tsuneki, H., Ishizuka, M., Terasawa, M., Wu, 1. B., Sasaoka, T., & Kimura, I. (2004). EIIect oI green tea on blood
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3rd Ed. Ibadan,
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World HealthOrganisation(2012). 'Diabetes mellitus Fact sheet N138
313
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTIONAND COMPARATIVEANALYSIS OFAMETALSOLAR DRYER
WITH ELECTRIC KILN DRYERAND OPENAIR DRYER IN DRYING UNRIPE PLANTAIN
(musa paradisiaca)
1 2 3
Atilade, A. O.*, Onanuga, O. K. and Olaitan, H. M.
Department oI Science Laboratory Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria.
1. atiladeadesanyayahoo.com
2. olukehinde1yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Preserving Iruits, vegetables, grains, and meat has been practiced in many parts oI the world Ior thousands oI
years. Methods oI preservation include: canning, Ireezing, pickling, curing (smoking or salting), and drying.
In this work, a metal solar drying system was constructed which consists oI two parts - solar collector and
solar drying cabinet. The Solar collector is a translucent polycarbonate panel which absorbs solar radiation.
The cabinet is divided into 3 divisions separated by 3 removable shelves. Unripe plantain (musa
paradisiaca) was dried with the metal solar drying system, electric kiln drying system and open air drying
system. The moisture content oI banana reduced Irom 539g to 233g within 3 days oI drying using the metal
solar drying system (56.8 moisture content loss); 539g to 352g within 2 days oI drying using the electric
kiln drying system (65.3 moisture content loss); and 539g to 238g within 3 days oI drying using the open
air drying (55.4 moisture content loss).
Keywords: , electric kiln drying, metal solar drying, moisture content loss, musa paradisiaca, open air
drying, solar collector, solar drying cabinet.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Drying is one oI the most important post-harvest
operations Ior produce. It is mainly aimed at reducing the
moisture content oI the produce Ior preservation. For
some spices such as banana, Iish, maize e.t.c, drying is
not only Ior preservation purposes but also Ior modiIying
the tastes and Ilavors in order to increase their market
values |5|. In developing countries, natural sun drying
method is commonly used Ior drying produce. Although
negligible investment is required by this method,
products being dried are usually contaminated by insects,
birds and dusts. Due to rewetting oI the products during
drying by rain and too slow drying rate in the rainy
season, toxic substances such as an alphatoxil produced
by molds is oIten Iound in the dried products |1, 3|. This
is one oI the main problems obstructing the growth oI
exports oI this produce in international markets.
Consequently, the utilization oI a solar drying
technology is considered to be an alternative solution to
the problem oI drying agricultural products |6|.
As Iarmers usually have a Iarmhouse with galvanized
iron sheets as a rooI Ior use in various agricultural
activities, with a proper design it is Ieasible to use this
rooI to produce hot air Ior drying agricultural products.
Such a drying system will provide space Ior the solar
collectors andreduce the total investment cost |5|.
Drying crops by solar energy is oI great economic
importance the world over, especially in Nigeria where
most oI the crops and grain harvests are lost to Iungal and
microbial attacks. These wastages could be easily
prevented by proper drying. Nigeria lies within the
equator and is blessed with abundant solar energy all the
year round |1|. This solar energy can easily be harnessed
by a proper design oI solar dryers Ior crop drying. This
method oI drying requires the transIer oI both heat and
water vapour |2|. Most oI our crops and grain are
harvested during the peak period oI rainy season and so
preservation proves diIIicult and most oI these grains and
crops perish.
A solar dryer is an enclosed unit, to keep the Iood saIe
Irom damage, birds, insects and unexpected rainIall.
o
Solar dryers are normally designed Ior use below 55 C
|4|. The green/unripe banana is dried using solar thermal
energy in a cleaner andhealthier way.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The dryers considered in this research paper are the metal
solar dryer, electric kiln dryer and open air dyer. Here in
solar dryer the product is located on trays inside a drying
chamber. Solar radiation is thus not incident directly on
the crop. Preheated air warmed during its Ilow through
solar energy air heater, is ducted to the drying chamber to
dry the product. Because the products are not subjected
to direct sunshine as in open air drying, localized heat
damage does not occur |3|. The Solar energy dryer is
made up oI the Iollowing basic units:
(a) Adrying chamber.
(b) An air-heating solar energy collector, which
314
consists oI cover plate, absorber plate and
insulator.
2.1 MATERIALS
The materials used Ior the constructionoI metal solar dryer
include: Steel tubing (1" square, 40), Sheet metal
(Galvani:ed, 16 X 3), polycarbonate panel (Flat, 28,
translucent. sold for greenhouses and patio covers),
dimensional lumber (12, 8 lengths), sheet metal screws
(selI-tapping), wood screws, black paint, hinges, latch and
net.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
The size oI the constructed metal solar dryer was 48" long
by 18" wide. This was the size that could be covered with
one sheet oI 24"96" polycarbonate. Three (3) lengths oI
square tubing 46" long and 2 lengths oI 48" were cut. These
are Ior the horizontal beams oI the Irame and 2 lengths 28"
long and 2 lengths oI 22" Ior the upright pieces oI the Irame
respectively. The two 28" uprights on a level surIace was
marked each 3" Iromthe bottomand 10" Iromthe top. The
46" beamwas thenplacedbetweenthe 2uprights belowthe
3" mark and welded in place. Then another beam was
placed between the 2 uprights, above the 10" mark, and
weldedinplace. The 22" uprights were weldedbetweenthe
48" beams toIormabigrectangle. Thebeams areaboveand
below the uprights, not between them, so that everything
will come out to be 48" long. The back panel stands
vertically on a level surIace. For the bottomsidepieces, two
20" lengths oI square tubing was cut and laid butted against
the back panel, one on each side. The Iront panel stands
vertically on top oI these sidepieces Iorming a square; the
bottom sidepieces with the uprights were arranged
vertically and welded in place. Because the Iront is taller
than the back; these 2 top sidepieces are angled at the
latitude oI Ikorodu. Apiece oI square tubing was marked
and placed so that it Iits in between the Iront and back
panels. The other side was repeated. Because the panels are
level andsquare, thesetopsidepieces areoI thesamesize.
Two47" beams andtwo19" uprights wereplacedover the
opening oI the door panel to check Ior size. The door panel
is tooverlapthe Irame about /" onall sides. The door Irame
was weldedtogether.
A piece oI sheet metal measuring 47"21" was cut and
attached to the door Irame using the drill and screwing in
place with sheet metal screws. BeIore covering the Irame,
the tray supports were installed by cutting six (6) 21"
lengths oI 12lumber andMarkedall 3oI theuprights 4" up
Irom the bottom bar. Using sheet metal screws, the 12
boards were attached inside the dryer Irame between the
Iront and back panels at each mark. Apiece oI sheet metal
measuring 48"18" was cut Ior the heat absorber. The
absorber sheet sits on top oI the lowest tray support boards
and the bottom beam oI the door panel. It was secured in
place using wood screws and sheet metal screws. The
absorber sheet doesn't goall the waytothe backpanel; with
a gap oI 3". Using a box cutter to score and then slice the
polycarbonate, each piece is clamped to the outside oI the
welded Irame; one on top and one on the back panel. The
Irame was well covered but not tightly to prevent the
polycarbonate breakage with pre-drilled holes around the
perimeter oI the polycarbonate; sheet metal screws were
used to attach it to the metal Irame. Pieces oI galvanized
sheet metal were cut to cover the sides. The sheet was
screwed to the Irame with sheet metal screws. Also, a piece
oI sheet metal measuring 18"48" was used to cover the
bottom. There is a 4" gap on the door panel side oI the
bottom plate. This gap is used as the intake vent. Then
pieces oI sheet metal measuring 4"48" and 8"48"
respectively were cut and attached to the Iront panel below
and above the door opening, respectively leaving a 2" gap
at theverytopIor theexhaust vent.
Two (2) pieces oI net 6"48" were used to cover the intake
and exhaust vents to prevent insects Irom entering the
dryer. The sides oI these nets were attached to the dryer
Irame using one screw on each side. The bottom net was
attached with Iewscrews on the sidebars to hold it in place.
