NATURAL AND STEP RESPONSES OF

RLC CI RCUI TS
Yaser_rahmati@hotmail.com
NATURAL RESPONSE OF A
PARALLEL RALC CIRCUIT
V
R L
Vd I C
dV
dt
R
dV
dt
V
L
C
d V
dt
d V
dt RC
dV
dt
V
LC
t
+ + + =
+ + =
+ + =
}
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
t Ordinary, second-order
differential equation with
constant coefficients.
Therefore, this circuit is
called a second-order
circuit.
C
L R
V
+ +
V
0

I
0

i
c

i
L
i
R

GENERAL SOLUTION OF SECOND-
ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Assume that the solution of the differential equation is of
exponential form V=Ae
st
where A and s are unknown constants.
As e
As
RC
e
Ae
LC
Ae s
s
RC LC
st st
st
st
2
2
0
1
0
+ + =
+ + = ( )
This equation can be
satisfied for all values of t
only if A=0 or the term in
parentheses is zero.
A=0 cannot be used as a general solution because to do so
implies that the voltage is zero for all time-a physical
impossibility if energy is stored in either inductor or
capacitor.
THE CHARACTERISTIC
EQUATION
s
s
RC LC
2
1
0 + + = is called the characteristic equation
The two roots of the characteristic equation are
s
RC RC LC
s
RC RC LC
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
= +
|
\

|
.
|
=
|
\

|
.
|
If either s
1
or s
2
is substituted into Ae
st
, the assumed solution
satisfies the differential equation, regardless of the value of A
V Ae V A e
s t s t
1 1 2 2
1 2
= = ,
These two solutions as well as their summation V=V
1
+V
2
satisfy
the differential equation
V Ae A e
s t s t
= +
1 2
1 2
FREQUENCIES
The behavior of V(t) depends on the values of s
1
and s
2
.
Writing the roots in a notation as widely used in the literature
s s
LC
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
1
= + =
=
o o e o o e
o e
,
=
1
2RC

The exponent of e must be dimensionless, so both s
1
and s
2
(and
hence o and e
0
) must have the dimension of the reciprocal of
time (frequency). s
1
and s
2
are referred to as complex
frequencies, o is called the neper frequency, and e
0
is called the
resonant radian frequency. They have the unit radians per second
(rad/s)

The nature of the roots s
1
and s
2
depends on the values of o and
e
0
. There are three possible cases:
1) If e
0
2
<o
2
, both roots will be real and distinct. The voltage
response is said to be overdamped.
2) If e
0
2
>o
2
, both roots will be complex and, in addition, will be
conjugates of each other. The voltage response is said to be
underdamped.
3) If e
0
2
=o
2
, roots will be real and equal. The voltage response
is said to be critically damped.

EXAMPLE
C
L R
V
+ Find the roots of the characteristic
equation if R=200 O, L=50 mH, and
C=0.2 F.
o
e
= = =
= = =
= + =
= =
1
2
10
400 0 2
125 10
1 10 10
50 0 2
10
125 10 15625 10 10 5000
125 10 15625 10 10 20000
6
4
3 6
8 2
1
4 8 8
2
4 8 8
RC
LC
s
s
s
( )( . )
.
( )
( )( . )
/
. .
. .
rad / s
rad
rad / s
rad / s
0
2 2
Overdamped
+
V
0

I
0

Repeat the problem for R=312.5 O
o
e
= = =
= = =
= + = +
= =
1
2
10
625)(02
8000
1 10 10
50 0 2
10
8000 0 64 10 10 8000 6000
8000 0 64 10 10 8000 6000
6
3 6
8 2
1
8 8
2
8 8
RC
LC
s
s j
s j
( . )
( )
( )( . )
/
.
.
rad / s
rad
rad / s
rad / s
0
2 2
Underdamped
Find the value of R for a critically damped circuit.
For critical damping, o
2
=e
0
2

