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justice
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Management Research News
Vol. 29 No. 11, 2006
pp. 701-712
#Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0140-9174
DOI 10.1108/01409170610716016
Impact of organisational justice in
an expatriate work environment
Cedwyn Fernandes and Raed Awamleh
University of Wollongong in Dubai, Dubai, UAE
Abstract
Purpose This study analyses the impact of organisational justice as encompassed by three
components, distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice on self assessed
performance and job satisfaction of employees in an expatriate environment. The study investigates
the impact of these justice measures on expatriates and United Arab Emirates (UAE) nationals.
Design/methodology/approach The organisational justice measures developed by Niehoff and
Moorman were used to test their impact on employee performance and job satisfaction amongst the
two groups; expatriates who work in the UAE, and UAE nationals. Data were collected from
employees working in the UAE. Descriptive statistics, inter correlations and regression analyses was
used to examine the data.
Findings For the UAE nationals group, distributive and interactional justice has a significant
impact on both satisfaction and performance. All justice constructs had an impact on satisfaction for
the expatriate group, but surprisingly none of these components of organizational justice had an
impact on self-perceived performance of expatriates. The effects of gender, age and salary levels were
also explored.
Research limitations/implications Self-perceived performance is used to measure performance
which is a limitation and it would be of value to try to independently measure performance.
Practical implications Given the large expatriate workforce in the UAE, the study highlights the
need for companies to train and educate their managers as to the impact of the perceived lack of
justice on the motivation and commitment of their employees.
Originality/value This study is the first of its kind in the UAE and was conducted in a highly
diverse work environment.
Keywords Justice, Expatriates, United Arab Emirates, Performance appraisal, Job satisfaction,
Self assessment
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Employee job performance and satisfaction are considered to be key variables that
impact the performance of organisations. In a highly competitive global economy,
businesses must strive to identify factors that influence the performance and job
satisfaction of employees. One such factor is organisational justice; which describes the
individuals (or groups) perception of the fairness of treatment received from an
organisation and their behavioural reactions to such perceptions (Greenberg, 1993).
Moreover, organisational justice has been shown to have an impact on
organisational outcomes. When employees feel unfairly treated, they respond both
affectively (e.g. lowcommitment) and behaviourally (e.g. turnover) (Lathamand Pinder,
2005). A number of studies have been conducted linking organisational outcomes to
organisational justice, job satisfaction (McFarlin and Sweeney, 1992), commitment
(Folger and Konovsky, 1989), organisational citizenship behaviour (Moorman, 1991)
and performance (Alder and Tompkins, 1997).
However, limited research has been conducted examining the effects of
organisational justice on organizational outcomes in an environment where the
workforce consists of a large percentage of expatriates which is a gap this paper
attempts to fill. This study is designed to assess the impact of organisational justice on
employees self-perceived performance and job satisfaction in the United Arab
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Emirates (UAE) business environment, which consists of over 120 nationalities from a
wide range of cultural, religious and ethnic backgrounds. The UAE economy is a high
growth economy (Ministry of Planning, 2005). It is rapidly diversifying into areas of
tourism, manufacturing, logistics, banking and finance. The economy has attracted a
large number of international companies, which operate inside and outside the free
zones, and are attracted to the UAE because of its advanced infrastructure, modern
investment laws, and the available young and wide pool of expatriate professionals
who tend to be highly skilled. The majority of these workers come from the Indian
subcontinent (51.3 per cent), Arab region (37.4 per cent), Eastern and Western Europe,
North America, Australia and New Zealand (2.2 per cent) (Ministry of Planning, 2003).
The Indian subcontinent and Arab country nationals consist of the largest grouping of
expatriates in the UAE.
Although there are no concrete or formal figures, it is widely believed that
expatriates comprise approximately 85 per cent of the workforce in the UAE. The
conditions for employment among the UAE nationals and expatriates differ vastly.
UAE nationals mostly seek public sector jobs and are assured of life long employment.
Even those who work in the private sector are almost guaranteed long-term
employment as it is very difficult in practice to dismiss them for redundancies or low
performance. The UAE government has initiated several programs, under the
Emaratization strategy, to encourage the recruitment of nationals in the private sector,
proposing certain recruitment targets for specific sectors including banking, insurance
and education. More recent efforts have also started under various schemes. On the
other hand, expatriate employees are hired on renewable three year contracts and can
be terminated within the terms of the contract with a specified term notice. In addition,
expatriates are very diverse in terms of professions and nationalities, therefore, the
employees perception of what is organisational justice may differ due to the contractual
terms and different backgrounds and predispositions.
