+

BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MEDICAL WORD

Student Objectives
Upon cop!etion o" t#is c#$pte%& 'ou (i!! be $b!e to do t#e "o!!o(in)*
1. Define and provide several examples of word roots, combining forms, suffixes, and
prefixes.
2. Divide medical words into their component parts.
3. Describe how medical words are formed.
4. Explain the rules for building medical words.
To anal!e medical words, the student needs to identif the four elements that ma be used to
form words as said in 1.
WORD ROOTS
The main part or stem of a word is called a (o%d %oot +WR,- " #$ is usuall derived from
the %ree& or 'atin language and fre(uentl indicates a bod part. )ost medical words have
one or two roots.
E.$p!es o" Wo%d Roots
/%ee0 Wo%d Wo%d Root Me$nin)
&ardia * heart+ cardi ,,,,,,,,,,,,
gaster * stomach+ gastr ,,,,,,,,,,,,
hepat * liver+ hepat ,,,,,,,,,,,,
nephros* &idne+ nephr ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
osteon* bone+ oste ,,,,,,,,,,,,,
COMBININ/ FORMS
The cobinin) "o% +CF, is a #$ plus a vowel, usuall an - o -. 'i&e the #$, the ./
usuall indicates a bod part. 0n this text, a ./ will be listed as word root1vowel * e.g. cardi1o+
E.$p!es o" Cobinin) Fo%s
Wo%d Root + Cobinin) 1o(e! 2 Cobinin) Fo% Me$nin)
cardi o cardi1o heart
gastr o gastr1o stomach
arthr o arthr1o 2oint
derm o derm1o s&in
ct o ct1o cell
cephal o cephal1o head
cerebr o cerebr1o brain
Tr to learn the ./ rather than #$ because the ./ ma&es man words easier to pronounce
SUFFI3ES
" sufix is a word ending. 0n the words tonsill1itis and tonsill1ectom, The suffixes are 3itis
* inflammation+ and 3ectom* excision, removal+. .hanging a suffix gives medical words a
new meaning. 0n medical terminolog a suffix usuall indicates a procedure, condition,
disease, or part of speech. )an suffixes are derived from %ree& and 'atin words.
E.$p!es o" Su""i.es
Cobinin) Fo% + Su""i. 2 Medic$! Wo%d Me$ninj)
arthr1o 4centesis arthrocentesis puncture of a 2oint
*2oint+ *puncture+
thorac1o 4tom thoracotom incision of the chest
*chest+ *incision+
gastr1o .megal gastromegal enlargement of the stomac
*stomach+ *enlargement+
erthr1o 4cte erthrocte red blood cell
*red+ *cell+
ct1o 4log ctolog stud of a cell
*cell+ *stud+
4REFI3ES
" p%e"i. is a word element located at the beginning of a word. #hen a medical word contains
a prefix, the meaning of the word is changed. The prefix usuall indicates a number, time,
position, direction, color, or negation .
E.$p!es o" 4%e"i.es
4%e"i. + Wo%d Root + Su""i. 2 Medic$! Wo%d Me$nin)
hper therm 4ia hperthermia condition of excessive heat
*excessive+ *heat+ *condition+
intra muscul 4ar intramuscular within the muscles
*in, within+ *muscle+ *relating to+
macro gloss 4ia macroglossia condition of a large tongue
*large+ * tongue+ *condition+
micro card 4ia microcardia - of a small heart
BASIC RULES FOR BUILDIN/ AND DEFININ/ MEDICAL WORDS
There are two basic rules for building medical words.
Ru!e 5 " #$ is used before a suffix that begins with a vowel
Wo%d Root Su""i. Medic$! Wo%d Me$nin)
scler1 5 osis sclerosis abnormal condition of hardening
*hardening + *abnormal condition+
Ru!e 6 a combining vowel is used to lin& a #$ to a suffix that begins with a consonant and to lin& a
word root to another word root.
colon1o 5 scope 6 colonoscope instrument to view the colon
*colon+ * instrument to view+
#ords with more than one root are Copound Wo%ds
oste1 o1 chondr1 o1 5 itis 6 osteochondritis inflamation of bone and cartilage
*bone+ *cartilage+ *inflammation+
oste1 o1 arthr1 5 itis 6 osteoarthritis inflammation of bone and 2oint
*2oint+
De"inin) Medic$! Wo%ds
There are three basic steps for defining medical words.
- /irst, define the suffix, or last part of the word.
- 7econd, define the prefix, or first part of the word
- 'ast, define the middle of the word
gastr1o enter1 itis
stomach intestin inflammation
*2+ *3+ *1+
$ead as follows8
1. 0nflammation *of+ + * suffix+
2. 7tomach *and+ * first part of the word+
3. 0ntestine * middle+
4RONUNCIATION /UIDELINES
$e and oe onl the second vowel is pronounced
bursae, pleurae,
c and ) are given the soft sound s and 2 before e, i and
cerebrum, circumcision,gingiva, gigantism
e and es when forming the final letter or letters of a word are often pronounced as separate sllables
sncope, sstole
c# is sometimes pronounced 0
cholesterol, cholemia, trachea
i at the end of a word * to form a plural+ is pronounced -ee9
bronchi, fungi, nuclei
ps * at the beginning, is pronounced s as in pscholog
SUFFI3ES
" suffix is a word element placed at the end of a word or stem, which serves to form a new word.
7imilarl, b adding a suffix to a medical word a new word is formed. )edical terminolog has a
multitude of suffixes which are derived either from %ree& or 'atin. The suffix 7$!)i$ in the word
arthralgia * pain in 2oint+ is of %ree& origin. The suffix 7itis in bronchitis *inflamation of bronchi+ is of
'atin origin
There are two general rules for building new medical words b using suffixes.

1. 7uffixes that begin with a vowel are added directl to the word root.
#$ 5 7://0; 6 )ED0."' #<$D
larng 5 itis 6 larngitis
m 5 algia 6 malgia
2. #hen the suffix begins with a consonant, usuall a connecting vowel o is placed between the
word root and the suffix. Thus a combining form of a medical word is obtained.
#$ 5 < 5 7://0; 6 )ED0."' #<$D
nephr 5 o 5 tom 6 nephrotom
nephr 5 o 5 pex 6 nephropex
SUR/ICAL 4ROCEDURE SUFFI3ES
a+ Incision

8ecto'* surgical removal, excision+
appendectom, hemorrhoidectom
8centesis* surgical puncture+
amniocentesis 3 surgical perforation of the uterus, pericardiocentesis
8sto' *forming an opening+
bronchostom
8toe *instrument to cut+
osteotome
8to' to cut into
gastrotom
b+ p!$stic ope%$tions
8desis *bindig, stabili!ation+
arthrodesis4 surgical fixation of a 2oint
8%%#$p#' *suture+
splenorrhaph 3 surgical repair of the spleen
8pe.' *fixation ,suspension+
splenopex 3 surgical fixation of a mobile spleen
8 p!$st' * plastic repair, formation+
rhinoplast 3 a plastic surgical operation on the nose
c, Re"%$ctu%in)& !oosenin)& c%us#in)
8c!$sis * to brea& down, refracture+
osteoclasis
8!'sis * loosen, free from adhesions, distruction+
enterolsis 3 the operative division af adhesions between loops of intestine or between the intestine
and abdomonal wall, litholsis distruction of stones * dissolution+
8t%ips' ** to crush+
neurotrips 3 surgical crushing of a nerve, lithotrips

DIA/NOSTIC AND S9M4TOMATIC SUFFI3ES
8$!)i$ * pain+
malgia, dorsalgia, gastralgia
8ce!e *hernia , swelling+
neprhocele, cstocele, rectocele
8d'in$ *pain+
splenodnia , otodnia
8ect$sis * dilatation, expansion+
bronchiectasis
8ei$ *blood condition+
leu&emia
8)en * beginning, origin+
pathogen4 an disease 3producing microorganism
8)%$ * a writing, record+
cardiogram
8)%$p# * to write , record+*
cardiograph 3 an instrument
8i$sis *condition, formation of, presence of+
nephrolithiasis 3 a condiotion mar&ed b the presence of renal calculi*stones+
8sis *state of , condition+
=rognosis * fore&nowledge+
4itis *inflammation+
nephritis
8!o)' *stud of+
8$!$ci$*softening+
osteomalacia
8e)$!' *enlargement+
acromegal 3 enlargement of the extremities
88oid *resemble+ sli>iti
rheumatoid 3 risembling rheumatism
8osis *abnormal condition+
neurosis 3 mental disorder
8p$t#' *disease+
adenopath 3 enlargement of the glands
8peni$ *decrease, deficienc+
erthropenia 3 dificienc in the number of erthroctes
8p#$)i$ * eating+
polphagia 3 excessive eating
8p!e)i$ *paralsis, stro&e+
paraplegia 3 paralsis of the legs, para means to,at or from the side of
8p#obi$ *morbid fear+
claustrophobia
8%%#e$ * discharge, flow+
diarrhea
8sc!e%osis *hardening+
arteriosclerosis
8scope * instrument to visuall examine+
gastroscope
8scop' * examination, view+
gastroscop 3 inspection of the interior of the stomac
SUFFI3ES* AD:ECTI1E ENDIN/S
The ad2ective endings that mean pe%t$inin) to * &o2i se odnosi na+ are8
4$c4cardiac
4$!4carpal
8$%'4 hereditar
8ic$!4 phsiological
8ous4serous
8tic4mcotic
8ic 3 splenic
SUFFI3ES * NOUN ENDIN/S
8coccus 7 bacteria
streptococcus * berr shaped bacteria+
8c'te * cell+
leu&octe
8o!e *little, small+
arteriole
8t%op#' * development+
hpertroph 3 increase in si!e not in number
8u!e * little, small+
venule 3 little vein
8i$ +abnormal condition, an unhealth state+
pneumonia 3 inflammation of the lungs

4REFI3ES
" prefix is a word element located at the beginning of a word. 7ubstituting one prefix for another alters
the meaning of a medical word. )an medical words contain a prefix.
.onsider the terms eu;pne$ and d's;pne$- Eupne$ means breathing that is normal? d'spne$
)eans breathing that is painful or difficult.
The prefix eu8 means good, normal? the prefix d's8 means bad , painful, difficult
4%e"i. Wo%d Root Su""i. Medic$! Wo%d Me$nin)
pre 5 nat 5 al 6 prenatal pertaining to * the period +
*before+ *birth+ *pertaining to+ before birth
peri 5 nat 5 al 6 perinatal pertaining to *the period+
*around+ *birth+ *pertaining to+ around birth
post 5 nat 5 al 6
4%e"i.es o" position
4%e"i. Me$nin) E.$p!e 4%onunci$tion
ante4 ante1cubit1al
elbow
pre 4 before, in front pre1operative
pro4 pro1ot1ic
ear
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
epi4 above, upon epi1derm1is
s&in
hpo 4 hpo1derm1ic
infra 4 under, below infra1pub1ic
pubis relating to
sub4 sub1nas1al
nose pertaining to
inter4 between inter1cost1al
ribs
medi4 medi1al
middle pertaining to
meso4 meso1derm

post4 after, behind post1nat1al
retro4 bac&ward, behind retro1peritone1al
peritoneum
4%e"i.es o" Nube%
4%e"i. Me$nin) E.$p!e 4%onunci$tion
bi4 bi1later1al
two side relating to
di4 di1plegia
paralsis
dipl4 dipl1opia
double, twofold vision
diplo4 diplo1cocci diplo@&o&sai
spherical bacteria
hemi4 hemi1plegia *one side+
half paralsis
semi4 semi1circul1ar
circle
hper4 excessice , above normal hper1glc1emia
macro4 large macro1cephal
head
micro4 small microscope
mono4 mono1nucle1ar
one
uni4 uni1para
to bear *offspring+
multi4 multi1para
man, much
pol4 pol1phobia
fear*s+
primi4 first primi1gravida
pregnanc
(uadri4 four (uadri1plegia
tri4 three tri1ceps
heads
4%e"i.es o" Ne)$tion
a4 a1mast1ia
without, not breast condition
an4 an1esthes1ia
sensation condition
im4 im1potenc
no, not
in4 in1sane
sound
4%e"i.es o" Di%ection
ab4 from , awa from ab1norm1al
ad4 toward ad1stern1al
4%e"i.es od Di%ection + Continued,
4%e"i. Me$nin) E.$p!e 4%onunci$tion
circum4 circum1or1al
around mouth
peri4 peri1oste1itis
bone
ec4 ec1top1ia
out, out from place condition
ex4 ex1cise
to cut
dia4 dia1rrhea
through, across flow
trans4 trans1fusion
a pouring
ecto4 ecto1derm
exo4 outside, outward exo1trop1ia
turning condition
extra4 extra1ocul1ar
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
endo4 endo1cardi1um
in, within
intra4 intra1muscul1ar
super4 super1sensitive
above, excessive sensation
supra4 supra1ren1al
Ot#e% 4%e"i.es
anti4 ant1bacteri1al
against
contra4 contra1ception
conceiving
brad4 slow brad1card1ia
ds4 bad, painful,difficult ds1peps1ia
digestion
tach4 rapid tachi1pnea
hetero4 different heterosexual
homo4 same homo1sexual
mal4 bad mal1nutrition
food substances
pan4 all pano1phob1ia
pseudo4 false pseudo1plegia
sn4 union sn1arthr1osis
2oint abnormal condition
eu4 good, normal eu1pnea
4LURAL SUFFI3ES
Sin)u!$% 4!u%$! Ru!e Sin)u!$% 4!u%$!
$ $e $etain the $ and add e pleura pleurae
$. $ces Drop the . and add ces thorax thoraces
en in$ Drop the en and add in$ lumen lumina
is es Drop the is and add es diagnosis diagnoses
i. ices Drop i. and e. and add ices appendix appendices
e. apex apices
on $ Drop the on and add $ ganglion ganglia
u $ Drop the u and add $ bacterium bacteria
us i Drop the us and add i bronchus bronchi
' ies < ' < ies deformit deformities
$ $t$ $etain the $ and add $t$ carcinoma carcinomata

E3ERCISES
5- Cop!ete t#e "o!!o(in)
1. #ord beginnings are called ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
2. #ord endings are called,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.
3. The foundation of a word is called,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
4. " vowel lin&ing a suffix and a root or two roots is called the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
A. The combination of a root and a combining vowel is &nown as the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
6- /ive t#e e$nin) to t#e enti%e edic$! te%1. adenoma
=- Identi"' t#e p%e"i.es in t#e "o!!o(in) te%s $nd )ive t#e e$nin) o" t#e enti%e te%
1. pericarditis
2. retrogastric
3.hpodermic
4. triceps
A. diarrhea
B. circum renal
C. bradcardia
D. tachpnea
>- /ive t#e e$nin) o" t#e "o!!o(in) cobinin) "o%s
1. aden1o ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2. leu&1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
3. cephal1o 4. arthr1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
A. cerebr1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,B. ct1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
C. oste1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, D. dermat1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
E. bi1o,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1F.nephr1o
?- /ive t#e p%e"i.es "o% t#e "o!!o(in) En)!is# te%s
1. surrounding ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2. across ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
3. complete, through,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4. above,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
A. before,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,B. inside, within,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
C. excessive,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,C.behind,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
E. below, under,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1F.no, not,without,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
@- Bui!d edic$! te%s
1. blood mass *tumor+,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2. inflammation of a gland,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
3.pertaining to across the stomac,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.head pain,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
1.

TAE BOD9 AS A WAOLE
Ce!!s
The cell is the fundamental unit of all living things * animal or plant+. " cell is alive 3 as alive as ou
are. 0t breathes, ta&es in food, and gets rid of wastes. 0t also grows and reproduces. "nd in time it dies

Sii!$%it' in ce!!s
"ll cells are similar in that the contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids,
fats, and various minerals. This substance is called p%otop!$s-7everal parts of ever cell are 8
1. .e!! eb%$ne- This structure surrounds and protects the internal environment of the cell,
determinimg what passes in and out of the cell.
6- Nuc!eus- The nucleus is the controlling structure of the cell. 0t controls the wa a cell reproduces and
contains genetic material. "ll the material within the nucleus is called nuc!eop!$s-
=- C#%oosoes-These are 23 pairs of thin strands*vla&na+ of genetic material*DG"+ located within
the nucleus. .hromosomes contain regions &nown as )enes which determine our hereditar ma&e up.
>- C'top!$s- .toplasm is all the protoplasmic material outside the nucleus. 0t contains
$+itoc#ond%i$8 small bodies which carr on the production of energ in the cell b burning food in the
presence of oxgen.This process is called c$t$bo!is-- During catabolism complex food materials are
bro&en down into simpler substances and energ is released.b, Endop!$sic %eticu!u 3 a series of
canals within the cell. 7ome canals contain small bodies called %ibosoes which help ma&e substances
*proteins+ for the cell. This building up process is called $n$bo!is.
Di""e%ence in ce!!s
.ells are different, or speciali!ed, throughout the bod to carr out their individual functions. The are
also differrent in shape.C'to!o)' is a stud of the cell.
TISSUES
" tissue is a group of similar cells wor&ing together to do a specific 2ob." #isto!o)ist is one who
speciali!es in the stud of tissues. 7ome tpe of tissues are8 epit#e!i$! tissue& usc!e tissue& connective
tisue& $nd ne%ve tissue-
OR/ANS
These are structures composed of several &inds of tissue. /or example stomach is composed of muscle
tissue, nerve tissue, and glandular epithelial tissue. The medical term for internal organs is visce%$
*singular 3 viscus+.
S9STEMS These are groups of organs wor&ing together to perform complex functions.
BOD9 CA1ITIES
" bod cavit is a space within the bod which contains internal organs.
.%$ni$! - T#o%$cic- Abdoin$!- 4e%!vic- Spin$!- The cranial and spinal cavities are considered do%s$!
bod cavities. The thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities are considered vent%$!
bod cavities. #ithin the thoracic cavit there is another smaller cavit called t#e edi$stinu
The thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated b a muscular partition called the di$p#%$)
An$toic$! division o" t#e $bdoen
5- A'poc#ond%i$c regions * upper lateral regions beneath the ribs+
6-Epi)$st%ic region * region of the stomach+
3.Lub$% regions * two middle lateral regions+
4.Ubi!ic$! region*region of the navel or umbilicus+
A.In)uin$! regions * lower lateral regions+
B.A'po)$st%ic region * lower middle region, bilow the umbilicus+
An$toic$! division o" t#e b$c0
5- Ce%vic$! 4 Gec& region . There are C cervical vertebrae *.14.C+
6- T#o%$cic 8 .hest region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae*T 1 3 T12+
3. Lub$% 8 'oin or flan& region '14'A
4. S$c%$! 8 /ive bones 7147A
A. Cocc')e$! 7 The coccx * tailbone+ is a small bone composed of 4 fused * sraHten+ pieces.
Iou must &now the difference between t#e spin$! co!un $nd t#e spin$! co%d-
4osition$! $nd di%ection$! te%s
A""e%ent 8 conducting toward a structure
E""e%ent 4 conducting awa from a structure
Ante%io% 8 front of the bod
4oste%io% 8 bac& of the bod
Cent%$! 8 pertaining to the center
Deep 8 awa from the surface
Supe%"ici$! 7 near the surface
Dist$! 8 awa from the beginning of a structure
4%o.i$! 8 pertaining to the beginning of a structure
In"e%io% +c$ud$!, 7 awa from the head
Supe%io% +cep#$!ic, 3 pertaining to the head, above another structure
L$te%$! 8 pertaining to the side
Medi$! 8 pertaining to the middle or nearer the median plane
Supine 8 ling of the bac&
4%one 8 ling on the bell *abdomen+
" p!$ne is an imaginar flat surface. There are three planes of the bod8 "%ont$! & s$)itt$! & $nd
t%$nsve%se planes.
INTE/UMENTAR9 S9STEM 8 SBIN
I Int%oduction
The s&in and its accessor organs * hair, nails, and glands+ are &nown as the Inte)uent$%' s'ste
of the bod. 0ntegument means covering, and the s&in is the outer covering for the bod. 0t is ,however,
more than a simple bod covering.This complex sstem of speciali!ed tissues contains glands that
secrete several tpes of fluids, nerves that carr impulses, and blood vessels that aid in the regulation of
the bod temperature. The following paragraphs review the man important functions of the s&in.
/irst, as a protective membrane over the entire bod, the s&in guards the deeper tissues of the bod
against excessive loss of water, salts, and heat and against invasion of pathogens and their toxins.
7ecretions from the s&in are slightl acidic in nature, and this contributes to the s&in@s abilit to prevent
bacterial invasion.
7econd, the s&in contains two tpes of glands that produce important secretions. These glands
under the s&in are the seb$ceous and the s(e$t glands. The sebaceous glands produce an oil secretion
called sebu, and the sweat glands produce a water secretion called s(e$t- Sebu and sweat are
carried to the outer edges of the s&in b ducts and excreted from the s&in through openings or pores.
7ebum helps to lubricate the surface of the s&in, and sweat helps to cool the bod as it evaporates from
the s&in surface..
Third, nerve fibers located under the s&in are receptors for sensations such as pain, temperature,
pressure, and touch. Thus, the ad2ustment of an individual to his or her invironment is dependent on the
sensor messages relaed to the brain and spinal cord b the sensitive nerve endings in the s&in
/ourth, several different tissues in the s&in aid in maintaining the bod temperature
*thermoregulation+. Gerve fibers coordinate thermoregulation b carring messages to the s&in from
heat centers in the brain that are sensitive to increases and decreases in bod temperature. 0mpulses from
these fibers cause blood vessels to dilate * Hiriti se+ to bring blood to the surface and cause sweat glands
to produce the water secretion that carries heat awa.
STRUCTURE OF TAE SBIN
Epide%is 7 a thin cellular membrane laer.
De%is 8 dense, connective tissue laer
Subcut$neous tissue8 thic&, fat4containing tissue
Epide%is
The epidermis is the outermost, totall cellular laer of the s&in. 0t is composed of sCu$ous
epit#e!iu- Epithelium is the covering of both the internal and the external surfaces of the bod.
7(uamous epithelial cells are flat and scale4li&e * l2us&av+. 0n the outer laer of the s&in, these cells are
arranged in several laers +st%$t$, and are called st%$ti"ied sCu$ous epit#e!iu-
The epidermis lac&s blood vessels, lmphatic vessels, and connective tissue, and is therefore
dependent on the deeper dermis * also called co%iu+ laer and its rich networ& of capillaries for
nourishment. 0n fact, oxgen and nutrients seep out of the capillaries in the dermis, pass through tissue
fluid, and suppl nourishment to the deeper laers of the epidermis.
The deepest laer of the epidermis is called the b$s$! !$'e%- The cells in the basal laer are
constantl growing and multipling and give rise to all the other cells in the epidermis. "s the basal
laer cells divide, the are pushed upword and awa from the blood suppl of the dermal laer b a
stead stream of ounger sells. 0n their movement toward the most superficial laer of the epidermis,
called the st%$tu co%neu *roJnati slo2+the cells flatten, shrin&, lose their nuclei , and die, becoming
filled with a hard protein material called 0e%$tin- The cells are then called #o%n' ce!!s-
/inall, within 344 wee&s after beginning as a basal sell in the deepest part of the epidermis, the
&eratini!ed sell is sloughed off * l2uHti se+ from the surface of the s&in. The epidermis is thus constantl
renewing itself, cells ding at the same rate at which the are replaced.
The basal laer of the epidermis contains special cells called e!$noc'tes- )elanoctes form and
contain a blac& pigment called e!$nin that is transferred to other epidermal cells and gives colour to
the s&in.The number of melanoctes in all races is the same but the amount of melanin within each cell
accounts for the colour differences among the races.The presence of melanin in the epidermis is vital for
protection against the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation, which can manifest itself as s&in cancer.
0ndividuals who are incapable to form melanin at all are called $!bino + white+.
)elanin production increases with exposure to strong ultraviolet light, and this creates a suntan,
which is a protective respons. #hen the melanin cannot absorb all the ultraviolet ras, the s&in becomes
sunburned and inflamed. <ver a period of ears, excessive exposure to sun can tend to cause wrin&les
and even cancer of the s&in.
De%is + Co%iu,
The dermis laer is composed of blood and lmph vessels and nerve fibers, as well as the accessor
organs of the s&in, which are the hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.To support the
elaborate sstem of nerves, vessels, and glands, the dermis contains connective tissue cells and fibers
that account for the extensibilit of the s&in.
The dermis is composed of interwoven elastic and co!!$)en fibers..ollagen is a fibrous protein
material found in bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, as well as in the s&in.
Subcut$neous L$'e%
The subcutaneous laer of the s&in is another connective tissue laer? it speciali!es in the formation of
fat. Lipoc'tes *fat cells+ are predominant in the subcutaneous laer, and the manufacture and store
large (uantities of fat.. /unctionall , this laer of the s&in is important in protection of the deeper tissues
of the bod and as a heat insulator.
ACCESSOR9 OR/ANS OF TAE SBIN
5- A$i%
Kair is distributed all over the bod , except for the bottom of the feet*soles+ and the palms of the hands.
The roots of the hair lie in follicles, or poc&ets of epidermal cells situated in the corium. "t the bottom of
the follicle is a loop of capillaries enclosed in a covering called the p$pi!!$-The cluster of epithelial cells
ling over the papilla reproduces and is responsible for the eventual formation of the hair shaft 3 a
visible part of the hair. "s long as these cells remain alive, hair will regenerate even though it is cut or
pluc&ed or otherwise removed. Kair is &ept soft and flexible b sebaceous glands which secrete varing
amounts of oil sebum into the upper part of the hair follicle located near the surface of the s&in. The
growth of hair is similar to the growth of the epidermal laer of the s&in8 deep ling cells in the hair root
produce horn cells which move upward through the hair follicles which hold the hair fibers.
6- N$i!s
Gails are hard &eratin plates covering the dorsal surface of the most distal phalanges of each finger and
toe. The are composed of horn cells that are cemented together tightl and can extend indefinitel
unless cut or bro&en. The nails grow in much the same wa as the hair. The nail bed, li&e the hair root, is
situated in the corium, The pin& colour of the nails is due to their translucent * providan+ (ualit which
allows the underling vascular tsissue to show through.
The semilunar * half moon + white region of the base of the nails is called !unu!$. 0t has a whitish
appearance because the vascular tissue underneath does not show through. The narrow band of
epidermis that extends from nail wall onto the surface is called the cutic!e or eponichium * onch means
nail+.
The average growth rate for fingernails is around 1mm per wee& and it is somewhat slower for the toe
nails. The ma2or function of the nails is to protect the tips of the fingers and toes from bruises or other
&inds of in2uries.
=- /!$nds
$, Seb$ceous /!$nds
The sebaceous glands produce an oil secretion called the sebu and are located in the corium laer of
the s&in. These glands are filled with cells, the centers of which are saturated with fatt droplets. "s
these cells disintegrate the ield * ispuHtati + the sebum. The are closel associated with hair follicles
and their ducts open into the hair follicle through which the sebum is released.The acidic nature of
sebum helps destro harmful organisms on the surface of the s&in and, thus, prevents infection.
7ebaceous glands are present over the entire bod except the soles of the feet and palms of the hands.
b, S(e$t /!$nds
7weat glands are also called sudoriferous glands * sudor 3 sweat +. The are located deep in the corium
and are found on almost all bod surfaces. The collect fluid containing water, salt and waste products
from the blood and carr it awa in canals that end in pores on the s&in surfaces, where it is deposited as
sweat.
7weat or perspiration helps regulate bod temperature because cooling of the s&in occurs when sweat
evaporates. The odor produced when sweat accumulates on the s&in is due to action of bacteria on the
sweat.
DISORDERS OF TAE SBIN
5- Cut$neous !esions
" leason is a pathological or traumatic alteration of tissue. The following terms describe
common s&in lesions.
$cu!e 4 non palpable, discolored* especiall reddened+ flat spots or patches* examples 8 measles,
rash, flat moles, frec&les+
p$pu!e 3 small , solid, circimscribed raised areas of s&in * warts, pimples+
(#e$! 4 vascular eruption of the s&in often characteri!ed b smooth , slightl elevated, edematous area
that is redder or paler than the surrounding s&in usuall accompanied b itching* examples8 allergic
reactions to insect bites, hives+
vesic!e 7 circumscribed collections containing serous fluid * blisters+ Examples 8 burns, dermatitis,
scabies, smallopox.
bu!!$e*singular4 bulla+ are large blisters.
pustu!e 8 circumscribed collection of pus * gno2 +
po!'p 7 a masbroom4 li&e growth extending on a stal& from the surface of mucous membrane
u!ce% 7 an open sore or erosion of the s&in or mucous membrane
c'st 7 a closed pouch or sac containing fluid or semisolid material.
"issu%e 7 a groove * bra!da, Jli2eb+ or crac&li&e sore resembling ulsers
S9M4TOMS AND 4ATAOLO/ICAL SBIN CONDITIONS
$cne8 a chronic inflammator disease of the sebaceous glands and hair follicles of the s&in
$cne vu!)$%is * ordinar+ 3 is the common variet of acne. 0t is characteri!ed b the formation of
blac&heads* comedones, sing. comedo+
$!binis 7 absence of pigment in the s&in, hair and ees.
$t#!eteDs "oot 3 a fungus infection of the s&in, also called tine$ pedis
b$s$! ce!! c$%cino$ 3 malignant tumor of the basal laer of the epidermis. 0t is a slow4growing tumor
and usuall occurs on the upper half of the face, near the nose , and is nonmetastasi!ing.
bu%ns 7 thermal in2uries to the outer sufrace of the bod. The are usuall classified into three tpes8
first,second and third degree burns.
ce!!u!itis 4. " spreading infection, especiall of the subcutaneous tissue
c#!o$s$ 7 $!so c$!!ed e!$s$ 8pigmentar s&in discoloration, usuall those occuring in ellowish4
brown patches or spots , usuall during pregnanc
cic$t%i. 7 scar left b a healed wound.
decubitus u!ce% * bed4sore+4 ulcers occur over bon areas that have been sub2ected to pressure against a
hard external ob2ect such as a bed.
de%$titis 3 an inflammation of the s&in
ecc#'osis 7 a bruise or purple spot on the s&in caused b escape of blood
ecEe$ 7 a chronic moist dermatitis. 0t is a common allergic reaction in children.
e.$nt#e$tous vi%$! dise$se 7 eruption * exanthem+ of the s&in due to a viral infection* measles,
%erman measles and chic&enpox
)$n)%ene 3 death of tissue associated with loss of blood suppl.
#e$n)io$ 3 an area in which the blood vessels form an abnormall excessive networ& in the s&in.
ipeti)o 7 bacterial inflammator s&in disease mar&ed b isolated vesicles, pustules, and crusted over
lesions
0e%$tosis 7 thic&ened areas of the epidermis
!eu0op!$0i$ 7 white, thic&ened patches on mucous membrane tissue of the tongue or chee&
e!$node%$ 7 abnormal brown or blac& pigmentation of the s&in
e!$no$ 7 cancerous tumor composed of melanoctes
nevusF nevi 7 congenital proliferation of blood vessels or pigmented cells on the s&in surface* moles and
hemangiomas+
on'c#i$ 3 inflammation of the nail bed
pep#i)us 7 blistering eruptions affecting the s&in and mucous membrane
petec#i$e 7 small, purplish, hemorhagic spots on the s&in? smaller versions of echmosis
p%u%itus 7 itching
sc$bies 3 a contagious parasitic infection of the s&in with intense pruritus
pso%i$sis 7 a discrete pin& or dull red lesion surmounted b characteristic silver scaling
sc!e%ode%$ 3 a chronic disease of the s&in caused b infiltration of fibrous or scar tissue into the s&in
sCu$ous ce!! c$%cino$ 3 malignat tumor of epithelial cells of the epidermis
tine$ 3 an fungal s&in disease
u%tic$%i$ 3 hives
viti!i)o 3 loss of pigment in the areas of the s&in* mil& 3 white patches+
ve%%uc$4 epidermal growth causeed b a virus * wart+
.<)L0G0G% /<$)7 "GD 7://0;E7
adip1o 4 fat 4 adipose 4 fatt
caus1o 4 burn, burning 4 causalgia 4 intensel unpleasant burning sensation