It ensured that the net was in place between the sheet metal
andtheIrameIor asecureandinsect-tight Iit.
The entire inside is painted black, Iocusing especially on
the heat absorber and the sides. The trays are screwed and
glued together into 4 rectangular tray Irames measuring
46"21.
Fig. 1: Back and Iront viewoI the constructed metal solar
dryer
313
Fig. 2: A bunch oI plantain and peeled plantain beIore
drying.
Unripe plantain Iruit (green banana) bought Irom
Ikorodu main market was used Ior this study. It was
washed, peeled and sliced uniIormly. Random samples
Irom the chips were dried in the kiln dryer, metal solar
dryer and open air dryer. The initial weight was
measured using a top pan digital balance. It was then
divided into three equal parts Ior the three dryers. The
ambient and chamber temperatures throughout the
duration oI the process were measured using a
thermometer. The weight loss during drying which was
assumed to be only moisture loss was monitored
periodically by weighing the samples until the weight
was constant. This was used to determine moisture
content loss by the product in each method oI drying.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
The metal solar dryer, open air dryer and kiln dryer were
used Ior drying green / unripped banana in the month oI
October Ior three days. The drying was carried out in
Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu campus. Ikorodu area
oI Lagos state, Nigeria with Latitude 6.666667N. The
solar Dryer was placed outside with the collector Iacing
the direction oI the sun. About 3.24kg oI Ireshly
harvested unpeeled banana with a total mass oI sliced
banana oI 1.76kg was dried by arranging on the drying
bed in a single layer to avoid moisture being trapped in
the lower layer. The dryer chamber door was closed and
seals placed in position. The results obtained Ior hourly
reading oI 6hours everyday at a maximum temperature
oI 45Care tabulated.
Fig. 3: Dried banana Irom metal solar dryer, electric kiln
dryer and open air dryer respectively.
3.1 RESULT
1. Mass oI unpeeled plantain 3.42kg
2. Mass oI Pot 0.41kg
3. Mass oI peeled plantain Pot 2.31kg
4. Mass oI peeled plantain 2.31kg 0.41kg
1.9kg
5. Mass oI sliced plantain pot 2.17kg
6. Mass oI sliced plantain 2.17kg 0.41kg
1.76kg
7. Average thickness oI sliced plantain 2.14mm
8. Average mass oI each sliced plantain 1.1g
316
th
Table 1.0: Variation oI mass and temperature with time on 28 October 2011.
th
Table 3.0: Variation oI mass and temperature with time on 30 October 2011.
3.3 CALCULATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT LOSS
Moisture content loss oI the dried banana was calculated using the Iormula;
Where: M Moisture Loss
L
M Initial Mass
i
M Final Mass
I
317
Figure 4.3: A graph of Moisture content loss/g against
time/hr of the 3 dryers
Figure 4.4: Agraph of Temperature /c against time/hr of
the 3 dryers
4.0 DISCUSSION
The kiln dryer utilizes electricity in its mode oI operation
with the aid oI an electrical heater to produce heat. It had
better and Iaster rate oI drying banana that weighed 539g
Ior 8hours removing about 65.3 oI moisture Irom the
sliced banana at a maximum temperature oI 69C while
the metal solar dryer harnesses the energy oI the sun with
the aid oI a translucent polycarbonate sheet that traps the
energy and preventing direct ultraviolet light to drain the
nutrient oI the produce it dried banana oI mass 539g Ior
13hours removing 56.8 oI moisture at a maximum
temperature oI 45 C. Open air drying is a traditional way
oI drying produces by spreading it to direct ultraviolet
light which drains the nutrient in the produce it is used to
dry sliced banana weighing 539g Ior 13hours removing
55.8 oI moisture at a maximum temperature oI 38 C.
5.0 RECOMMENDATION
In order to make good use oI the solar dryer Ior drying
diIIerent produce a thermostat, Ian and humidity sensor
could be incorporated in the solar dryer to ensure that
drying is done under prescribed conditions.
REFERENCES
1. AIolabi O.S (2010), Design and construction oI kiln
Ior dryingClaris gariepinius Pp 4, 5
2. Minh-Hue Nguyen and William E. Price (2007), Air-
drying oI banana: InIluence oI experimental
parameters, slab thickness, banana maturity and
harvesting season. Journal oI Food Engineering, 79,
200207.
3. Anon R. (1965), How to make a solar cabinet Dryer
Ior Agricultural produce Do it yourselI leaIlet
L6.Brace research Institute, SainteAnnede Bellevue,
Canada.Pp. 9.
4. Grupp, M. et. al. (1995), Comparative Test oI Solar
Dryers. Technology Demonstration Center Serial
Report 2/95. PlatIorma Solar de Almeria (PSA),
Synopsis. 22 pgs. (Quantitative comparison oI 7
dryingmethods).
5. Hankins, Mark. (1995), Solar Electric Systems Ior
AIrica. Commonwealth Science Council and
AGROTEC. Pgs 14-16.
6. Hislop, D. (1992), Energy Options Chapter 3: Heat
Irom Solar Energy. Intermediate Technology
Development Group. Pgs 43-47.
7. Kerr, Barbara (1999), A review oI solar Iood
drying. The Sustainable Living Center. 3310 Paper
Mill Road, Taylor, Arizona 85939 USA. Schematic
oI downdraIt design.
8. Reynolds, Susan. (1998), Drying Foods Out-oI-
Doors. University oI Florida Cooperative Extension
Service. 2pgs.
9. Rossello, C., Berna, A., and Mulet, A. (1990), Solar
Drying oI Fruits in a Mediterranean Climate, Drying
Technology, 8 (2), pp: 305-321.
10. Speirs, C.I. Coote, H.C. (1986), Solar Drying:
Practical Methods oI Food Preservation.
International Labor Organization. 121 pgs. Archived
i n AT Li b r a r y 7 - 2 9 6 o r d e r I r o m
http://www.villageearth.org/atnetwork
11. Szulmayer, W. (1971), From Sun-Drying to Solar
Dehydration I and II, Food Technology in Australia,
September, pp: 440-501.
12. Anon R. (1978), ASimple Solar Dryer. Appropriate
Technology, Pp. 5, 2, and 11.
13. Sankat, C. K., Castaigne, F., & Maharaj, R. (1996).
The air drying behaviour oI Ireshly and osmotically
dehydrated banana slices. International Journal oI
Food Science and Technology, 31, 123135.
318
ASTATISTICALMODELING OF FACTORS AFFECTING CANCER PATIENTS
(Acase study of Eko Hospital Lagos and OAUTH Ile-Ife)
By
AROWOLO T.O
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS/STATISTICS, LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC.
ABSTRACT
This research work is based on modeling oI some Iactors aIIecting cancer patients and also to test Ior the independent
amongvariables that are under consideration.
Data on cancer patients age, gender and outcome oI treatment were collected Irom two hospitals (Eko Hospital, Lagos,
in Lagos State andObaIemi Awolowo Teaching Hospitals (OAUTH) Ile-IIe in Osun State.)
AIter carrying out analysis on the data, we Iound that treatment outcome is independent oI age oI the patient, while
treatment outcome is dependent oI gender.
Log- Linear model was used to Iit models Ior the three variables considered and their corresponding Akaike
InIormation Criteria (AIC) were obtained.
It was also discovered that model AO:GO
Happen to be the best model because it has the minimum AICvalue.
GO
fk
AO
ik
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + + =
0
log
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The spread oI cancer disease in Nigeria today evenAIrica
and the World at large is becoming rampant. Curbing the
menace that the disease pose to the humanity has been a
thing oI concern and has put all hands on deck (Those
that are health related workers and non-health related
workers).
A report by World Health Organization (WHO) state
that: With more than 10 million new cases every year,
cancer has become one oI the most devastating diseases
worldwide. The causes and types oI cancer vary in
diIIerent geographical regions, but in most countries
there is hardly a Iamily without a cancer victim. The
disease burden is immense, not only Ior aIIected
individuals but also Ior their relatives and Iriends. At the
community level, cancer poses considerable challenges
Ior the health care systems in poor and rich countries
alike.
According to John Mburu Mwaura cancer disease is
caused by natural causes such as excessive consumption
oI dairy products and other excessive acidic Ioods that
cause a very acidic state oI existence, surpassing the
adequate level oI alkalinity required by the body.
When there is lowoxygen in the cells and lowalkalinity,
the body's cells become abnormal and abnormal
multiplication oI white blood cells always denote
toxicity, imbalance, poison and Ioreign invasion oI that
which is unnatural or that which should not be in the
body. Excessive white blood cell count is almost always
indicative oI cancer.
Although, this research work is not generally based on
the causes oI cancer, but having an understanding oI
what cause it as it has been stated above will go a long
wayindealing withits spread.
However, this research work is much more concerned
about some Iactors that aIIect the outcome oI treatment
oI cancer patients in the country. In doing this, statistical
