Vol. 45 No.

4 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) April 2002

The covered karst, weathering crust and karst (double-level)
planation surface
CUI Zhijiu (n)
1
, LI Dewen (!)
2
, FENG Jinliang ()
1,3
,
LIU Gengnian (c)
1
& LI Hongjiang ()
4
1. Department of Geography, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
2. Department of Geography, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China;
3. Institute of Geography, Hebei Academy of Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050011, China;
4. Department of Geophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago 60637, USA
Correspondence should be addressed to Cui Zhijiu (email: czj_pku@263.net)
Received November 15, 2001
Abstract The thick-bedded and continuous karst crust only formed in the old stage of geomorphic
development. The corresponding landscape is the karst planation surface. The karst planation
surface consists of the loose weathering crust and the base weathering front below the crust. Its
profile structure is similar to double surface of leveling model built by Budel. In the limestone
area, the base weathering front is the covered karst. From the Tibet Plateau to Yun-Gui (Yunnan-
Guizhou) plateau and Xiang-Gui (Hunan-Guangxi) hills, the covered karst is concomitant with the
red weathering crust; all of them are the component of the double-level surfaces of karst planation.
But, they belong to the different disintegration stages of planation surface. The different subtypes
of the covered karst and the red weathering crust indicate the existence of karst planation surface.
Thus, they can be made as a reference system when the rising degree and the rising rate of the
Tibet Plateau are discussed.
Keywords: covered karst, weathering crust, karst planation surface, Tibet Plateau.
The limestone pillars often observed in the Tibet Plateau are always the argument focus of
the paleo-karst research
[1]
. Since the red crust co-existing with the limestone pillars had been dis-
covered, most limestone pillars are believed to be a result of the covered karst. They formed below
the loose crust and then are denuded to form stone-forest, stone-wall, etc. on the ground due to the
tectonic uplift. Now, scientists believe that it is important to resolve the rising problem of the Tibet
Plateau
[2]
. Meanwhile, the recrystallization calcite obtained from the covered karst bilge could be
used to dating (the fission-track ages are about 197 Ma B.P), which provides a new way to re-
solve the rising degree and the rising speed of the Tibet Plateau
[3,4]
. If we want to estimate the ris-
ing degree of the Tibet Plateau according to the covered karst, two basic problems have to be re-
solved. The first is how to confirm the existence of planation surface based on the covered karst
and the red karst weathering crust; the second is to establish the original height of the planation
surface. On the basis of field investigation about the covered karst in the Tibet Plateau, Yun-Gui
(Yunnan-Guizhou) plateau and Xiang-Gui (Hunan-Guangxi) hills (fig. 1), the planation process of
the karst landform has been discussed again from the essence of karst process in the paper.
Fig. 1. Study region, samples spot and spatial distribution of the subtypes of the covered karst. The section characteristics of the weathering crust (the section name: posi-
tion/elevation (m)/thickness(m)/number of samples). Ad, Aduobeishan/5125/0.76/8; Ce, Cuoe/buried crust/2/10; Drq, Dingridongshan/4300/1/4; ZD1, Yirengang Pass/3550/1.5/4;
ZD2, /Napahaibei/3450/1.5/4; BHC2, Wuzhubi/3000/4/5; BHC1, Baihanchang/2500/2.5/3; HQ2, Shibaoshan/2250/2/4; LH, Xianglaoshan/1350/6/7; LJ, east Lijiang/2600/4.5/7;
HQ1, Shibaoshan/2500/4/5; DLD, Dalongdong/2100/11/12; TBK, Tuobuka/2000/1/11; HZ, Dahai/2800/6/7; NJ, Dasongping/2800/4/5; XY, Shuimushan/2600/4/5; K1, Xis-
han/2000/2.5/4; LNSL, Dashilin/1900/2.5/3; NGSL, Naigushilin/1900/6/9; JP, Jiepu/2000/3.5/4; MHS, Meihuashan/2500/6/7; THT, Tianhetan/1250/8/9; GH, Gui-Huang High-
way/1450/5/7; MW, Mawei/900/3.5/5; MS, Maoshi/1400/3/4; YZ, Qingquanjing/150/8/8; GL2, Yaoshan/800/8/7; GL1, Nancun/150/5/7; WN1, Shaopu/2600/5/7; WN2, Cao-
hai/2500/5/6. 1, Red weathering crust (on the limestone); 2, red weathering crust (on the non-limestone); 3, capital of province; 4, city and town; 5, typical stone-forest; 6, natural
karren; 7, karren denuded by human; 8, subtype boundary of covered karst; m, un-naked subtype of the covered karst; , half-naked subtype of the covered karst; , naked
subtype of the covered karst.