cauter1o 4 heat, burn 4 electrocauter 4 an apparatus for surgical dissection using heat
cutane1o 4 s&in 4 subcutaneous 4
derm1o 4 s&in 4 epidermis 4
dermat1o 4 s&in 4 dermatitis 4
diaphor1o 4 profuse sweating 4 diaphoresis 4 profuse sweating
erthem1o 4 redness 4 erthema 4 redness of the s&in
hidr1o 4 sweat 4 anhidrosis 4 absence or severe deficienc of sweating
ichth1o 4 scal, dr 4 ichthosis 3 a hereditar condition in which the s&in is dr
&erat1o 4 hard, horn tissue 4 &eratosis 4 an horn growth
seb1o 4 sebum 4 seborrhea 4 excessive secretion from sebaceous glands
s(uam1o 4 scale4li&e 4 s(uamous epithelium 4 plateli&e epithelium
steat1o 4 fat 4 steatoma 4 a cstic collection of sebum in a s. gland 4 sebaceous cst
trich1o 4 hair 4 trichomcosis 4 an disease of the hair due to infestion b a fungus
ungu1o 4 nail subungual 4
xanth1o 4 ellow 4 xanthoma 4 nodules develop under the s&in owing to excess lipid deposits
xer1o 4 dr 4 xeroderma 4 this is a mild form of ichthosis
4derma 4 s&in 4 poderma 4 a purulent s&in disease 3 containing pus
MUSCULOSBELETAL S9STEM
5- Int%oduction
The musculos&eletal sstem includes the bones, muscles, and 2oints. Each has several important
functions in the bod. Bones ,b providing the framewor& around which the bod is constructed, protect
and support our internal organs. "lso, b serving as points of attachment for muscles, bones assist in
bod movements.
The inner core of the bones is composed of hematopoietic tissue *red bone marrow manufactures
blood cells+, while other parts are storage areas for minerals necessar for growth, such as calcium and
phosphorus.
:oints are the places where bones come together. 7everal different tpes of 2oints are found
within the bod.
Musc!es , whether attached to bones or to internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for
movement.

6- Bones
/ormation
Lones are complete organs, chiefl composed of connective tissue called osseous *bon+ tissue
plus a rich suppl of blood vessels and nerves. <sseous tissue is a dense connective tissue that consists
of osteoc'tes *bone cells+ surrounded b a hard, intercellular substance filled with calcium salts.
During fetal development, the bones of the fetus are composed of cartilage tissue, which
resembles osseous tissue but is more flexible and less dense because of a lac& of calcium salts in its
intercellular spaces. "s the embro develops, the process of depositing calcium salts in the soft,
cartilagenous bones occurs, and continues throughout the life.
The gradual replacement of cartilage and its intercellular substance b immature bone cells and
calcium deposits is called ossi"ic$tion * bone formation+
Osteob!$sts are the immature osteoctes that produce the bon tissue that replaces cartilage
during ossification. Osteoc!$sts * 4clast means to brea&+ are large cells that function to reabsorb, or
digest, bon tissue. <steoclast *also called bone p#$)oc'tes + digest dead bone tissue from the inner
sides of bones and thus enlarge the inner bone cavit so that the bone does not become overl thic& and
heav.#hen a bone brea&s, osteoblasts la down the mineral bone matter * calcium salts+ and osteoclasts
remove excess bone debris * smooth out the bone+. The formation of bone is dependent to a great extent
on a proper suppl of calcium and phosphores to the bone tissue. These minerals must be ta&en into the
bod along with a sufficient amount of vitamin D. Mitamin D helps the passage of calcium through the
lining of the small intestine and into the bloodstream. <nce calcium and phosphorus are in the bones,
osteoblastic activit produces an en!me that causes the formation of a calcium4phosphate compound
giving bone its characteristic hard (ualit.
Got onl are calcium and phosphorus part of the hard structure of bone tissue, but calcium is
also stored in bones and small (uantities are present in the blood. 0f the proper amount of calcium is
lac&ing in the blood, nerve fibers are unable to transmit impulses effectivel to muscles? heart muscle
becomes wea& and muscles attached to bones undergo spasms.The necessar level of calcium in the
blood is maintained b the parathroid gland, which secretes a hormone to release calcium from bone
storage. Excess of the hormone * caused b tumor or other pathological processes+ will raise blood
calcium at the expense of the bones, which become wea&ened b the loss of calcium
St%uctu%e
Lones all over the bod are of several different tpes. Lon) bones are found in the thigh, lower
leg, and upper and lower arm. These bones are ver strong, are broad at the ends where the 2oin with
other bones, and have large surface areas for muscle attachment.
S#o%t bones are found in the wrist and an&le and have small, irregular shapes. F!$t bones are
found covering soft bod parts. These are the shoulder bone, ribs, and pelvic bones. Ses$oid bones
are small, rounded bones resembling a grain of sesame in shape. The are found near 2oints? the &nee
cap is the largest example of this tpe of bone.
T#e s#$"t& or middle region, of a long bone is called di$p#'sis. Each end of a long bone is called
an epip#'sis. The epiphseal line or plate represents an area of cartilage tissue which is constantl
being replaced b new bon tissue as the bone grows. .artilage cells at the edges of the epiphseal plate
form new bone and this is responsible for the lenghtening of bones during childhood and
adolescence.The plate calcifies and disappears when the bone has achieved its full growth.
T#e pe%iosteu is a strong, fibrous, vascular, membrane that covers the surface of a long bone,
except at the ends of the epiphsis. Lones other than long bones are completel covered b the
periosteum. Leneath the periosteum is the laer of osteoblasts which deposit calcium4phosphorus
compounds in the bon tissue. The ends of long bones are covered b a thin laer of cartilage called
$%ticu!$% c$%ti!$)e.
Cop$ct + co%tic$!, bone is a laer of hard, dense tissue that lies under the periosteum in all
bones and chiefl around the diaphsis of long bones.#ithin the compact bone is a sstem of small
canals containing blood vessels that bring oxgen and nutrients to the bone and remove waste products
such as carbon dioxide. These channels are called #$ve%si$n c$n$!s- .ompact bone is tunneled out in
the shaft of the long bones b a central edu!!$%' c$vit' which contains 'e!!o( bone $%%o(. Iellow
bone marrow is chiefl composed of fat cells.
C$nce!!ous bone, sometimes called spon)' bone, is much more porous and less dense than
compact bone. The mineral matter in it is laid down in a series of separated bon fibers called a spong
letticewor& or t%$becu!$e- 0t is found largel in the epiphses of long bones and in the middle portion of
most other bones. 7paces in cancellous bone contain %ed bone $%%o(. This marrow, as opposed to
ellow marrow which is fatt tissue, is richl supplied with blood and consists of immature and mature
blood cells in various stages of development.
0n an adult, the ribs, pelvic bone, sternum*breastbone+ and vertebrae, as well as the epiphses of
long bones, contain red bone marrow within cancellous tissue.The red marrow in the long bones is
plentiful in oung children, but decreases through the ears and is replaced b ellow marrow.

4%ocesses $nd dep%essions in bones
Bone p%ocesses are enlarged tissues which normall extend out from bones to serve as attachments for
muscles and tendons
1. bone #e$d 3 rounded end of a bone separated from the bod of the bone b a nec&
2. tube%c!e * &vrJica, tuber&ulum+ 3 small, rounded process for attachment of tendons and muscles
3. t%oc#$nte%* &vrga+ 3 large process on the femur for attachment of muscle
4. tube%osit' * hrapavost+ 3 large, rounded process for attachment of muscles or tendons
A. cond'!e + >vor, &ondil+4 rounded, &nuc&le4li&e process at the 2oint

Bone dep%essions are the openings or hollow regions in a bone which help to 2oin one bone to another
and serve as passagewas for blood vessels and nerves
1. "oss$ *2ama+ 3 depression or cavit in or on a bone
2. "o%$en * otvor+ 3 opening for blood vessels and nerves
3. "issu%e *pu&otina, fisura+ 3 a narrow, deep slitli&e opening
4. su!cus * bra!da, Jli2eb+ 3 a groove or furrow
A. sinus *!aton, sinus+ 3 cavit within a bone
C%$ni$! bones
5- "%ont$! bone + >eona &ost+ 3 forms the forhead and bon soc&ets that contain the ees
6- p$%iet$! bone *t2emena &ost+ 3 there are two parietal bones which form the roof and upper part
of the sides of the cranium
=- tepo%$! bone * sl2epoo>na &ost+ 3 two temporal bones form the lower sides and base of the
cranium. Each bone encloses an ear and contains a fossa for 2oining with the mandible.
>- occipit$! bone * !atil2na &ost+ 3 forms the bac& and base of the s&ull and 2oins the parietal and
temporal bones, forming a suture. The inferior portion of the occipital bones has an opening
called "o%$en $)nu through which the spinal cord passes.
?- sp#enoid bone * &linasta &ost+ 3 this bat4shaped bone extends behind the ees and forms part of
the base of the s&ull.
@- et#oid bone * reHetnica, etmoidna &ost+4 this thin, delicate bone is composed primaril of
spong, cancellous bone. +0t supports the nasal cavit and forms part of the orbits of the ees
F$ci$! bones

"ll of the facial bones ,except one, are 2oined b sutures so the are immovable. The
mandible* lower 2aw bone+ is the onl movable facial bone
The facial bones are8
5- n$s$! bones
2. !$c%i$! bones * lacrim1o 6 tear+
3. $.i!!$%' bones+ upper 2aw bones+
>- $ndibu!$% bone + $ndib!e,
A. E')o$tic bones + sponi>ne &osti+4 form the the high portion of the chee&
B. voe% * raoni& , vomer+4 forms the lower portion of the nasal septum
Sinuses& or air cavities, are located in specific places within the cranial and facial bones to lighten the
s&ull and warm and moisten air.
1e%teb%$! co!un $nd st%uctu%e o" ve%teb%$e
The vertebral or spinal column is composed of 2B bone segments, called vertebrae, which are arranged
in five divisions from the base of the s&ull to the tailbone* coccx+
The first seven bones, forming the nec& bone are the cervical *.14.C+ vertebrae.
The second set of 12 vertebrae are &nown as thoracic *T14T12 or D14D12+ or dorsal vertebrae.
These vertebrae articulate with the 12 pairs of ribs
The third set of five vertebral bones are the lumbar*'14'A+ vertebrae. The are the strongest and the
largest of the bac&bones. The s$c%u is a slightl curved , triangularl shaped bone."t birth it is
composed of five separate segments? these graduall become fused in the oung child.
The cocc'. is t#e t$i!bone. 0t is a fused bone formed from four small coccgeal bones
" vertebra is composd of an inner, thic&, dis&4shaped portion called ve%teb%$! bod' . Letween the
vertebrae are c$%ti!$)enous dis0s which help to provide flexibilit and cushion most of the shoc&s to
the vertebral column.
The ve%teb%$! $%c# is the posterior part of the vertebra, and consists of a spinous p%ocess& t%$nsve%se
p%ocesses $nd !$in$e-
Bones o" t#e t#o%$.& pe!vis $nd e.t%eities
Bones o" t#e t#o%$.
5- c!$vic!e 7 collar bone F a slender bone connecting the breastbone to each shoulder bone
6- sc$pu!$8 shoulder bone? two flat triangular bones, one on each dorsal side of the thorax
=- ste%nu8 breastbone ? a flat bone extending down midline of the chest
>- %ibs8 there are 12 pairs of ribs. $ibs 14C are called t%ue %ibs. The 2oin with the sternum
anteriorl and with the vertebral column in the bac&. $ibs D41F are called "$!se %ibs- 0n the
.bac& the 2oin with the vertebral column but 2oin the seventh rib anteriorl. $ibs 11412 are the
"!o$tin) %ibs because the are completel free at their anterior extremit.
Bones o" t#e $% $nd #$nd
?- #ue%us8 upper arm bone
@- u!n$ 7medial lower arm bone
G- %$dius8 lateral lower arm bone
H- c$%p$!s8 wrist bones
I- et$c$%p$!s8 these are five radiating bones to the fingers
5J- p#$!$n)es8 * sing. phalanx+ 3 finger bones, each finger * except the thumb+ has three phalanges
$ p%o.i$!& idd!e $nd dist$! p#$!$n.-
Bones o" t#e pe!vis
55 pe!vic )i%d!e4 hip bone is composed of three pairs of fused bones 8 the i!iu& isc#iu and pubis
Bones o" t#e !e) $nd "oot
56-"eu%4 thigh bone 13. p$te!!$8 &neecap 14. tibi$ 3 larger of two lower bones of the leg
1A. "ibu!$ 7 smaller of two lower leg bones 1B. t$%s$!s8 an&le bones 1C. et$t$%s$!s 7 lead to the
phalanges of the toes 1D. 4#$!$n)es o" t#e toes-
:oints
" 2oint * articulation+ is a coming together of two or more bones. 7ome 2oints are immovable, such as
the sutu%e joints between the s&ull bones. <ther 2oints, such as those between the vertebrae, are partiall
movable. )ost 2oints, however, allow considerable movement. These freel movable 2oints are called
s'novi$! joints- Examples of snovial 2oints are t#e b$!! $nd soc0et tpe* hip 2oint? the head of the
femur fits into the acetabular fossa of the illeum+ and #in)e t'pe * elbow, &nee, and an&le 2oints+
The bones in a snovial 2oint are separated b a 2oint capsule composed of fibrous cartilage tissue.
'igaments* fibrous bands, or sheets, of connective tissue+ often anchor the bones together around the
2oint capsule to strenghten it.The surface of the bones at the 2oint is covered with a smooth cartilage
surface called the $%ticu!!$% c$%ti!$)e- T#e s'novi$! eb%$ne lies under the 2oint capsule and lines
the s'novi$! c$vit' between the bones. T#e s'novi$! "!uid contains water and nutrients which nourish
as well as lubricate the 2oints so that friction on the articular cartilage is minimal.
Bu%s$e
Lursae are closed sacs of snovial fluid lined with a snovial membrane. The are formed in the spaces
between tendons* connective binding bones to muscles+, and bones. Lursae lubricate these areas where
friction would normall develop close to the 2oint capsule.
7ome common bursae locations are at the elbow 2oint+ o!ec%$non bu%s$+ , &nee 2oint * p$te!!$% bu%s$+
, and shoulder 2oint * sub$c%oi$! bu%s$+.
Musc!es
T'pes o" usc!es
There are three tpes of muscles in the bod, St%i$ted usc!es , also called vo!unt$%' or s0e!et$!
muscles, are the muscle fibers that move all bones, as well as the face and ees. #e have conscious
control over the activit of this tpe of muscle.7triated muscle fibers* cells+ have a pattern of dar& and
light bands, or fibrils, in their ctoplasm. " delicate membrane called s$%co!e$ surrounds each
s&eletal muscle fiber. /ibrous tissue that envelops muscles is called "$sci$. Soot# usc!es , also called
invo!unt$%' or visce%$! muscles, are those muscle fibers which move our internal organs such as
digestive tract, blood vessels, and secretor ducts leading from glands.. #e have no conscious control
over these muscles. The are called N smoothO because the have no dar& or light fibrils in their
ctoplasm. #hile s&eletal muscle fibers are arranged in bundles, smoth muscle forms sheets of fibers as
it wraps around tubes and vessels. C$%di$c usc!e is striated in appearnce but li&e smooth muscle in its
action. 0ts movement cannot be consciousl controlled.
Actions o" s0e!et$! usc!es
7&eletal * striated + muscles are the muscles that move the bones of our bod. #hen a muscle contracts,
one of the bones to which it is 2oined remains virtuall stationar as a result of other muscles that hold it
in place. The point of attachment of the muscle to the stationar bone is called the o%i)in * beginning +
of that muscle.The point of 2unction of the muscle to the bone that moves is called the inse%tion of the
muscle. Gear the point of insertion, a muscle narrows and is connected to the bone b wa of a tendon.
)uscles can perform a variet of actions. 7ome of the terms used to describe those actions are8
F!e.ion 3 Decreasing the angle between two bones? bending a limb.
E.tension 3 0ncreasing the angle between two bones? straightening out a limb.
Abduction 3 )ovement awa from the midline of the bod.
Adduction 3 )ovement toward the midline of the bod.
Rot$tion 3 .ircular movement around an axis.
Do%si"!e.ion 3 Decreasing the angle of the an&le 2oint so that the foot bends bac&ward.
4!$nt$% "!e.ion 3 Extending the foot toward the ground, pointing the toes.
Supin$tion 3 /acing upward.
4%on$tion 3 /acing downward
To%sion 3 " rotar movement of the trun&? twisting.
4$t#o!o)ic$! conditions o" t#e s0e!et$! s'ste $nd "%$ctu%es
$n0'!osin) spond'!itis 7 chronic , progressive arthritis with stiffening of 2oints, primaril of the spine.
$%t#%itis 7 inflammation of 2oints
bunion 7 abnormal prominence with bursal swelling at the metatarsophalangeal 2oint near the base of
the big toe.
bu%sitis 3 inflammation of bursae
E(in)Ks s$%co$ 7 malignant bone tumor
e.ostosis 7 bon growths* benign tumors+ arising from the surface of the bone.
"%$ctu%e 7 sudden brea&ing if a bone. C!osed "%$ctu%e 7 a bone is bro&en but there is no open wound in
the s&in. Open "%$ctu%e4 a bro&en bone with an open wound in the s&in./%eenstic0 "%$ctu%e8 the bone
is partiall bro&en and partiall bent, as when a green stic& brea&s. Treatment of fractures involves
%eduction which is the restoration of the fracture to its normal positionThere is a c!osed %eduction
which is manipulative, and an open %eduction which re(uires an incision. A c$st is applied to fractures
to immobili!e the in2ured area
dis!oc$tion 7 displacement of a 2oint from its place. Dislocation must be reduced and then immobili!ed
)out' $%t#%itis+)out, 7 inflammation of 2oints caused b excessive uric acid in the bod. " 2oint chiefl
affected is the big toe.
osteo$%t#%itis 7 chronic inflammation of bones and 2oints due to degenerative changes in cartilage
osteopo%osis 7 decrease in bone densit? thinning and wea&ening of bones due to loss of calcium salts.
osteo'e!itis 3 inflammation of the bone and bone marrow due to a pogenic infection.
sp%$in 3 trauma to a 2oint, with pain, swelling, and in2ur to ligaments
s!ipped disc 7 protrusion of an intervertebral disc.
%ic0ets+%$c#itis, 7 inflammation of the spinal column. 0t is primaril a disease of infanc and childhood
when bones are forming but fail to receive calcium and phosphorus into the bloodstream from the
intestines
Spin$! diso%de%s
Lecause of various conditions, the normal curvature of the spine ma become abnormall bent or slope
awa. Sco!iosis 7 a lateral curvature? 0'p#osis 7 hunchbac&? !o%dosis 7 is a forward curvature of the
lumbar spine
4$t#o!o)ic$! conditions o" t#e uscu!$% s'ste
A'ot%op#ic !$te%$! sc!e%osis 7 movement disorders* muscles atroph+ with degeneration of nerves in
the spinal cord and lower region of the brain.
Muscu!$% d'st%op#' 7 a group of inherited diseases characteri!ed b progressive wea&nes and
degeneration of muscle fibers.
M'$st#eni$ )%$vis 7 lac& of muscle strength mar&ed b paralsis
4o!''$!)i$ %#eu$tic$ 7 muscle pain primaril of the shoulder and pelvis, with absence of arthritis
and signs of muscle distress *tegoba, bol+.
Cobinin) "o%s $nd su""i.es
mel1o bone marrow melopoiesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
orth1o straight prthopedics ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=ed1o means child
spondl1o vertebra spondlosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4blast embronic or osteoblast,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
immature cell
4clast to brea& osteoclast,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4listhesis slipping spondlolisthesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4phsis to grow epiphsis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
calcane1o heel bone calcaneal,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
malleol1o malleolus maleolar,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
perone1o fibula peroneal,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
P
an&l1o stiff an&losis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
arthr1o 2oint arthroplast,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
arthrotom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
hemarthrosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
hdrarthrosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
chondr1o cartilage achondroplasia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
chondroma,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
chondromalacia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ten1o tendon tenorrhaph,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
tenosnovitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
tendin1o tendon tendonitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4desis to bind arthrodesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Tie together
4 stenosis narrowing spinal stenosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
leiom1o smoothe muscle leiomoma,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
mos1o muscle mositis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
plant1o sole of the foot plantar flexion,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
rhabdom1o s&eletal muscle rhabdomosarcoma,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4asthenia lac& of strength masthenia gravis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4throph development athroph,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Gourishment