1
2
1
10
1
10
10
2 10 0 2
250
2
8
4
6
4
RC LC
RC
R
|
\

|
.
| = =
= =

=
( )( . )
O
THE OVERDAMPED RESPONSE
When the roots of the characteristic equation are real and
distinct, the response is said to be overdamped in the form
V t Ae A e
s t s t
( ) = +
1 2
1 2
The constant A
1
and A
2
are to be determined by the initial
conditions V(0
+
) and dV(0
+
)/dt.
V A A
dV
dt
s A s A
V V
dV
dt
i
C
i
V
R
I
c
c
( ) ,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
0
0
0 0
0
1 2 1 1 2 2
0
0
0
+
+
+
+ +
+
= + = +
= =
=

EXAMPLE
C
L R
V
+ Fin V(t), if R=200 O, L=50 mH, and
C=0.2 F. V
0
=12V, I
0
=30 mA.
+
V
0

I
0

i
c

i
L
i
R

i I mA
i
V
R
V
R
mA
i i i mA
dV
dt
i
C
kV s
L
R
c
c L R
c
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
.
/
0 30
0
0 12
200
60
0 0 0 90
0 0 90 10
02 10
450
0
0
3
6
+
+
+
+ + +
+ +

= =
= = = =
= =
= =

=
From the previous example, we determined s
1
=-5000 rad/s and
s
2
=-20000 rad/s. Then
V t Ae A e
V A A
dV t
dt
Ae A e
dV
dt
A A
A V A V
V t e e V t
t t
t t
t t
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
= +
= + =
=
= =
= =
= + >

+

+

1
5000
2
20000
1 2
1
5000
2
20000
1 2
3
1 2
5000 20000
0 12
5000 20000
0
5000 20000 450 10
14 26
14 26 0


0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
x 10
-4
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
i t
V t
e e mA t
i t C
dV t
dt
e e
e e mA t
i t i t i t
e e mA t
R
t t
c
t t
t t
L R c
t t
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
. ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= = + >
= =
= >
=
= >


+

200
70 130 0
0 2 10 70000 520000
14 104 0
56 26 0
5000 20000
6 5000 20000
5000 20000
5000 20000



THE UNDERDAMPED RESPONSE
When e
0
2
>o
2
, the roots of the characteristic equation are complex,
and the response is underdamped.
s j
s j
d
d d
1 0
2 2
2 0
2 2
= + = +
= =
o e o o e
o e e e o
( )

e
d
is called the damped radian frequency.
V t Ae A e
Ae e A e e
e A t jA t A t jA t
e A A t j A A t
j t j t
t j t t j t
t
d d d d
t
d d
d d
d d
( )
( cos sin cos sin )
[( )cos ( )sin ]
( ) ( )
= +
= +
= + +
= + +
+

1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
o e o e
o e o e
o
o
e e e e
e e
A
1
and A
2
are complex conjugates. Therefore, their sum is a
real number and their difference is imaginary. Then j(A
1
-A
2
)
is also a real number. Denoting B
1
=A
1
+A
2
, and B
2
=j(A
1
-A
2
)
V t e B t B t
t
d d
( ) ( cos sin ) = +
o
e e
1 2
DAMPING FACTOR
The trigonometric functions indicate that the response is
oscillatory; that is, the voltage alternates between positive and
negative values. The rate at which the voltage oscillates is fixed
with e
d
. The rate at which the amplitude decreases is determined
by o. Because o determines how quickly the amplitude
decreases, it is called as the damping factor. If there is no
damping, o=0 and the frequency of oscillations is e
0
. When
there is a dissipative element, R, in the circuit, o is not zero and
the frequency of oscillations is, e
d
, less than e
0
. Thus, when o is
not zero, the frequency of oscillation is said to be damped.
EXAMPLE
C
L R
V
+ +
V
0