367
368 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
According to the relationship between the karst crust and the covered karst with the geomorphic
evolution, the authors put forward the concept of karst (double-level) planation surface, and be-
lieve that the covered karst and the weathering crust can indicate the existence of the karst plana-
tion surface.
1 The spatial distribution and the shape characteristics of covered karst
Based on the observation for several years, we found that there exist three subtypes of the
covered karst, which distribute with certain patterns, e.g. entirely naked subtype, half-naked
(half-covered subtype), and un-naked subtypes (fig. 2). The subtype of the covered karst of the
Qingzang Plateau (Tibet Plateau) is entirely naked. The entirely naked karst is the component of
main planation surface of plateau, such as the gentle summit of the Anduobei Mountain (5100 m
a.s.l). After the covered karst is denuded, it often outcrops on the summit platform or the upper
part of the outside slope as stone-wall, stone-forest, etc. The solution window-shaped cavities and
grooves are observed on its middle and basis parts, which indicate that they are first formed by the
sub-soil (Plate m-1)
[3,5]
. The solution window-shaped cavities do not extend very long, usually
less than 10 m, with no certain direction. The inner wall of the small cavities is smooth and the
larger ones is accidented. The deposit calcite crystal can be obtained from the inner wall of some
small cavities or sealed cavities. The result of fission-track dating can be traced back to the Mio-
cene (about 197 Ma B.P.)
[4]
. The solution niches do not extend far in transverse direction and
insert into niche-shaped bedrock. A few niches are deeper and likely in cave-shape. The surface of
the covered karst often has the trace that is the result of the frost weathering. The rock surface of a
few stone-forests has the rainwash rill.
The Middle Yunnan (the Western of Yun-Gui Plateau) is located in the watershed or head-
Fig. 2. The distribution of the three subtypes of the covered karst, and the section sketch of the karst planation surface.
In the eastern areas, the covered karst is un-naked subtype and the peak-forest is developing successively. In the middle
areas, the covered karst is half-naked subtype and coexists with the peak-forest. In the western areas, the covered karst is
entirely naked subtype and the peak-forest has been denuding.
No. 4 COVERED KARST, WEATHERING CRUST & PLANATION SURFACE 369
stream of the Zhujiang, Changjiang (Yangtze R.), Honghe and other rivers. The covered karst ex-
ists as the half-naked subtype and preserves very well. Its upper part crops out to form stone-forest.
The famous Lunan Stone-forest is located in the headstream of Bajiang River, one tributary of
Nanpan River. This region is a shallow depression in the plateau. Some papers discussed the
stone-forest genesis by sub-soil and the relationship between the planation surface and sub-soil
[6]
.
The large stone-forest is tall and straight with relative height from several meters to 30 m. In addi-
tion, its upper part crops out with sharp-point and the lower part immerges into the weathering
crust (Plate m-2). Except for a few isolated pillars, the main part of the Naigu Stone-forest likes a
castle of limestone or platform of limestone because it is close to watershed and not completely
incised. The netlike grooves developing along joints are downward several meters. The dissolving
grooves, the niches and window-shaped cavities are often observed. The solution niches are lo-
cated in the bedrock surface (between rock and soil) or a little upperward, with far transverse
extension. The fossil in the protolith crops out on the rock surface since it is difficult to dissolve.
The top and the upper parts of half-naked karst of the Stone-forest Scenic Spot of Lunan are
intensely deformed to become sharp-pointed by late rainwash. But the downward part has the
obvious original characteristics formed by the sub-soil. In contrast with stone-forest of the Middle
Yunnan, the half-naked karst of the Guizhou Plateau has a few characteristics formed in the open
air.