method like log-linear method likelihood ratio statistic
and Akaike InIormation Criteria is being used and they
will later be discuss Iully inthis paper.
Cancer is a term used Ior diseases in which abnormal
cells divide without control and are able to invade other
tissues. Cancer cell can spread to other parts oI the body
through the blood and lymph system.
Cancer is not just one disease but many diseases. There
are more than 100 diIIerent types oI cancer. Most cancers
are named Ior the organ or type oI cell in which they
start, Ior example, cancer that begins in the colon is
called colon cancer; cancer that begins in basal cells oI
the skin is called basal cell carcinoma.
319
The main categories oI cancer include: Carinoma, the
Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or
cover internal organs; Sarcoma, the Cancer that begins in
bone, cartilage, Iat, muscle, blood vessels or other
connective or supportive tissue; Leukeamia, the Cancer
that starts in blood-Iorming tissue such as the bone
marrowand cause large numbers oI abnormal blood cells
to be produced enter the blood; Lymphoma and
Myeloma, the Cancers that begins in the cells oI the
immune system; Central nervous system cancers, the
Cancer that begin in the tissues oI the brain and spinal
cord.
1.1 OB1ECTIVES OFTHESTUDY
The aims and objectives of this research work are:
(i) to test whether treatment outcome oI cancer
patients is dependent oI age Irom the two hospitals
under study.
(ii) to test whether treatment outcome oI cancer
patients is dependent oI gender Irom the two
hospitals under study,
(iii) to check Ior the best model among various models
Ior the two locations.
(iv) to compare the result oI the two hospitals in order to
be able to conclude whether treatment outcome is
the same Irom the two locations.
1.2 MATERIALS ANDMETHODS
The data used Ior this study are secondary data, and they
were obtained Irom cancer patient record section oI Eko
Hospital in Lagos and cancer patients record section oI
ObaIemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital
OAUTH}Ile-IIe Osun State.
The data collected also cover the period oI 57 months
(January 2005 to September 2009).
DATA ANALYSIS
Two set oI data on cancer patients who received
treatment over the period oI Iour years and nine months
were collected Ior this research work Irom two hospitals,
viz Eko Hospital Lagos and ObaIemi Awolowo
University Teaching Hospital Ile-IIe (OAUTH).
Atotal number oI 565 patients were recorded Irom Eko
Hospital Lagos while a total oI 750 patients were
recorded Irom OAUTHIle-IIe.
The data were presented in Irequency distribution tables,
bar charts and contingency tables. Pearson Chi-square
test was used to test whether or not age and gender have
signiIicant eIIect on treatment outcome oI cancer
patients. Likelihood ratio test is also used. Odd ratio and
relative risk are computed Ior 2X2 contingency table.
Furthermore, Loglinear Analysis was also carried out to
test Ior some relationship between age, sex andtreatment
outcome oI cancer patients.
The table below shows the Outcome oI treatment (O),
Age (A) and Gender (G) oI cancer patients Irom Eko
Hospital.
Table 1: Age distribution of respondents
Age Frequency Percentage
0-20 59 10.4
21-40 158 28.4
41-60 353 44.8
61-80 89 15.8
Over 80 6 1.1
Total 565 100
Table 1 shows that 10.4 oI the subjects (cancer
patients) Irom Eko Hospital, Lagos are between the age
brackets (0-20) years old. 28 lies in the age bracket
(21-40), 44.8 lies in the age bracket (41-60), 15.8 lie
in the age bracket (61-80), while the remaining 1.1 are
above 80 years oI age. The cumulative percentage shows
that 38.4 are 40 years or below. Also, 83.2 are 60
years oI age or below 60 years. This shows that most oI
the respondents are in the middle age i.e age bracket 41-
60, whichaccountedIor 44.8.
Table 2: Sex distribution of respondents
Sex Frequency Percentage
Male 205 36.3
Female 360 63.7
Total 565 100.0
Table 2 shows that 36.3 oI the subjects (cancer
patients) Irom Eko Hospital, Lagos are male while
63.7 are Iemale. The sex ratio male : Iemale is
approximately 1:2 which is 56.9. There more Iemale
than male respondents.
Table 3: Treatment Outcome of respondents
Respondent Frequency Percent
Survivals 432 76.5
Deaths 133 23.5
Total 565 100.0
Table 3 shows that 76.5 oI the subjects (cancer
patients) Irom Eko Hospital, Lagos are survivors while
23.5 deaths were recorded. That is 1 out oI every 4
cancer patients dies.
320
Figure 1: Bar chart showing Age distribution of respondents
Figure 1 depicts clearly that most oI the cancer patients at Eko Hospital, Lagos under study are between the ages oI 41
and 60 years old.
Table 4
Age ` outcome Cross tabulation
Cutcome
321
Chi-Square Tests
The result oI the analysis reveals that sex oI cancer patients has a signiIicant eIIect on treatment outcome at 5 level oI
signiIicance. i.e treatment outcome is dependent on sexoI the patient.
Discussion
Table 5 shows that 83.4 male patients survive cancer aIter the treatment while 16.6 oI the male patients die during
the treatment. On the other hand, 72.5 Iemale patients survive cancer aIter the treatment while 27.5 oI the Iemale
patients die during the treatment. This shows that the percentage oI Iemale that die oI cancer are more than that oI male
as recordedIrom Eko Hospital, Lagos.
Table 6. Risk Estimate
The Odds ratio Ior gender (Male/Female) is 1.908. This means that male cancer patients have better chance oI
surviving cancer than Iemale patients.
The Relative risk, which is the ratio oI the probability that a male cancer patient survive to the probability that a Iemale
cancer patient survive is 1.151. i.e more male cancer patient survive than their Iemale counterpart.
On the reverse, the ratio oI the probability that a male cancer patient will die to the probability a Iemale cancer patient
will die is 0.603. given these result as obtained Irom Eko Hospital, Lagos, you can estimate that a male is 1.151 times as
likely to survive cancer death as Iemale, or a male is 0.603times as likely todie oI cancer as Iemale.
322
Table 7:
HIERARCHICALLOGLINEARANALYSIS FOREKO HOSPITAL, LAGOS
K-Way and Higher-OrderEffects
The summary oI the Iitted models Ior data collected Irom Eko Hospital, Lagos concerning the treatment outcome oI
cancer patients inthe hospital is presented below.
Model 1 forAG.AO.GO:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 0.5967320 4 0.9634261
Pearson 0.6010446 4 0.9629475
Model 2 forAO.GO:
Statistics:
2
; X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 3.916764 8 0.8645541
Pearson 4.067880 8 0.8509477
Model 3 forAG.O:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 10.61809 9 0.3027975
Pearson 10.10768 9 0.3418383
Model 4 forA.G.O:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 13.58736 13 0.4035316
Pearson 12.86071 13 0.4586277
GO
fk
AO
ik
AG
if
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + + + =
0
log
GO
fk
AO
ik
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + + =
0
log
AG
if
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + =
0
log
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + =
0
log
323
The expected cell counts values Ior the above Iitted model is summarized as Iollows:
TABLE 8: SHOWING CELL COUNTS AND RESIDUALS FOR CANCER PATIENTS TREATMENT
OUTCOMEFROMEKO HOSPITAL, LAGOS.
Cell Counts and Residuals
Cbserved Lxpected
324
LIKELIHOODRATIO TESTFORHIERARCHICALLOG-LINEARMODELS
Deviance dI Delta(Dev) Delta(dI) P(~ Delta(Dev)
Model 4 13.587365 13
Model 3 10.618090 9 2.969274 4 0.56298
Model 2 3.916764 8 6.701327 1 0.00963
Model 1 0.596732 4 3.320032 4 0.50576
Saturated 0.000000 0 0.596732 4 0.96343
The above table shows the hierarchical oI models on treatment outcomes oI cancer patients Irom Eko Hospital Lagos
and it also compares the model with the degree oI Ireedom. The diIIerences in model 1 and model 2 measures the
distance oI the best Iit oI model 2 Irom the best Iit oI model 1. This also applies to other models compared as shown in
the table above.
TABLE9 AICVALUES FORTHEMODELS.
The table above gives the values oI AICIor each model andcompared the values oI each.
The table below shows the Outcome oI treatment (O), Age (A) and Gender (G) oI cancer patients Irom ObaIemi
Awolowo University Teaching Hospital, Ile-IIe.
Table 10: Age distribution of respondents
323
Table10 shows that 14.3 oI the subjects (cancer patients) Irom OAUTH, Ile-IIe are between the age brackets (0-20)
years old. 31.3 lies in the age bracket (21-40), 38.5 lies in the age bracket (41-60), 14.4 lie in the age bracket (61-
80), while the remaining 1.5 are above 80 years oI age. The cumulative percentage shows that 45.6 are 40 years or
below. Also, 84.1 are 60 years oI age or below60 years. This shows that most oI the respondents are in the middle age
i.e age bracket 41-60, which accounted Ior 38.5.
Table 11: Sex distribution of respondents
Sex Frequency Percent
Male 275 36.7