I
0

i
c

i
L
i
R

Find V(t) if R=20 kO, L=8H, C=0.125F,
V
0
=0, and I
0
=-12.25 mA
o
e
e o e e o
o e
o e
= = =
= = =
> = =
= + = +
= =
1
2
10
2 20 10 0125)
200
1 10
8 0125)
10
9798
200 9798
200 9798
6
3
6
3
2
0
2 2
RC
LC
j j
j j
d
d
d
( ) ( .
( .
.
.
.
rad / s
rad / s
rad / s
s rad / s
s rad / s
0
0
2
1
2
V(0
+
)=V
0
=0, then i
R
(0
+
)=V(0
+
)/R=0.
i
c
(0
+
)=-i
L
(0
+
)=12.25 mA
dV
dt
B B V
V t e t V t
d
t
( ) .
.
,
( ) sin .
0 12 25 10
0125 10
98000
0
98000
100
100 9798 0
3
6
1 2
200
+

=
= = ~
= >
V/ s


e
THE CRITICALLY DAMPED
RESPONSE
The second-order circuit is critically damped when o
2
=e
0
2
. The
two roots of the characteristic equation are equal
s s
RC
1 2
1
2
= = = o
For a critically damped circuit, the solution takes the following
form
V t Dte D e
t t
( ) = +

1 2
o o
D
1
and D
2
are constant which must be determined using the
initial conditions V(0
+
) and dV(0
+
)/dt
EXAMPLE
C
L R
V
+ +
V
0

I
0

i
c

i
L
i
R

Determine the value of R for a critically
damped response when, L=8H,
C=0.125F, V
0
=0, and I
0
=-12.25 mA
From the previous example e
0
2
=10
6
. Then
o = = = 10
1
2
4000
3
RC
R O
Again, from the previous example V(0
+
)=0 and dV(0
+
)/dt=98000 V/s
Then D
1
=0 and D
2
=98000 V/s.
V t te V t
t
( ) = >

98000 0
1000

THE STEP RESPONSE OF A
PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
I
C
L R
V
+
t=0
i
c
i
L
i
R

i i i I
i
V
R
C
dV
dt
I
L R c
L
+ + =
+ + =
V L
di
dt
dV
dt
L
d i
dt
i
L
R
di
dt
LC
d i
dt
I
d i
dt RC
di
dt
i
LC
I
LC
L L
L
L L
L L L
= =
+ + =
+ + =
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
The equation describing the step response of a second-order
circuit is a second-order differential equation with constant
coefficients and with a constant forcing function. The solution of
this differential equation equals the forced response which is in
the same form of the forcing function (constant for a step input)
plus a response function identical in form to the natural response.
Thus, the solution for the inductor current is in the form
i I
L f
= +

`
)
function of the same form
as the natural response
EXAMPLE
I
C
L R
V
+
t=0
i
c
i
L
i
R

C=25nF, L=25mH, R=400O
The initial energy in the
circuit is zero. I=24 mA.
Find i
L
(t)
Since there is no initial energy in the circuit, i
L
(0
+
)=0 and V(0
+
)=0
V(0
+
)=L[di
L
(0
+
)/dt]=0, then di
L
(0
+
)/dt=0
e
o
o e
0
2
12
8
9
4
8
0
2
1 10
25)(25)
16 10
1
2
10
2 400 25)
5 10
25 10
= = =
= = =
= >
LC
RC
(
( )(
rad / s
2
Overdamped
circuit
s
s
1
4 4
2
4 4
5 10 3 10 20000
5 10 3 10 80000
= + =
= =
rad / s
rad / s
As t , circuit reaches dc steady state where inductor is short
and capacitor is open. All of the input current flows through the
inductor. Then I
f
=24 mA.
i t Ae A e A
i A A
di
dt
Ae A e
di
dt
A A
L
t t
L
L t t
L
( )
( )
( )
= + +
= + +
=
= =

+

+
24 10
0 24 10
20000 80000
0
20000 80000 0
3
1
20000
2
80000
3
1 2
1
20000
2
80000
1 2
A mA A mA
i t e e mA t
L
t t
1 2
20000 80000
32 8
24 32 8 0
= =
= + >