In addition to testing for performance and satisfaction among the two main groups
of nationals and expatriates, this study will investigate the impact of variables such as
gender, age, and salary levels on organisational justice. This paper will use the
organisational justice measures developed by Niehoff and Moorman (1993) to test their
impact on employee performance and job satisfaction, and address important
demographic factors.
Organisational justice
Greenberg (1990) refers to organisational justice as the just and fair manner in which
organisations treat their employees. Organisational justice is generally considered to
encompass three different components (McDowall and Fletcher, 2004); distributive
justice, procedural justice and interactional justice.
Distributive justice refers to the concerns expressed by employees with regards to
the distribution of resources and outcomes (Greenberg, 1990; Cropanzano and Folger,
1989). It is the individual within the organisation who determines the fairness of
the distribution through comparison with others. The employee is concerned about the
equity aspect of justice; does the individual think they got what they deserved? In the
form of work loads, work schedules, salary levels, bonuses, promotions, housing
allowances. It deals with the employees perception of whether the outcome is fair or
otherwise forms the basis of the concept of distributive justice.
Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of procedures which are used to determine
outcome decisions (Folger and Konovsky, 1989). These procedures should be consistent,
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bias free and take into account the concerns of all parties and be morally acceptable
(Leventhal, 1980). Here the employee is concerned about whether the decision process is
fair and the process used to determine the outcome was just. It is mainly concerned with
the fairness of the means that an organisations uses to determine outcomes.
Interactional justice relates to the fairness of interpersonal communication relating
to organisational procedures (McDowall and Fletcher, 2004). It is concerned with how
the information was communicated and whether the individuals affected by a decision
were treated in a courteous and civil manner (Bies and Moag, 1986), in other words
being treated with respect and dignity.
These three concepts of organisational justice will be used to study their impact on
employees self assessed performance and job satisfaction.
Method
Population, sample, and subjects
The population of this study consisted of all internationally owned and operated
companies in the UAE across various industries and sectors. A total of 719
questionnaires were distributed by hand to volunteers from students in graduate
programs at a medium size international university in the UAE, these students are
employed in the UAE. Additionally, several national and multinational companies were
approached in person, those who agreed to participate, allowed the researchers to
distribute questionnaires on their premises and collect themback fromtheir employees.
Four hundred and fifty three questionnaires were returned, a 60 per cent response rate,
out of these 302 were used and the remaining excluded for missing data (or other
mistakes), resulting in a 42 per cent response rate. 75 per cent of the respondents were
expatriate, 67 per cent of the respondents were male; 59 per cent were less than or equal
to 30 years old and 53 per cent earned more than UAE Dhiram (AED) 7,000 per month.
For the purposes of the analyses, data was split in two groups, UAE nationals, and
expatriates. Amongst the UAE National Group 71 per cent were male; 68 per cent less
than or equal to 30 years old and 84 per cent earned over AED 10,000 a month. The
expatriate group consisted of 21 different nationalities, 41 per cent Indians, 23 per cent
Arabs, 19 per cent Iranians and 11 per cent Western expatriates; 67 per cent were male;
57 per cent were less than or equal to 30 years and 67 per cent earned less than or equal
to AED10,000. Data collection took two months.
Measures
Distributive, procedural and interactional justice was measured by using the scales
developed by Niehoff and Moorman (1993). The distributive justice scale consisted of 5
items; examples of this scale are my work schedule is fair; I consider my workload to
be fair. The procedural justice scale consisted of 5 items and listed items such as job
decisions are made by my manager in an unbiased manner, all job decisions are
applied consistently across all affected employees. The interactional scale consisted of
9 items, example of this scale are, when decisions are made about my job my manager
treats me with respect and dignity, the manager offers adequate justification for
decisions made about my job.
The authors adopted two instruments to measure the dependent variables; these
were developed and validated by Al-Dmour and Awamleh (2002). Job satisfaction was
assessed by an 8-item scale covering areas normally tapped in organisational
behaviour research. Examples of items include, In general, I am satisfied with work,
I find that my opinions are respected at work, and My job provides me with adequate
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financial rewards. The self-assessed performance scale is comprised of 5 items such as
I consider my performance better than the average employees in my company, and
I always reach my targets.