Female 475 63.3
Total 750 100.0
Table 11 shows that 36.7 oI the subjects (cancer patients) Irom OAUTH, Ile-IIe are male while 63.3 are Iemale. The
sex ratio male:Iemale is approximately 1:2 which is 57.9. There more Iemale than male respondents.
Table 12: Treatment Outcome of respondents
Respondent Frequency Percent
Survivals 582 77.6
Dealths 168 22.4
Total 750 100.0
Table 12 shows that 77.6 oI the subjects (cancer patients) Irom OAUTH, Ile-IIe are survivors while 22.4 deaths
were recorded. 1 out oI every 4 cancer patients dies.
Figure2: Barchart showing Age distribution of respondents
326
Figure 2 depicts clearly that most of the cancer patients at OAUTH, Ile-Ife under study are between the ages of
41 and 60years old.
Figure 6 depicts clearly that most of the cancer patients under study at OAUTH, Ile-Ife are survivals of the
deadly disease.
Table13
Chi-SquareTests
327
The result oI the analysis oI table 13 reveals that age oI cancer patients does not have a signiIicant eIIect on treatment
outcome at 5 level oI signiIicance.
However, the test would have been signiIicant iI we increase our level oI
signiIicance to10.
Table 14: gender` Outcome Crosstabulation
The result oI the analysis oI table 14 reveals that sex oI cancer patients has a signiIicant eIIect on treatment
outcome at 5 level oI signiIicance. i.e treatment outcome is dependent on sex oI the patient.
Discussion
Contingency Table14 shows that 72.4 male patients survive cancer aIter the treatment while 27.6 oI the
male patients die during the treatment. On the other hand, 80.6 Iemale patients survive cancer aIter the
treatment while 19.4 oI the Iemale patients die during the treatment. This shows that the percentage oI male
that die oI cancer are more than that oI Iemale as recorded Irom OAUTH, Ile-IIe.
328
The Odds ratio Ior gender (Male/Female) is 0.629. This means that Iemale cancer patients have better chance oI
surviving cancer than male patients.
The Relative risk, which is the ratio oI the probability that a male cancer patient survive to the probability that a Iemale
cancer patient survive is 0.897. i.e more Iemale cancer patient survive than their male counterpart.
On the reverse, the ratio oI the probability that a male cancer patient will die to the probability a Iemale cancer patient
will die is 1.427. Given these result as obtained Irom OAUTH, Ile-IIe, you can estimate that a male is 0.897 times as
likely to survive cancer death as Iemale, or a male is 1.427 times as likely to die oI cancer as Iemale as reported Irom
OAUTH, Ile-IIe.
Table 15: HIERARCHICALLOGLINEARANALYSIS
K-Way and Higher-Order Effects
The summary oI the Iitted models Ior data collected Irom ObaIemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital (OAUTH)
Ile-IIe concerning the treatment outcome oI cancer patients in the hospital is presented below.
MODEL1 FORAG.AO.GO:
GO
fk
AO
ik
AG
if
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + + + =
0
log
329
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 3.644 4 0.456
Pearson 3.667 4 0.453
MODEL2 FORAO.GO:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 8.627 8 0.375
Pearson 8.236 8 0.411
MODEL3 FORAG.O:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 19.274 9 0.163
Pearson 20.477 9 0.145
MODEL4 FORA.G.O:
Statistics:
2
X dI P-value
Likelihood Ratio 23.721 13 0.074
Pearson 23.849 13 0.063
The expected cell counts values Ior the above Iitted model is summarized as Iollows:
TABLE 16: SHOWING CELLCOUNTS AND RESIDUALS FOR CANCER PATIENTS TREATMENT
OUTCOME FROMOBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITYTEACHING HOSPITAL(OAUTH) ILE-IFE.
GO
fk
AO
ik
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + + =
0
log
AG
if
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + + =
0
log
O
k
G
f
A
i ifk
M + + + =
0
log
330
LIKELIHOODRATIO TESTFORHIERARCHICALLOG-LINEARMODELS
Deviance dI Delta(Dev) Delta(dI) P(~ Delta(Dev)
Model 4 23.720853 13
Model 3 19.273721 9 4.447132 4 0.34886
Model 2 8.626868 8 10.646853 1 0.00110
Model 1 3.644471 4 4.982397 4 0.28911
Saturated 0.000000 0 3.644471 4 0.45625
The above table shows the hierarchical oI models on treatment outcomes oI cancer patients Irom ObaIemi Awolowo
University Teaching Hospital (OAUTH) Ile-IIe and it also compares the model with the degree oI Ireedom. The
diIIerences in model 1 and model 2 measures the distance oI the best Iit oI model 2 Irom the best Iit oI model 1. This
also applies to other models compared as shown in the table above.
Table 17: AICVALUES FORTHEMODELS
2
MODEL G AIC
Model 1 0.59673 122.05
Model 2 3.9168 117.37
Model 3 10.618 122.67
Model 4 13.587 127.04
Saturated 0 129.45
331
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OFAN ELASTICALLYSUPPORTED EULER-
BERNOULLI BEAMON VARIABLE ELASTIC FOUNDATION UNDERA
PARTIALLYDISTRIBUTED MOVING LOAD.
1 2 1 1 3
I.AIdowu, F.O Akinpelu , C. Iluno, O.TArowolo and R.AMustapha
1
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
2
Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso.
3
Department of Mathematics, Lagos State University, Ojo.
E-mail: idlaspotechyahoo.com ejabolayahoo.com
Abstract
The dynamic responses oI an elastically supported Euler- Bernoulli beam on variable elastic Ioundation
under partially distributed moving loads were investigated. The governing equation is Iourth order partial
diIIerential equation, which was reduced to second order ordinary diIIerential equation by using analytical
method in terms oI series solution and solved by numerical method using mathematical soItware
(Maple).The numerical analysis shows that the response amplitude oI the moving mass and moving Iorce
Ior variable pre-stressed increase as mass oI the load M increases. It was Iound that the response
displacement oI the beam decrease as the value oI the elastic Ioundation K increases. Also the response
displacement oI the beam decrease as the value oI the pre-stressed Nincrease. Comparison oI moving mass
and moving Iorce shown that moving mass is greater than that oI moving Iorce.
KEYWORDS: Variable pre-stressed, Euler-Bernoulli Beam, partially distributed, moving load, moving
Iorce, elastic Ioundation.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Beam with various shapes and materials are important
structural elements. They are widely used in modern
engineering and science. In the recent years all areas oI
transport have experienced great advances characterized
by increasing higher speeds and weight oI vehicles. As a
result, structures and media over or in which the vehicles
move have been subjected to vibrations and dynamic
stresses Iar larger than ever beIore. Many researchers
have studied vibration oI elastic and inelastic structures
under the action oI moving loads Ior many years, and
eIIort are still being made to carry out more investigation
that deal with various aspect oI the problem(1-18). In
spite oI all the published work, there seems to be very
little literature concerned with the pre stressed beams
(beams which do experience compression when no
external load is applied i.e. artiIicial creation oI stresses
in structure beIore loading) oI any type. This problem
has some practical application they are commonly
incorporated in the design aero planes. Advances in
technology have accelerated the utilization oI such pre-
stressed structural element. In general an aircraIt is
subjected to a wide range oI temperature variation
during Ilight which may cause considerable tensile or
compressive pre-stressed in the beams when they are
Iixed in the plane direction. Milomir et al (5) developed
a theory describing the response oI an Euler-Bernoulli
Beam under an arbitrary number oI concentrated
moving masses. The theory is based on the Fourier
technique and shows that, Ior a simply supported beam,
the resonance Irequency is lower with no corresponding
decrease in maximum amplitude when the inertia is
considered. Emailzadeh et al (8) worked on the vibration
analysis oI beams traversed by uniIorm partially
distributed moving mass using analytical-numerical
method. They discovered that the inertia eIIect oI the
distributed moving mass is oI importance in the dynamic
behavior oI the structure. The critical speeds oI the
moving load were also calculated Ior the mid-span oI the
beam. The length oI the distributed moving mass was
also Iound to aIIect the dynamic response. More recent
Akinpelu (9) studied the Response oI viscously Damped
Euler Bernoulli Beam to uniIorm partially Distributed
moving loads. Her approach involves using analytical
method in terms oI series solution and numerical method
was used Ior the governing equation. It was Iound in her
result that the response amplitude oI the moving Iorce
problem with non-initial stress increase as mass oI the
load M increases.
2.0THEGOVERNING EQUATION
The problem is governed by the Iourth order partial
diIIerential equation. (ModiIyingequation).
332
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
(