( ) ( )
EXAMPLE: If the resistor in the circuit is increased to 625O,
find i
L
(t) in the circuit.
Since L and C remain fixed, resonant frequency has the same
value. But neper frequency decreases to 3.2x10
4
rad/s. With
these values circuit is underdamped with complex conjugate
roots.
s j
s j
i t I Be t B e t
I A
i B
di
dt
e B t B t
e B t B t
di
L f
t
d
t
d
f
L
L t
d d
t
d d
L
1
4 4
2
4 4
1 2
3
3
1
1 2
1 2
32 10 2 4 10
32 10 2 4 10
24 10
0 24 10 0
0
= +
=
= + +
=
= + =
= +
+

. .
. .
( ) cos sin
( )
( cos sin )
( sin cos )
(
rad / s
rad / s
+
d
o o
o
o
e e
o e e
e e e
+
= + =
)
dt
B B
d
o e
1 2
0
B mA B mA
i t e t t mA t
L
t
1 2
32000
24 32
24 24 24000 32 24000 0
= =
= + >

( ) ( ( cos sin ))
EXAMPLE: Find i
L
(t) if R=500O
The resonant frequency remains the same, but neper frequency
becomes 4x10
4
rad/s. These values correspond to critical damping.
Roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal at s=-40000
i t I Dte D e A
L f
t t
( ) = + +

1
40000
2
40000
I A
i D
di
dt
e Dt D De
di
dt
D D
D mA s D mA
i t te e mA t
f
L
L t t
L
L
t t
=
= + =
= + +
= + =
= =
= >

+

+

24 10
0 24 10 0
0
0
960000 24
24 960000 24 0
3
3
2
1 2 1
2 1
1 2
40000 40000
( )
( )
( )
/
( ) ( )
o
o
o o


0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
x 10
-4
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Underdamped
Critically damped
Overdamped
EXAMPLE
I
C
L R
V
+
t=0
i
c
i
L
i
R

C=25nF, L=25mH, R=500O
The initial current in the
inductor is 29 mA, the initial
voltage across the capacitor
is 50 V. I=24 mA. Find i
L
(t)
and V(t)
From the previous example, we know that this circuit is critically
damped with s
1
=s
2
=-40000 rad/s
i i mA
V V V
L L
c c
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 29
0 0 50
+
+
= =
= =
+
V
c

V V L
di
dt
di
dt
A s
i t I Dte D e A
I A
i D D A
di
dt
D D D A s
i t te
L c
L L
L f
t t
f
L
L
L
t
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
/
( )
( )
( )
/
( ) ( .
0 0
0 0 50
25 10
2000
24 10
0 24 10 29 10 5 10
0
2000 2200
24 2 2 10 5
3
1
40000
2
40000
3
3
2
3
2
3
1 2 1
6 40000
+ +
+ +

+
+

= = =

=
= + +
=
= + = =
= = =
= + +
o
e mA t
t
>
40000
0 )
V t L
di
dt
te
e e
te e V
L
t
t t
t t
( )
( )[( . )( )
. ( ) ]
.
=
=
+ +
= +



25 10 2 2 10 40000
2 2 10 5 40000 10
2 2 10 50
3 6 40000
6 40000 40000 3
6 40000 40000
THE NATURAL AND STEP RESPONSE
OF A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
R
L
C
+
V
0

I
0

i
Ri L
di
dt C
id V
R
di
dt
L
d i
dt
i
C
t
+ + + =
+ + =
}
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
t
d i
dt
R
L
di
dt
i
LC
s
R
L
s
LC
2
2
2
0
1
0
+ + =
+ + =
s
R
L
R
L LC
R
L LC
1 2
2
2
0
2
0
2 2
1
2
1
,
=
|
\

|
.
| =
= =
o o e
o e rad / s rad / s
These equations are in the same form that of the equations for
the parallel RLC circuit. Therefore, the solution will be
overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped depending
on relative magnitudes of the resonant frequency and neper
frequency.
i t Ae A e
i t Be t B e t
i t Dte D e
s t s t
t
d
t
d
t t
( )
( ) cos sin
( )
= +
= +
= +