The entire set of these scales was included in one questionnaire. They all used a
unified 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire included a total of 40 items written in
English, which is the language all subjects used to respond. The questionnaire set is
provided in the Appendix.
Results
Scale reliabilities, means and standard deviations
Results showed that the job satisfaction scale reliability estimate is 0.80, and that of job
performance 0.73. Distributive justice scale showed a reliability of 0.78, procedural
justice 0.87 and interactional justice 0.91.
Model testing: multiple regression and correlation results
Intercorrelations among all variables used in this study are summarized in Table I.
Satisfaction shows high and significant correlations with all three concepts of
organisational justice. Procedural justice and interactional justice show a high and
significant correlation. Both dependent variables showmoderate correlation, which is a
desirable outcome in this type of study.
Multiple regressions
Four multiple regression models, two for each of the groups were run in order to test
the impact of the organisational justice variables.
(1) UAE nationals Impact of organisation justice variables on job satisfaction
Results of the first regression model are shown in Table II. The overall model
is significant at p <0.001. Multiple regression revealed significant impact of
DISTR (Distributive) and INTER (Interactional) at p <0.001, conversely,
PROCD (Procedural) failed to show any significant relationship with job
satisfaction.
(2) UAE nationals Impact of organisation justice variables on self perceived job
performance
Results of the second regression are given in Table III. The overall model is
significant at p <0.001. Multiple regression revealed significant impact of
DISTR and INTER at p <0.001, conversely, PROCD once again failed to show
any significant relationship with job performance.
Table I.
Mean, standard
deviation and
intercorrelations of
performance, job
satisfaction, distributive
justice, procedural justice
and interactional justice
Mean
Standard
deviation 1 2 3 4 5
1 Satisfaction 2.641 0.816 0.158* 0.559* 0.679* 0.708*
2 Performance 2.763 0.796 0.187* 0.096 0.155*
3 Distributive justice 2.763 0.836 0.510* 0.523*
4 Procedural justice 2.859 0.897 0.808*
5 Interactional justice 2.714 0.871
Note: *Correlation is significant at p <0.01
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(3) Expatriate Impact of organisation justice variables on job satisfaction
Results of the first regression model are shown in Table IV. The overall model is
significant at p <0.001. Multiple regression revealed significant impact of
DISTR, PROCDand INTER at p <0.001.
(4) Expatriate Impact of organisation justice variables on self perceived job
performance
Results of the first regression model are shown in Table V. The overall model is
not significant, and multiple regression revealed no significant impact of any of
the justice measures on self perceived job performance.
Testing for the possible impact of demographic and behavioural variables on self
perceived performance and job satisfaction a series of additional regression models
were performed. Specifically, the data set was divided based on gender, age and salary.
These results mainly conform to the main regression model, with few notable
exceptions (Table VI).
Table II.
Multiple regression. Job
satisfaction is dependent
variable UAE nationals
Dependent variable: job satisfaction
Adjusted R square 0.550
Standard error 0.606
Analysis of variance
DF Mean square
Regression 3 13.08
Residual 73 0.279
F=31.954 Significance of F=0.000
Variables in the equation
Variable (constant) Standardized beta t Significance of t
0.766 0.446
DISTR 0.224 2.026 0.046
PROCD 0.085 0.542 0.590
INTER 0.502 3.120 0.003
Table III.
Multiple regression. Self
perceived performance
is dependent variable
UAE nationals
Dependent variable: self perceived performance
Adjusted R square 0.283
Standard error 0.916
Analysis of variance
DF Mean square
Regression 3 8.050
Residual 73 0.838
F=9.605 Significance of F=0.000
Variables in the equation
Variable (constant) Standardized beta t Significance of t
1.857 0.000
DISTR 0.428 3.003 0.004
PROCD 0.346 1.709 0.092
INTER 0.427 2.062 0.043
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Discussion
One of our main premises is to expect the various justice constructs to be significant
across the board while anticipating some differences in reactions between the national
and expatriate workers. These differences, if ascertained, can be partly explained by
the manner in which these two groups are treated with regards to employment
practices. Our first two tests looked at the UAE nationals and their reactions to justice
as they relate to satisfaction and performance. As expected based on the global body of
literature, justice constructs are positively related to both dependent variables, except
for procedural justice, in both cases, which is an intriguing result.