The most karst of Xiangnan (southern Hunan) and Guibei (northern Guangxi) areas belongs
to un-naked subtype, some peak-forests develop in tower-shape and columnar shape on the open
karst plain. The stone-forest and the karren with dissolving features formed by sub-soil are ob-
served in the artificial cross-sections (Plate m-3). For example, in open pit of mining soil near
Qifeng Town of Guilin City, columnar stone-forest of more than 3m in height distributes occa-
sionally with round shape and smooth surface features formed by sub-soil (Plate m-4).
From the Tibet Plateau to south Guizhou, northwest Yunnan, south Sichuan (Wansheng
County, Xingwen County) and other places, the covered karst of various subtypes can be found
easily. Their common characteristics are as follows: () As to the shape, they all have the charac-
teristics formed by sub-soil. Exquisitely carved and smooth dissolving surface of rock is often
observed at Angren, Anduo, Biru, Zhongdian, Middle Yunnan, Middle Guizhou and other places,
especially in the lower part near the red crust. The solution niches often observed in the Tibet Pla-
teau can be also observed in Yunnan Province and Guizhou Province, such as the Stone-forest
Scenic Spot of Lunan and the Hongfenghu Scenic Spot. In Xiang-Gui (Hunan and Guangxi) zone,
the small window-shaped cavities, the niches and the caves are also observed in stone-forest that
is denuded by human. In addition, the nearer it goes downward to the bottom of the stone-forest,
the more clear the features formed by sub-soil show. Because parts of stone-forest and stone-wall
have various transverse features at the different heights, making clear that the denudation proc-
esses of the stone-forest and the stone-wall were gradual, intermittent and multi-stage. () As to
370 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
distribution, the covered karst distributes on the certain geomorphic position. It generally distrib-
utes on the periphery of the summit (such as the Anduobei Mountain) or the depression in river
headstream (such as the Stone-forest Scenic Spot of Lunan). In addition, it corresponds with the
certain geomorphic surface of region. () In the outcrop region of the covered karst, the red
weathering crust often exists in various degrees at the same spot. According to the chemical prop-
erties of crust samples gathered from the Anduobei Mountain and other places, it is believed that
they formed under humid and warm climate (table 1).
Table 1 The main profile features of red karst weathering crust
Location
Longitude
/E
Altitude
/m
Depth
/m
Sampling depth
/cm
Ratio of
Si/Al
0.001 mm
(%)
CaCO
3
(%)
pH
CEC/
cmolCkg
1
Anduo, Tibet 92 5125 0.7 08 3.95 16.2 11.09 8.56 48.9
820 3.88 19.5 9.14 8.57 52.89
2042 3.54 19.6 10.48 8.94 36.93
4247 3.33 24.4 14.56 8.81 28.69
4767 3.76 17.8 10.55 8.84 38.8
67
a)
3.26 47.7 25.58 8.83 30.5
3.45 58.6 15.31 8.71 31.49
3.18 50.0 23.69 9.07 12.97
Zhongdian,
Yunnan Province
99.5 3550 1.5 50 2.57 17.6 6.14 7.91 23.58
100 2.59 92.5 1.51 6.91 24.88
150 2.60 89.2 1.82 7.21 25.94
Lijiang,
North Yunnan
100 3000 4 50 2.04 34.6 1.07 6.95 20.97
150 2.21 60.8 1.2 6.34 19.18
250 2.63 54.8 1.7 6.34 24.30
350 2.50 83.8 2.77 7.58 30.11
Stone-forest
Middle Yunnan
103.5 1900 6 40 2.21 53.8 0.426 6.21 39.43
120 2.08 71.8 0.426 6.82 41.76
200 2.44 70 0.66 6.83 52.06
280 2.33 83 0.625 7.06 39.39
360 2.10 73.8 1.05 7.86 44.69
440 2.05 81.2 2.05 8.15 48.85
520 1.96 84.5 1.38 8.12 56.68
600 1.96 78.5 0.78 8.01 54.7
Zhaotong,
East Yunnan
104 1900 10 50 3.39 19.5 0.004 7.54 21.62
150 2.31 93 0 5.48 30.78
250 2.35 96 0 5.4 35.06
350 2.32 93.8 0.46 5.56 33.13
450 2.34 89.6 0.28 5.59 30.16
550 2.35 91.5 0.454 5.8 34.16
650 2.42 47 0.198 5.84 38.75
750 2.38 90 0 6.06 34.44
850 2.38 80.3 5.19 7.97 58.01