1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
(overdamped)
(underdamped)
(critically damped)
o o
o o
e e
R
L
C
+
V
c

i
+ V
R
+ V
L

+
V
t=0
V Ri L
di
dt
V
i C
dV
dt
di
dt
C
d V
dt
c
c c
= + +
= =
2
2
d V
dt
R
L
dV
dt
V
LC
V
LC
V t V Ae A e
V t V Be t B e t
V t V Dte D e
c c c
c f
s t s t
c f
t
d
t
d
c f
t t
2
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
+ + =
= + +
= + +
= + +


( )
( ) cos sin
( )
(overdamped)
(underdamped)
(critically damped)
o o
o o
e e
t=0
+
100V
100mH
+
V
c
560O
i
The capacitor is initially charged
to 100V. At t=0, switch closes.
Find i(t) and V
c
(t) for t>0
e
o
o e
e e o
0
2
3 6
8
3
6
0
2
0
2 2
1 10 10
100 01
10
2
560
2 100
10 2800
784 10
9600
= = =
= = =
= <
= =
LC
R
L
( )( )
( . )
( )
.
rad / s
Underdamped
rad / s
2
d
i t Be t B e t
i B
V Ri L
di
dt
di
dt
V
L
A s
di
dt
B e t B e t
di
dt
B B A
t
d
t
d
c
c
t t
( ) cos sin
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
/
sin cos
( )
= +
= =
+ + =
= = =
= +
= = =

+
+ +
+
+ +

+
1 2
1
3
2
2800
2
2800
2 2
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0 100
100
10 1000
2800 9600 9600 9600
0
9600 1000
1000
9600
o o
e e
i t e t t
V t iR L
di
dt
V t t t e V t
t
c
c
t
( )
.
sin
( )
( ) ( cos . sin )
= >
= +
= + >

1
96
9600 0
100 9600 2917 9600 0
2800
2800
A

EXAMPLE
0.4
F
+
V
c

+
48V
t=0
280O
0.1H
There is no initial stored
energy in the circuit at t=0.
Find V
c
(t) for t>0.
s
j
s j
V t V Be t B e t t
c cf
t t
1
2
6
2
1
1400
2
1400
280
2 01
280
0 2
10
01 0 4
1400 4800
1400 4800
4800 4800 0
= +
|
\

|
.
|
= +
=
= + + >

( . ) . ( . )( . )
( ) cos sin ,
rad / s
rad / s

As t , circuit reaches dc steady state (inductor short,
capacitor open). Thus, V
cf
=48V
V
dV
dt
i
C
i
C
V B B V
dV
dt
e B t B t
e B t B t
c
c c L
c
c t
t
( ) ,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( cos sin )
( cos )
0 0
0 0 0
0
0 48 0 48
1400 4800 4800
4800 4800 4800
1 1
1400
1 2
1400
2 1
+
+ + +
+

= = = =
= + = =
= +
+


dV
dt
B B
B V
V t e t e t V t
c
c
t t
( )
( ) ( cos sin ) ,
0
4800 1400 0
14
48 48 4800 14 4800 0
2 1
2
1400 1400
+

= =
=
= >
A CIRCUIT WITH TWO
INTEGRATING AMPLIFIERS
+
+
V
o1

R
1

+
+
V
o

R
2

C
2

C
1

+
V
g

Assuming ideal opamps, find the relation between V
o
and V
g

0
0 0
1
1
1 1
1
1 1

+ = =
V
R
C
d
dt
V
dV
dt RC
V
g
o
o
g
( )
0
0 0
1
1
1 1
1
2
2
2 2
1
2
0
2
2 2
1
2
0
2
1 1 2 2

+ = =
=
=
V
R
C
d
dt
V
dV
dt R C
V
d V
dt R C
dV
dt
d V
dt RC R C
V
o
o
o
o
o
g
( )
EXAMPLE
+
+
V
o1

250kO
+
+
V
o

0.1F
+
V
g

500kO
1F
-5V
-9V
9V
5V
No energy is stored in the circuit when the input voltage V
g

jumps instantaneously from 0 to 25 mV.
Derive the expression for V
o
(t) for 0 s tst
sat
.
How long is it before the circuit saturates?