4%e"i.es
ab4 awa from abduction,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ad4 toward adduction,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
dorsi4 bac& dorsiflection,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pol4 man, much polmalgia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
E.e%cises
.omplete the following sentences
1. Lones are composed of bon connective tissue called,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,tissue.
2. Lone cells are called,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
3. The bones of a fetus are composed mainl of ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
4. During bone development, immature bone cells called ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
peoduce bon tissue.
A. 'arge bone cells called ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,digest bone tissue to shape the bone and
smooth it out.
B. Two mineral substances necessar for proper development of bones are
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
C. The shaft of a long bone is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
D. The ends of a long bone are ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
E. $ed bone marrow is found in spong or ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,bone.
1F. Iellow bone marrow is composed of ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4tisue.
/ive t#e edic$! n$es o" t#e "o!!o(in) bones*
7holder blade, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? upper arm bone4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?
Lreastbone4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? thigh bone, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
/inger bones4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? hand bones4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
)edial lower arm bone4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? collar bone4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?
#rist bones4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? bac&bone4
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7maller of two lower leg bones4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?midfoot
bones4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,hree parts of the pelvis are8
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
/ASTROINTESTINAL S9STEM
/unctions
The gastrointestinal sstem is also called the di)estive or $!ient$%' sstem. 0t begins with the mouth
or the oral or buccal cavit where food enters the bod, and terminates at the anus where solid waste
materials leave the bod.
The functions of the digestive sstem are threefold8
/irst, complex food material ta&en into the mouth must be digested, or bro&en down, mechanicall and
chemicall, as it travels through the gastrointestinal tract. Digestive enE'es speed up chemical
reactions and help in the brea&down * digestion+ of complex nutrients. .omplex proteins are digested
into simpler $ino $cids? complicated sugars are reduced to simple sugars,such as )!ucoseF and large
fat molecules*t%i)!'ce%ides, are bro&en down to "$tt' $cids and glcerol.
7econd, the digested food must be $bso%bed into the bloodstream b passing through the walls of the
small intestine. 0n this wa, valuable nutrients such as sugars and amino acids, can travel to all the cells
of the bod. .ells then cataboli!e*burn+ nutrients in the presence of oxgen to release energ stored
within the food. .ells also use amino acid nutrients to anaboli!e* build+ large protein molecules needed
for growth and development."lthough the walls of the small intestine also absorb fatt acids and
glcerol, these nutrients enter lmphtic vessels. Digested fats eventuall enter the bloodstream as lmph
vessels 2oin with blood vessels in the upper chest region.
The third function of the digestive sstem is the e!iin$tion of the so!id ($ste materials that cannot be
absorbed into the bloodstream. The large intestine concentrates these solid wastes, called "eces, and the
wastes pass out of the bod through the anus.
"G"T<)I "GD =KI70<'<%I
The alimentar canal begins with the oral cavit, or mouth.
The c#ee0s form the walls of the oral cavit, and the !ips surround the opening to the cavit.
The #$%d p$!$te forms the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth, and the muscular so"t p$!$te
lies posterior to it. Ru)$e are irregular ridges in the mucous membrane covering the anterior portion of
the hard palate. Kanging from the soft palate is a small, soft tissue called the uvu!$. The word uvula
means little grape. The structure functions to aid in producing sounds and speech.
The ton)ue extends across the floor of the oral cavit, and muscles attach it to the lower 2aw bone.
0t moves food around during $stic$tion + chewing+ and de)!utition *swallowing+. 4$pi!$e , small
raised areas on the tongue, contain taste buds that are sensitive to the chemical nature of foods and allow
discrimination* ra!li&ovan2e+ of different tastes as food moves across the tongue.
The tonsi!s are masses of lmphatic tissue located in depressions of the mucous membranes on
both sides of the oropharnx* part of the throat near the mouth+. The act as filters to protect the bod
from the invasion of microorganisms and produce lmphoctes, which are white blood cells able to fight
disease.
The )us are made of flash tissue and surround the soc&ets of the teet#. The teeth that are located
in front of the oral cavit, the inciso%s and cuspids& cut and tear the food into small pieces. The teeth
located in the rear of the mouth are called o!$%s. The further crush and grind the food into finer
particles. Teeth are covered b hard en$e!& which gives them a white and smooth appearance. The
enamel is the hardest substance in the bod. Leneath the enamel is the main structure of the teeth, the
dentin- 0t is ellowish and is composed of bon tissue which is softer than enamel.
Dentin is surrounded b a thin laer of modified bone called ceentu. 0n the innermost part of the
tooth is the pu!p& a soft& delicate laer, which stores the nerves and blood vessels of the tooth, The teeth
are embedded in pin& flesh tissue &nown as gums or )in)iv$-
Three pairs of s$!iv$%' )!$nds surround the oral cavit. These exocrine glands produce a fluid
called s$!iv$ that contains important digestive enE'es-7aliva is released from t#e p$%otid )!$nd&
sub$ndibu!$% )!$nd $nd sub!in)u$! )!$nd-
"fter the food is chewed, it is formed into a round, stic& mass called a bo!us- The bolus is pushed
b the tongue from the mouth into the p#$%'n.- The pharnx is a muscular tube which serves as a
common passagewa for air from the nasal cavit to the larnx, as well as food going from the mouth to
the esop#$)us. The pharnx is divided into three ma2or sections8
1. The nasopharnx or epipharnx* the throat behind the nose+
2. The oropharnx or mesopharnx* the throat behind the mouth+
3. The larngopharnx or hpopharnx* the throat above the larnx+
The larngopharnx is further divided into two tubes? one which leads to the lungs, called t#e t%$c#e$&
and one which leads to the stomach, called the esop#$)us -
" small flap of tissue, the epi)!ottis, covers the trachea. The main function of the epoiglottis is to
prevent food from entering the trache
T#e esop#$)us , meaning swallowing * phag1o+ inward * eso4+, is a E to 1F inch muscular tube
extending from the pharnx to the stomach. $hthmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the
esophagus propel food to the stomach. 0t is called pe%ist$!sis .The process is li&e s(uee!ing a marble
through a rubber tube.
/ood passes from the esophagus into t#e sto$c#. The stomach is composed of an upper portion called
t#e "undus& a middle section &nown as the bod'& and a lower portion, the $nt%u- $ings of muscles
called sp#incte%s control the openings into and out of the stomach. The !o(e% esop#$)e$! sp#incte%
+c$%di$c sp#incte%, relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach. The
p'!o%ic sp#incte% allows food to leave the stomach when it is read./olds in the mucous membrane
lining the stomach are called %u)$e- The rugae contain digestive glands that produce the en!me pepsin
and #'d%oc#!o%ic $cid .
The role of the stomach is to prepare food chemicall and mechanicall so that it can be received in the
small intestine for digestion and absorbtion into the bloodstream.
T#e s$!! intestine* small bowel+ extends for twent feet * B meters+ from the ploric sphincter to the
first part of the large intestine. 0t has three parts. The first section is the duodenu , onl one foot in
length * 3F cm+ , which receives food from the stomach as well as bi!e from the !ive% and )$!!b!$dde%
and pancreatic 2uices from the p$nc%e$s . En!mes and bile help to digest food before it passes into the
second part of the small intestine, the jejunu & about D feet long. The 2e2unum connects with the third
section, the i!eu , about 11 feet long. The ileum attaches to the first part of the large intestine. )illions
of tin, microscopic pro2ections called vi!!i line the walls of the small intestine. The tin capillaries in
the villi absorb the digested nutrients into the bloodstream and lmph vessels.)ost of the absorption
ta&es place in the ilium.
T#e !$%)e intestine extends from the end of the ileum to the anus, 0t is divided into six parts8 cecum,
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The large intestine is a
continuation of the gastrointestinal tube and is attached to the ileum b ileocecal valve. This valve is
composed of sphincter muscles that serve to close the ileum at the point at which the small intestine is
connected to the colon.
The large intestine has an average diameter of two and one4half inches and is approximatel five feet
long. The cecu is the first two or three inches of the large intestine. 0t is a pouch on the right side.
"ttached to the cecum is a wormli&e* or vermiform+ pro2ection4 t#e $ppendi. , which performs no
function in the digestive tract and onl causes problems when infected.
The large intestine receives the fluid waste products of digestion and stores these wastes until the can
be released from the bod. Lecause the large intestine absorbs most of the water within the waste
material, the bod can expel solid "eces * stools+. Defecation is the expulsion or passage of feces from
the bod through the anus.
Three important additional organs of the digestive sstem are the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
"lthough food does not pass through these organs, each plas a crucial role in the proper digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
Live%
The liver is the largest glandular organ in the bod. 0t is located beneath the diaphragm in the right
upper (uadrant of the abdominal cavit. The liver produces so man vital functions that the human
organism cannot survive without it.
1. 4%oduces bi!e , which is used in the small intestine to emulsif and absorb fats. Lile is a thic&,
ellowish brown, sometimes greenish fluid. 0t contains cholesterol, bile acids, and several bile
pigments. <ne of these pigments is called bilirubin. Lilirubin is a waste product of hemoglobin
destruction.
2. $emoves glucose from blood , which it snthesi!es and stores as glcogen* starch+ in liver cells.
This is called )!'co)enesis .
3. Sto%es vit$ins, such as L12, ", D,E, and Q.
4. B%e$0s do(n or transforms some toxic products into less harmful compounds.
?- M$int$ins no%$! !eve! o" )!ucose in t#e b!ood-
B. Dest%o'es o!d e%'t#%oc'tes and ingests bacteria and foreign particles from the blood b
phagoctes.
C. 4%oduces v$%ious b!ood p%oteins , such as prothrombin and fibrinogen, which aid in the clotting
of blood* coagulation+.
4$nc%e$s
The pancreas secretes and produces pancreatic 2uices that help brea& down all tpes of food during the
digestive process. These 2uices empt into the pancreatic duct and eventuall are absorbed b the small
intestine. 0nsulin is another hormone that is secreted b the pancreas and exerts ma2or corntrol over
carbohdrate metabolism or the utili!ation of sugar in the bod. 0nsulin is produced b the cells located
within the tissue called t#e is!$nds o" L$n)e%#$ns . The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine
organ.

/$!!b!$dde%
The gallbladder serves as the storage area for bile. 0t is a pear shaped sac under the liver. During the
process of digestion, when there is a need for some bile, gallbladder releases it into the duodenum
through the coon bi!e duct- Lile is also drained from the liver through the #ep$tic ducts- The
hepatic ducts connect with t#e c'stic duct from the gallbladder and form the common bile duct.
COMBININ/ FORMS &SUFFI3ES& AN TERMINOLO/9
4$%ts o" t#e bod'
Cobinin) "o% Me$nin) Te%ino!o)'
an1o anus perianal
append1o appendix appendectom
appendic1o appendix appendicitis
bucc1o chee& buccal mucosa
cec1o cecum cecal
celi1o bell, abdomen celiac
cheil1o lip cheilosis
cholecst1o gallbladder cholesstectom
choledoch1o common bile duct choledochotom
col1o colon colostom
colon1o colon colonic
dent1i tooth dentibuccal
enter1o intestines, usuall small enterocolitis
intestine
gloss1o tongue hpoglossal
hepat1o liver hepatoma
labi1o lip labial
lapar1o abdomen laproscop
lingu1o tongue sublingual
odont1o tooth orthodontist* orth1o 6 straight+
or1o mouth oral* stomat1o also means mouth+
pancreat1o pancreas pancreatitis
proct1o anus and rectum proctologist
rect1o rectum rectocele
sialaden1o salivar gland sialadenitis
aml1o starch amlase
chol1e bile, gall cholelithiasis * lith1o means stone or calculus+
chlorhdr1o hdrochloric acid achlorhdria* absence of gastric 2uice+
gluc1o sugar gluconeogenesis * new sugar is made +
glc1o sugar hperglcemia
lip1o fat, lipid lipoma
lith1o stone cholecstolithiasis
sial1o saliva, salivar sialolith
steat1o fat steatorrhea 3 fats are improperl digested
and appear in the feces
4ase en!me lipase
4che!ia defecation hematoche!ia 3 bright red blood is found
in the feces
4 iasis abnormal condition choledocholithiasis
4prandial meal postprandial
4$t#o!o)' o" t#e di)estive s'ste
s'ptos
$no%e.i$ 'ac& of appetite* 4orexia 6 appetite+
$scites "bnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen
bo%bo%')us $umbling or gurglig noises produced b the movement of gas, fluid or both
in the gastrointestinal tract
constip$tion Difficult, delaed elimination of feces.
di$%%#e$ fre(uent, loose, water stools.
d'sp#$)i$ Difficult in swallowing.
"!$tus %ass expelled through the anus.
j$undice Iellow4orange coloration of the s&in
e!en$ Llac& stools. /eces containing blood.
n$use$ :npleasnat sensation in the stomach and a tendenc to vomit.
4$t#o!o)ic$! conditions
O%$! c$vit' $nd teet#
$p#tous sto$titis 0nflammation of the mouth wit small ulcers*apht1o means ulcer+
dent$! c$%ies Tooth deca.
#e%petic sto$titis 0nflammation of the mouth b infection with the herpesvirus.
o%$! !eu0op!$0i$ #hite pla(ues or patches on the mucosa of the mouth.
pe%iodont$! dise$se 0nflammation and degeneration of gums.
)$st%ointestin$! t%$ct
$c#$!$si$ /ailure of the lower esophagus sphincter to relax
* 4chalasia means relaxation+
$n$! "istu!$ "bnormal tube4li&e passagewa near the anus.
co!onic po!'posis =olps protrude from the mucous membrane of the colon.
co!o%ect$! c$nce% "denocarcinoma of the colon or rectum ,or both.
C#%on dise$se .hronic inflammation of the intestinal tract.
dive%ticu!$ "bnormal side poc&ets in the intestinal wall .
d'sente%' =ainful, inflamed intestines.
esop#$)e$! v$%ices 7wollen veins in the distal portion of the esophagus.
)$st%oesop#$)e$! %e"!u. 7olids and fluids return to the mouth from the stomach.
dise$se
#eo%%#oids 7wollen veins in the rectal region
#e%ni$ =rotrusion of an organ or part through the muscle normall
containing it.
i!eus /ailure of peristalsis.
u!ce% <pen sore or lesion of epithelial tissue.
u!ce%$tive co!itis .hronic inflammation of the colon with the presence of ulcers.
vo!vu!us Twisting of the intestine upon itself.
URINAR9 S9STEM
#hen foods li&e sugars and fats which contain particles of carbon, hdrogen, and oxgen, combine with
oxgen in cells, the waste produced are gases called carbon dioxide* carbon and oxgen+ and water
* hdrogen and oxgen+ in the form of vapor. These gases are removed from the bod b exhalation
through the lungs
/oods composed of protein are more complicated than sugars and fats. The contain carbon, hdrogen,
and oxgen plus nitrogen and other elements.The waste that is produced when proteins combine with
oxgen is called nit%o)enous ($ste , and it is more difficult to excrete * to separate out + from the bod
than are gases li&e carbon dioxide and water vapor. The bod cannot efficientl put the nitrogenous
waste into a gaseous form and exhale it, so it excretes it in the form of a soluble * dissolved in water+
waste substance called u%e$- The ma2or function of the urinar sstem is to remove urea from the
bloodstream so that it does not accumulate in the bod and become toxic.
:rea is formed in the liver from ammonia, which is derived from the brea&down of simple proteins
* amino acids + in the bod cells. The urea is carried in the bloodstream to the &idnes, where it passes
with water, salts, and acids out of the bloodstream and into the &idne tubules as u%ine .
Lesides removing urea from the blood, another important function of the &idne is to maintain the
proper balance of water, salts, and acids in the bod fluids. 7alts such as sodiu and pot$ssiu and
some acids are &nown as e!ect%o!'tes- Electroltes are necessar for the proper functioning of muscle
and nerve sells. The &idnes ad2ust the amount of water and electroltes b secreting some substances
into the urine and holding bac& others in the bloodstream for use in the bod.
The &idnes also act as endocrine organs. Examples of the &idneRs endocrine function include the
secretion of %enin& a substance important in the control of blood pressure, and e%'t#%opoietin 3 a
hormone that regulates the production of red blood cells.
The &idnes also secrete an active form of vitamin D, necessar for the absorption of c$!ciu from the
intestine.0n addition, hormones such as insulin and parathroid hormone are degraded and extracted
from the bloodstream b the &idne.
An$to' o" t#e $jo% o%)$ns
The organs of the urinar sstem are two 0idne's , two u%ete%s , the u%in$%' b!$dde% , the u%et#%$& and
the external opening called urethral or urinar e$tus-
The &idnes are bean4shaped organs situated behind the abdominal cavit* retroperitoneal+ on either side
of the vertebral column in the lumbar region of the spine. The are fist4si!ed and weigh 4 to B ounces
each * 1A42F dags+ . The &idne consists of an outer co%te. region and an inner edu!!$ region.
The depression on the medial border of the &idne, through which blood vessels and nerves pass, is
called the #i!u .
Two u%ete%s are muscular tubes lined with mucous membranes. The conve urine in peristaltic waves
from the &idnes to the urinar bladder.
The u%in$%' b!$dde% is a hollow , muscular, distensible sac in the pelvic cavit. 0t serves as a temporar
reservoir for urine. The t%i)one is a triangular space at the base of the bladder where the ureters enter
and the urethra exits.
The u%et#%$ is a membranous tube through which urine is discharged from the urinar bladder. The
process of expelling * voidin) + urine through the urethra is called ictu%ition- The female urethra is
about 1 and a 112 inches long. The male urethra is about D inches long .
Ao( t#e 0idne's p%oduce u%ine
Llood enters each &idne from the aorta b wa of the right and left %en$! $%te%ies . "fter the renal
arter enters the &idne * at the hilum+ , the arter branches into smaller and smaller arteries . The
smallest arteries are called $%te%io!es , and these are located throughout the cortex of the &idne.
Each arteriole in the cortex of the &idne leads into a mass of ver tin, coiled and intertwined smaller
blood vessels called c$pi!!$%ies- The collection of capillaries is called a )!oe%u!us- There are about
one million glomeruli in the cortex region of each &idne.
The &idnes produce urine b a process of "i!t%$tion- "s blood passes through the man glomeruli, the
walls of each glomerulus are thin enough to permit water, salts, sugar, and urea *with other nitrogenous
wastes such as c%e$tinine and u%ic $cid + to leave the bloodstream. These materials are collected in a
tin, cup4li&e structure called a Bo($n c$psu!e, which surrounds each glomerulus. The walls of the
glomeruli prevent large substances such as proteins and blood cells from filtering into the Lowman
capsule. These substances remain in the blood and normall do not appear in urine.
"ttached to each Lowman capsule is a long, twisted tube called a %en$! tubu!e-"s water, sugar, salts,
urea, and other wastes pass through the renal tubule, most of the water, all of the sugar, and some salts
return to the bloodstream through tin capillaries surrounding each tubule. This %e$bso%ption ensures
that the bod retains essential substances such as sugar, water, and salts.The final process in the
formation of urine is the sec%etion of some substances from the bloodstream into the renal tubule. )ost
are waste products of metabolism that become toxic if allowed to accumulate in the bod.This is the
method b which acids, drugs, and potassium are eliminated in urine.
Thus onl wastes, water, salts, acids, and some drugs remain in the renal tubule. Each renal tubule, now
containing urine * EAS water, AS urea, creatinine, salts, acids and drugs+, ends in a larger collecting
tubule.
Thousands of collecting tubules lead to the %en$! pe!vis& a basin4li&e area in the central part of the
&idne.7mall, cup4li&e regions of the renal pelvis are called c$!ices or c$!'ces * sing. calix or calx +
The renal pelvis narrows into the u%ete% , which carries the urine to the u%in$%' b!$dde% where the
urine is temporaril stored. The exit area of the bladder to the u%et#%$ is closed b sphincters that do not
permit urine to leave the bod.
TE$)0G<'<%I
7T$:.T:$E7
.ombining /orm )eaning Terminolog )eaning
c$!i;o calx*calx+ caliectasis
c$!ic;o caliceal
c'st;o urinar bladder cstitis
cstectom
cstostom
)!oe%u!;o glomerulus glomerular
e$t;o meatus meatal stenosis
meatotom
nep#%;o &idne nephropath
nephrolithotom
p'e!;o renal pelvis pelolithotom
%en;o &idne renal transplantation
t%i)on;o trigone trigonitis
u%ete%;o ureter ureterolithotom
vesic;o urinar bladder vesicoureteral reflux
7:L7T"G.E7 "GD 7I)=T<)7
$!buin;o albumin albuminuria
$Eot;o nitrogen a!otemia
dips;o thirst poldipsia
!it#;o stone nephrolithisis
noct;i night nocturia
o!i);o scant*os&udan+ oliguria
p';o pus puria
8t%ips' to crush lithotrips
u%;o urine*urea+ uremia
.ombining /orm )eaning Terminolog )eaning
u%in;o urine urinar
incontinence
8u%i$ urination, dsuria
urine condition hematuria
="TK<'<%0."' TE$)0G<'<%I
)!oe%u!onep#%itis in"!$$tion o" t#e 0idne' )!oe%u!us
inte%stiti$! nep#%itis in"!$$tion o" t#e %en$! inte%stitiu+ connective tissue t#$t
!ies bet(een t#e %en$! tubu!es,
nep#%o!it#i$sis 0idne' stones+ %en$! c$!cu!i,
nep#%otic s'nd%oe $ )%oup o" s'nd%oes c$used b' e.cessive p%otein !oss in t#e
u%ine+ also called nep#%osis,
po!'c'stic 0idne's u!tip!e "!uid "i!!ed s$cs+ c'sts, (it#in $nd upon t#e 0idne'
p'e!onep#%itis in"!$$tion o" t#e %en$! pe!vis $nd %en$! edu!!$
%en$! ce!! c$%cino$ c$nce%ous tuo% o" t#e 0idne' in $du!t#ood
%en$! "$i!u%e "$i!u%e o" t#e 0idne' to e.c%ete u%ine
%en$! #'pe%tension #i)# b!ood p%essu%e %esu!tin) "%o 0idne' dise$se
Wi!s tuo% $!i)n$nt tuo% o" t#e 0idne' occu%%in) in c#i!d#ood
:$0G"$I L'"DDE$
b!$dde% c$nce% $!i)n$nt tuo% o" t#e u%in$%' b!$dde%
"77<.0"TED .<GD0T0<G7
di$betes insipidus in$deCu$te sec%etion o% %esistence o" t#e 0idne' to t#e $ction o"
$ntidiu%etic #o%one +ADA,
Two main smptoms of this condition are poldipsia and poluria
di$betes e!!itus in$deCu$te sec%etion o% ip%ope% uti!iE$tion o" insu!in
)a2or smptoms of diabetes mellitus are glcosuria, hperglcemia,
poluria, and poldipsia.
<TKE$ =$<.ED:$E7
c'stoscop' is the visual examination of the urinar bladder b means of a
cstoscope
di$!'sis #aste materials such as urea are separated from the bloodstream when
the &idne can no more function*#eodi$!'sis& pe%itone$! di$!'sis,
FEMALE RE4RODUCTI1E S9STEM
I Int%oduction
7exual reproduction is the union of the nuclei of the female sex cell* ovu+ and the male sex cell *
spe% , that results in the creation of a new individual. The ovum and
sperm cell are cpeciali!ed cells differing primaril from normal bod cells in one important wa. Each
sex cell* also called a )$ete+ contains exactl half the number of chromosomes that a normal bod cell
contains. #hen the nuclei of ovum and sperm cell unite, the cell produced receives half of its genetic
material from its female parent and half from its male parent? thus it contains a full, normal complement
of hereditar material.
%ametes are produced in special organs called )on$ds. The female gonads are the ov$%ies , and the male
gonads are the testes. "n ovum, after leaving the ovar, travels down a duct+ "$!!opi$n tube, leading to
the ute%us* womb+. 0f coitus + copu!$tion& se.u$! inte%cou%se, has occurred , and sperm cells are
present in the fallopian tube, union of the ovum and sperm ma ta&e place. The union is called
"e%ti!iE$tion- The eb%'o* called the "etus after the second month+ than begins a 4F4wee& period of
development * )est$tion& p%e)n$nc', within the uterus.
The female reproductive sstem consists of organs that produce ov$ and provide a place for the growth
of the embro. 0n addition, the female reproductive organs suppl important hormones that contribute to
the development of female secondar sex characteristics * bod hair, breast development, structural
changes in bones and fat+.
<va mature and are released from the ovaries from the onset of pube%t' * beginning of the fertile period
when secondar sex characteristics develop + to enop$use
* cessation of fertilit and diminishing of hormone production + . #omen are born with all the eggs that
the will possibl release. Kowever, it is not until the onset of
pubert that the eggs mature and leave the ovar. 0f fertili!ation occurs at an time between pubert and
menopause, the fertili!ed egg ma grow and develop within
the uterus. Marious hormones are secreted from the ovar and from a blood4vessel4filled organ
+p!$cent$, that grows in the wall of the uterus during pregnanc. 0f fertili!ation does not occur, hormone
changes result in the shedding of the uterine lining, and bleeding, or enst%u$tion , occurs.
The hormones of the ovaries that pla important roles in the process of menstruation and pregnanc, and
in te development of secondar sex characteristics, are est%o)en and p%o)este%one-<ther hormones that
are responsible for the functions of the ovaries, breasts and uterus , are secreted b the pituit$%' )!$nd,
which is located behind the bridge of the nose at the base of the brain.
/'neco!o)' is the stud of the female reproductive sstem * organs, hormones, diseases+? obstet%ics is a
specialt concerned with pregnanc and the deliver.of the fetus? and neon$to!o)' is the stud and
treatment of the newborn child.
O%)$ns o" t#e "e$!e %ep%oductive s'ste
The female reproductive sstem consists of internal and external organs of reproduction. The internal or
essential organs of reproduction are the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and v$)in$ or birth canal. The
external genitalia include the labia ma2ora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule of the vagina and LartholinRs
glands. The external genitalia are &nown as vu!v$-
The ov$%ies are a pair of small, almond4 shaped organs located in the lower abdomen. The "$!!opi$n
tubes lead from each ovar to the ute%us& which is a muscular organ situated between the urinar
bladder and the rectum. )idwa between the uterus and the rectum is a region in the abdominal cavit
&nown as the cu!8de8s$c- This region is often examined for the presence of cancerous growths.
The v$)in$ is a tube extending from the uterus to the exterior of the bod. B$%t#o!inKs )!$nds are two
small, rounded glands on either side of the vaginal orifice. These glands produce a mucous secretion that
lubricates the vagina. The c!ito%is is an organ of sensitive, erectile tissue located anterior to the vaginal
orifice and in front of the urethral meatus. The clitoris is similar in structure to the penis in the male.
The region between the vaginal orifice and the anus is called the pe%ineu- The perineum can be torn in
a childbirth and cause in2ur to the anus, so the obstetrician often cuts the perineum before deliver. This
incision is called an episioto'-The perineum is then sewn together *repaired+ after childbirth.
#ithin each ovar are thousands of small sacs called )%$$"i$n "o!!ic!es- Each graafian follicle contains
an ovu . #hen an ovum is mature, the graafian follicle ruptures to the surface and the ovum leaves the
ovar. The release of the ovum from the ovar is called ovu!$tion- The ruptured follicle fills with blood,
and then with a ellow, fat4li&e material. 0t is then called the co%pus !uteu-
Gear each ovar is a duct, about 13414 cm long called a fallopian tube. .ollectivel, the fallopian tubes,
ovaries, and supporting ligaments are called the $dne.$ *accessor structures+ of the uterus.The egg,
after its release from the ovar, is caught up b the finger4li&e ends of the fallopian tube. These ends are
called "ib%i$e-The tube itself is lined with small hairs that, through their motion, sweep the ovum
along. 0t usuall ta&es an ovum A das to pass through the fallopian tube.
0t is within the fallopian tube that fertili!ation ta&es place if an sperm cells are present. 0f coitus ta&es
place near the time of ovulation and no contraception is used, there is a high li&elihood that sperm cells
will be in the fallopian tube when the egg cell is passing through it. 0f coitus hasnRt ta&en place, the
ovum remains unfertili!ed and, after a da or two, disintegrates.
The fallopian tubes, one on either side, lead into the ute%us , a pear4shaped organ with muscular walls
and a mucous membrane lining filled with a rich suppl of blood vessels. The rounded upper portion of
the uterus is the "undus , and the larger, central section is the co%pus *bod+.The speciali!ed epithelial
mucosa of the uterus is the endoet%iuF the middle, muscular laer is the 'oet%iu , and outer,
membranous tissue laer is the pe%iet%iu + ute%ine se%os$,- " serosa is the outermost coat or laer
of an organ that is in the abdomen or thorax.
The narrow, lower portion of the uterus is the ce%vi. *meaning nec&+. The cervical opening leads into a
34inch4long tube called the vagina, which opens to the outside of the bod.
T#e b%e$sts + Accesso%' O%)$n o" Rep%oduction,
The breasts are two $$%' )!$nds located in the upper anterior region of the chest. The are
composed of )!$ndu!$% tissue , containing mil& glands, that develop in response to hormones from the
ovaries during pubert. The breasts also contain "ib%ous and "$tt' tissue , special !$cti"e%ous +mil&4
carring+ ducts, and sinuses + cavities+ that carr mil& to the opening, or nipple. The breast nipple is
called the $$%' p$pi!!$ , and the dar&4 pigmented area around the mammar papilla is called the
$%eo!$
During pregnanc, the hormones from the ovaries and the placenta stimulate glandular tissue in the
breast to their full development. "fter p$%tu%ition *giving birth+, hormones from the pituitar gland
stimulate production of mil& *!$ct$tion+.
MENSTRUATION AND 4RE/NANC9
The beginning of menstruation at the time of pubert is called en$%c#e- Each menstrual ccle is
divided into 2D das.
0f fertili!ation does occur in the uterine tube, the fertili!ed egg travels to the uterus and implants in the
uterine endometrium. The corpus luteum in the ovar continues to produce progesterone and estrogen,
which support the vascular and muscular development of the uterine lining
The p!$cent$& a vascular organ, now forms within the uterine wall. The placenta is derived from
maternal endometrium and from the c#o%ion&the outermost membrane that surrounds the developing
embro. The $nion is the innermost of the embronic membranes, and it holds the fetus suspended in
an amniotic cavit surrounded b a fluid called the $niotic "!uid. The amnion and the fluid are
sometimes &nown as the Obag of waterT, which usuall ruptures * brea&s+ during labor.
The maternal blood and the fetal blood never mix during pregnanc, but important nutrients, oxgen,
and wastes are exchanged as the blood vessels of the bab* coming from the umbilical cord+ lie side b
side with the motherRs blood vesses in the placenta.
The placenta produces its own hormone as it develops in the uterus. This hormone is called #u$n
c#o%ionic )on$dot%opin 7 AC/ *or pregnanc hormone+ and it stimulates the corpus luteum to
continue producig hormones until about the third month of pregnanc, when the placenta itself ta&es
over the endocrine function and releases estrogen and progesterone
During the earl stages of pregnanc, the future child grows at an extremel rapid rate. The mothersRs
bod must undergo profound changes to support this organism. The muscles of the uterus grow, vaginal
secretions change, the blood volume expands, the wor& of the heart increases, the mother gains weight,
the breasts prepare for lactation and other ad2ustments are made throughout the motherRs bod.
The everage duration of pregnanc or the gestation period is about 2DF das, or nine calendar months.
The events of menstruation and pregnanc are dependent not onl upon hormones from the ovar, but
also on hormones from the pituaitar gland. These pituitar gland hormones are "o!!ic!e8stiu!$tin)
#o%one * /7K+ and !uteiniEin) #o%one *'K+ . These two hormones stimulate the development of
the ovum and ovulation. "fter ovulation, 'K in particular influences the maintenance of the corpus
luteum and its production of estrogen and progesterone.
L$bou% o% c#i!dbi%t# is the phsiologic process b which the fetus is expelled from the uterus. 0t ocurrs
in three stages8 *1+ opening or dilation of the cervix is the time from the onset of labor to complete
dilation of the cervix * about 1F cm+?*2+ the second stage is called the expulsion stage during which the
bab must be pushed through and out of the vagina? *3+ the third stage is the stage of separation and
expulsion of the placenta? in this final stage the placenta detaches itself from the uterine wall and is
expelled.
"lthough serious complications rarel develop during labor following a normal and regularl controlled
pregnanc, the can occur and must be watched for. <ne possible complication is a breech birth, #hich
is defined as presentation of the fetal buttoc&s or feet during labor* p$%tus $)%ippinus +. 0f the
obstetrician cannot correct the situation b manipulation, a ces$%i$n section + .4section+ will be
re(uired.
"nother possible complication re(uiring a .4section occurs when the fetus is too large to be delivered
through the pelvic outlet or when the pelvis is abnormall small. Kowever, the most fre(uent cause for
.4section is d'stoci$ * abnormal or difficult childbirth + due to cephalopelvic * or fetopelvic+
disproportion.
COMBININ/ FORMS SUFFI3ES AND 4REFI3ES
$ni;o amnion amniocentesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
ce%vic;o cervix endocervicitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c#o%i;o chorion choriogenesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c#o%ion;o chorion chorionic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
co!p;o vagina colposcop,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
cu!d;o cul4de4sac culdocentess,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
episi;o vulva episiotom ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)$!$ct;o mil& galactorrhea,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)'nec;o woman, female gnecomastia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
#'ste%;o uterus, womb hsterectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
$;o breast mammar,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
$st;o breast mastitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