c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
+
c
c

c
c
+
(

c
c
c
c
2 2
2 2
) , ( 2
) , ( ) (
) , (
) (
) , (
) (
) , (
) (
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
c

x H x H Mg
x H x H t x U
x
J
t x
J
t
M
t x U x K
x
t x U
x N
t
t x U
x
x
t x U
x EI
x
Where E is the young's modulus, U(x, t) is the transverse displacement ,K(x) is the variable elastic Ioundation,
Is the variable mass per unit length oI the beam, I(x) is the variable moment oI inertia, N(x) is the pre-stress and
Where K is Ioundation modulus, I and N are taken to be constants Substituting equation (3) into equation (1), to
0 0
obtain
On Iurther simpliIication oI equation (4) yields
Aclosed Iorm analytical solution oI the diIIerential equation (6) does not exist. Aseries solution oI the Iorm equation
(6) is assumed
U(x, t )
Where T (t) is chosen such that desired boundary condition is satisIied. Substituting equation (6) into equation (5)
n
yield
) (x
|
.
|

\
| [
+ =
|
.
|

\
| [
+ =
+ + =
L
x
N x N
L
x
I x I
x x x x K
k
sin 1 ) (
sin 1 ) (
3 4 1 ) (
0
3
0
3 2
0
( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ = |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
(

c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
+ + +
c
c

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
(
(

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
+
c
c
2 2 2 2
) , ( 2
) , ( 3 4 1 0
) , ( ) , (
2
sin 1
) , (
2
sin 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3 2
2
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
3
2
2
0
c

c
x H x H Mg x H x H t x U
x
J
t x
J
t
M
t x U x x x K
x
t x U
N
t
t x U
x
t x U
x
EI
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
= + + +
c
c

c
c
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
+
) , ( 2 ) , ( ) 3 4 1 (
) , ( ) , (
sin 1
) , (
sin
9 3
sin
15 2
cos
24
) , ( 3
cos
6 2
sin
24
cos
30 ) , ( 3
sin
2
cos 6 sin 15 10
2
2
2
2
2
2
3 2
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
3
3
4
4
t x U
x
J
t x
J
t
M Mg t x U x x x K
x
t x U
N
x
t x U
L
x
x
t x U
L
x
L L
x
L L
x
L
x
t x U
L
x
L L
x
L L
x
L x
t x U
L
x
L
x
L
x
t

t t t t t t
t t t t t t t t t
( ) ( )