So what about procedural justice? Why is procedural justice an exception to the
above logic in the case of UAE nationals? Well, procedural justice, unlike distributive
and interactional justice, is less personal. It is mainly concerned with the process used
to determine rewards, incentives, continuous employment and so on. However, we
suspect that in the case of UAE nationals, there is an understanding that their
continuous employment and career progress is more dependent on government
Table IV.
Multiple regression.
Job satisfaction is the
dependent variable
expatriates
Dependent variable: job satisfaction
Adjusted R square 0.574
Standard error 0.513
Analysis of variance
DF Mean square
Regression 3 26.679
Residual 221 0.263
F=101.404 Significance of F=0.000
Variables in the equation
Variable (constant) Standardized beta t Significance of t
3.311 0.001
DISTR 0.224 4.513 0.000
PROCD 0.297 4.126 0.000
INTER 0.366 5.052 0.000
Table V.
Multiple regression. Self
perceived performance is
dependent variable
expatriates
Dependent variable: self perceived performance
Adjusted R square 0.010
Standard error 0.673
Analysis of variance
DF Mean square
Regression 3 0.107
Residual 221 0.454
F=0.236 Significance of F=0.871
Variables in the equation
Variable (constant) Standardized beta t Significance of t
12.208 0.000
DISTR 0.002 0.031 0.975
PROCD 0.092 0.826 0.410
INTER 0.079 0.712 0.477
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programs and policies than on organisational procedures. In most cases, it is quite
common to have different inconsistent procedures dealing with employees based on
their nationalities and backgrounds, including compensation, leave time, career paths,
performance appraisals and others. As the federal government is trying to reduce
unemployment amongst the nationals, it has embarked on the Emaratization program,
as discussed earlier, where businesses are required to demonstrate good efforts to
recruit and maintain nationals, otherwise they may suffer some sanctions. This effort
for the national employee may take the procedural justice factor out of the equation as
they know that their employment and promotion is generally a matter of government
policy. This is not to say that they perform at a lower or higher levels, as different
performance levels is not the question of this paper; our interpretation of results
suggests that when it comes to assessing procedural justice, our group discounts its
impact on satisfaction and performance because of prevailing environmental factors.
The results in this case of our second group, the expatriates, are much less
straightforward. While with the dependent variable of satisfaction, all three justice
constructs became significant and conform to our expectations and the body of
literature, none of the justice factors showed a relationship with performance. Indeed,
this latter result does not tally with the body of research that we reviewed which
generally accepts that perceptions of justice, at all dimensions, strongly influences both
affective and behavioural individual responses. Accordingly, these intriguing results
present the field of organisational justice with some issues to reckon with. An obvious
question is how could organisational justice be influencing satisfaction but not
performance in the case of UAE expatriates?
First, we need to reassert that the results concerning UAE expatriates satisfaction
conform to the findings of mainstream research and accordingly perceptions of
Table VI.
Regression models
demographic variables
Job satisfaction
a
Performance
a
Dependent variable UAE national Expatriate UAE national Expatriate
Gender
Male DISTR (0.003) DISTR (0.000)
PROCD (0.009)
INTER (0.018)
INTER (0.009)
Female INTER (0.017) DISTR (0.038)
INTER (0.000)
DISTR (0.003)
Age
30 years INTER (0.005) PROCD (0.002)
INTER (0.001)
DISTR (0.008)
>30 years DISTR (0.011) DISTR (0.000)
PROCD (0.003)
INTER (0.000)
INTER (0.025)
Salary/month
AED 10,000 DISTR (0.031)
PROCD (0.002)
INTER (0.000)
>AED 10,000 DISTR (0.042)
INTER (0.031)
DISTR (0.000)
PROCD (0.031)
INTER (0.001)
DISTR (0.005)
INTER (0.034)
Note:
a
All values show significance of t
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distributive, procedural and interactional justice all lead to feeling of satisfaction. That
is undeniably a desirable organisational and individual outcome that will normally
have a spillover effect and can contribute to a healthy work environment which is likely
to facilitate various positive work outcomes. However, in the interest of parsimony, we
will focus our discussion more on the second and more challenging result.