en;o menses amenorrhea,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
et%;o uterus metrorrhagia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
et%i;o
n$t;i birth neonatal,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o;o egg oogenesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
oop#o%;o ovar bilateral oophorectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,44
s$!pin);o fallopian tubes salpingectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Su""i.es
8$%c#e beginning menarche,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8c'esis pregnanc pseudocesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8p$%ous to bear primiparous,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8toci$ labor, birth dstocia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8ve%sion act of turning cephalic version,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4ATAOLO/9
carcinoma of the cervics 4 )alignant cells within the cervix * cervical cancer +
cervicitis 4 inflammatiom of the cervix
carcinoma of the endometrium 3 malignant tumor of the uterus
endometriosis 3 endometrial tissue is found in abnormal locations
fibroids 3 benign tumors in the uterus
ovarian carcinoma 3 malignant tumor of the ovar
ovarian csts 3 collections of fluid within a sac * cst + in the ovar
pelvic inflammator disease 3 inflammation in the pelvic region ? selpingitis
carcinoma of the breast 3 malignant tumor of the breasts * arising from mil& glands and ducts +
fibrocstic disease 3 small sacs of tissue and fluid in the breast
abruptio placentae 3 premature separation of the implanted placenta
choriocarcinoma 3 malignant tumor of the pregnant uterus
ectopic pregnanc 3 implantation of the fertili!ed egg in an site other than the normal uterine location
placenta previa 3 placental implantation over the cervical os * opening + in the lower region of the
uterine wall
preeclampsia 3 abnormal condition of pregnanc characteri!ed b high blood pressure, proteinuria, and
edema
down sndrome 3 chromosomal abnormalit results in mental retardation
erthroblastosis fetalis 3 hemoltic disease in the newborn cause b a blood group incompatibilit
hdrocephalus 3 accumulation of fluid in the spaces of the brain
ploric stenosis 3 narrowing of the opening of the stomach to the duodenum
CLINICAL TESTS& 4ROCEDURES& AND ABBRE1IATIONS
C!inic$! tests
4$p se$% 8 Mic%oscopic e.$in$tion o" st$ined ce!!s "%o t#e v$)in$ $nd ce%vi.-
p%e)n$nc' test 8 B!ood o% u%ine test to detect t#e p%esence o" AC/ human chorionic gonadotropin
$o)%$p#' 8 38%$. i$)in) o" t#e b%e$st
$spi%$tion 8 (it#d%$($! o" "!uid "%o $ c$vit' o% s$c0
c$ute%iE$tion 7 p%ocess o" bu%nin) $ p$%t o" t#e bod'
coniE$tion 7 %eov$! o" $ cone8s#$ped section o" t#e ce%vi.
c%'osu%)e%' 7 use o" co!d tepe%$tu%es to dest%o' tissue-
di!$tion + di!$t$tion, $nd cu%ett$)e + DLC, 7 (idenin) o t#e ce%vi. $nd sc%$pin) o" t#e
endoet%iu o" t#e ute%us-
e.ente%$tion 7 %eov$! o" inte%n$! o%)$ns
tub$! !i)$tion 7 b!oc0in) t#e "$!!opi$n tubes to p%event "e%ti!iE$tion-
$bo%tion 7 spont$neous o% induced te%in$tion o" p%e)n$nc'
$niocentesis 7 su%)ic$! punctu%e o" t#e $nioitic s$c to (it#d%$( $niotic "!uid
pe!viet%' 7 e$su%eent o" t#e diensions o" t#e $te%n$! pe!vis
MALE RE4RODUCTI1E S9STEM
Int%oduction
The male sex cell, the spe%$toEoon * sperm cell+, is microscopic and relativel uncomplicated
cell, composed of a head region, which contains nuclear hereditar material* chromosomes+, and a tail
region, consisting of a "!$)e!!u * hair4li&e process+ that ma&es the sperm motile, somewhat resembling
a tadpole* punoglavac+.The sperm cell contains relativel little food and ctoplasm, for it needs to live
onl long enough to travel from its point of release from the male to where the egg cell lies within the
female* fallopian tube+.<nl one spermato!oon out of approximatel 3FF million sperm cells that ma
be released during a single ej$cu!$tion * e2ection of sperm and fluid from the male urethra+ can
penetrate a single ovum and produce fertili!ation of the ovum.
0f more than one egg is passing down the fallopian tube when sperm are present, multiple
fertili!ations are possible, and twins, triplets, (uadruplets, and so forth ma occur. Twins resulting from
the fertili!ation of separate ova b separate sperm cells are called "%$te%n$! t(ins ./raternal twins ,
developing in utero with separate placentas, can be of the same sex or different sexes and resemble each
other no more than ordinar brothers and sisters. /raternal twinning is hereditar? a gene is carried b
the daughters of mothers of twins.
Identic$! t(ins are formed b the fertili!ation of a single egg cell b a single sperm. "s the
fertili!ed egg cell divides and forms man cells, it somehow splits and each part continues separatel to
undergo further division, each producing an embro. 0dentical twins are alwas of the same sex and are
ver similar in form and feature.
The organs of the male reproductive sstem are desiged to produce and release billions of
spermato!oa throughout the lifetime of a male from pubert onward. 0n addition, the male reproductive
sstem secretes a hormone called testoste%one . Testosterone is responsible for the production of the
bodil characteristics of the male,*such as beard, pubic hair, and deeper voice+ and for the proper
development of male gonads* testes + and accessor organs * p%ost$te )!$nd and sein$! vesic!es + that
secrete fluids to ensure lubrication and viabilit of sperm.
An$to'
The male gonads consist of a pair of testes , also called testicles, that develop in the abdomen at
about the level of &idnes before descending during embronic development into the sc%otu , a sac
enclosing the testes on the outside of the bod.
The scrotum exposes the testes to a lower temperature than that of the rest of the bod. This
lower temperature is necessar for the maturation and development of sperm * spe%$to)enesis +.
The interior of a testis is composed of a large mass of narrow, coiled tubules called the
seini"e%ous tubu!es- These tubules contain cells that manufacture spermato!oa. The seminiferous
tubules are the p$%enc#'$! tissue of the testis, which means that the perform the essential wor& of
the organ * formation of sperm+. <ther cells in the testis, called inte%stiti$! ce!!s , manufacture an
important male hormone, testoste%one-
"ll bod organs contain parenchma. The also contain supportive, connective, and framewor&
tissue, and sometimes muscle. This supportive tissue is called st%o$+ st%o$! tissue,-
"s soon as the sperm cells are formed, the move through the seminiferous tubules and are
collected in ducts that lead to a large tube at the upper part of each testis.This is the epidid'is- The
spermato!oa mature and become motile in the epididmis and are temporaril stored there. "n
epididmis runs down the length of each testicle * the coiled tube s about 1B feet 6 Am long+ and then
turns again and becomes a narrow, straight tube called the v$s de"e%ence or ductus de"e%ence . The vas
deference is about two feet long and carries the sperm up into the pelvic region at the level of the urinar
bladder, merging with ducts from the sein$! vesic!es to form the ej$cu!$to%' duct leading toward the
urethra. Each vas deference is cut and tied off when a ste%i!iE$tion procedure called a v$secto' is
performed.
The seminal vesicles, two glands located at the base of the bladder, open into the e2aculator
duct as it 2oins the urethra. The secrete a thic&, sugar, ellowish substance that nourishes the sperm
cells and forms much of the volume of e2aculated seen- 7emen is a combination of fluid and
spermato!oa* sperm cells account for less than one percent of the semen volume+ that is e2ected from te
bod through the urethra. 0n the male the genital orifice combines with the urinar opening.
"t the region where the vas deference enters the urethra is the p%ost$te )!$nd .The prostate
gland secretes a thic& fluid that, as part of semen, aids the motilit of the sperm. This gland is also
supplied with muscular tissue that aids in the expulsion of sperm during e2aculation. Co(pe%
+ bu!bou%et#%$!, )!$nds are 2ust below the prostate gland and also secrete fluid into the urethra.
The penis is composed of erectile tissue and at its tip expands to form a soft sensitive region
called the )!$ns penis . <rdinaril , a fold of s&in called the p%epuce or "o%es0in& covers the glans
penis. Ci%cucision is the process whereb the fores&in is removed.
Cobinin) "o%s $nd te%ino!o)'
$nd%;o male androgen,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
b$!$n;o glans penis balanitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c%';o cold crogenic surger,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
c%'pt;o hidden crptorchism,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)on;o seed gonorrhea,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
#'d%;o water, fluid hdrocele,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o%c#;o& o%c#i;o testis orchiectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o%c#id;o
te%$t;o monster teratoma ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
v$%ic;o varicose veins varicocele,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
v$s;o vessel, duct vasectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Eo;o animal life a!oospermia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
test;o terstis , testicle testicular,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
The term testis originates from a 'atin term meaning
witness.
Diso%de%s $nd p$t#o!o)ic$! conditions o" t#e M$!e Rep%oductive S'ste
$denoc$%cino$ o" t#e p%ost$te 8 )alignant tumor of the prostate. This is the most comon cause of
cancer in men over AF ears of age. $adical prostatectom along with radio therap to treat metastases,
is a common method of treatment.
beni)n p%ost$tic #'pe%p!$si$ + #'pe%t%op#' , 7 <vergrowth of the glandular tissue of the prostate.The
prostate enlarges decreasing the lumen of the urethra.
c%'pto%c#is 7 :ndescending testicles. <rchiopex is performed to bring the testis into the scrotum.
episp$di$sF episp$di$ 7 congenital opening of the male urethra on the upper surface of the penis.
#'posp$di$s 3 lower surface
p#iosis 3 Garrowing * stricture + of the opening of the prepuce over the glans penis
c$%cino$ o" t#e testis 7 )alignant tumor of the testis
v$%icoce!e 7 7wolen, enlarged, herniated veins near the testicles. This condition is often associated with
oligospermia * scarcit of spermato!oa in the semen +.
Se.u$!!' T%$nsited In"ections STI
c#!$'di$! in"ection 3 Lacteria * .hlamdia trachomatis + invade the urethra and reproductive tract of
men and the vagina and cervix of women.
)ono%%#e$ 7 0nflammation of the genital tract mucous membranes caused b infestion with gonococcus.
#e%pes )enit$!is 3 0nfection of the s&in and mucosa of the genitals, caused b the herpes simplex virus
* K7M+.
s'p#i!is + !ues , 7 .hronic 7T0 caused b a spirochete * spiral4shaped bacterium +
t%ic#ooni$sis 7 0nfestion of the genitourinar tract of either sex, caused b Trichomonas vaginalis, a
one4celled organism.
L$bo%$to%' tests
4SA test 7 )easures prostate4specific antigen in the blood
seen $n$!'sis 7 E2aculated fluid is examined microscopicall
C!inic$! p%ocedu%es
C$st%$tion 7 surgical excision of testicles or ovaries? ci%cucision 7 surgical procedure to remove the
prepuce of the penis? di)it$! %ect$! e.$in$tion 3 finger palpation through the anus to examine the
prostate gland ? v$secto' 3 bilateral removal of a part of the vas deference
RES4IRATOR9 S9STEM
Int%oduction
#e usuall thin& of %espi%$tion as the mechanical process of breathing which is for the most part
unconscious excange of air between the lungs and the external environment.This exchange of air at the
lungs is also called e.te%n$! breathing or respiration.0n external respiration oxgen is inhaled * inhaled
air contains about 21 S oxgen + into the air spaces * sac&s + of the lungs and immediatel passes into
tin capillar blood vessels surrounding the air spaces. 7imultaneosl, carbon dioxide, a gas produced
when oxgen and food combine in cells, passes from the capillar blood vessels into the air spaces of
the lungs to be exhaled * exhaled air contains about 1B per cent oxgen+.
#hile external respiration occurs between the outside environment and the capillar bloodstream
of the lungs, inte%n$! %espi%$tion is the exchange of gases at the cells within all the organs of the
bod.0n this process, oxgen passes out of the bloodstream and is carried b the blood bac& to the lungs
to be exhaled.
An$to' $nd p#'sio!o)' o" %espi$%$tion
"ir enters the bod through the nose and passes through t#e n$s$! c$vit' , which is lined with a
mucous membrane and fine hairs * ci!i$ , to help filter out foreign bodies, as well as to warm and
moisten the air. 4$%$n$s$! sinuses are hollow air4containing spaces within the s&ull that communicate
with the nasal cavit. The, too, have a mucos membrane lining and function to provide the lubricating
fluid mucus, as well as to lighten the bones of the s&ull and help produce sound.
"fter passing through the nasal cavit, the air next reaches the p#$%'n. + t#%o$t, . There are
three divisions of the pharnx. The n$sop#$%'n. is the first division, and is the nearest to the nasal
cavities. 0t contains the p#$%'n)e$! tonsi!s, or $denoids, which are collections of lmphatic tissue.
The are more prominent in children, and if enlarged, can obstruct air passagewas. Lellow the
nasopharnx and closer to the mouth is the second division of the pharnx, the o%op#$%'n.. The
p$!$tine tonsi!s& two rounded masses of lmphatic tissue, are located in the oropharnx. The third
division of the pharnx is the !$%'n)op#$%'n.- 0t is in this region that the pharnx divides into two
branches the !$%'n.+ voice bo., and the esop#$)us-
The esophagus leads into the stomach and carries food to be digested. The larnx contains the
vocal cords and is surrounded b pieces of cartilage for support. The throid cartilage is the largest and
is commonl referred to as the "damRs apple.7ounds are produced as air is expelled past the vocal cords,
and the cords vibrate. The tension of the vocal cords determines the high or low pitch of the voice.
" leaf4shaped structure in the larnx, the epi)!ottis& seals off the air passage to the lungs during
swallowing. This structure insures that food or li(uids do not obstruct the flow of air and thus cause the
individual to cho&e. The epiglottis is attached to the root of the tongue and acts li&e a lid over the larnx.
<n its wa to the lungs, air passes from the larnx to the t%$c#e$*(indpipe, , a vertical tube
about 4 and112 inches long and one inch in diameter. The trachea is &ept open b 1B42F .4shaped rings
of cartilage separated b fibrous connective tissue that stiffen the front and sides of the tube.
0n the region of the edi$stinu& the trachea divides into two branches called b%onc#i$!
tubes& or b%onc#i *sing8 bronchus+. Each bronchus leads to a separate !un) and divides and subdivides
into smaller and finer tubes, somewhat li&e the branches of a tree.
The smallest of the bronchial branches are called b%onc#io!es. "t the end of the bronchioles
are clusters of air sac&s called $!veo!i +singular8 $!veo!us+. Each alveolus is made of a one4cell laer of
epithelium. The ver thin wall allows for the exchange of gases between the alveolus and the c$pi!!$%'
that surrounds and comes in close contact with it. The blood that flows through the capillaries accepts
the oxgen from the alveolus and deposits carbon dioxide into the alveolus to be exhaled.
Each lung is enveloped in a double4folded membrane called the p!eu%$- The outer laer of the
pleura, nearest the ribs, is the p$%iet$! p!eu%$& and the inner laer, closest to the lungs, is the visce%$!
p!eu%$- The pleura is moistened with a serous *thin, water fluid+ secretion that facilitates the
movements of the lungs within the chest *thorax+.
The two lungs are not (uite mirror images of each other. The right lung, which is the slightl
larger of the two, is divided into three !obes and the left lung is divided into two lobes. 0t is possible for
one lobe of the lung to be removed without damage to the rest, which can continue to function normall.
The uppermost part of the lung is called the $pe.& and the lower area is the b$se- The #i!u or #i!us of
the lung is the midline region where blood vessels, nerves, lmphatic tissue, and bronchial tubes enter
and exit the region.
The lungs extend from the collarbone to the di$p#%$) in the thoracic cavit. The diaphragm
is a muscular partition that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavit and aids in the process of
breathing. The diaphragm contracts and descends with each in#$!$tion +inspi%$tion,- The downward
movement of the diaphragm enlarges the area in the thoracic cavit and reduces the internal air pressure,
so that air flows into the lungs to e(uali!e the pressure. #hen the lungs are full, the diaphragm relaxes
and elevates, ma&ing the area in the thoracic cavit smaller, and thus increasing the air pressure within
the thorax. "ir then is expelled out of the lungs to e(uali!e the pressure? this is called e.#$!$tion
+e.pi%$tion,-
4$t#($' o" $i% "%o t#e nose to t#e c$pi!!$%ies o" t#e !un)s
G<7E
0
G"7"' ."M0TI "GD ="$"G"7"'
70G:7E7
0
=K"$IG;
0
'"$IG;
0
T$".KE"
0
L$<G.K0
0
L$<G.K0<'E7
0
"'ME<'0
0
':G% ."=0''"$0E7
*bloodstream+
COMBININ/ FORMS & SUFFI3ES& AND TERMINOLO/9
Cobinin) "o% Me$nin) Te%ino!o)'
c$pn;o carbon dioxide hpercapnia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
coni;o dust pneumoconiosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c'$n;o blue canosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
!ob;o lobe of the lung lobectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o%t#;o straight, upright orthopnea,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o.;o oxgen hpoxia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pecto%;o chest expectoration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#on;o voice dsphonia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#%en;o diaphragm phrenic nerve,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pneu;o lung, air pneumothorax,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pneuon;o O pneumonitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pu!on;o O pulmonar,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
%#in;o nose rhinoplast,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
spi%;o breathing spirometer,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
te!;o complete atelectasis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
t#o%$c;o chest thoracic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Su""i.es
8e$ condition empema,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8osi$ smell anosmia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8pne$ breathing apnea,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4pt'sis spitting hemoptsis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8sp#'.i$ pulse asphxia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8t#o%$. chest, pleural cavit hemothorax,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
DIA/NOSTIC AND 4ATAOLO/ICAL TERMS