=1 n
n n
t T x X
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+
(

=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( sin 1 sin
9 3
sin
15 2
cos
24
) ( ) (
3
cos
6 2
sin
24
cos
30
) ( ) (
3
sin
2
cos 6 sin 15 10 ) ( ) (
4
1
..
1
0 2
2
2 2
2
1
1 1
0
t x X N t x X
L
x
L
x
L L
x
L L
x
L
t T x X
L
x
L L
x
L L
x
L
t T x X
L
x
L
x
L
x
t T x X
EI
n
n
ii
n
n
ii
n
n
ii
n
n
iii
n
n
iv
T T
t

t t t t t t
t t t t t t t t t
333
( )
dx x X x H x H Mg
dx x X
x H t x X mv x H t x X M
x H t x X M t
n
x X x x x K
k
k
n
n
i
n
n
ii
n
n
ii
n
n
T T
T
T
) (
2 2
) (
2
) ( ) ( 2
2
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 3 4
.
1
..
1
..
1 1
.
3 2
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

=
c

Multiplying both side oI equation (7) by and then integrating it along the length oI the beam the equation ( )
become
For the general solution oI the equation (10), we consider two cases
Case 1 Moving Iorce
II we neglect the inertia term in equation (10), we have the case oI moving Iorce.
Case 2 Moving mass
II we consider all the inertia terms in equation (10), we have moving mass.
Solving the two equations (12&13) with the initial condition stated in equation (3) , and Ior the purpose oI Numerical
-19 2
analysis, we assign the numerical value L10m, M 3kg, 6kg, 9kg, 75kg/m, E 2.07 x 10 N/m , ? 0.1, I
-6 4 -2
1.04x10 m , v 3.3m/s, g 10ms pi 3.142, n 1, 2, 3 ---, the results were shown graphically belowIor the various
value oI pre stressed, elastic Ioundation and masses.
Table 1, Iigure 1 display the displacement against time oI moving mass at diIIerence values oI pre stressed. The
graph shows that, the response displacement oI the beam decrease as the value oI the pre-stressed increases. And the
maximum displacement was attained at pre-stressed equal 0.Table 2, Iigure 2 display the displacement against time oI
moving Iorce at diIIerence values oI pre-stressed. The graph shows that, the response displacement oI the beam
decrease as the value oI the pre-stressed increases. And the maximum displacement was attained at pre-stressed equal
0.Table 3, Iigure 3 shows the comparison oI moving mass and moving Iorce Ior pre-stressed, the graph shown that
moving mass is greater than, that oI moving Iorce.Table 4, Iigure 4 display moving mass at diIIerence values oI Mass
Ior pre-stressed. The graph shows that the response displacement oI the beam increase as the value oI the masses
increases. Table 5, Iigure 5 moving Iorce at diIIerence values oI Mass Ior pre-stressed. The graph shows that the
response displacement oI the beam increase as the value oI the masses increases.Table 6, Iigure 6 display the
displacement against time oI moving mass at diIIerence values oI elastic Ioundation k. The graph shows that, the
response displacement oI the beam decrease as the value oI the elastic Ioundation k increases. Table 7, Iigure 7 display
the displacement against time oI moving Iorce at diIIerence values oI elastic Ioundation k. The graph shows that, the
response displacement oI the beam decrease as the value oI the elastic Ioundation k increases. Table 8, Iigure 8
moving Iorce at diIIerence values oI Mass Ior elastic Ioundation. The graph shows that the response displacement oI
the beam increase as the value oI the masses increases. Table 9, Iigure 9 display moving Iorce at diIIerence values oI
Mass Ior elastic Ioundation k. The graph shows that the response displacement oI the beam increase as the value oI the
masses M increases. Table 10, Iigure 10 shown the comparison oI moving mass and moving Iorce Ior simple uniIorm
Bernoulli beam on a variable elastic Ioundation and the graph shows that moving mass is greater than, that oI moving
) (x X
k
| | | | | |
| |
23 22
22 21 16 15
14 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 19
.
18 17 12 11
..
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
P P
n
n
n n
P P P P t T
P P P P P P P P P P P P t T P P t T P P P P t T
= + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
| | |
| |
23 22
22 21 16 15
14 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 11
..
) (
) ( ) (
P P
n
n
n
P P P P t T
P P P P P P P P P P P P t T P P t T
= + + +
+ + + + + + +
| | | | |
| |
23 22
22 21 16 15
14 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 19
.
18 17 12 11
..
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
P P
n
n
n n
P P P P t T
P P P P P P P P P P P P t T P P t T P P P P t T
= + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
334
333
336
REFERENCES
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Vibration problem in Engineering, New York,
John Willey, Fourth edition (1974).
2 Oni S.T and Awodola T.O, Vibration under a
moving load oI a non-uniIorm Rayleigh beams
on variable elastic Ioundation, Journal of
Nigeria association of Mathematical physics,
Jol.71(2004) pp.191-206.
3 Dada M.S, Traverse vibration oI Euler
Bernoulli beams on elastic Ioundation under
mobile distributed masses, Journal of Nigeria
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(2007), pp.225-234.
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non-uniIorm Bernoulli Euler beams subjected
to concentrated loads travelling at varying
velocities, Journal of the Nigeria association
mathematical physics Jol.9, (2005), pp.79-102.
337
5 Milomir M, Stanisic M.M and Hardin J.C, On the response oI beam to an arbitrary number oI concentrated
movingmasses, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Jol.257, Feb., (1969), No.2.
6 Oni S.T, On thick beams under the action oI a variable travelling traversed load, Abacus Journal of
Mathematical Association of Nigeria, JOL.2, (1997), PP.531-546.
7 Oni S.T and Awodola T.O, Dynamic response under a Moving load oI an elastically supported non-
prismatic Bernoulli Euler beam resting on variable elastic Ioundation, Latin American Journal of solids and
structures Jol.7, (2010), pp.3-20.
8 Esmailzadeh E and Ghorashi M, Vibration analysis oI a beam traversed by uniIorm partially distributed
moving masses, Journal of Sound and Jibration, 184(1), (1995), pp.9-17.
9 Akinpelu F.O, The response oI viscously damped Euler-Bernoulli beam to uniIorm partially distributed
moving loads, Journal of applied Mathematics,Jol 3, (2012),pp.199-204,
10 JeIIcoutt H.H, On the vibration oI the beam under the action oI moving loads, Philosophical maga:ine,
series7, vol.48, (2012), pp.66-67.
11 Lee H.P, Dynamic response oI a beam with intermediate point constraint subject to a moving load, Journal
of sound and vibration, Jol.1, (1994), No.71, pp.361-368.
12 EsmailzadehE and Gorashi M, Vibration analysis oI the beam traversed by moving masses proceedings of
the international conference on engineering application of mechanics, Tehran, Jol.2, pp.232-238, 9-12 June
(1992)
13 Timoshenko S, On the transverse vibration oI bars oI uniIorm cross section, Philosophical maga:ine,
series 6, Jol.23, (2000), pp.125-131.
14 Farba L, Vibration oI solid and structures under Moving loads, Groningen Noordhoff international
publishing, Groningen, Jol.1-2,(1972), No1-5, pp.452-457.
15 Gbadeyan J.Aand Oni S.T, Dynamic behavior oI beams on rectangular plate under moving load, Journal
of sound and vibration, Jol, 182, (1995), No.5, pp.697-700.
16 Lin Y.H: Vibration analysis oI the beams traversed by uniIorm partially distributed moving masses.
Journal of sound and vibration, Jol.199, No.4, pp.697-700, (1995)