950 2.34 79.3 53.93 8.28 34.44
1020 2.27 94 3.31 8.01 47.04
(To be continued on the next page)
No. 4 COVERED KARST, WEATHERING CRUST & PLANATION SURFACE 371
(continued)
Location
Longitude
/E
Altitude
/m
Depth
/m
Sampling depth
/cm
Ratio of
Si/Al
0.001 mm
(%)
CaCO
3
(%)
pH
CEC/
cmolCkg
1
Zunyi, North
Guizhou
107 1400 2 40 2.51 45.2 1.74 6.96 14.88
120 2.27 63.2 1.25 6.96 21.27
200 2.28 82.3 1.32 7.04 16.86
Guiyang,
Middle Guizhou
106.5 1250 7.5 50 3.84 37.6 2.97 7.72 47.20
150 3.98 37.7 1.99 7.87 40.69
250 3.32 63.0 3.57 7.55 49.29
350 3.10 60.6 2.89 7.59 41.73
450 3.22 57.8 3.69 7.77 48.73
550 3.28 58.4 3.3 7.69 55.24
650 3.23 54.6 3.54 7.72 42.89
750 3.30 55.2 3.64 7.59 44.1
Guilin,
Guangxi
111 150 6 40 2.25 65.6 0.54 7.33 34.13
150 2.27 64.2 0.55 7.01 37.81
250 2.33 61.5 0.81 7.31 38.32
350 2.34 62.6 1.02 7.68 41.48
450 2.35 67.6 0.87 5.57 46.21
550 2.36 58 1.70 7.85 45.16
a) The following three samples were gathered successively from 67 cm downward.
In the Tibet Plateau, there is recrystallization of the Miocene calcite in the inner wall of the
bilge of stone-wall or stone-forest (gathered 30 samples and got 20 dating data
[3]
). Thus, these
karst shapes formed during the Miocene epoch. If they were not covered by crust at early stage
and then were denuded, it would be very difficult to keep these karst forms up to now.
2 The characteristics of the karst weathering crust
In the hinterland of the Tibet Plateau, such as Dingri and Anduo counties, the red weathering
crust can be observed in the weathering fissures or part depression. Its thickness usually is less
than 1 m and rock-fragment comprises one part of it. Along east direction to Zhongdian County,
the thickness of weathering crust generally is not more than 1.5 m. In the Yun-Gui (Yun-
nan-Guizhou) Plateau and Xiang-Gui (Hunan-Guangxi) hills, the transverse distribution of red
crust is continuous. The thickness of red crust is generally about 35 m, with a few sections in
78 m thickness. In some areas, such as Dalongdong of Zhaotong City, the line from Dali to Li-
jiang and Shigu, the thickness is more than 10 m. The characteristics of some sections are as fol-
lows:
Northern Tibet: In the summit of the Anduobei Mountain, the thickness of residual weather-
ing crust is more than 70 cm, where 08 cm is roots layer, 820 cm are red fossil soil with peb-
ble-bearing, 2042 cm are yellow sand layer with roots and calcite spot, 4247 cm are red sand
clay, 4767 cm are yellow layer of coarse silt, below which is red clay layer with limestone frag-
ment.
Northwest Yunnan: In the northwest of Zhongdian Basin, there is a section close to the
372 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
Yirengang Pass (4000 m a.s.l.), where 030 cm is black and deep gray top soil with roots, about
30180 cm are brown-red clay with a clear interface to overburden, and below is deep gray lime-
stone with a clear interface to the upper soil. On the surface of limestone, bag-shaped cavities and
notches karst can be observed and the intensity of surface relief is about 0.5 m.
Middle Yunnan: Near the Stone-forest Station of the Nanning-Kunming railway, there is a
section of red weathering crust (1900 m a.s.l.), where 020 cm is top soil with humus and resid-
ual roots, below is red clay layer with a clear interface to upper layer. The maximum thickness is
about 7 m (in the fissures). Under the red clay is gray limestone. The relief intensity of interface is
12 m and various kasrt shapes formed by sub-soil can be observed in the section.
Middle Guizhou: On the plateau surface of Tianhetan of Guiyang (1250 m a.s.l.), there is a
section of crust in one fissure, where 020 cm is top soil with brown colour and roots, and down-
ward is red-clay with 8 m in thickness, and below is gray limestone.