$uscu!t$tion 'istening to sounds within the bod.
pe%cussion Tapping on a surface to determine the difference in the densit of the
underling structures.
p!eu%$! %ub 7ound of pleural surfaces rubbing against each other.
%$!es +c%$c0!es, "bnormal crac&ling sound heard during inspiration when there is fluid, pus, or
blood in the alveoli .
sputu )aterial expelled from the chest.
st%ido% " strained, high4pitched, nois sound made on inspiration .
(#eeEes )usical sounds usuall heard durig expiration as in asthma or bronchitis.
4$t#o!o)ic$! te%s
c%oup "cute respirator sndrome in children and infants.
dip#t#e%i$ "cute infection of the throat and upper respirator tract.
epist$.is Gosebleed.
pe%tussis Lacterial infection of the pharnx, larnx, and trachea.Qnown as whooping cough.
$st#$ 7pasm and narrowing of bronchi.
b%onc#iect$sis .hronic dilation of a bronchus.
b%onc#o)enic c$%cino$ .ancerous tumors arising from a bronchus? lung cancer
c#%onic b%onc#itis 0nflammation of the bronchi that persists for a long time.
c'stic "ib%osis 0nherited disease of exocrine glands that leads to airwa obstruction.
Lun) Diso%de%s
$te!ect$sis 0ncomplete expansion of alveoli
ep#'se$ Kperinflation of air sacs.
pneuoconiosis "bnormal condition caused b dust in the lungs.
pneuoni$ "cute inflammation and infection of alveoli
CARDIO1ASCULAR S9STEM
The cardiovascular sstem is composed of the heart, and blood vessels. The heart is a hollow muscular
organ ling in the mediastinum, the center of the thoracic cavit located between the lungs. 0t pumps
blood to bod cells through a vast networ& of blood vessels. Llood returns to the heart, again through
blood vessels, to begin the ccle again.
Three ma2or tpes of vessels, $%te%ies& c$pi!!$%ies& and veins& carr blood throughout the bod. Each
tpe of vessels differs in structure, depending on its function.
"rteries carr blood from the heart to bod tissues and organs. Llood is propelled through arteries b the
pumping action of the heart. .onse(uentl, arterial walls are thic& and muscular and capable of
expandig to accommodate the surge of blood that results when the heart contracts. The surge of blood
felt in the arteries when blood is pumped from the heart is referred to as a pu!se - "rterial blood * eccept
for that found in the pulmonar arter+ contains a high concentration of oxgen. 0t appears bright red
and is said to be o.')en$ted. <xgenated blood travels to smaller vessels called $%te%io!es *little
arteries+ and finall to the smallest vessels, the c$pi!!$%ies-
.apillaries are microscopic vessels that 2oin the arterial sstem with the venous sstem. "lthough
seemingl the most insignificant of the three vessel tpes because of their microscopic si!e, the
capillaries are functionall the most important. .apillar walls are composed of a single laer of cells.
The thinness of their walls and differences in pressure ma&e it possible for substances, including gases,
to pass (uite readil into and out of the vessels. .onse(uentl, the primar function of the vascular
sstem, that of providing cells with vital products and removal of waste products, occurs at the capillar
level.The vast number of capillaries ma&es their combined diameter so great that blood flows through
them ver slowl.The slow movement of blood through capillaries allows sufficient time for deliver of
vital products and removal of waste from the surrounding tissues.
Meins return blood to the heart. The are formed from smaller vessels called venu!es *small veins+,
which develop from the union of capillaries.Lecause the extensive networ& of capillaries throughout the
bod absorbs the propelling pressure exerted b the heart, blood in the veins use other methods to return
to the heart, including8
7&eletal muscle contraction
%ravit
$espirator activit
Malves
Malves are small structures within veins that prevent the bac&flow of blood. Malves are especiall
important for returning blood from the legs to the heart because blood must travel a long distance
against the force of gravit to reach the heart.
Llood carried in the veins * except for the blood in the pulmonar veins+ contains a low
concentration of oxgen* deoxgenated+ with a corresponding high concentration of carbon dioxide.
Deoxgenated blood ta&es on a characteristic purple colour.
The heart has three distinct tissue laers and is contained in a sac called pe%ic$%diu-
The endoc$%diu& a serous membrane that lines the four chambers of the heart and its valves
and is continuous with the arteries and veins.
The 'oc$%diu , the muscular laer of the heart
The epic$%diu , the outermost laer of the heart
The heart is divided into four chambers8 %i)#t $t%iu& %i)#t vent%ic!e& !e"t $t%iu& and !e"t
vent%ic!e- The two upper chambers, the atria, collect blood? the two lower chambers, the ventricles,
pump blood from the heart. The right side of the heart provides for the oxgenation of
blood* pulmonar circulation+, and the left side is responsible for the transportation of blood to bod
sstems * sstemic circulation+.
Deoxgenated blood returns to the heart b wa of two large veins8 the supe%io% ven$ c$v$& which
collects and carries blood from the upper part of the bod? and the in"e%io% ven$ c$v$, which collects
and carries blood from the lower part of the bod. The superior and inferior venae cavae *plural+ deposit
deoxgenated blood into the upper right chamber of the heart, the right atrium. /rom the right atrium,
blood passes through the t%icuspid v$!ve to the right ventricle. During contraction of the ventricle, the
tricuspid valve prevents a bac&flow of blood to the right atrium. #hen the heart contracts, blood leaves
the right ventricle b wa of the !e"t pu!on$%' $%te%' and %i)#t pu!on$%' $%te%' and travels to the
lungs. <n the wa bac& oxgenated blood is carried to the heart b wa of the pu!on$%' veins. The
Deposit blood in the left atrium. /rom here blood passes through the bicuspid +it%$!, v$!ve to the left
ventricle.:pon contraction of the heart, the oxgenated blood leaves the left ventricle through the largest
arter of the bod, the $o%t$- #ithin the aorta is a valve called the $o%tic sei!un$% v$!ve that permits
blood to flow in onl one direction4 from the left ventricle to the aorta. The aorta branches into man
smaller arteries that carr blood to all parts of the bod. 7ome arteries derive their names from the
organs or areas that the vasculari!e. /or example, the spleenic arter vasculari!e the spleen, and the
renal arter vasculari!e the &idnes.
0tRs important to recogni!e that oxgen present in the blood passing trough the chambers of the
heart, cannot be used b the mocardium. 0nstead, an arterial sstem composed of the coronar arteries
branches from the aorta and provides the mocardium with itRs own blood suppl.
Conduction s'ste o" t#e #e$%t
#ithin the heart is speciali!ed cardiac tissue &nown as conductive tissue- 0ts sole function is the
initiation and propagation * Hiren2e+ of contraction impulses. 0t consists of four masses of highl
speciali!ed cells8
Sino$t%i$! node +SA,
At%iovent%icu!$% node +A1,
Bund!e o" Ais* "M bundle+
4u%0inje "ibe%s
The 7" node, located in the upper portion of the right atrium, possesses its own intrinsic rhthm.
#ithout being stimulated b external nerves, it has the abilit to initiate and propagate each heartbeat,
thereb setting the basic pace for the cardiac rate. /or this reason the 7" node is &nown as the
p$ce$0e% of the heart.
0mpulse transmission through the conduction sstem generates wea& electrical currents that can be
detected on the surface of the bod. These electrical impulses can be recorded on an instrument called an
e!ect%oc$%dio)%$p#-
B!ood p%essu%e
Llood pressure measures the force exerted b blood against the arterial walls during two phases of
a heartbeat8 the contraction phase, called s'sto!e& when the blood is forced out of the heart? and the
relaxation phase, called di$sto!e& when the ventricles are filling with blood.
Cobinin) "o%s $nd te%ino!o)'
$n)i;o vessel angiogram ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
$t#e%;o ellowish pla(ue atherosclerosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
b%$c#i;o arm brachial arter,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c$%di;o heart cardiomegal,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
co%on;o heart coronar arteries ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c'$n;o blue canosis ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o.;o oxgen hpoxia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#!eb;o vein phlebotom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
sp#');o pulse sphgmomanometer,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
stet#;o chest stethoscope ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
auscultation 3 listening with a stethoscope
v$s;o vessel vasoconstriction,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
v$scu!;o vessel vascular ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4$t#o!o)ic$! Conditions* T#e Ae$%t $nd B!ood 1esse!s
$%%#'t#i$s "bnormal heart rrhthms
1 #e$%t b!oc0 /ailure of proper conduction of impulses
2 "!utte% $apid but regular contractions of atria or ventricles * up to 3oo beats+
3 "ib%i!$tion $apid, random, ineffectual, and irregular contractions of the heart
* 3AF beats or more per minute+
con)enit$! #e$%t dise$se "bnormalities in the heart at birth
1 co$%ct$tion o" t#e $o%t$ Garrowing of the aorta
2 p$tent ductus $%te%iosus " small duct between the aorta and the pulmonar arter, which
*=D"+ normall closes after birth , remains open * patent+.
= sept$! de"ects 7mall holes in the septa between the atria or the venrtricles
> tet%$!o)' o" F$!!ot;"$8!ou; " congenital malformation of the heart involving four distinct defects
1 4u!on$%' $%te%' stenosis
6 1ent%icu!$% sept$! de"ect
= S#i"t o" t#e $o%t$ to t#e %i)#t
> A'pe%t%op#' o" t#e %i)#t vent%ic!es
con)estive #e$%t "$i!u%e The heart is unable to pump its re(uired amount of blood
co%on$%' $%te%' dise$se + CAD, Disease of the arteries surrounding the heart
$t#e%osc!e%osis The deposition of fatt compounds on the inner lining of the
coronar arteries
t#%obotic occ!usion Lloc&ing of the coronar arter b a clot
isc#ei$ Llood flow is decreased or stopped
nec%osis Death of a part of an organ
in"$%ction The area of dead mocardial tissue
'oc$%di$! in"$%ction 7 #e$%t $tt$c0
$n)in$ pecto%is "n episode of chest pain
co%on$%' $%te%' b'p$ss )%$"tin) or CAB/ 7urgical treatment of ."D
graft 3 transplant
endoc$%ditis 0nflammation of the inner lining of the heart caused b bacteria
#'pe%tensive #e$%t dise$se Kigh blood pressure affecting the heart
it%$! v$!ve p%o!$pse+ M14, 0mproper closure of the mitral valve when the heart is pumping
blood
u%u% "n extra heart sound, heard between normal beats.
pe%ic$%ditis 0nflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart.
%#eu$tic #e$%t dise$se Keart disease caused b rheumatic fever
B!ood vesse!s
$neu%'s 'ocal widening of an arter
pe%ip#e%$! v$scu!$% dise$se Lloc&age of blood vessels* arteries+ in the lower extremities
R$'n$ud p#enoenon 7hort episodes of pallor and numbness in the fingers and toes
1 rei Unou1
v$%icose veins "bnormall swollen and twisted veins, usuall in the legs
BLOOD S9STEM
I Int%oduction
The primar function of blood is to maintain a constant environment for the other living tissues of the
bod. Llood transports foods, gases, and wastes to and from the cells of the bod. /ood, digested in the
stomach and small intestine, passes into the bloodstream through the lining cells of the small
intestine.Llood then carries these nutrients to all bod cells. <xgen enters the bod through the air
sac&s of the lungs. Llood cells then transport the oxgen to cells throughout the bod. Llood also helps
remove the waste products released b cells. 0t carries gaseous waste *such as carbon dioxide + to the
lungs to be exhaled. 0t carries solid waste such as urea, to the &idnes to be expelled in the urine.
Llood transports chemical messengers called hormones from their sites of secretion in glands, such as
the throid or pituitar, to distant sites where the regulate growth, reproduction, and energ production.
/inall, blood contains proteins and white blood cells that fight infection, and platelets *thromboctes+
that help the blood to clot.
II Coposition $nd Fo%$tion o" B!ood
Llood is composed of ce!!s, or formed elements, suspended in a clear, straw4colored li(uid called
p!$s$ - The cells constitute 4A percent of the blood volume and include e%'t#%oc'tes * red blood
cells + , !eucoc'tes * white blood cells + , and p!$te!ets or t#%oboc'tes * clotting cells + . The
remaining AA percent of blood is plasma, a solution of water, proteins, sugar, salts, hormones, and
vitamins.
Ce!!s
Leginning at birth all blood cells originate in the marrow cavit of bones. Loth the red blood cells that
carr oxgen and the white blood cells that fight infection arise from the same blood4forming or
hematopoietic ste ce!!s *hematoblast+. :nder the influence of proteins in the bloodstream and bone
marrow, stem cells change their si!e and shape to become speciali!ed, or di""e%enti$ted -0n this process,
the cells change in si!e from large * immature cells + to small * mature forms + and the cell nucleus
shrin&s* in red cells, the nucleus actuall disappears +.
E%'t#%oc'tes
"s a red blood cell matures * from erthroblast to erthrocte + , it loses its nucleus and assumes the
shape of a biconcave dis&. This shape allows for a large surface area so that absorption and release of
gases can ta&e place. $ed sells contain the uni(ue protein #eo)!obin& composed of #ee * iron
containing pigment + and )!obin *protein + . Kemoglobin enables the erthrocte to carr oxgen. The
combination of oxgen and hemoglobin produces red color of blood.
Erthroctes originate in the bone marrow. " hormone called e%'t#%opoietin * secreted b the &idne +
stimulates their production * 4poiesis means formation +. Erthroctes live and fulfil their role of
transporting gases for about 12F das in the bloodstream. "fter this time cells * called $c%op#$)es
+ in the spleen liver, and bone marrow destro the worn out erthroctes. Two to ten million red cells are
destroed each second, but the are constantl replaced, the number of circulating cells remain constant
* 4 to B million in a drop of blood.
)acrophages brea& down erthroctes and the hemoglobin within them into their heme and globin
portions. The heme releases iron and decomposes into a ellow1orange pigment called bilirubin. The
iron in hemoglobin is reutili!ed to form new red cells or is stored in the spleen, liver, or bone
marrow.Lilirubin is excreted into bile b the liver, and from bile it enters the small intestine, where it is
excreted in the stool. 0ts color then turns brown in the stool.
Leucoc'tes
#hite blood cells * CFFF to EFFF cells per ' + are less numerous than erthroctes, but there are five
tpes of mature leu&octes 8 three polmmorphonuclear granuloctic leu&octes * basophil, neutrophil,
and eosiniphil+ and two mononuclear agranuloctic leu&octes * monoctes and lmphoctes+
The )%$nu!oc'tes or po!'o%p#onuc!e$% !eu0oc'tes , are the most numerous * about BF percent + .
B$sop#i!s containing dar& staining granules that stain with a basic * al&aline + de. The granules contain
heparin *an anticlotting substance + and histamine* a chemical released in allergic responses+.
Eosinop#i!s contain granules that stain with eosin, a red acidic de.Neut%op#i!s contain granules that
are neutral? the do not stain intensel with either acidic or basic de.Geutrophiles are p#$)oc'tes
*phag1o means to eat or swallow+ that accumulate at sites of infection, where the ingest and destro
bacteria.
Mononuc!e$% *containing one large nucleus+ leu&octes do not have large numbers of granules in their
ctoplasm, but the ma have a few granules These are !'p#oc'tes and onoc'tes- 'mphoctes are
made in lmph nodes and circulate both in the bloodstream and in the parallel circulatibng sstem, the
lmphatic sstem.
'mphoctes pla an important role in the iune sstemt that protects the bod against infections.
The can directl attac& foreign matter and , in addition, ma&e $ntibodies, which neutrali!e and can
lead to the destruction of foreign $nti)ens * bacteria and viruses +. )onoctes are phagoctic cells that
also fight diseases.
4!$te!ets
=latelets or thromboctes, are formed in red bone marrow from giant cells with multilobed nuclei called
e)$0$%'oc'tes - Tin fragments of a mega&ariocte brea& off to form platelets. The main function of
platelets is to help blood to clot.
4!$s$
=lasma, the li(uid part of the blood, consists of water, dissolved proteins, sugar, wastes, salts, hormones,
and other substances. The four ma2or plasma proteins are $!buin& )!obu!ins& "ib%ino)en& $nd
p%ot#%obin *the last two are clotting proteins +.
A!buin maintains the proper proportion of water in the blood.
/!obu!ins are another part of blood containing plasma proteins. These are alpha, beta, and gamma
globulins. The gamma globulins are iuno)!obu!ins, which are antibodies that bind to and sometimes
destro antigens * foreign substances +. 0mmunoglobulins are separated from other plasma proteins b
e!ect%op#o%esis- 0n this process, an electric current passes through a solution of plasma. The different
proteins in plasma separate as the migrate at different speeds to the source of the electricit.
4!$s$p#e%esis +8$p#e%esis means to remove+ is the process of separating plasma from cells and then
removing the plasma from the patient. 0n plasmapheresis the entire blood sample is spun in a centrifuge
machine, and the plasma, being lighter in weight than the cells, moves to the top of the sample.

III B!ood /%oups
Transfusions of Owhole bloodT *cells and plasma+ are used to replace blood lost after in2ur, during
surger, or in severe shoc&. " patient who is severel anemic and needs onl red blood cells will receive
a transfusion of pac&ed red blood cells. Kuman blood falls into four main groups8 ", L, "L, and <.
There are harmful effects of transfusing blood from a donor of one blood group into a recipient who has
blood of another blood group. Therefore, before blood is transfused, both the blood donor and the blood
recipient are tested to be certain that the transfused blood will be compatible with the recipient.
Each of the blood groups has a specific combination of factors called $nti)ens and $ntibodies-
Llood group antigens are inherited, and antibodies are ac(uired b six months of age after exposure to
antigens. The antigen and antibod factors of blood groups are
T'pe A& containing A $nti)en and $nti8B $ntibod'
T'pe B& containing B $nti)en and $nti8A $ntibod'
T'pe AB& containing A $nd B $nti)ens and no $nti8A o% $nti 7B $ntibodies
T'pe O& containing no A o% B $nti)ens and bot# $nti8A $nd $nti8B $ntibodies
The problem in transfusing blood from a tpe " donor into a tpe L recipient is that " antigens * from
the " donor+ will react adversel with the anti4" antibodies in the recepientRs tpe L bloodstream. The
accidental adverse reaction is hemolsis, or brea&down*rasspadan2e+ of blood cells. 0ntravascular
hemolsis ma lead to dissein$ted int%$v$scu!$% co$)u!$tion +DIC,& a serious coagulopath. 7imilar
problems can occur in other transfusions if the donorRs antigens are incompatible with the recepientRs
antibodies.
=eople with tpe < blood are &nown as universal donors because their blood contains neither " nor
L antigens. Those with tpe "L blood are &nown as universal recepients because their blood contains
neither anti4" nor anti4L antibodies.
Lesides " and L antigens, man other antigens are located on the surface of red blood cells. <ne of
these is called R# "$cto% *named because it was first found in the blood of a rhesus mon&e+. The term
$h4positive refers to a person who is born with the $h antigen on her or his red blood cells. "n $h4
negative person does not have the $h antigen. There are no anti4$h antibodies normall present in the
blood of an $h4 positive or an $h.4negative person. Kowever if $h4positive blood is transfused into an
$h4negative person, the recipient ma, but not alwas, begin to develop antoibodies that would cause
hemolsis of $h4positive blood if another transfusion were to occur subse(uentl.
The same reactions occur during pregnanc if the fetus of an $h4negative woman happens to be $h4
positive. This situation is an example of an antigen4antobod reaction.
I1 B!ood C!ottin)
Llood clotting or co$)u!$tion& is a complicated process involving man different substances and
chemical reactions. The final result is the formation of a "ib%in c!ot from the plasma protein "ib%ino)en-
=latelets are important in beginning the process following in2ur to tissues or blood vessels.The
platelets clump or aggregate, at the site of in2ur. Then in combination with a protein tissue factor, other
clotting factors and calcium promote the formation of a fibrin clot.<ne of the clotting factors is clotting
factor M000. 0t is missing in some people who are born with hemophilia. <ther hemophiliacs are missing
factor 0;. The fibrin threads form the clot b trapping red blood cells and platelets and plasma. Then the
clot retracts into a tight ball, leaving behind a clear fluid called serum.Gormall, clots*thrombi+ do not
form in blood vessels unless the vessel is damaged or the flow of blood is impeded."nticoagulant
substances in the bloodstream inhibit blood clotting, so thrombi and emboli*floating clots+ do not form.
Aep$%in , produced b tissue cells* especiall in the liver+ , is an anticoagulant.
1 Cobinin) "o%s& su""i.es $nd te%ino!o)'
c#%o;o color hpocromic ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
eosin;o red, ros,dawn oesinophil,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
is;o same,e(ual anisoctosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
o%p#;o shape, form morpholog,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
'e!;o bone marrow melogenous ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#$);o eat, swallow phagocte,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
poi0i!;o varied, irregular poi&iloctosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
side%;o iron sideropenia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
sp#e%e;o globe, round spheroctosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Su""i.es
8$p#e%esis removal plasmapheresis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8b!$st immature erthroblast,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8c'tosis cell macroctosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8!'tic pertaining to destruction thrombolitic therap ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8oid resembling meloid,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4peni$ deficienc granuloctopenia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4p#$)e eat, swallow macrpophage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4p#i!i$ attraction for
*an increase in cell numbers+ eosinophilia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8p#o%esis carring, transmission electrophoresis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8poiesis formation erthropoiesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8st$sis stop, control hemostasis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
1II 4$t#o!o)ic$! Conditions
Dise$ses o" %ed b!ood ce!!s
Anei$ De"icienc' o" e%'t#%oc'tes o% #eo)!obin
The most common tpe of eanemia is i%on8de"icienc' $nei$
5- $p!$stic $nei$ F$i!u%e o" b!ood ce!! p%oduction due to $p!$si$+$bsence o"
deve!opent & "o%$tion, o" bone $%%o( ce!!s-
6- #eo!'tic $nei$ Reduction o" %ed ce!!s due to e.cessive dest%uction-
=- pe%nicious $nei$ L$c0 o" $tu%e e%'t#%oc'tes c$used b' in$bi!it' to $bso%b vit$in B
12 into t#e bod'-
>- sic0!e ce!! $nei$ A #e%edit$%' condition s#$%$cte%iEed b' $bno%$! s#$pe o"
e%'t#%oc'tes $nd b' #eo!'sis-
?- t#$!$ssei$ An in#e%ited de"ect in t#e $bi!it' to p%oduce #eo)!obin& usu$!!'
seen in pe%sons o" Medite%$ne$n b$c0)%ound-
#eoc%o$tosis E.cess i%on deposits t#%ou)#out t#e bod'-
Kepatomegal, s&in pigmentation, diabetes, and cardiac failure ma occur
po!'c't#ei$ ve%$ /ene%$! inc%e$se in %ed b!ood ce!!s +e%'t#%ei$,
Diso%de%s o" b!ood c!ottin)
#eop#i!i$ E.cessive b!eedin) c$used b' #e%edit$%' !$c0 o" one o" t#e p%otein
subst$nces +"$cto% 1III o% 3I, necess$%' "o% b!ood c!ottin)-
pu%pu%$ Mu!tip!e pinpoint #eo%%#$)es $nd $ccuu!$tion o" b!ood unde% t#e
s0in-
Dise$ses o" W#ite B!ood Ce!!s
!eu0ei$ An inc%e$se o" c$nce%ous (#ite b!ood ce!!s
5- Acute 'e!o)enous+'e!oc'tic, !eu0ei$+AML,
6- Acute !'p#oc'tic !eu0ei$ +ALL,-
=- C#%onic 'e!o)enous !eu0ei$-+CML,
>- C#%onic !'p#oc'tic !eu0ei$-+CLL,
A!! "o%s o" !eu0ei$ $%e t%e$ted b' c#eot#e%$p' -
)%$nu!oc'tosis Abno%$! inc%e$se in )%$nu!oc'tes in t#e b!ood-
ononuc!eosis An in"ectious dise$se $%0ed b' inc%e$sed nube% o" !eu0oc'tes
$nd en!$%)ed ce%vic$! !'p# nodes-
Dise$ses o" Bone M$%%o( Ce!!su!tip!e 'e!o$ M$!i)n$nt neop!$s o" bone $%%o(-