17 Adetunde I.A, Akinpelu F.O, and Gbadeyan J.A, Dynamic analysis oI non-pre-stressed Raleigh beams
carrying an attached mass and traversed by uniIorm partially distributed moving load, Journal of
Engineering and Applied Science, Jol.2, (2007), No.2, pp.445-455.
18 Adetunde I.A, Akinpelu F.O, and Gbadeyan J.A, The response oI initially stressed Euler Bernoulli beams
with attached mass to uniIorm partially distributed moving loads, Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, Jol.2, (2007), No.3, pp.488-493.
338
EVALUATION OF STORAGE CONDITION ON POST HARVEST HANDLING ON QUALITYOF
PALMOIL.
`Y. O. BANKOLE, `A.O. TANIMOLA, ``D.O. SAMUEL,``` O.A. METILELU
` DEPARTMENT OF BIO-ENVIROMENTALENGINEERING
``DEPARTMENT OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY
```DEPARTMENT OF CATERING AND HOTELMANAGEMENT.
Abstract:
Oil is an extract oI rawmaterials but not all are edible. Edible oil is derives Irom animal and plant source. Oil derived
Irom plants are called Vegetable Oil (VO). Palm oil is a Iorm oI edible VOobtained Irom the Iruit oI the oil palm tree.
Palm oil is one oI the IewVO relatively high in saturated Iats and semi-solid at room temperature. It is an important
component oI soap, washing powders and personal care products. Crude palm oil contain Iree Iatty acid (FFA), gums,
dirt, shell trace, moisture, trace metal, oxidation products trace, iodine etc. The study thereIore, sort answer to stability
oI palm oil under diIIerent storage condition and investigate the established practice Ior packaging and storing oI palm
oil. The study revealed that the stability oI palm oil depends on its prevention Irom irradiation, moisture and heat.
Stability is best achieved or preservation can be prolonged by storing in a dark glass bottle under a shade in a heat Iree
surrounding. It is highly recommended to exclude palm oil Irom the list oI item scanned with X rays to prevent auto-
oxidation, which may lead to its quality degradation. ThereIore, palm oil should be stored under shade in a dark low
heat conductivity container.
Keywords: Palm oil, storage, packaging, deterioration, quality
Introduction:
Oil can be extracted Irom many rawmaterials, but not all
are edible, some contain poisons and unpleasant Ilavors.
Edible oils are derived Irom animals and plants. Oils
Irom plants are classiIied as Vegetables Oil (VO). The
largest sources oI VOare annual plants, such as soybean,
cottonseed, groundnut, sunIlower, rapeseeds, melon and
sesame seeds. Other sources are oil bearing perennial
plants such as olive, coconut, shear, cashew, and palm.
There is a universal demand Ior VOdue to its increasing
domestic and industrial uses.
Oil content oI VO varies between 3 70 oI the total
weight oI the seed, nut, kernel, or Iruit (Bachman, 2004).
The rate oI the VOconsumption is increasing compared
with animal Iat due to its health implication. The
industry is thus challenged to produce high quality oil
products at reduced prices. Importance oI oil crops as a
vital part oI the world's Iood supply is evidenced in
world agricultural trade statistics. Oil is obtained Irom
oil seed by either solvent extraction or mechanical
extraction or the combination oI both. (Khan and Hanna,
1984; Olajide, 2000).
Palm oil is a Iorm oI edible VOobtained Irom the Iruit oI
the oil palm tree. Previously, it is the second most widely
produced edible oil, aIter soybean oil, 28 million metric
tones were produced in 2004 (FAO, 2005). The palm
Iruit is the source oI both palm oil (extracted Irom palm
Iruit) and palm kernel oil (extracted Irom the Iruit seed).
Palm oil itselI is reddish because it contains highamount
oI beta carotene. It is used as cooking oil, to make
margarine and is a component oI many processed Ioods.
Boiling it Ior a Iewminutes destroys the carotenoids and
the oil becomes colorless. Palm oil is one oI the IewVO
relatively high in saturated Iats (like coconut oil) and
thus, semi-solid at room temperature. It is also an
important component oI soap, washing powders and
personal care products, and has controversially Iound in
a newuse as a Ieedstock Ior bio-Iuel. (Nwakwo, 2001).
Red palm oil (RPO) have constituents that help in
limiting damage during a heart attack. Saturated Iatty
acids have been shown to raise plasma cholesterol level
while monounsaturated and polyunsaturated Iatty acids
do the opposite (Ghirlanda et al 1993). RPOis composed
oI 51 saturated Iatty acid, 38 monounsaturated, 11
polyunsaturated Iatty acid and range oI anti oxidants like
carotenoid and tocotrienol which are major components.
The chieI saturated Iatty acid in RPO is palmitic, which
has no eIIect on plasma cholesterol level. 45 oI RPOis
oleic acid which is attached to the triglyceride backbone.
Oleic acid is the Iatty acid that gives olive oil its
reputation as healthy oil. RPO is also the only oil to that
contains signiIicant amounts oI tocotrienol, a patent
Iorm oI vitamin E and antioxidants. The oil has a high
carotenoid content which is 300 times higher than those
Iound in equivalent amounts oI tomatoes. The
tocopherol and tocotrienol help to protect the oil Irom
oxidation, which is detrimental to Ilavor and keep ability
oI the Iinished oil. It also have nutritional attributes a and
b carotene, the major constituents oI carotenoid the
339
precursors oI vitamin A.
The aim oI reIining palm oil is basically to convert the
crude oil to quality edible oil by removing objectionable
impurities to the desired levels in the most eIIicient
manner. This also means that where possible losses in
the desirable component are kept minimal. The
impurities which are contain in the crude palm oil are;
Iatty acid (FFA), gums (phosphpolipids, phosphotides),
dirt, shell trace, moisture, trace metal, oxidation
products trace, iodine etc. (Cornelius 1984, OwolaIe
2002). The study would thereIore, sort answer to
stability oI palm oil under diIIerent storage condition
and investigate the established practice Ior packaging
and storing oI palm oil.
Methodology:
Red palm oil is purchased Irom market in Ikorodu with
an enquiry to know the day oI production. Aportion oI
the oil was taken Ior chemical analysis to knowits initial
properties or qualities. AIter which it was packaged into
diIIerent packaging materials (2 clear glass bottle, CGB,
2 green glass bottles, GGB, and 2 amber glass bottles
AGB). Apart which contains packages oI one Irom each
o
color was stored under shade (27+1 C) and the other part
o
stored under light (40+1 C). These samples are
withdrawn aIter several days oI storing Ior chemical
analysis to knowits rancidity state. The analyses carried
out are Iree Iatty acid( FFA), Acid value( AcV), Peroxide
value( PV), Para-Anisidine value( P-AU) and B-
carotene level.
Materials and equipment:
The materials used Ior the packaging oI oil are two (2)
clear glass bottles, CGB, two (2) green glass bottles,
GGBand two (2) amber glass bottles, AGB.
The materials and equipment used Ior chemical analysis
are diIIer Irom each analysis and would be mentioned in
the course oI analysis.
Chemical analysis:
Acid Value (Acv) and Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
Determination
Apparatus
- Conical Ilask (250ml)
- Automatic pipette and burette
Reagents
- Diethyl ether
- Alcohol
- Phenolphthalein solution (1 per cent)
- 0.1m sodium hydroxide.
Procedure
25ml diethyl ether was mixed with 25ml alcohol and 1
ml oI phenolphthalein solution (1) and was careIully