South Hunan: On the middle way from Daoxian County to Ningyuan County, there is a sec-
tion formed by mining soil (200 m a.s.l.), where 010 cm is top soil with black-brown color. The
middle part is red clay with 24 m in thickness. In the fissures of limestone, the thickness is more
than 5 m. The lower part of the section is limestone with small stone-forest and other shapes. The
interface between rock and upper red soil is irregular.
The authors gathered 178 samples (152 soil samples and 26 bed-rock samples) from sections.
About soil sample, the size analysis, chemical analysis (only clay particle) of soluble salt and
other experiments had been made (partial results in table 1). According to experiment results, we
found that the indexes affected easily by modern environment have obvious characteristics of re-
gional difference, such as pH, CaCo
3
content. Other physical and chemical indexes, such as clay
particle content, the ratio of Si/Al, have no regional difference concordant with modern environ-
ment, but present identical characteristics in the whole research areas. Although they are far away
from each other and their elevation difference is large (about 5000 m); their characteristics are
similar to red calcareous soil. On Anduobei Mountain (5100 m a.s.l.), clay content of red calcare-
ous soil is still up to 58% in the down part of residual weathering crust. The size analysis results
of red karst weathering crust indicate that their clay content is higher than that of calcareous soil
(30%50%), so the water, the thermal conditions and the lasting time are enough for process of
soil formation. From the result of XRD clay mineral analysis and capacity of cation exchange
(CEC), we know that most clay minerals of soil sample are 21 type, especially the samples of
the Tibet Plateau and the Yun-Gui (Yunnan-Guizhou) Plateau. Therefore, we believe that they
have the common development history.
Based on the pH value of weathering crust, except for a few samples gathered from the mid-
dle part of profile with neutrality or acidity, most samples of profile are alkaline (7.58.5) or high
alkaline (>8.5), especially in the lower part of profiles. Trudgill ever pointed out that underlying
No. 4 COVERED KARST, WEATHERING CRUST & PLANATION SURFACE 373
limestone could not be effectively dissolved by upper-soil if the pH value is within 79 and
CaCO
3
content is higher than 10%
[7]
. According to CaCO
3
illuviation of lower part of profile, the
solution below the soil is very weak now. On the Anduobei Mountain, the pH value of the bottom
sample is up to 9.03 and the CaCO
3
content is 23.69%, thus this kind of crust only preserves the
underlying limestone. These facts indicate that the red weathering crust and the concomitant cov-
ering karst cannot be produced under the present environment.
Based on the above, the covered karst of Qingzang Plateau (Tibet Plateau) and the eastern
areas have typical characteristics of sub-soil corrosion and the red weathering crust has the similar
characteristics.
3 The karst (double-level) planation surface
3.1 The weathering crust and the planation surface in the karst area
As for the weathering crust, there are two obvious differences between the karst landform
and the normal landform. First, in the karst area, the corrosion is the main weathering process, so
the weathering process of limestone is the denuding and transporting processes at the same time.
Due to residual material is less than protolith, the formation of karst crust must be concomitant
with large-scale reduction of rock volume
[8,9]
. Thus, in the end, it will lead to leveling off and de-
grading of landform. Second, in some places with deeper groundwater table and large relief, the
dissolution made joints further open and soil fall into caves system near surface. These phenom-
ena are called soil loss
[5]
. So, on the karst mountain, the soil is mainly partly preserved
black-calcareous soil. Even in the dense primitive forest, thick and continuous crust cannot form,
such as the karst and forest protection area of Libo, which is located in the southeast edge of Yun-
nan-Guizhou Plateau (this protection area belongs to the intermediate district slope between pla-
teau and the Guangxi Basin, and the vertical karst processes are very active). The ground surface
almost consists of naked rock. A few fissures have humic soil and black-calcareous soil. So the
thick crust of karst only formed under the conditions of small relief and non-active karst processes
on vertical direction. Based on the theory of geomorphic development, such conditions can be
observed on the karst planation surface close to base level of erosion. For this reason, it is believed
that the thick crust not only contains a large amount of environmental information, but also indi-
cates directly the old stage of geomorphic development. In this stage, the planation surface had
formed and landform surface approached to the base level of erosion. When Yakuchu studied the
karst landform of the tropics, he referred to that continuous and loose crust only formed during the
old stage of geomorphic development, but he did not link this with the planation surface
[10]
.