Endoc%ine )!$nds 8Cobinin) "o%s& Su""i.es& 4%e"i.es
And%;o male androgen 3 produced b the testis in males and adrenal
.ortex in males and females.
.alc1o calcium hpercalcemia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
.rin1o secrete endocrinologist,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Dips1o thirst poldipsia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Estr1o female estrogenic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
%luc1o sugar glucagon 3 agon means to assemble or gather together
%lc1o sugar hperglcemia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
Kome1o sameness homeostasis 4 stasis means to control.
Qal10 potassium hpo&alemia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)x1o mucus mxedema 3 mucus4li&e material accumulates under the
s&in.
Gatr1o sodium hponatremia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=hs1o growing hpophsectom ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
7omat1o bod somatotropin ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Toc1o childbirth oxtocin 4ox means swift, rapid
Su""i.es
4agon assemble, gather
4in? 4ine a substance epinephrine ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4tropin stimulating the adrenocorticotropin
function of
4uria urine condition glcosuria,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Abno%$! cobnditions
T#'%oid )!$nd
Enlargement of the throid gland is )oite% . Endeic )oite% occurs in certain regions and peoples where
there is a lac& of iodine in the diet.
"nother tpe of goiter is nodu!$% or $deno$tous )oite%& in which hperplasia occurs as well as nodules
and adenomas .
A'pe%t#'%oidis Ove%$ctivit' o" t#e t#'%oid )!$nd - The most common form of this
.ondition is throtoxicosis of %raves disease *resulting from
autoimmune processes+. E.op#t#$!os * protrusion of the eeballs +
A'pot#'%oidis Unde%$ctivit' o" t#e t#'%oid )!$nd.
M'.ede$ This is advanced hpothroidism in adulthood. "throph of the gland occurs
C%etinis Extreme hpothroidism during infanc during infanc and childhood leads to a
lac& of normal phsical and mental growth .
Neop!$ss
t#'%oid c$%cino$ C$nce% o" t#e t#'%oid )!$nd
4$%$t#'%oid /!$nds
A'pe%p$%$t#'%oidis Ecessive p%oduction o" p$%$t#o%one-
Kpercalcemia occurs as calcium leaves the bones and enters the bloodstream, where it can produce
damage to the &idnes and heart.Qidne stones can occur as a result of hpercalcemia.
A'pop$%$t#'%oidis De"icient p%oduction o" p$%$t#'%oid #o%one-
Kpocalcemia results as calcium remains in bones and is unable to enter the bloodstream. This leads
to muscle and nerve wea&ness with spasms of muscles, a condition called tet$n'-
Ad%en$! co%te.
$d%en$! vi%i!is E.cessive output o" $d%en$! $nd%o)ens-
"drenal hperplasia or more commonl adrenal adenomas or carcinomas ca cause vi%i!iE$tion in
adult women-7mptoms include amenorrhea, hirsutism, acne, and deepening of the voice-

Cus#in) s'nd%oe A )%oup o" s'nd%oes p%oduced b' e.cess co%tis! "%o t#e $d%en$! co%te.-
" number of signs and smptoms occur as a result of increased glucocorticoids, including obesit,
moon4li&e fullness of the face, excess deposition of fat in the thoracic region of thebac&, * so.called
buffalo hum+, hperglcemia, hperntremia, hpo&alemia, osteporosis virili!ation, and hpertension.
Addison dise$se A'po"unctionin) o" t#e $d%en$! co%te.-
)ineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids are produced in deficient amounts Kpoglcemia,
hponatremia, fatigue, wea&ness, weight loss, salt craving, low blood pressure and dar&er pigmentation of
the s&in are smptoms of the condition
4#eoc#%ooc'to$ Beni)n tuo% o" t#e $d%en$! edu!!$
The tumor cells produce excess secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine
A'pe%insu!inis E.cess sec%etion o" insu!ine c$usin) #'po)!'cei$-
Kpoglcemia occurs as insuline draws suger out of the bloodstream.
Di$betes e!!itus L$c0 o" insu!ine sec%etion o% %esistence o" insu!ine in p%ootin) su)$%&st$%c#
$nd "$t et$bo!is in ce!!s
T'pe 5 di$betes& With onset of usuall in childhood. =atients rec(uire insulin in2ections dail.
T'pe 6 di$betes =atients are usuall older, and obesit is ver common Treatment is with diet.
4ituit$%' /!$nd
Ac%oe)$!' En!$%)eent o" t#e e.t%eities c$used b' #'pe%sec%etion o" t#e $nte%io% pituit$e%'
$"te% pube%t'- "n excess of growth hormone is produced that occur during adulthood
/i)$ntis A'pe%"unctionin) o" t#e pituit$%' )!$nd be"o%e pube%t'& !e$din) to $bno%$!
ove%)%o(t# o" t#e bod-
D($%"is Con)enit$! #'posec%etion o" )%o(t# #o%oneF #'popituit$%' d($%"is
The children affected are mentall normal, but their bones remain small
4$n'popituit$%is A!! pituit$%' #o%ones $%e de"icient
Tumors of the cella turcica as well as arterial aneursms ma be etiological factors
S'nd%oe o" in$pp%op%i$te E.cessive sec%etion o" $ntidiu%etic #o%one
ADA p%toduces e.c ess ($te% %etention in t#e boed'
Di$betes insipidus Insu""icient sec%etion o" ADA c$uses t#e 0idne' tubu!es to "$i! to
#o!d b$c0 + %e$bso%b, needed ($te% $nd s$!ts-


TAE NER1OUS S9STEM
The nervous sstem is one of the most complicated sstems in both structure and function. "long with the
endocrine sstem it controls man bodil activities that maintain a stable and suitable environment for all
of the bod cells 3 a situation &nown as #oeost$sis-
The nervous sstem senses changes in both the internal and external environment, interpretes these
changes, and then coordinates responses that maintain homeostasis. T#e cent%$! ne%vous s'ste CNS is
composed of the brain and spinal cord. These structures receive, coordinate and transmit nervous
impulses
.
T#e pe%ip#e%$! ne%vous s'ste 4NS is composed of all other nervous tissue found outside of the .G7.
0t includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which emerge from the base of the s&ull, and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves which emerge from the spinal cord. These nerves can be sensor or motor, or a mixture f both
sensor and motor fibers.
.
Senso%' ne%ves receive impulses from the sense organs, such as the ees, ears, nose, tongue, and s&in and
transmit them to the .G7. These sensor nerves are also &nown as $""e%ent ne%ves& because the
conduct impulses toward a specific site, the central nervous sstem.
Moto% ne%ves conduct impulses awa from the .G7, thus the are &nown as e""e%ent ne%ves- These
impulses travel to muscles and other bod organs causing them to respond to some manner. 0f these
response is under the control of the individual, such as wal&ing or tal&ing, the impuls is relaed b
voluntar or somatic nerves. 0f the respons is involuntar or nonthin&ing, such as digesting food or
secreting hormones, the impulse is relaed b autonomic nerves.
Gerves composed of both sensor and motor fibers are called i.ed ne%ves- /or example, when the facial
nerve supplies the facial muscle with motor impulses, such as for smiling or frowning, it is functioning as
a motor nerve. Lut when the tongue transmits a taste impuls to the brain, the facial nerve is functioning as
a sensor nerve.
The $utonoic ne%vous s'ste is responsible for the control of the internal environment? heart rate,
peristaltic movement of the stomach and intestines, constriction of the iris, and other involuntar activities
This sstem is composed of a s'p$t#etic and p$%$s'p$t#etic division. The two divisions are largel
antagonistic to each other, although in certain instances the exhibit independent activit.%enerall,
smpathetic nerves initiate or accelerate an autonomic function, and parasmpathetic nerves decelerate or
stop the initiated activit. /or example , in situations of fear and fright, smpathetic nerve fibers produce
vasoconstriction and an increased heart rate and depress gastrointestinal activit.#hen the danger is
passed, the parasmpathetic sstem conves impulses to bring about vasodilation, a slower heart rate, and
a return to normal gastrointestinal activit.
NER1OUS TISSUE
0n spite of its complexit, the nervous sstem is composed of onl two principal tpes of nerve cells,
neu%ons and neu%o)!i$- Geurons, the functional cells of the nervous sstem, are responsible for impulse
conduction. "ll neural circuits are composed of neuron chaines. 0n contrast to neurons, neuroglia does not
transmit impulses. 0t is speciali!ed nervous tissue that functions as connective tissue that supports and
binds neurons. During infection, neuroglia is capable of performing certain phagoctic activit.
Neu%ons
Geurons consist of three ma2or sections8 the dendrites, which receive impulses and transmit them to the
cell bod? the cell bod, which contains the cell nucleus? and the axon, a long single pro2ection, which
transmits the impulse from the cell bod. )an axons in both the =G7 and .G7 are covered with a white,
lipoid sheath called melin. This wrapping accelerates the impulse that travel down the axon. The
presence of melin on axons in the brain and spinal cord gives a white appearance to these structures and
ma&es up what is called t#e (#ite $tte% of the .G7. :nmelinated fibers, dendrites, and nerve cell
bodies ma&e up t#e )%e' $tte%- <n peripheral nerves, a thin cellular membrane called neu%o!e$& or
neu%o!e$! s#e$t# + Sc#($nnKs, wrapps around the melin sheath. The neurolemmal sheath ma
allow a damaged axon to regenerate. 7ince no neurolemma can be found in the .G7, in2ured nerves in the
sstem cannot regenerate. Their nerve function is permanentl lost.
Geurons are not continuous with one another. 0nstead, a small space &nown as a snapse is
found between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell bod of another. 0n order for the impulse to
travel along a nerve path, the impulse must be transmitted at the snapse. This transmission is facilitated
b certain chemical substances called neu%ot%$nsitte%s-
Neu%o)!i$
The term neuroglia literall means nerve glue. 0t was once believed that neuroglia served onl a
supporting role for neurons. Lut it is now &nown that different shaped neuroglia cells perform man other
functions. Ast%oc'tes& as their name suggests, are star4 shaped neuroglia and are believed to be involved
in the transfer of substances from the blood to the brain. O!i)odend%o)!i$ are cells with onl a few
processes. The are believed to help in the development of melin on neurons of the .G7. Mic%o)!i$ , the
smallest of the neuroglia, possess phagoctic properties and ma become ver active during times of
infection.
T#e B%$in
0n adition to being one of the largest organs of the bod, the brain is also the most complex in structure
and function.0t integrates almost ever phsical and mental activit of the bod. This organ is also the
center for memor, emotion, thought, 2udgement, reasoning and consciousness.
The brain is composed of four ma2or sections8 T#e ce%eb%u& ce%ebe!!u& diencep#$!on+inte%b%$in,&
$nd b%$in ste .
T#e ce%eb%u is the largest and uppermost portion of the brain. 0t consists of two hemispheres divided
b a deep longitudinal "issu%e or )%oove . The fissure does not completel separate the hemispheres. "
structure called the corpus collosum 2oins them mediall on their inferior surfaces. Each hemisphere is
further divided into five lobes. /our of these lobes are named after the bones that lie directl above them.
" fifth lobe of the cerebrum is hidden from view and can onl be seen upon dissection.
Gumerous "o!ds or convo!utions& called )'%i* sing. grus+ are found in the cerebrum surface. These are
separated b "u%%o(s called "issu%es or su!ci * sing. sulcus+. " thin laer of gre matter called the cerebral
cortex, composed of millions of cell bodies, covers the entire cerebrum and is responsible for its gre
colour.
The remainder of the cerebrum is composed primaril of white matter *melinated axons+. )a2or
functions of the cerebrum include sensor receptions and interpretation, muscular movement, and the
emotional aspects of behaviour and memor.
The second largest part of the brain , the ce%ebe!!u, occupies the bac& portion of the brain. 0t is attached
to the brain stem. #hen the cerebrum initiates muscular movement, the cerebellum coordinates and
refines the movement. The cerebellum also maintains the e(uilibrium or balance of the bod.
The diencep#$!on , or interbrain, is composed of man smaller structures, two of which are the
t#$!$us and the #'pot#$!$us- "ll sensor stimuli, except olfactor, are received b the thalamus.
Kere the are processed and transmitted to the proper area of the cerebral cortex. 0n addition, impulses
from the cerebrum are received b the thalamus and relaed to efferent nerves.Leneath the thalamus is a
small structure, the #'pot#$!$us. 0ts chief function is the integration of autonomic nerve impulses and
the regulation of the certain endocrine functions The b%$in ste completes the last ma2or section of the
brain. 0t is composed of three structures 8 the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain* mesencephalon+. 0n general, the brain stem serves as a pathwa for impulse conduction
between the brain and the spinal cord. The brain stem also serves as the origin for 1F of the 12 cranial
nerves.
Spin$! co%d
The spinal cord conves to the brain sensor impulses from different parts of the bod and also
transmits impulses from the brain to all muscles and organs. The sensor nerve tracts ale also called
ascending tracts , since the direction of the impulse is upward. .onversel , motor nerve tracts that rela
motor impulses to muscles and organs are called descemding tracts, since the carr impulses in a
downward direction. " cross4section of the spinal cord reveals an iner gra area composed of cell bodies
and dendrites, with an outer area composed of the melinated tissue of the ascending and descending
tracts.
The entire spinal cord is located within the spial cavit of the vertebral column. Thirt4one pairs of
spinal nerves exit from between the intervertebrtal spaces almost throughout the entire length of the spinal
column. :nli&e the cranal nerves, which have specific names, the spinal nerves are &nown b the region
of the vertebral column from the exit.
Menin)es
Loth the brain and the spinal cord are protected aginst in2ur b bones, The bain is enclosed within the
s&ull and the spinal cord is enclosed wsithib the vertebral column. 0n addition, both the brain and the
spuinal cord receive limited protection from a set of three coverings called meninges. The outermost coat,
the dura mater,is tough and fibrous. 0mmediatell beneath the dura mater is a cavit called the subdural
space. 0t is filled with serous fluid. The next laer of the meninges is the arachnoid, "s its name suggests,
the arachnoid has a spider4web appearance. " subarachnoid space filled with serebrospinal fluid ,
provides additional protection for the brain and spinal cord b acting as a shoc& absorber. /inall, the
innermost laer, the pia mater , contains numerous blood vessels and lmphatics, which provide
nourishment for the underling tissue.
.erebrospinal fluid circulates around the spinal cord and the brain and through spaces called
ventricles. These ventricles are located within the inner portion of the brain.
Diso%de%s $nd 4$t#o!o)ic$! conditios o" t#e Ne%vous S'ste
Con)enit$! Diso%de%s
A'd%ocep#$!us 8 "bnormal accumulation of fluid *.7/+in the brain
Spin$ bi"id$ 8 .ongenital defect in the lumbar spinal column caused b imperfect union of
vertebral parts* neural tube defect+.
A!E#eie%Ks dise$se8 Lrain disorder mar&ed b deterioration of mental capacit beginning at middle
age. This disorder develops graduall,and earl signs are loss of memor for recent events followed b
impairment of 2udgement, comprehension, and intellect.There is as et no effective treatment.
A'ot%%opic !$te%$! sc!e%osis+ALS, 8 De)ene%$tive dise$se o" oto% neu%ons in t#e spin$! co%d $nd
b%$inste-
0t presents in adulthood and affects men more often than women. 7mptoms are wea&ness and atroph of
muscles in the hands, forearms,, and legs, followed b difficult in swallowing, tal&ing, and dspnea as
the respirator muscles become affected.
Epi!eps' 8 C#%onic b%$in diso%de% c#$%$cte%iEed b' %ecu%%ent seiEu%e $ctivit'
" sei!ure is an abnormal, sudden excessive discharge of electrical activit withinthe brain. Tonic8c!onic
seiEu%e+ ict$! events, are characteri!ed b a sudden loss of consciousness, falling down, and then tonic
contractions * stiffening of muscles, followed b clonic contractions * twitching and 2er&ing movements
of the limbs+ These convulsions are often preceded b an $u%$ , which is a peculiar sensation appearing
before more definite smptoms. Di!!ines, numbness, or visual disturbances are exmples of an aura.
Absence seiEu%e are a minor form of of sei!ure consisting of momentar clouding of consciousness and
loss of contact with the environment.
Auntin)ton dise$se Kereditar nervous disorder caused b degenerative changes in the
cerebrum and involving bi!arre, abrupst, involuntar, dance li&e movements.
Mu!tip!e sc!e%osis +MS, Destruction of the melin sheath on neurons in the .G7 and its
replacement b pla(ues of sclerotic * hard + tissue.Demelination prevents the conduction of nerve
impulses through the axon and causes paresthesias, muscle wea&ness, unstead gait* manner of wal&ing+
and paralsis.
M'$st#eni$ )%$vis Geuromuscular disorder characteri!ed b wea&ness* 4asthenia+ of
voluntar muscles * attached to bones+.0t is a chronic autoimmune disorder. "ntibodies bloc& the abilit of
acetlcholine* neurotransmitter+ to transmit the nervous impuse from nerve to muscle cell. Gormal muscle
contractions fail to occur <nset of smptoms is usuall gradual with ptosis of the upper eelid, double
vision* diplopia+ and facial wea&ness
4$!s' 7 4$%$!'sis
Ce%eb%$! p$!s' 7 is partial paralsis and lac& of muscular coordination caused b loss of oxgen or blood
flow to the cerebrum durin gestation or perinatal period.Me!! p$!s' is paralsis on one side of the
face.Etiolog is li&el infestions with a virus.
4$%0inson dise$se 8 Degeneration of nerves in the basal ganglia, occurring in later life and leading to
tremors, wea&ness of muscles, and slowness of movements.
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
Ae%pes Eoste% 7 Miral infection affecting peripheral nerves.
Menin)itis 8 0nflammation of meninges? leptomeningitis.
Au$n iunodi""icienc' vi%us+AI1, encep#$!op$t#' 7 Lrain disease and dementia occurring with
"0D7.
NEO4LASTIC DISORDERS
B%$in tuo%s 7"bnormal growths of brain tissues and meninges
TRAUMATIC DISORDERS
Ce%eb%$! concussion 7 Temporar brain dsfunction after in2ur, usuall clearing within 24 hours.
There is no evidence of structural damage to the brain.
Ce%eb%$! contusion 4 Lruising of brain tissues as a result of direct trauma to the head? neurological
deficits persist more than 24 hours.0t is usuall associated with a fracture of the s&ull.
1ASCULAR DISORDERS
Ce%eb%ov$scu!$% $ccident + C1A, 8 disruption in the normal blood suppl to the brain? stro&e. This
condition is also &nown as cerebral infarction. There are three tpes of stro&es
1. T#%obotic 7 blood clot in the arteries leading to the brain resulting in occ!usion
*bloc&ing+ of the vessel.
2. Ebo!ic 7 an embolus * a dislodged thrombus+ travels to cerebral arteries and occludes a
small vessel. This tpe of stro&e occurs ver suddenl.
3. Aeo%%#$)ic 7 a blood vessel, such as the cerebral arter, brea&s and bleeding occurs.
The ma2or ris& factors for stro&e are hpertension, diabetes, smo&ing and heart disease. <ther ris& factors
include obesit, substance abuse* cocaine+, and elevated cholesterol levels.
COMBININ/ FORMS AND TERMINOLO/9
!ept;o 4 thin, slender 4 leptomeningitis 4 the pia and arachnoid membranes are
&nown as the leptomeninges.
m1o 4 muscle 4 moneural 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
mel1o 4 spinal cord 4 melogram 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pont1o 4 pons 4 cerebellopontine 4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
radicul1o 4 nerve root* of spinal nerves+ 3 radiculopath ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
thec1o 4 sheath* refers to the meninges+ 3 intrathecal in2ections ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
alges1o 4 excessive sensitivit to pain 3 analgesia4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4 algesia 4 4 hoalgesia4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
caus1o 3 burning 4 causalgia4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
comat1o 3 deep sleep 4 comatose
.oma
esthesi1o 3 feeling, nervous senseation 4 anesthesia 4,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4esthesia nervous sensation 3 J
&ines1o 4 movement 4 brad&inesia 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4&inesia
4leps 4 sei!ure 4 epileps 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
lex1o 4 word, phrase 4 dslexia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4paresis 3 slight paralsis*wea&ness+4 hemiparesis ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4phasia 4 speech 4 aphasia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4plegia 4 paralsis 4 hemiplegia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

paraplegia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
(uadriplegia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4praxia 3 action 4 apraxa,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4sthenia 3 strength 4 neurasthenia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
sncop1o 3 to cut off 4 sncopal ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
tax1o 4 order, coordination 3 ataxia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Sense O%)$ns * T#e E'e $nd t#e E$%
Int%oduction
The ee and the ear are sense organs, li&e the s&in, taste buds, and olfactor * centers of smell in the
nose+regions. The provide information regarding the external environment The ee is the receptor for light
stimulation and is responsible for vision. The ear is the receptor of sound stimulation and is responsible for
hearing.
T#e e'e
'ight ras enter the dar& center of the ee, the pupi! . The conjunctiv$ is a membrane lining the inner surfaces
of the eelids and anterior portion of the eeball over the white of the ee. The con2unctiva is clear and
colorless except when blood vessels are dilated. Dust and smo&e ma cause the blood vessels to dilate and give
the con2unctiva a reddish appearance, commonl &nown as bloodshot ees.
Lefore entering the ee through the pupil, light passes through the co%ne$ . The cornea is a fibrous, transparent
tissue that extends over the pupil and colored portion of the ee. The function of the cornea is to bend, or
refract, the ras of light , so the are focused properl on the sensitive receptor in the posterior region of the
ee. The normal, health cornea is avascular * has no blood vessels+ but receives nourishment from blood
vessels near its 2unction with the opa(ue white of the ee, the sc!e%$ . .orneal transplants for people with
scarred or opa(ue corneas are successful because antibodies responsible for re2ection of foreign tissue do not
reach the avascular, transplanted corneal tissue. The sclera is a tough, fibrous, supportive, connective tissue that
extends from the cornea on the anterior surface of the eeball to the optic nerve in the bac& of the ee.
The c#o%oid is a dar& brown membrane outside the sclera. 0t contains man blood vessels that suppl nutrients
to the ee. The choroid is continuous with the pigment4containing i%is and the ci!i$%' bod' on the anterior
surface of the ee.
The iris is the colored * it can appear blue, gree, ha!el,gra, or brown+ portion of the ee that surrounds the
pupil. )uscles of the iris constrict the pupil in bright light and dilate the pupil in dim light, thereb regulating
the amount of light entering the ee.The ciliar bod on each side of the !ens& contains muscles that ad2ust the
shape and thic&ness of the lens. These changes in the shape of the lens cause %e"%$ction of light ras.
$efraction is the bending of ras as the pass through the cornea, lens, and other tissue. )uscles of the ciliar
bod produce flattening of the lens * for distant vision+ and thic&ening and rounding * for close vision+ .This
refractor ad2ustment is $ccood$tion -
Lesides regulating the shape of the lens, the ciliar bod also secretes a fluid called $Cueos #uo%& which is
found in the $nte%io% c#$be% of the ee. "(ueous humor maintains the shape of the anterior portion of the
ee and nourishes the structures in that region.The fluid is constantl produced and leaves the ee through a
canal that carries it into the bloodstream."nother cavit of the ee is the vit%eous c#$be%& which is a large
region behind the lens filled with a soft, 2ell4li&e material, the vit%eous #uo%- Mitreous humor maintains the
shape of the eeball and is not constantl reformed. 0ts escape ma result in significant damage to the ee,
leading to blindness. Loth the a(ueous and the vitreous humors further refract light ras.
The %etin$& is the thin, delicate, and sensitive nerve laer of the ee. "s light energ, in the form of waves,
travels through the ee, it is refracted * b the cornea, lens and fluids+ so that it focuses on sensitive receptor
cells of the retina called the %ods and cones- There are approximatel B.A million cones and 12F million rods in
the retina. The cones function in bright levels of light and are responsible for color and central vision. There
are three tpes of cones, each stimulated b one of the primar colors in light * red ,green ,or blue +. )ost cases
of colour blindness affect either the green or the red receptors, so that the two colors cannot be distinguished
from each other. $ods function at reduced levels of light and are responsible for peripheral vision.
'ight energ, when focused on the retina, causes a chemical change in the rods and cones, initiating nerve
impulses that then travel from the ee to the brain via the optic ne%ve- The region in the ee where the optic
nerve meets the retina is called the optic disc- Lecause there are no light receptor cels in the optic disc, it is
&nown as te blind spot of the ee.
The $cu!$ is a small ,oval, ellowish area to the side of the optic disc. 0t contains a central depression called
the "ove$ cent%$!is & which is composed largel of cones and is the location of the sharpest vision in the ee.
0f a portion of the fovea or macula is damaged, vision is reduced and central vision blindness occurs.The
"undus of the ee is the inner part that is visuali!ed through the ophtalmoscope.
7ix muscles control the movement of the ee 3 the superior, inferior, lateral and medial rectus muscles, and the
superior and inferior obli(ue muscles.These muscles are coordinated to move both ees in a snchroni!ed
manner The front of the ee is protected b two movable folds of s&in, t#e e'e!ids . The edges are lined with
two or three rows of eelashes, which protect the surface of the ee.
" thin mucous membrane called con2unctiva lines the inner surface of the eelids and passes over the cornea.
'ing superior and to the outer edges of each ee are the lacrimal glands. The produce tears to bathe and
lubricate the ees. The tears collect at the inner edges of the ees, the c$nt#i + sin)- c$nt#us,, and pass
through pinpoint openings, the !$c%i$! c$n$!icu!i, of the nose.
Cobinin) "o%s
blephar1o eelid * also palpebr1o+ blepharitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

blepharoptosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
cor1o pupil*also pupill1o anisocoria,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ccl1o ciliar bod ccloplegic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
or muscle of the ee
dacr1o tears, tear duct dacrodenitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
also lacri1o
ir1o iris iritis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
irid1o iridic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
iridicectom,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
&erat1o cornea &eratitis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ocul1o ee intraocular,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ophtalm1o ee ophthalmologist,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
opt1o ee, vision optic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
optic1o O optician,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
papill1o optic disc papilledema,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
phac1o lens of the ee phacomulsifiction,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
pha&1o apha&ia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Conditions
ambl1o dull, dim amblopia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
dipl1o double diplopia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
glauc1o gra glaucoma ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
mi1o smaller, less miosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
mdr1o widen, enlarge mdriasis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
nct1o night nctalopia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
phot1o light photophobia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
presb1o old age presbopia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
scot1o dar&ness scotoma,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
xer1o dr xerophtalmia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Su""i.es
4opia vision hperopia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
4opsia vision hemianopsia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4tropia to turn esotropia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
E%%o%s o" Re"%$ction
Asti)$tis De"ective cu%v$tu%e o" t#e co%ne$ o% !ens o" t#e e'e
A'pe%opi$ + #'pe%et%opi$+ F$%si)#tedess
M'opi$ Ne$%si)#tedness
4%esb'iopi$ Ip$i%ent o" vsion $s $ %esu!t o" o!d $)e
4$t#o!o)ic$! conditions
C$t$%$ct C!oudin) o" t#e !ens& c$usin) dec%e$sed vision
C#$!$Eion S$!!& #$%d& c'stic $ss + )%$nu!o$, on t#e e'e!idF "o%ed $s $ %esu!t o" c#%onic
in"!$$tion o" $ seb$ceous )!$nd
Di$betic %etinop$t#' Retin$! e""ect o" di$betes e!!itus inc!ude ic%oneu%'ss& #eo%%#$)es& di!$tion
o" %etin$! veins& $nd neov$scu!$%iE$tion
/!$uco$ Inc%e$sed int%$ocu!$% p%essu%e %esu!ts in d$$)e to t#e %eti$ $nd optic ne%ve-
Ao%deo!u + st'e, Loc$!iEed & pu%u!ent& in"!$$to%' st$p#'!ococc$! in"ection o" $ seb$ceous )!$nd in
t#e e'e!id
M$cu!$% de)ene%$tion 4%o)%essive d$$)e to t#e $cu!$ o" t#e %etin$-
Retin$! det$c#ent T(o !$'e%s o" t#e %etin$ sep$%$te "%o e$c# ot#e%-
St%$bisus Abno%$! devi$tion o" t#e e'e-
C!inic$! 4%ocedu%es $nd Ab%evi$tions
Op#t$!oscop' 1isu$! e.$in$tion o" t#e inte%io% o" t#e e'e-
1isu$! $cuiti' test C!$%it' o" vision is $ssessed-
1isu$! "ie!d test Me$su%es t#e $%e$ (it#in (#ic# objects $%e seen (#en t#e e'es $%e "i.ed-
T%e$tent
Enuc!e$tion Reov$! o" t#e enti%e e'eb$!!
Be%$top!$st' Su%)ic$! %ep$i% o" t#e co%ne$-
LASIB Use o" $n e.ie% !$se% to co%%ect e%%o%s o" %e"%$ction + 'opi$& #'pe%opi$& $nd
$sti)$tis,
Test E$ "iEiote%$peute
)icroscopic fiber that carries the nervous impulse 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
'ower portion of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
<uter region of the brain 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
'argest part of the brain 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=art of the nerve cell that contains the nucleus 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)icroscopic branching fiber of a nerve cell 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
)otor nerves carr ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,awa from the brain and the spinal cord.
)elin sheath is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,tissue that surrounds, protects and insulates the axon.
" nerve cell is called 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
Essential, distinguishing tissue cells of an organ 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
.hange in the internal or external environment that evo&es a response4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
)ain rela center of the brain 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
)iddle vascular laer of the ee 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
Tough, white, outer coat of the eeball 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
'ight4sensitive nerve cell laer of the ee containing rods and cones 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
$efraction is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,of light ras.
0ris is the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,portion of the ee.
Delicate membrane lining the eelids and the anterior eeball 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
/luid produced b the ciliar bod 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
)opoa is also called ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
The opposite of mopia is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
"stigmatism is a defective ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,of the cornea.
7trabismus 3 abnormal ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,of the ee.
"uricle is also &nown as the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
The inner ear is also &nown as the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
The ear is an important organ of ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,as well as for balance.
The auditor canal is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,from the middle ear to the pharnx.
)alleus, incus , and stapes are three small ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
.erumen is a ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,substance secreted b the external ear.
Tmpanic membrane is also called the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
The cochlea is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,4shaped structure.
'oss of the abilit to hear is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
<titis media is ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
Tinnitus is a sensation of ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,in the ears.
Misual examination of the ear 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
"drenaline is also called ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
Kormones are produced b ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,glands.
=rogesterone is produced in ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
%K is short for ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
Kpophsis is better &nown as the ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,gland.
"ndrogen is male hormone and ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,is female hormone.
W%tie do(n t#e e$nin) o" t#e cobinin) "o%s

lact1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ? dips1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?
glc1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? mx1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?
phac1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? vitre1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
palpebr1o4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? ophtalm1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?&erat1o 4
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? lacrim1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,&ines1o
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,? mel1o 4 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ONCOLO/9
<ncolog is the stud of tumors. 0t includes both $!i)n$nt and nonmalignant growths.
Tuo%s *also called neop!$ss + are masses, or growths , that arise from normal tissue. The ma be
either malignant or beni)n-
Beni)n neop!$ss
Lenign neoplasms are growths that occur in bod tissues. The are composed of the same
+ di""e%enti$ted , cells as the tissue in which the are growing.Lenign neoplasms are contained within a
capsule and do not invade the surrounding tissue.The harm the individual onl insofar as the place
pressure on surrounding structures. 0f the benign neoplasm remains small and places no pressure on
ad2acent structures, it is not often removed. 0f it becomes enlarged or places pressure on other organs or
structures, it must be removed. Lenign brain tumors are alwas ver serious, since the cranial cavit is
enclosed and pressure on other parts of the brain inevitabl results. "s a general rule , however, benign
tumors are not life4threatening. <nce the are removed the do not regrow.
M$!i)n$nt neop!$ss
The cells that compose a malignant neoplasm often do not resemble the tissue in which the are
growing and the are characteristicall invasive and infiltrative. 0n such cases the tumor is said to be
undi""e%enti$ted- )alignant tumors are composed of cancerous cells that resemble primitive, or
embronic, cells that lac& the capacit to perform mature cellural functions. This characteristic is called
$n$p!$si$ *ana4 means bac&ward and 3plasia means growth+."naplastic cells lac& an orderl
arrangement. Thus tumor cells var in si!e and shape and are piled one on top of the other.)ore
significantl the cells of the malignant neoplasm are not incapsuled and are able to spread to normal
tissues.This invasive growth occurs b direct extensions, or et$st$sis. The can detach themselves from
the primar tumor site, penetrate a blood vessel or lmphatic vessel, travel through the bloodstream or
lmphatic sstem, and establish a new tumor site at a distant tissue, such as the lung, liver, or bone
marrow.
W#$t C$uses C$nce%M
The process of transformation from a normal cell to a cancerous one *c$%cino)enesis, is onl
partiall understood at the present time. #hat is clear is that malignant transformation results from
damage to the genetic material, or DG" of the cell.#hen a cell divides, the DG" material in each
chromosome copies itself so that exactl the same DG" is passed on the two new daughter cells that are
formed.This process of cell division is called itosis- 7econd, between ccles of mitosis, DG" controls
the production of new proteins in the cell.#hen a cell becomes malignant, the process of mitosis and
protein snthesis are disturbed. .ancer cells reproduce almost continuousl, and abnormal proteins are
made. )alignant cells are anaplastic, that is, their DG" stops ma&ing codes that allow the cells to carr
on the function of mature cells. 0nstead, altered DG" and altered cellular programs ma&e new signals that
lead to cell proliferation, movement of cells, invasion of ad2acent tissue, and metastasis.
Envi%onent$! A)ents
"gents from the environment, such as chemicals, drugs, tobacco smo&e, radiation, and viruses can
cause damage to DG" and thus produce cancer.. These environmental agents are called c$%cino)ens-
Ae%edit'
.ancer can be also caused b inherited factors. 7usceptibilit to some forms of cancer is transmitted
from parents to offspring through defects in the DG" of the egg or sperm cells.Examples are
%etinob!$sto$ + tumor of the retina of the ee+, po!'posis co!i s'nd%oe *polps that grow in the colon
or rectum+. Lecause inherited changes can be detected in all tissues of the bod, not simpl cancerous
cells, blood cells from famil members can be tested to determine whether a person has inherited the
cancer4causing gene.
C!$ssi"ic$tion o" C$nce%ous Tuo%s
"lmost half of all cancer deaths are caused b malignancies that originate in lung, breast , or colon?
however, in all there are more than 1FF distinct tpes of cancer, each having a uni(ue set of smptoms
and re(uiring a specific tpe of therap. 0t is possible to divide these tpes of cancer into three broad
groups8 c$%cino$s& s$%co$s& and i.ed8tissue tuo%s-
C$%cino$s& the largest group, are solid tumors that are derived from epithelial tissue that lines external
and internal bod surfaces, including s&in, glands, and digestive, urinar, and reproductive organs."bout
EFS of all malignancies are carcinomas.
S$%co$s are less common than carcinomas, comprising less than A percent of all malignant tumors.
The derive from connective tissues of the bod, such as bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and bone marrow,
and from cells of the lmphatic sstem.
Mi.ed8tissue tuo%s are derived from tissue that is capable of differentiating into both epithelial and
connective tissue.Examples of mixed4tissue tumors can be found in the &idne, ovaries, and testies.
/%$din) $nd St$)in) S'stes
Tumors are classified on the basis of their location, microscopic appearance, extent of
spread. <f particular importance are the tumorRs )%$de * its degree of maturit or
differentiation under the microscope+ and its st$)e * its extent of spread within the bod+. These
two properties influence the prognosis and determine the specific treatment to be used.
#hen grading a tumor, three or four grades are used. /%$de I tumors are ver well
differentiated, so that the closel resemble cells from the normal parent tissue of their
origine./%$de I1 tumors are so undifferentiated or anaplastic that even recognition of the
tumorRs tissue of origine ma be difficult. /%$des II $nd III are intermediate in appearance.
%rading is often of value in determining the prognosis. =atients with grade 0 tumors have a
high survival rate, and patients with grades 00, 000, and 0M have an increasingl poorer survival
rate.
7taging is an attempt to define the extent of cancer b classifing it into three categories8 T, G,
and ). T represents the primar tumor site or place of origine? G represents local or regional
node involvement? and ) tells whether or not there is metastasis. #hen the primar site
contains classification of T1, T2, T3, or T4, the higher number would indicate progressive
increase in tumor si!e and involvement. 7imilarl, GF, G1, G2, or G3 represents progressivel
advancing nodular involvement. /inall, )F or )5 defines absence or presence of metastasis,
respectivbel.
CANCER TREATMENT
/our ma2or approaches to cancer treatment are su%)e%'& %$di$tion t#e%$p'& c#eot#e%$p'&
and bio!o)ic$! t#e%$p'-Each method ma be used alone, but often the are used together in
combined4modalit programs to improve the overall treatment result.
Su%)e%'
0n man patients with cancer, the tumor is discovered before it has spread, and it ma be cured
b surgical excision 7ome common cancers in which surger ma be curative are those of the
stomac, breast, colon, lung, and uterus. <ften, surgical removal of the primar tumor prevents local
spread or complications, even in the presence of distant disease. A debu!0in) p%ocedu%e ma be
used if the tumor is attached to a vital organ and cannot be completel removed. "s much tissue as
possible is removed and the patient receives $djuv$nt * assisting + radiation or chemotherap.
The following is the list of terms that describes surgical procedures used in treating cancer.
c%'osu%)e%' )alignant tissue is fro!en and thus destroed.
e!ect%oc$ute%iE$tion )alignat tissue is destroed b burning .
en b!oc %esection Tumor is removed along with a large area of surrounding tissue containing
lmph nodes.
e.cision$! biops' $emoval of tumor and a margin of normal tissue.
e.ente%$tion #ide resection involving removal of the tumor, its organ o origin, and all
surrounding tissue in the bod space.
"u!)u%$tion Destruction of tissue b electric spar&s generated b a high4fre(uenc current.
incision$! biops' =iece of tumor is removed for examination to establish a diagnosis.
RADIATION TAERA49
The goal of radiation therap is to deliver a maximal dose of ioni!ing radiation * irradiation+ to
the tumor tissue and a minimal dose to the surrounding normal tissue. 0n realit, this goal is difficult
to achieve, and usuall one accepts a degree of residual normal cell damage* o%bidit', as a side
effect of the destruction of the tumor. Kigh4dose radiation produces damage to DG".Gewer
techni(ues of radiation utili!e high4energ beams of p%otons to improve the focus of the beam and
limit damage to normal tissues.
CAEMOTAERA49
.ancer chemotherap is the treatment of cancer using chemicals * drugs+. 0t is the standard
treatment for man tpes of cancer, and it produces cures in most patients who have
choriocarcinoma, testicular cancer, acute lmphoctic leu&emia, and Kodgin disease..hemotherap
can be used alone or in combination with surger and radiation to improve cure rates. .ombination
chemotherap is the use of two or more antitumor drugs together to &ill a specific tpe f malignant
growth.Drugs cause tumor cells to die b damaging their DG".Tumor cells with damaged DG"
undergo $poptosis& or self4destruction.
BIOLO/ICAL TAERA49
"nother approach to cancer treatment is to use bodRs own defenses to fight tumor cells.
0nvestigators are exploring how the elements of the immune sstem can be restored, enhanced,
mimic&ed, and manipulated to destro cancer cells. 7ubstances produced b normal cells that
directl bloc& tumor growth or that stimulate the immune sstem and other bod defenses are called
bio!o)ic$! %esponse odi"ie%s- Examples of these substances are inte%"e%ons + made b
lmphoctes+, onoc!on$! $ntibodies + made b mouse cells and capable of binding to human
tumors +, co!on'8stiu!$tin) "$cto%s+CSFs, that stimulate blood4forming cells to combat the
melosuppressive side effects of chemotherap, and inte%!eu0ins that stimulate the immune sstem
to destro tumors.
Di""e%enti$tin) A)ents

7ome new drugs cause tumor cells to differentiate, stop growing, and die. These include ATRA
*all4trans retonic acid+, a vitamin " derivative, which is highl active against acute promeloctic
leu&emia *"='+, and arsenic trioxide * Trisenox+, which has similar effects on "='.
Cobinin) Fo%s& Su""i.es& 4%e"i.es& $nd Te%ino!o)'
"lveoli1o small sac alveolar ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
.ac1o bad cachexia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
.arcin1o cancer, cancerous carcinoma in situ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
.auter1o burn, heat electrocauteri!ation ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
.r1o cold crosurger,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=harmac1o chemical, drug pharmaco&inetics ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=las1o formation dsplastic ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
=le1o man , more pleomorphic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
7cirrh1o hard scirrhous,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
;er1o dr xerostomia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4blastoma immature tumor retinoblastoma,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4genesis formation angiogenesis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4plasia formation, growth hperplasia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4plasm formation, growth neoplasm,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4supression to stop melosuppression,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4therap treatment biological therap,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