Performance (self-perceived as measured in this study) does not seem to be linked to
perceptions of interactional, distributive or procedural justice. This result largely
contradicts conventional research outcomes in this area, which generally propose and
show significant positive links between all dimensions of justice and performance. In
other words, perceptions of justice do influence or modify performance of individuals
who try continuously to restore justice by several methods, one such method is holding
back performance.
As mentioned earlier, the UAE labor environment consists of overwhelming
majority of expatriate workers who reside temporarily in the UAE but do not settle
there permanently (currently they cannot by lawbecome citizens of UAE). Accordingly,
the turnover in staff in organisations is higher than the average elsewhere. Laws are
still developing and changing including labor and general business laws. There are no
labor unions or labor advocacy organisations, and hence there is no enterprise
bargaining agreements. Salary and benefits often times differ even within the same
organisation, and that includes multinational corporations. The terms of employment
are governed by individual contracts that are explicitly and implicitly tilted towards
the employer. The general sense is that inequalities are part of the norm and common
practice reinforced by a system of individual negotiations of salaries, benefits, power
structures, workloads and so on.
To complicate matters further, in many professions the immediate and free
movement between jobs across organisations is restricted by immigration law, which
requires a period of interruption of employment that is normally spent out of the
country. Taken all of the above into consideration, one can possibly see how employees
in the UAE may look at organisational justice a little differently than normal. It is
possible that even those expatriates who may expect and demand certain justice
standards and practices in their home countries condition themselves with the new
situation fairly quickly by placing their ideals, experiences and predispositions in
context. More specifically, we expect that employees consciously separate their
affective from behavioural responses to the same stimulus. In this case, it appears that
our sample has largely done so, in a manner consistent with the above interpretation,
when they linked the justice constructs to job satisfaction but not performance. Since
the bargaining powers of employees are very limited compared to those of the employer
under the current environment, fluctuating performance is not really an option. This is
so because dropping performance can lead employers to apply serious procedures of
terminating employment or at least not renewing contracts. Accordingly, there is very
little roomfor flexibility when it comes to job performance.
Unlike performance, satisfaction is more under the control of the individual and is
much less visible to the manager (i.e. employer), and accordingly less controlled by the
organisation. Satisfaction is an affective response that can not be instantly or easily
measured by the employer, while performance is a behavioural response and can be. In
essence, an employee who looks around the organisation and perceives inequity and
injustice in their various manifestations and dimensions may feel unhappy about them
(job dissatisfaction) but will generally have to not allow this attitude to be translated
into lower performance, because he/she simply can not afford to.
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Other important results are focused on demographic differences within the two
groups. While Table VI reports all significant results, we will focus on a few key ones.
It is noticeable that when the UAE national group is broken down by gender, age and
salary, none of the results showed significance on the procedural justice, which
strongly supports the overall result regarding the UAE nationals and the two
dependent variables on procedural justice. Similarly, the expatriate group, broken
down into the three demographic variables showed no relation to performance, which
again strengthens the earlier overall results. One other interesting observation is the
UAE nationals difference on justice based on salary difference. Those who make less
than AED 10,000 a month (equivalent to US $3,700, and generally considered below
average income), do not relate satisfaction to any of the justice variables. This may
mean that the UAE group looks at the justice issues after certain level of income is
achieved, and not before. This gives support to the two factor theory advanced by
Herzberg (e.g. Herzberg et al., 1959; Thomas, 2000). The theory argues that hygiene
factors which include mainly financial compensation represent the minimum
expectations from the job, and their absence will cause dissatisfaction irrespective of
other factors. Another noticeable finding within the UAE nationals group is the gender
difference on distributive and interactional justice. The male group showed a
significant relationship with distributive justice, while the female group exhibited a
significant relationship with interactional justice. Although, similar results were not
revealed in the other group, it can be suggested that this result is consistent with
research on gender in management which indicates that males are more outcome
oriented (distributive justice), and females are more focused on the process and on
maintaining the relationships with colleagues and supervisors (interactional justice).
Future research directions
Results of this study open the door for further investigations. Areas deserving future
serious attention include the relationship between satisfaction and performance within
the context of organisational justice, and with further focus on expatriate and UAE
nationals as study groups. Of importance is deeper investigation of the UAE national
workforce with regards to their various reactions and feelings towards the
Emiratization strategy and the specific impact of that on their affective and behavioural
responses on the job.