According to the double surfaces of leveling theory built by Budel in granite area with hu-
mid and warm climate, the weathering crust consists of two active surfaces
[11]
. One is the upper
wash surface of loose layer under the open air, the other is the base weathering front. In the study
area, the karst red weathering crust consists of two surfaces as well, one is the upper wash surface,
the other is the lower covered karst. Therefore, the concept of double surface can be used in the
374 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
karst area for the following reasons: () Expressing the difference of formation mechanism about
the crust and the different significance about geomorphic development between the karst landform
and the normal landform. () Some results of double surface can be used as well. The planation
surface with thick crust forming during the old stage of geomorphic cycle is named as the double
leveling surfaces of karst planation.
3.2 The comparison between double leveling surfaces of karst planation and the double sur-
face model of Budel
First, the developing patterns of the double leveling surfaces of karst planation surface are
different from those of the double surfaces model of Budel. The normal landform process de-
velops on the ground surface or the inside rock close to ground surface. The crust renews con-
tinuously in the process of landform developing downward. So, in the different developing stages,
non-karst crust may exist on the planation surface, and on some summits, and its significance of
the geomorphic development is uncertain
[12,13]
. In the karst area, the karst process can develop
within the whole rock layer upon the base level of erosion. Under the conditions of deeper base
level of erosion and deeper groundwater table, vertical karst process broadens continuously the
fissure system under ground and most leaching residues move downward along the fissures. It led
to that the accumulation of weathering material on the surface is very difficult. In the tropical and
the sub-tropical forests where the karst process is most active, so long as the landform has some
relief, it is difficult to form the thick and continuous soil. Among the existent soil, the most belong
to AF-D type, or A-D type section
[14]
. In the primitive forest, with the active vertical karst process,
Trudgill found that rock surface was covered with thin lichen and most soil is acidic and organic
soil with 1020 cm thickness
[7]
. So before the landform surface close to base level of erosion, the
thick and continuous crust cannot form generally. The double leveling surfaces of karst planation
indicate that the thick crust of karst areas only forms during the old stage of geomorphic evolution.
On the basis of characteristics of karst process and field observation data, the concept of double
leveling surfaces of karst planation surface is going to connect the thick crust with the planation
surface. So it has a special geomorphic significance that is different from the normal weathering
crust.
The double leveling surfaces of karst planation benefit further understanding the covered
karst and the genesis of subtype forms of the covered karst. The double leveling surfaces of karst
planation consist of the continuous and thick crust and the covered karst. For this reason, the crust
and covered karst not only can be taken as the evidence to prove the existence of the double lev-
eling surfaces of karst planation, but also have the same geomorphic significance with planation
surface
1)
. Though the double surface model of Budel was used to explain the formation process of
1) If the wash surface is made as the elevation of planation surface, the evolution of covered karst is little less than original
karst planation surfaces (the height difference is equal to the thickness of crust). In view of planation surface with great spatial
scale, the idea that regards covered karst and planation surface as the same elevation may be accepted.
No. 4 COVERED KARST, WEATHERING CRUST & PLANATION SURFACE 375
tor and other landform, it is unreasonable to deny the slope retreat theory of King for non-karst
areas
[15,16]
. Similarly, the view regarding the etchplain of non-karst areas as one type of planation
surface has been challenged in some degree
[17]
.
4 Evolution of covered karst in correspondence with uplift of Tibet Plateau
The covered karst and the red weathering crust are evidences of the existence of the double
leveling surfaces of karst planation, thus indicating the surface of that time corresponding with the
old stage of karst landform and approaching the base level of erosion. Meanwhile, the red cal-
careous soil consisting of the red weathering crust also indicates tropic and subtropic environ-
ments which have intensive eluviation and good draining conditions
[18]
. The analytic results of red
weathering crust of research areas indicate that they have the similar granulometric composition
and characteristics (table 1). Therefore, the covered karst and the red weathering crust formed in
the environment having enough water and thermal quantity and gentle relief on the planation sur-
face, and they all belong to a unified double leveling surface of karst planation (figs. 2 and 3).