1 1000
250 01
40
1 1000
500 1
2
40 2 25 10 2
2 2
2
1 1
2 2
2
2
3
0
2
0
RC
R C
d V
dt
dV
dt
dx t
V xdx t
o
o
t
o
t
= =
= =
= =
= =
= = s s

}
}
( )( . )
( )( )
( )( )
0 t t
sat
The second integrating amplifier saturates when V
o
reaches 9V
or t=3s. But it is possible that the first opamp saturates before
t=3s. To explore this possibility use the following equation
dV
dt RC
V
V t
o
g
o
1
1 1
3
1
1
40 25 10 1 = = =
=

( )
Thus, at t=3s, V
o1
=-3V. The first opamp does not reach
saturation at t=3s. The circuit reaches saturation when the
second amplifier saturates.
TWO INTEGRATING AMPLIFIERS
WITH FEEDBACK RESISTORS
+
+
V
o1

R
a

+
+
V
o

R
b

C
2

C
1

+
V
g

R
1

R
2

The reason that the op amp saturates in the integrating
amplifier is the feedback capacitors accumulation of charge.
To overcome this problem, a resistor is placed in parallel
with each feedback capacitor.
0
0
0 0
1
0 0
0 0
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 2 2

+

+ =
+ =
= + =

+

+ =
+ = =
V
R
V
R
C
d
dt
V
dV
dt RC
V
V
R C
RC
dV
dt
V
V
R C
V
R
V
R
C
d
dt
V
dV
dt
V V
R C
R C
g
a
o
o
o
o
g
a
o o
g
a
o
b
o
o
o o o
b
( )
( )
Let
,
t
t
t
t
d V
dt
dV
dt R C
dV
dt
dV
dt
V
V
R C
V R C
dV
dt
R C
V
d V
dt
dV
dt
V
V
R C R C
o
b
o
o o
g
a
o b
o b
o
o o
o
g
a b
2
0
2
2 2
1
1 1
1 1
1 2
2
2
2
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1
1 1 1
+ =
=
=
+ +
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| =
t
t
t
t t t t
The characteristic equation is
s s
2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1
0 + +
|
\

|
.
| + =
t t t t
The roots of the characteristic equation are real
s s
1
1
2
2
1 1
= =
t t

EXAMPLE
The parameters of the circuit are R
a
=100 kO, R
b
=25 kO,
R
1
=500 kO, R
2
=100 kO, C
1
=0.1F, and C
2
=1F. The power
supply of each op amp is 6V. The input voltage jumps from 0
to 250 mV at t=0. No energy is stored in the feedback capacitors
at the instant the input is applied. Find V
o
(t) for t>0.
t t
1 1 1 21 2 2
1 2
2
2
0 05 01
30 200 1000
= = = =
+ =
RC s R C s
V
R C R C
d V
dt
dV
dt
V
g
a b
o o
o
. .
=1000 V / s
+
2
The characteristic equation is s
2
+30s+200=0. Then
s
1
=-20 rad/s and s
2
=-10 rad/s. The final values of the output
is the input voltage times the gain of each stage, because
capacitors behave as open circuits as t
V V
V t Ae A e
V
dV
dt
A V A V
V t e e V t
o
o
t t
o
o
o
t t
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
=

=
= + +
= =
= =
= + >

+
+

250 10
500
100
100
25
5
5
0 0
0
0
10 5
5 10 5 0
3
1
10
2
20
1 2
10 20
and