In addition, this study used self-perceived performance which is a limitation and it
would be of value to try to independently measure performance. The perceptions and
impressions of businesses themselves about the concepts and practice of organisational
justice would certainly enrich future studies and will provide meaningful perspectives.
Also worthy of scholarly attention is the assessment of effects that experience, level of
skills, career aspirations have on perceptions of satisfaction and performance.
Importantly, the cultural and demographic factors need to be further explored and
tested. In this regard, the UAE is a fertile ground where a very large percentage of the
labor force is expatriate. Such a study will become even more relevant in light of the
nationalization policy that the government is implementing (Emaritaization). This
environment presents promising opportunities for cultural studies as they relate to
models such as organisational justice.
Conclusion
Undoubtedly, findings of this study support the dominant views in organisational
justice literature with some alternative observations. While research in this area
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accepts the assertion that the organisational justice dimensions give rise to both
affective responses and behavioural responses, findings here suggest that there might
be situations where that view does not hold. As discussed earlier, these intriguing
results allow for different interpretations, however, they also call for considerable
further studies designed in ways that allowfor reaching more concrete conclusions.
Although it is far too early to conclude that expatriate employees in the UAE will
always de-link their performance from organisational justice factors, as provocative as
that can be, companies in the UAE can improve levels of satisfaction and performance
and create a more positive work environment if they address equity and fairness issues
at all levels. We believe that it is well worth the effort for companies to train and
educate their managers as to the impact of perceptions of lack of justice on the
motivation and commitment of their employees.
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Appendix. Questionnaire
Table AI.
Job satisfaction
In general, I am satisfied with this job.
I find that my opinions are respected at work.
Most people on this job are very satisfied with it.
I am satisfied with the recognition I get for the work I do.
I am satisfied with the way my pay compares with that for similar jobs in other firms.
I am satisfied with the personal relationship between my boss and his/her employees.
I am satisfied with the way my boss handles employees.
Performance
I consider my performance better that the average employee in this firm.
I always reach my performance targets.
I feel that my performance is reflective of my abilities.
Overall, I am a very good performer.
I feel that my job conditions are not allowing me to perform at high levels.
Distributive justice
My work schedule is fair.
I think that my level of pay is fair.
I consider my workload to be fair.
Overall the rewards I receive here are quite fair.
I feel that my job responsibilities are fair.
Procedural justice
Job decisions are made by the manager in an unbiased manner.
My manager makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made.
To make job decisions my manager clarifies decisions and provides additional information when
requested by the employee.
All job decisions are applied consistently across all affected.
Employees are allowed to challenge or appeal job decisions made by the manager.
Interactional justice
When decisions are made about my job, the manager treats me with kindness and consideration.
When decisions are made about my job, the manager treats me with respect and dignity.
When decisions are made about my job, the manager is sensitive to my personal needs.
When decisions are made about my job, the manager deals with me in a truthful manner.
When decisions are made about my job, the manager shows concern for my rights as an employee.
Concerning decisions made about my job, the manager discusses the implications of the decisions
with me.
The manager offers adequate justification for decisions made about my job.
When making decisions about my job, the manager offers explanations that make sense to me.
My manager explains very clearly any decision made about my job.
MRN
29,11
712
About the authors
Cedwyn Fernandes is the Chair of the College of Graduate Studies and an Associate Professor in
Economics at the University of Wollongong in Dubai. Cedwyns has over 15 years experience in
academics and 12 years in the corporate sector. Research interests have been in the usage of
internet banking in the UAE and developing a macro-econometric model for the UAE economy
and in areas of leadership and work. Dr Fernandes received his PhD in Economics from the
University of Mumbai (India). Prior to joining UOWD in 2002, Cedwyn worked as an Economist
for a major international airline in the Middle-East. Cedwyn Fernandes is the corresponding
author and can be contacted at: cedwynfernandes@uowdubai.ac.ae
Raed Awamleh is the Dean of Academic Affairs and an Associate Professor in Management
at the University of Wollongong in Dubai (UOWD). Raed is an active researcher in leadership,
strategy, and communications. His research publications are in the areas of leadership, work
motivation, and business strategy including internet banking. Dr Awamleh received his PhD in
Management from the University of Mississippi (USA), his MBA from Mercer University in
Atlanta (USA) and his BBA from Yarmouk University (Jordan). Prior to joining UOWD in 2001,
Raed held several positions including the Assistant Dean of Business School at the University
of Jordan.
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