This has an important significance for the development history of karst landform of the South
China and the estimation of plateau rising degree and speed according to planation surface.
Fig. 3. The sketch of topography evolution of the Tibet Plateau and neighbouring region during the late Cenozoic.
1, The western boundary of the half-naked subtype karst (3500 m or so); 2, the eastern boundary of the half-naked
subtype karst (1500 m or so); the upper is the section position of the planation surface; AAhis the Tibet-Deccan
section; BBhis the section of the Tibet Plateau and neighbouring region.
According to double surface of leveling theory built by Budel, when ground rising is quick,
the speed of erosion is higher than that of weathering, and depth of loose layer decreases until
outcrop of microtopography of base weathering front is exposed. This is the process of etchplain
376 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
formation
[2]
. The microtopography outcropped on the etchplain is called inselberg or tor in non-
soluble rock areas
[15]
. The covered karst outcrops as the forms of stone-forest, karren or stone-wall
in karst areas. Thus in the western and middle parts of research areas, the stone-forest and the kar-
ren often observed on the ground are the special landform corresponding to inselberg or tor. Based
on the double leveling surfaces of karst planation theory, these characteristics can help to under-
stand geomorphic implication of the covered karst and the genesis of sub-class karst forms. So, it
is not in the same class with peneplain. If this idea is correct, our contribution is that the karst
etchpalin is the production of disintegrating process of the unified planation surface and has vari-
ous forms based on different etching degrees, such as entirely naked subtype and half-naked sub-
type.
The covered karst of the Qingzang Plateau (Tibet Plateau), Yun-Gui (Yunnan and Guizhou)
Plateau and Xiang-Gui (Huann and Guangxi) hills has the same genesis, but their existent forms
are very different along eastern-western direction. The unified karst planation surface turns into
three subtypes because they outcropped as various degrees due to the different rising degrees of
original planation surface. () Entirely naked subtype corresponds with intensive rising of Qing-
zang Plateau (Tibet Plateau) and complete denudation; () The half-naked subtype corresponds
with moderate rising of Yun-Gui Plateau (Yunnan and Guizhou); () The un-naked karst corre-
sponds with little rising. Thus different subtypes also indicate different rising degrees. As to the
middle and little scales, except for the residual features of dissolution formed by sub-soil, all the
secondary features of the rock surface are different. These phenomena are due to several reasons.
The first reason is the etching degree. In shallow etching areas, there exist mainly distribution of
the stone tooth, but the large landforms such as stone-forest and stone-wall are not often observed.
The second reason is the difference of intensity, types and the lasted time of outside forces action
after cropping out. The covered karst of Qingzang Plateau (Tibet Plateau) denuded entirely,
cropped out for a long time and the frost weathering is very intensive, thus slender forms are dif-
ficult to preserve and the large stone-wall can widely distribute. Besides, it is affected by
lithologic characters and attitude as well.
5 The geomorphic significance of karst planation surface
As for the role of planation surface in research of plateau rising, the difference between the
karst planation surface and the base level of erosion has important significance to estimate plateau
rising degree and speed. With the landform evolving toward planation surface, the gradient of
ground surface decreases gradually (the gradient of planation surface is no more than 1
2
[2,3,19]
). Contrasting with normal landform area, the leveling rate of landform in karst area may
be more greater. In the normal landform area with low gradient, the transport capacity of running
water decreases obviously due to intensity of exogenous process weakening, and the material can
be transported only if it undergoes continual weathering and becomes small grain. The upper ma-
No. 4 COVERED KARST, WEATHERING CRUST & PLANATION SURFACE 377
terial accumulated to counteract the weathering force developing downward. So, the planation
process of landform is sensitive to the change of gradient of ground surface. Based on Millimans
researches
[20]
, the amount of suspended matter inflowing into sea from the rivers originating from
the high land (maximum elevation more than 3000 m in the drainage basin) is 23 orders of
magnitude more than that from the low land (100500 m a.s.l.). The geomorphic evolution of
karst areas is relatively simple. The capacity of chemical transportation is not affected by land-
form relief (the sedimentation ratio of dissolution material inflowing to sea has no obvious rela-
tionship with ground relief)
[20]
. The residual fine-grained material is easily transported by water
after the dissolution. So, the leveling rate of karst does not decrease rapidly with the decrease of
landform relief. The normal landform is contrary.