ana4 bac&ward anaplasia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
apo4 off, awa apoptosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
brach4 near brachtherap,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
epi4 upon epideromoid,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
meta4 beond, change metastasis ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
tele4 far teletherap,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
$ADIOLO/9 AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE
I-Int%oduction
R$dio!o)' * also called roentgenolog after its discoverer, #ilhelm .onrad $oentgen +
is the medical specialt concerned with the stud of x4ras. 38%$'s are invisible waves of
energ that are produced b an energ source* x4ra machine + and are useful in diagnosis
and treatment of disease.
Nuc!e$% edicine is the medical specialt that studies the characteristics and uses of
radioactive substances in the diagnosis of disease.$adioactive substances are materials
that emit high4speed particles and energ4containing ras from the interior of their
matter.The emitted particles and ras are called %$dio$ctivit' and can be of three tpes 8
$!p#$ p$%tic!es& bet$ p$%tic!es& and )$$ %$'s- /$$ %$'s are similar to x4ras in
that the have no mass and are used effectivel as a diagnostic label to trace the path and
upta&e of chemical substances in the bod.
A %$dio!o)ist is a phsician who specialises in the practice of diagnostic radiolog. "
nuc!e$% p#'sici$n is phsician who speciali!es in the practice of administering
diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures .
"llied health care professionals %$dio!o)ic tec#no!o)ists- Tpes of radiologic
technologists are * %$dio)%$p#e%s& nuc!e$% edicine tec#no!o)ists& and sono)%$p#e%s-
II- R$dio!o)'
7everal characteristics of x4ras are useful to phsicians in the diagnosis and
treatment of disease.
1. "bi!it' to c$use e.posu%e o" $ p#oto)%$p#ic p!$te- 0f a photographic plate is placed
in front of a beam of x4ras, traveling unimpeded through the air, will expose the
silver coating of the plate and cause it to blac&en
2. Abi!it' to penet%$te di""e%ent subst$nces to v$%'in) de)%ees- 0f the x4ras are
absorbed * stopped+ b the denser bod substance * e.g. calcium in the bones +, the
do not reach the photographic plate held behind the patient, and white areas are left in
the x4ra film.
" substance is said to be %$dio!ucent if it permits passage of most of the x4
ras.R$diop$Cue substances * bones+ are those that absorb most of the x4ras the
are exposed to.
3. Invisibi!it'- ;4ras cannot be detected b sight, sound , or touch. #or&ers exposed to
x4ras must wear a "i! b$d)e to detect and record the amount of radiation to which
the have been exposed.
4. T%$ve! in st%$i)#t !ines- This propert allows the formation of precise shadow
images on the x4ra plate and also permits x4ra beams to be directed accuratel at a
tissue site during radiotherap.
A. Sc$tte%in) o" %$di$tion- 7cattering occurs when x4ras come in contact with an
material. %reater scatter occurs with dense ob2ects. 7catter can blur images so a grid
is placed in front of the film to absorb scattered radiation before it stri&es the x4ra
film.
B. IoniE$tion- ;4ras have the abilit to ioni!e substances through which the pass.
0oni!ation is a chemical process in which the energ of an x4ra beam causes
rearrangement and disruption within a substance. 0n x4ra therap, the ioni!ing effect
of x4ras can help &ill cancerous cells and stop tumor growth. 0oni!ing x4ras can
also effect normal bod cells, leading to tissue damage and malignant changes.Thus ,
persons exposed to high doses of x4ras are at ris&s of developing leu&emia, throid
tumors, breast cancer, or other malignancies.
Di$)nostic Tec#niCues
38%$'s
;4ras are used in a variet of was to detect pathological conditions.The most common use of the
diagnostic x4ra is dental, to locate cavities in teeth. <ther areas examined include the digestive,
nervous, reproductive, and endocrine sstems and the chest and bones.7ome special diagnostic x4ra
techni(ues are the following8
Coputed Too)%$p#' o% Copute%iEed A.i$! Too)%$p#'+ CT& CAT,- )achines called
.T scanners beam x4ras at multiple angles through a section of a patients bod. " computer creates
a cross4sectional picture of the bod section examined.The .T scanners are highl sensitive in
detecting diseases in bon structures and can provide images of internal organs that are impossible to
visuali!e with ordinar x4ra techni(ue.
Cont%$st Studies- 0n x4ra film, the natural differences in the densit of bod tissues produce
contrasting shadow images on the x4ra film? however, when x4ras pass through two ad2acent bod
parts composed of substances of the same densit, their images cannot be distinguished on the film
or on the screen. 0t is necessar, then, to in2ect a cont%$st ediu into the structure or fluid so that a
specific part, organ, tube, or li(uid can be visuali!ed.
The following are artificial materials used in diagnostic radiological studies.
B$%iu Su!"$te- Larium sulfate is a metallic powder that is mixed in water and used for
examination of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract."n uppe% /I se%ies involves oral ingestion
of barium sulfate so that the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum can be visuali!ed." s$!! bo(e!
"o!!o(8t#%ou)# traces the passage of barium in a se(uential manner as it passes through the small
intestine. " b$%iu ene$+ !o(e% /I se%ies, opacifies the lumen of the large intestine." doub!e8
cont%$st stud' uses both a radiopa(ue and a radiolucent contrast medium. /or example, the walls of
the stomach or intestine are coated with barium and the lumen is filled with air.
Iodine Copounds- $adiopa(ue fluids containing up to AF percent iodine are used in the following
tests8
An)io)%$p#' "n x4ra image of blood vessels and heart chambers.
A%t#%o)%$p#' .ontrast or air, or both, is in2ected into a 2oint, and x4ras are ta&en of the 2oint.
4'e!o)%$p#' ;4ra images are made of the renal pelvis.
F!uo%oscop'- This x4ra procedure uses a fluorescent screen instead of a fotographic plate to derive
a visual image from the x4ras that pass through the patient.The fact that ioni!ing radiation can
produce "!uo%escence is the basis for fluoroscop. " ma2or advantage of fluoroscop ov er normal
radiograph is that internal organs, such as the heart and digestive tract organs , can be observed in
motion.
Inte%vention$! R$dio!o)'-0nterventional radiologists perform invasive procedures * therapeutic or
diagnostic+ under fluoroscopic, .T, and more recentl )$ * magnetic resonance + guidance.
=rocedures include placement of drainage catheters, drainage of abscesses, occlusion of bleeding
vessels, and installation of antibiotics or chemotherap through catheters.
U!t%$sound
This techni(ue emplos high4fre(uenc, inaudible sound waves that bounce off the bod tissues and
are then recorded to give information about the anatom of an internal organ. "n instrument called a
t%$nsduce% o% p%obe is placed near or on the s&in, which is covered with a thin coating of gel to
assure good transmission of sound waves.
:ltrasound is used as a diagnostic tool not onl b radiologists but also b neurosurgeons and
ophthalmologists to detect intracranial and ophthalmic lesions, b cardiologists to detect heart valve
and blood vessel disorders as well as gastroenterologists, obstetricians and gnecologists.0t is
important to &now that sound waves are nonioni!ing and nonin2urious to tissues.
Two ultrasound tecni(ies, Dopp!e% u!t%$sound $nd co!o%8"!o( i$)in)& ma&e it possible to record
blood velocit, and to image ma2or blood vessels in patients at ris& for stro&e.
M$)netic I$)in) o% M$)netic Resonsnce I$)in)
This is a tpe of diagnostic radiograph that uses electromagnetic energ rather than x4ras. The
techni(ue produces sagittal, coronal * frontal+, and axial*cross4sectional+ images.
)$ examinations are performed with and without contrast.The contrast agent most commonl used
for )$0 is gadolinium*%d+..)$0 is used for providing soft4 tissue images, detecting edema in the
brain, pro2ecting a direct image of the spinal cord, detecting tumors in the chest and the abdomen,
and visuali!ing the cardiovascuar sstem.
38R$' 4ositionin)
0n order to ta&e the best view of the part of the bod being radiographed, the patient, film, and x4ra
tube must be positioned in the most favourable alignment possible. There are special terms used b
radiologists to refer to the direction of travel of x4ra through the patient.
1. 4oste%o$nte%io% +4A, vie(- 0n this most commonl re(uested chest x4ra view, x4ras travel
from a posteriorl placed source to an anteriorl placed detector.
2. Ante%oposte%io% *"=+ view. ;4ras travel from an anteriorl placed source to a posteriorl
placed detector
3. L$te%$! vie(- 0n a left lateral view, x4ras travel from a source located to the right of the
patient to a detector placed to the left of the patient
4. Ob!iCue vie(- ;4ras travel in a slanting direction at an angle from the perpendicular plane.
<bli(ue views show regions ordinaril hidden and superimposed in routine =" and "=
viewa.
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
R$dio$ctivit' $nd %$dionuc!ides
The emission of energ in the form of particles or ras coming from the interior of a substance is
called %$dio$ctivit'- " radionuclide or radioisotope is a substance that gives off high4energ
particles or ras as it disintegrates. A$!"8!i"e is the time re(uired for a radio4substance to lose half of
its radioactivit b disintegration.The half4life must be long enough to allow for diagnostic imaging
but as short as possible to minimi!e patients exposure to radiation.$adionuclides emit three tpes of
radioactivit8 alpha, particles, beta particles, and gamma ras. %amma ras, which have greater
penetrating abilit than alpha and beta particles, and more ioni!ing power, are especiall useful in
both the diagnosis and the treatment of disease. Technetium4EEm is a pure gamma emitter with a
half4life of B hours. 0ts properties ma&e it the most fre(uentl used radionuclide in diagnostic
imaging.
Guclear medicine phsicians use two tpes of tests in the diagnosis of disease8 in vit%o *in the test
tube+ and in vivo +in the bod+. 0n vitro procedures involve analsis of blood and urine specimens
using radioactive chemicals. $0" * radioimmunoassa+ is an in vitro procedure to detect hormones
and drugs in a patients blood. 0n vivo tests trace the amounts of radioactive substance within the
bod.
E.$p!es o" di$)nostic p%ocedu%es t#$t uti!iEe %$dionuc!ides-
1. Bone sc$n- EEmTc*technetium+ is used to label phosphate substances and is in2ected
intravenousl.The scan is useful in demonstrating malignant metastasis to the s&eleton.
2. /$!!iu sc$n- The radioisotope gallium4BC is in2ected intravenousl and has an affinit for
tumors and non4neoplastic lesions such as abscesses.
3. Live% $nd sp!een sc$n- To visuali!e the liver and spleen, a radiopharmaceutical*EEmTc and
sulfur colloid+ is in2ected intravenousl, and images are ta&en with a scintiscanner*gamma
camera+.
4. 4osit%on eission too)%$p#' +4ET sc$n, - R$dio$ctive substances are given
intravenousl and then emit positrons which create a cross4sectional image of the meta4
bolism of the bod. =ET scanning has determined that schi!ophrenics do not metaboli!e
glucose e(uall in all parts of the brain and that drug treatment can bring improvement to
these organs.
A. Sin)!e8p#oton eission coputed too)%$p#'+S4ECT+. .linical application includes
detecting liver tumors, detecting cardiac ischemia, and evaluating bone diseases of the spine.
B. IITec#netiu sest$ibi sc$n- 0t is in2ected intravenousl to stud the motion of the heart
wall muscle and the ventricleRs abilit to e2ect blood*e2action fraction+
C. T#$!!iu sc$n+TL,- 0t is in2ected intravenousl to allow for mocardial perfusion.0nfarcted
or scarred mocardium does not extract an Tl, showing up as cold spots.
D. T#'%oid sc$n- Kperfunctioning throid nodules*adenomas+ accumulate higher amounts of
1310 radioactivit and are termed OhotT. Throid carcinoma does not concentrate radioiodine
well and is seen as a OcoldT spot on the scan.
Abb%evi$tions
"ngio 4 angiograph "= 4 anteroposterior
La 4 barium ."T4 computeri!ed axial tomograph
.T 4 computeri!ed tomograph .;$ 3 chest x4ra
Decub 4 ling down, decubitus D0 4 diagnostic imaging
/D% 4 fluorodeoxglucose *radiopharmaceutical+
BC%a 4 radioactive gallium 131 0 radioactive iodine
0M= 4 intravenous pelogram Q:L 3 &idnes, uriters, bladder
'"T 4 lateral )$ or )$0 3 magnetic resonance
)$" 4 magnetic resonance angiograph =" 4 posteroanterior
=ET 3 positron emission tomograph 7=E.T 3 single photon emission computed
Tomograph.
2F1Tl 4 radioisotope *thallium+ :%0 4 upper gastrointestinal *series+
:7, :17 3 ultrasound MV scan 3 ventilation perfusion scan of the lungs
4AARMACOLO/9
Int%oduction
Drugs * medicines + are substances used to prevent or treat a condition or disease. Drugs are
obtained from parts of plants, such as the roots, leaves, and fruit. "n example of a plant4derived
drug is a cardiac medicine, digitalis*from the foxglove plant+. <ther drugs * antibiotics such as
penicillin+ are obtained from east, molds, and fungi. Drugs are also obtained from animals? for
example, hormones are secretions from the glands of animals. 7ome drugs are snthesi!ed in a
laborator. "nticancer drugs, such as methotrexate and prednisone, are laborator snthesi!ed drugs.
Mitamins are drugs that are isolated from plant or animal sources and are contained in foods.
" pharmacist prepares and dispenses drugs through a pharmac*drugstore+ on written orders from
a phsician. .urrentl, most schools1colleges of pharmac offer a =harm. D. *Doctor of =harmac+
degree after six or seven ears of stud."s a health care professional, a pharmacist cooperates with,
and sometimes advices licensed practitioners concerning drugs. 0n addition, the pharmacist answers
patientRs (uestions concerning their prescription needs.
=harmacolog is the stud of the preparation, properties, uses, and action of drugs. "
pharmacologist is either an ).D.*)edical Doctor+ or a =h.D.*Doctor of philosoph+ who speciali!es
in pharmacolog. =harmacolog contains man subdivisions of stud8 medicinal chemistr,
pharmacodnamics, pharmaco&inetics, molecular pharmacolog, chemotherap, and toxicolog.
Medicin$! c#eist%' is the stud of new drug snthesis and the relationship between chemical
structure and biological effect.4#$%$cod'n$ics involves the stud of drug effects in the bod.
The mathematical description of drug disposition *appearance and disappearance+ in the bod over
time is p#$%$co0inetics-Mo!ecu!$% p#$%$co!o)' involves the interaction of drugs and
subcellular entities, such as DG", $G", and en!mes.
C#eot#e%$p' is the stud of drugs that destro microorganisms, parasites, or malignant cells
within the bod.
To.ico!o)' is the stud of the harmful effects of drugs and chemicals on the bod. " toxicologist
is also interested in finding proper $ntidotes to an harmful effects of drugs.
" drug can have three different names. The c#eic$! n$e is the chemical formula for the drug
T#e )ene%ic n$e *shorter and less complicated+ identifies the drug legall and scientificall.The
b%$nd n$e or trademar& is the private propert of the individual drug manucafturer
C#eic$! N$e /ene%ic N$e B%$nd N$e
Derivative of B4aminopenicillanic acid ampicillin <mnipen
=olcillin
=rincipen
Totacillin
Adinist%$tion o" D%u)s
Kow a drug is introduced into the bod.
O%$! $dinist%$tion- Drugs given b mouth are slowl absorbed into the bloodstream through the
stomach or intestinal wall.This method although convenient for the patient, has several
disadvantages8 it can be destroed in the digestive tract or cannot pass through the intestinal mucosa.
0t is also not good in case when time is an important factor in therap.
Sub!in)u$! $dinist%$tion- Drugs placed under the tongue dissolve in the saliva.Gitroglcerin is
administered in this wa.
Rect$! $dinist%$tion- 7uppositories and a(ueous solutions are inserted into the rectum. Drugs are
given b rectum when oral administration presents difficulties, as when the patient is nauseated and
vomiting.
4$%ente%$! $dinist%$tion- 0n2ection of drug from a s'%in)e through a hollow needle placed under
the s&in, into a muscle, vein, or bod cavit. There are several tpes of parenteral in2ections8
1. Int%$c$vit$%' injection. This in2ection is made into a bod cavit, such as the peritoneal or
poleural cavit.
2. Int%$de%$! injections- This shallow in2ection is made into the upper laers of the s&in and
is used chiefl in s&in testing for allergic reactions.
3. Int%$uscu!$% injection- *0)+ The buttoc& or upper arm is usuall the site for this in2ection.
4. Int%$t#ec$! injection- This in2ection is made into the space under the membranes* meninges+
surrounding the spinal cord and brain.)ethotrexate is in2ected intrathecall for treatment of
leu&emia.
A. Int%$venous injection- This in2ection is made directl into a vein.0t is used when an
immediate effect from the drug is desired.
B. Subcut$neous injection- 0ntroduction of a hpodermic needle under the s&in, usuall on the
upper arm, thigh,or abdomen.
In#$!$tion- Mapors, or gases, ta&en into the nose or mouth are absorbed into the bloodstream
through the thin walls of air sacs in the lungs.
Topic$! App!ic$tion- Drugs are locall applied on the s&in or mucous membranes of the
bod.Anitseptics *against infection+ and $ntip%u%itics *against itching+ are commonl used
as ointments, creams, and lotions.
Te%ino!o)' o" D%u) Action
#hen a drug enters the bod, the target substance with which the drug interacts to produce its
effects is called a %ecepto%- The following terms describe the action and interaction of drugs
in the bod after the have been absorbed into the bloodstream8
Additive Action- 0f the combination of two similar drugs is e(ual to the sum of the effects of
each, then the drugs are called $dditive.0f two drugs give less than an additive effect, the are
called $nt$)onistic- 0f the produce greater than additive effect, the are called s'ne%)istic-
S'ne%)is- " combination of two drugs can sometimes cause an effect that is greater than
the sum of the individual effects of each drug given alone./or example penicillin and
streptomcin produce a snergistic effect.
To!e%$nce- Tolerance is a feature of addiction to drugs such as morphine. Addiction is the
phsical and pschological dependence on and craving for a drug.
D%u) To.icit'
Drug toxicit is the poisonous and potentiall dangerous effect of some drugs.Idios'nc%$s' is
an example of an unpredictable tpe of drug toxicit. This is an unexpected effect that appears in the
patient following administration of a drag.0n some patients penicillin causes an idiosncratic
reaction, such as $n$p#'!$.is *acute hpersensitivit with asthma and shoc&+.
I$t%o)enic *produced b treatment+ disorders can occur, however, as a result of mista&es in
drug use or in individual sensitivit to a given agent.
Side e""ects are toxic effects that routinel result from the use of a drug./or example, nausea,
vomiting, and alopecia are common side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat
cancer.Cont%$indic$tions are factors in a patientRs condition that ma&e the use of a drug
dangerous and ill advised.
4S9CAIATR9
4s'c#i$t%' +ps'c#;o means mind, i$t%;o means treatment+ is the branch of medicine that
deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses.
4s'c#i$t%ists complete the same medical training as other phsicians and receive an ).D.
degree. Then the spend a varing number of ears training in the methods and practice of
ps'c#ot#e%$p' and drug therap. =schiatrists can also ta&e additional ears of training to
speciali!e in various aspects of pschiatr. C#i!d ps'c#i$t%ists speciali!e in the treatment of
children? "o%ensic ps'c#i$t%ists speciali!e in the legal aspects of pschiatr, such as the
determination of mental competence in criminal cases. 4s'c#o$n$!ists complete 3 to A ears
of training in a special pschotherapeutical techni(ue called ps'c#o$n$!'sis in which the
patient freel relates her or his thoughts to the analst, who does not interfere in the flow of
thoughts.
" ps'c#o!o)ist is a non medical person who is trained in methods of pschotherap&
analsis, and research. " c!inic$! ps'c#o!o)ist , li&e a pschiatrist, can use various methods
of pschotherap to treat patients, but, unli&e the pschiatrists, cannot prescribe drugs or
electroconvulsive therap. <ther nonphsicians trained in the treatment of mental illness are
licensed clinical social wor&ers and pschiatric nurses..linical pschologists are trained in
the use of tests to evaluate various aspects of a patientRs mental health and intelligence.
=schiatric .linical 7mptoms
These terms describe abnormalities in behaviour that are evident to an examining mental
health professional.
$nesi$ 'oss of memor.
$n.iet' Mering degrees of uneasiness, apprehension, or dread often
accompanied b palpitations, tightness in the chest,
breathlessness, and cho&ing sensations.
$p$t#' "bsence of emotions ? lac& of interest or emotional involve4
ment.
$utis 7evere lac& of rersponsiveness to others, preoccupation with
inner thoughts? withdrawal and retarded language develop4
ment.
copu!sion :ncontrollable urge to perform an act repeatedl.
conve%sion "nxiet becomes a bodil smptom, such as blindness, deaf4
ness, or paralsis, that does not have an organic basis.
de!usion " fixed, false belief that cannot be changed b logical reason4
ing or evidence.
dissoci$tion :ncomfortable feelings are separated from their real ob2ect-
0n order to avoid mental distress, the feelings are redirected
toward a second ob2ect or behaviour pattern.
d'sp#o%i$ 7adness, hopelessness? depressive mood.

eup#o%i$ Exaggerated feeling of well4being*high+.

#$!!ucin$tion /alse or unreal sensor perception as, for example, hearing voices
none are present.
!$bi!e :nstable? undergoing rapid emotional change.
$ni$ 7tate of excessive excitabilit? hperactivit and agitation.
utis Gonreactive state? stupor.
obsession "n involuntar, persistent idea or emotion.
p$%$noi$ Delusions persecution or grandeur or combination of the two.

4s'c#i$t%ic Diso%de%s
An.iet' Diso%de%s
These disorders are characteri!ed b anxiet4the experience of unpleasant tension, distress,
troubled feelings, and avoidance behaviour. " p$nic0 $tt$c0& mar&ed b intense fear or
discomfort and smptoms such as palpitations, sweating, trembling, and di!!iness, can occur
on its own with no smbolic meaning for the patient*i.e., it occurs Oout of the blueT+, or it can
occur in the context of the following anxiet disorders8 p#obic diso%de%s& obsessive8
copu!sive diso%de%& $nd post8t%$u$tic st%ess diso%de%s-
4#obic diso%de%s are characteri!ed b irrational or debilitating fears associated with a
specific ob2ect or situation.The patient with a phobic disorder goes to extreme lengths to
avoid the ob2ect of her or his fear.=anic attacs can occur in anticipation of the phobic
situation.
A)o%$p#obi$ is the fear of being alone or in open , crowded, public places from which
escape would be difficult or in which help might not be available.The ma feel comfortable
onl b remaining at home or in the compan of a friend or relative.
A soci$! p#obi$ + soci$! $n.iet' diso%de%, is the fear of situations in which the individual is
open to public scrutin, which could result in possible embarrassment and humiliation. /ear
of spea&ing in public, using public lavatories, or eating in public are examples of social
phobias.
<ther specific phobias are c!$ust%op#obi$ * fear of closed4in places+? $c%op#obi$ * fear of
hights+? Eoop#obi$ * fear of animals+.
Obsessive copu!sive diso%de% + OCD, involves recurrent thoughts* obsessions, and
repetitive acts * copu!sions, that dominate the patients behaviour. The patient experiences
anxiet if he or she is prevented from performing special rituals, which are used to shield
against overwhelming anxiet or fear. <ften the <.D consumes time and significantl
interferes with the individualRs social or occupational functioning.
4ost8t%$u$tic st%ess diso%de% is the development of smptoms * intense fear, helplessness,
insomnia, nightmares etc.+ following exposure to a traumatic event.)an survivors of the
7eptember 11 attac& experienced post4traumatic stress disorder.
De!i%iu $nd Deenti$
De!i%iu $nd deenti$ are both disorders of abnormal co)nition * mental processes of thin&ing,
perception, reasoning, 2udgement+.
De!i%iu is acute, temporar disturbance of consciousness and mental confusion.0t is characteri!ed
b rambling, irrelevant, or incoherent speech, sensor misperceptions, and disorientation as to time,
place, or person and b memor impairment. Delirium is caused b a variet of conditions, including
drug intoxication or withdrawal, sei!ures or head trauma, and metabolic disturbances such as
hpoxia, hpoglcemia, electrolte imbalances, or hepatic or renal failure.De!i%iu t%eens is
brought on b withdrawal after prolonged periods of heav alcohol ingestion.
Deenti$ is a general more gradual loss of intellectual abilities that involves impairment of
2udgement, memor, and abstract thin&ing as well as changes in personalit. Dementia ma be
caused b conditions, some reversible and some progressive, involving damage to the brain. The
most common cause is "l!heimer disease, but others are cerebrovascular disease*stro&e+, central
nervous sstem infection, brain trauma,tumors, and =ar&inson and Kuntington disease.
Dissoci$tive Diso%de%s
Dissociative disorders are chronic or sudden disturbances of memor, identit, consciousness, or
perception of the invironment that are not caused b the direct effects of brain damage or drug
abuse.7mptoms hide the pain and anxiet of unconscious conflicts. Examples of dissociative
disorders are dissoci$tive identit' diso%de%& which is the existence within the individual of two or
more distinct personalities that ta&e hold of the individualRs behaviour* illustrated in literature bDr.
We&ll and )r. Kde+? dissoci$tive $nesi$ * inabilit to remember important personal information
that is too extensive to be explained b ordinar forgetfulness+? and dissoci$tive "u)ue * sudden,
unexpected travel awa from home or customar wor& locale+. The fugue * flight+ disorder includes
the assumption of a new identit and inabilit to recall oneRs previous identit.
E$tin) Diso%de%s
Eating disorders are severe disturbances in eating behaviour. Examples are $no%e.i$ ne%vos$ and
bu!ii$ ne%vos$ . "norexia nervosa is a refusal to maintain a minimall normal bod weight. "n
individual is intensel afraid of gaining weight and has a disturbance in the perception of the shape
or si!e of her or his bod.The condition predominantl affects adolescent females, and its principal
smptom is a conscious, relentless attempt to diet along with excessive, compulsive overactivit,
such as excercise, runnig, or gmnastics.)ost postmenarchal females with this disorder are
amenorrheic.
Bu!ii$ ne%vos$ * bulimia means abnormal increase in hunger+ is characteri!ed b binge
eating* uncontrolled indulgence in food+ followed b purging* eliminating food from the bod+.
Lulimic individuals maintain normal or nearl normal weight because after binging the engage in
inappropriate purging. Examples are self4induced vomiting and the misuse of laxatives or enemas.
Mood Diso%de%s
" mood disorder is prolonged emotion such as depression or mania*elation+ that dominates a
patientRs entire mental life. Examples of mood disorders are bipo!$% diso%de%s and dep%essive
diso%de%s- Bipo!$% diso%de%s + bi4 two? pol1o 3m,extreme+ are characteri!ed b one or more $nic
episodes alternating with depressive episodes. " manic episode is a period during which the
predominant mood is excessivel elevated * euphoria+, expansive, or irritable."ssociated smptoms
include inflated self4esteem, or grandiosit, decreased need for sleep, nearl continuous flow of rapid
speech with (uic& changes of topic, distractibilit, an increase in goal4directed activit, and
excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful conse(uences.
<ften there is increased sociabilit and participation in multiple activities mar&ed b intrusive,
domineering, and demanding behaviour. A'po$ni$ describes a mood resembling mania, but of
lesser intensit. Bipo!$% I is one or more manic episodes, often alternating with ma2or depressive
episodes. Bipo!$% II is recurrent ma2or depressive episodes alternating with hpomanic episodes
C'c!ot#'ic diso%de%s + ccl1o 3ccle? thm1o 3 mind+ is a mild form of bipolar disorder
characteri!ed b at least two ears of hpomania and numerous depressive episodes that do not meet
the criteria that define a ma2or depressive episode.
Dep%essive diso%de%s are mar&ed b one or more ma2or depressive episodes without a histor of
mania or hpomania. M$jo% dep%ession involves episodes of severe d'sp#o%i$ * sadness,
helplessness, worr, discouragement+. <ther smptoms are appetite disturbances and changes in
weight, sleep disorders such as insomnia or hpersomnia, fatigue or low energ, feelings of
worthlessness, hopelessness, or excessive or inappropriate guilt, difficult thin&ing or concentrating,
and recurrent thought of death or suicide. D'st#'i$ is a depressive disorder involving depressed
mood that persists over a 24ear period but is not as severe as ma2or depression. "lso there are no
pschotic features* delusion, hallucinations, incoherent thin&ing+ as are sometimes found in ma2or
depression.Dsthmic disorder can be ver impairing but commonl responds well to medications.
=hsicians have noted a relationship between the onset of an episode of depressive disorder and
a particular BF.da period of the ear. " regular appearance of depression ma occur between the
beginning of <ctober and the end of Govember ever ear. This is referred to as a se$son$! $""ective
+ood, diso%de% +SAD,- " change from depression to mania or hpomania also ma occur within a
BF4da period from mid4/ebruar to mid4"pril.
4e%son$!it' Diso%de%s
=ersonalit traits are established patterns of thin&ing and was of relating to and perceiving the
environment and oneRs self? however, when these traits become inflexible and rigid, causing
impairment of functioning, distress, and conflict with others, the constitute personalit
disorders.Examples of personalit disorders are as follows8
$ntisoci$! Go loalt to or concern for others, and without moral standards? acts onl in
response to desires and impulses? cannot tolerate frustration and blames others when he or she is at
falt.
bo%de%!ine 0nstabilit in interpersonal relationships and sense of self? characteri!ed b
alternating involvement with and re2ection of people. /rantic efforts are made to
avoid real or imagined abandonment.
#ist%ionic Emotional, attention4see&ing , immature, and dependent? irrational outbursts and
tantrums? flamboant and theatrical? having general dissatisfaction with oneRs self and
angr feelings about the world
n$%cissistic %randiose sense of self4importance or uni(ueness and preoccupation with fantasies of
success and power. N$%cissis is a pervasive interest in oneRs self with a lac& of
empath for others.
p$%$noid .ontinuall suspicious and mistrustful of other people but not to a pschotic or
delusional degree? 2ealous and overl concerned with hidden motives of others? (uic&
to ta&e offense.
sc#iEoid Emotionall cold and aloof? indifferent to praise or criticism or to the feelings of
others? few friendships and rarel appears to experience strong emotions, such as
anger or 2o.
I1- T#e%$peutic Te%ino!o)'
4s'c#ot#e%$p'
This is the treatment of emotional problems b using pschological techni(ues. The following are
pschological techni(ues used b pschiatrists, pschologists, and other mental health professionals.
Co)nitive Be#$viou% T#e%$p' +CBT,- .odnitioning * changing behaviour patterns and responses
b training and repetition+ is used to relieve anxiet and treat phobias and other disorders.
F$i!' T#e%$p' - Treatment of an entire famil to resolve and understand their conflicts and
problems.
/%oup T#e%$p'- " group of patients with similar problems gains insight into their own personalities
through discussions and interaction with each other. 0G ps'c#od%$$& patients express their feelings
b acting out roles along with other patients4actors on a stage."fter a scene has been presented, the
audience*composed of other patients+is as&ed to ma&e comments and offer interpretations about
what the have observed.
A'pnosis- A t%$nce * state of altered consciousness+ is created ti increase the speed of
pschotherap or to help recover of deepl repressed memories.
Insi)#t8O%iented 4s'c#ot#e%$p'- /ace4to4face discussion of life problems and associated feelings.
4!$' T#e%$p'- Therap in which a child, through pla, uses tos to express conflicts and feelings
that he or she is unable to communicate in a direct manner.
4s'c#o$n$!'sis- Developed b 7igmund /reud, this long4term and intense form of pschotherap
see&s to influence behaviour and resolve internal conflicts b allowing patients to bring their
unconscious emotions to the surface.
Se. T#e%$p'-This form of therap helps individuals overcome sexual dsfunctions such as "%i)idit'&
ipotence $nd p%e$tu%e ej$cu!$tion-
Suppo%tive 4s'c#ot#e%$p'- <ffering encouragement, support, and hope to patients facing difficult
life transitions and events..
E!ect%oconvu!sive T#e%$p'
" treatment in which an electric current is applied to the brain while the patient is anastheti!ed,
paral!ed, and being ventilated. This produces convulsions* involuntar musclular contractions+
which, with modern techni(ues, are usuall observable onl in the form of a twitching of the toe.0t is
chiefl used for serious depression and depressive phase of bipolar*manic4depressive+ disorder.
D%u) T#e%$p'
The following are categories of drugs used to treat pschiatric disorders.
Anti$n.iet' $nd $ntip$nic $)ents- These drugs lessen anxiet, tension, and agitation, especiall
when the are associated with panic attac&s. Example 3 benEodi$Eepines+BNDs,-
Antidep%ess$nts- These drugs graduall reverse depressive smptoms and produce feelings of well4
being. The basis of depression is thought to be an imbalance in the levels of neurotransmitters in the
brain.
Anti8obsessive8copu!sive diso%de% $)ents-+OCD,- These drugs are prescribed to relieve the
smotoms of obsessive4compulsive disorder.
Antips'c#otics + neu%o!eptics,- These drugs modif pschotic smotoms and behaviour. Examples
are p#enot#i$Eines& which are tran(uili!ers that reduce the enxiet, tension, agitation, and
aggressiveness associated with pschoses and modif pschotic smptoms such as delusions and
hallucinations.
A'pnotics- These drugs are used to produce sleep and relieve insomnia. Examples are sedatives and
ben!odia!epines.
Mood st$bi!iEe%s- These drugs treat the manic episodes of bipolar illness.Lit#iu is commonl
used to reduce the levels of manic smptoms, such as rapid speech, hperactive movements,
grandiose ideas, poor 2udgement, aggressiveness, and hostilit.'ithium is a simple salt that is thought
tostabili!e nerve membranes.
Stiu!$nts- These drugs*$p#et$ines, are prescribed for $ttention8de"icit #'pe%$ctivit'
diso%de% in children. .ommon smptoms of "DKD are having a short attention span and being
easil distracted, emotionall unstable, impulsive, and moderatel to severel hperactive.
1 Cobinin) Fo%s& Su""i.es& 4%e"i.es& $nd Te%ino!o)'
$n.i;o uneas, anxious, distressed anxioltic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
#$!!ucin;o hallucination, hallucinogen,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
#'pn;o sleep hpnosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
i$t%;o treatment pschiatrist,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ent;o mind mental ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#i!;o attraction to, love paraphilia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p#%en;o mind schi!ophrenia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
ps'c#;o mind pschosis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
sc#iE;o split schi!oid,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
so$t;o bod pschosomatic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
somatophorm disorder,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
Su""i.es
8)enic produced b pschogenic,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8!eptic to sei!e hold of neuroleptic drugs,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4$ni$ obsessive preoccupation &leptomania,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4p#obi$ fear* irrational and disabling+ agoraphobia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8p#o%i$ feeling, bearing euphoria,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8t#'i$ mind cclothmia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
dsthmia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4%e"i.es
$8& $n8 no,not apath,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
c$t$8 down catatonic stupor,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4
#'po8 deficient, less than , below hpomania,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
hpochondriasis,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
p$%$8 abnormal paranoia,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,