neutralized with 0.1m sodium hydroxide. 2 grams oI the
oil sample was dissolved in the mixed neutral solvent
titrated with aqueous 0.1m sodium hydroxide. A pink
colour which persist Ior 15sec. is obtained.
Acid value, AcV
The FFA value is usually calculated as oleic acid (1ml
0.1m NaOH 0.0282g oleic acid) in which case the acid
value 2 x FFA(Harold et al, 1987)
PeroxideValue (PV) Determination:
Apparatus
- Conical Ilask (250 ml) withstopper
- Automatic burette andpipette
- Boilingtube
- Water trough
Reagents
- ChloroIorm solution
- KI solution (5)
- 0.002m sodium thiosulphate solution
- Starch indicator
Procedure
2g oI the oil sample were weighed (M) into dry 250
stoppers conical Ilask Ilushed with inert gas. 10ml oI
chloroIorm was added and swirled to dissolve the oil.
The Ilask was stopper and shakes Ior 1 min and placed
Ior another 1 min Iurther in the dark. 75ml oI distilled
was added, mixed and the Iree iodine was titrated (Vml)
with 0.002m oI sodium thiosulphate solution using
soluble starch solution (1) as an indicator. The reagent
blanktitration (V ) was alsodone.
o
The peroxide value, PV
Where T is the exact molarity oI the thiosulphate
solution. (Harold et al 1987).
Para - AnisidineValue (P-Av) Determination:
The para anisidine is deIined by convention as 100
times the optional density measured at 350nm in a 1 cm
cuvette oI a solution containing 1.00g oI the oil in 100ml
oI a mixture oI solvent and reagent.
Apparatus
- Test tubes 10ml min. With either ground glass
stoppers or TeIlon TM lines screwcaps.
- Volumetric Ilasks 25ml
- Automatic pipette (pipette tte capable oI
delivering exactly1ml and5ml ).
- Spectrophotometer suitable Ior observation at
350nm (Beckman DU 64 UV/Vis scanning
spectrophotometer)
- Glass cuvettes 1.00+0.01 cm, the two cuvette
oI eachpart must be identical
titration (ml)5.61
Wt.oI sample used
mcq/kg
(v-v)t103
M
340
Reagents
- Isooctane (2,2,4 trimethylpentane) optically
clear
- Glacial acetic acid analytical reagent quality
- P-Anisidine analysical reagent quality,
0.25g/100ml solution in glacial acetic acid.
Procedure
2g oI the sample were weighed into 25ml volumetric
Ilask which was dissolved and diluted to volume with
isooctane. The absorbance (Ab) oI the solution was
measured at 350nm in a cuvette Iilled with solvent as a
blank.
5ml oI the oil solution was pipette into one test tube and
exactly 5ml oI the solvent into a second test tube. By
means oI an automatic pipette, an exactly 1ml oI the
solvent was pipette into the second test tube. By means
oI an automatic pipette an exactly 1ml oI the p-Anisidine
reagent was pipette to each tube and shake.
AIter 10 minutes, the absorbance (As) oI the solvent in
the Iirst test tube was measured in a cuvette at 350mm
using the solution Irom the second test tube as a blank in
the reIerence cuvette. (Harold et al 1987).
Calculations:
The p Anisidine value (p AV) is given by the Iormula
p-AV
where As absorbance oI the oil solution aIter reaction
with the
p-anisidine reagents.
Ab absorbance oI the oil solution
M mass oI the sample (which is 2g)
- C A R OT E N E ( P R OV I TA MI N A 0
DETERMINATION)
Apparatus
- Test tubes 10ml min
- Automatic pipette and burette
- Spectrophotometer (Beeckman DU 64 UV/V
is. Scanning spectrophotometer)
Regents
- Antimony chloride solution
- ChloroIorm solution
Procedure
The spectrophotometer was Iitted with a test-tube
attachment, 4ml oI antimony chloride was pipette into a
reIerence tube and 1ml oI chloroIorm solution was
added. 2ml oI reagent was pipette into each oI the other
tubes. With the reIerence tube in the light beam, the
instrument was set to 'test' and 0.5ml oI the oil sample
was added, mixed rapidly and the optical density was
25(1.2As-Ab)
M
measured. This was repeated with the other tubes and the
average optical density was calculated. The reading was
compared against a standard graph prepared Irom
vitamin Aacetate solutions over the range 0 15 i.u. per
ml. (Harold et all, 1987).
Results and discussion:
The result below showed an increase in all the
parameters under examination as a result oI heat or
irradiation with the exception oI carotene level which
showed a decrease in the value. The hydrolytic and
oxidative reaction is most pronounced in the clear glass
bottle and least pronounced in the amber glass bottle.
Also, the reaction is more pronounced under the sunlight
than in the dark, an indication that light is responsible Ior
auto-oxidation Ioundin palm oil.
The Iormation and increasing quality oI the peroxide
value and p- anisidine value is a strong indication Ior
continues deterioration oI the oil. Peroxides are strong
oxidizing agents considered in some quarters as
dangerous specie in living tissue. The peroxides and
their oxidation products are also associated with the oII-
odours Ioundin oils.
The reduction in carotene level is an indication oI
loss in nutritive value oI palm oil, which is a reduction in
vitamin Aintake Irom palm oil.
Table 1: Result oI the initial quality oI the oil beIore
storage compared against a standard graph prepared
Irom vitamin A acetate solutions over the range 0 15
i.u. per ml. (Haroldet all, 1987).
Results and discussion:
The result below showed an increase in all the
parameters under examination as a result oI heat or
irradiation with the exception oI carotene level which
showed a decrease in the value. The hydrolytic and
oxidative reaction is most pronounced in the clear glass
bottle and least pronounced in the amber glass bottle.
Also, the reaction is more pronounced under the sunlight
than in the dark, an indication that light is responsible Ior
auto-oxidation Iound in palm oil.
The Iormation and increasing quality oI the peroxide
value and p- anisidine value is a strong indication Ior
continues deterioration oI the oil. Peroxides are strong
oxidizing agents considered in some quarters as
dangerous specie in living tissue. The peroxides and
their oxidation products are also associated with the oII-
odours Ioundin oils.
341
The reduction in carotene level is an indication oI loss in nutritive value oI palm oil, which is a reduction
in vitamin Aintake Irom palm oil.
Table 1: Result oI the initial quality oI the oil beIore storage.
S/N Perimeter/unit Result
1 A V 27.2
c
2 FFA, 13.6
3 PV,meq/kg 0.9
4 p-Anisidine meq/kg 1.1
5 B-carotene, g/g 1700
Table 2: Sample result aIter withdrawal at end oI 28 days oI storage.
CGB: Clear Glass Bottle; AcV: Acid Value; FFA: Free
Fatty acid; PV: PeroxideValue;
p AV: para AnisidineValue.
Conclusion and recommendation:
Conclusion:
CareIul examination oI the study showed that the
stability oI palm oil depends on its prevention Irom
irradiation, moisture and heat. Stability is best achieved
or deterioration can be prevented by storing in a dark
glass bottle under a shade in a heat Iree surrounding. The
Iormation oI Iree Iatty acids is generally responsible Ior
the soapy taste in some oils. The rise in the acid value due
to irradiation by exposing palm oil to X radiation will
render it unsuitable Ior domestic use and some industrial
application.
Recommendation:
It is highly recommended to exclude palm oil Irom the
list oI item scanned with X rays at the exit point oI
sovereign nations, to prevent auto-oxidation. This may
lead to quality degradation. ThereIore, it is
recommended that palm oil should be stored under shade
ina dark lowheat conductivity container.
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