On the other hand, the vegetation impact on the geomorphic process is different in the dif-
ferent areas, such as the karst areas and the non-karst areas. In the karst area, the organic acid is
produced by the biological and chemical processes and the biological chelation is favourable to
the karst process. In the non-karst areas, the vegetation prevents effectually water and soil erosion.
Then it made the development of the base weathering front more difficult, especially emergence
of herbage after the late Cenozoic
[21]
. In the tropic and sub-tropic areas with the similar climate
and landform relief, the production rate of dissolved material inflowing to sea and deposits has a
linear relation with rainfall, but the suspended load has not
[20]
. Thus, according to the geomorphic
features, the hydrologic characteristics, the vegetation and the climatic conditions, the leveling
rate of karst planation is faster than that of normal landform and so its altitude of planation surface
is lower. This idea is also supported by fieldwork. For example, the karst areas of Yongzhou and
Daoxian County of South Hunan Province are close to the old stage of geomorphic evolution.
They are far away from the estuary, but the karst plain is about 200 m in altitude. The maximum
altitude of surrounding granite mountains is up to 10002000 m.
Based on the forming processes of the planation surface, the united pediments formed by
pediplanation process cannot be regarded as the evidence of plateau rising because they can be
formed simultaneously at different altitudes. The peneplain of non-karst area develops very slowly,
which needs tectonic stability of millions of years. Therefore, it is not very useful to study geo-
morphic evolution of the Qingzang Plateau (Tibet Plaeau) of the late Cenozoic epoch. The devel-
oping rate of the karst planation surface is relatively large and the altitude of planation is small.
Meanwhile, its development and reservation are sensitive to environmental changes. Thus karst
planation surface is indispensable in research of plateau rising.
6 Summary
(1) In the research of limestone planation surface in the Southwest China, it is believed that
the etchplain existed only in the disintegration process of the planation surface. The etchplain,
peneplain and the pediment are not the same class of the planation surface.
378 SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D) Vol. 45
(2) The tectonic disintegration of the planation surface is shown as the landform surface with
different elevations, and the landform surface with the different etching degrees. Thus, the etch-
plain could have various subtypes, such as the half-naked subtype and entirely naked type. In ad-
dition, due to the etchplain forming in the process of rising-etching, it did not extend far away. In
fact, it always exists as the blocky surfaces separating each other, such as the Anduobei Mountain,
the Lunan Stone-forest and other places.
(3) During the old stage, the relief of limestone planation surface is becoming gentle. The
process of mechanical transportation was superseded by chemical transportation. As the decrease
rate of ground height of limestone area is much more than the non-limestones, the height of lime-
stone ground is lower than other rocks in the end. Generally, the total gradient of ground surface
is small during this period, but the specific inselberg of non-limestone could have more differ-
ences in height.
(4) The double leveling surface of karst planation exists not only in the late Cenozoic, but
also in other periods. On fossil planation surface of North China, it formed during the Mid-
dle-Ordovician to Middle-Carboniferous period. On the fossil planation surface, the bauxite
formed from limestone weathering indicates that the double leveling surfaces of karst planation
existed in the geologic history
1)
.
Acknowledgements This Project was supported by Research Project of the Tibet Plateau from Chinese Academy of
Sciences (Grant Nos. KZ951-A1-204; KZ95T-06) and the Key Foundation of National Basic Researches of China (Grant No.
G1998040800).
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CUI Zhijiu et al.: The covered karst, weathering crust and karst (double-level) planation surface Plate
1. The naked karst of the Anduobei Mountain (4950 m a.s.l.), the stone-forest and the stone-wall, the solution bilge formed by
sub-soil (by Li Dewen). 2. The half-naked karst in the Naigu stone-forest of Lunan, the upper part of stone-forest outcrops and
the lower is still covered by soil (2000 m a.s.l.) (by Li Dewen). 3. In the region of Hunan-Guangxi, the stone-forest and karren of
un-naked karst exist and on the ground, there are the peak-forest and the peak-cluster (by Cui Zhijiu). 4. In the Qifeng Town of
Guilin City, the stone-forest formed by sub-soil outcrops due to mining soil (by Li Dewen).