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engineer ing design

8
FIGURE 8.27
Note how the design of the four-wheeldrive agricultural tractor projects rugged power. The
clearly defined grid of straight lines conveys a sense of unity. The slight forward tilt of the
vertical lines adds a perception of forward motion.
(From Z. M. Lewalski, Product Esthetics, Design & Development Engineering Press, Carson City, NV. Used with
permission.)

8.8
HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN
Human factors is the study of the interaction between people, the products and systems they use, and the environments in which they work and live. This field also is
described by the terms human factors engineering and ergonomics.37 Human factors
design applies information about human characteristics to the creation of objects, facilities, and environments that people use. It considers the product as a human and
machine system in which the operator, the machine, and the environment in which it
operates must all function effectively. Human factors goes beyond the issues of usability to consider design for ease of maintenance and for safety. Human factors expertise
is found in industrial designers, who focus on ease of use of products, and in industrial
engineers, who focus on design of production systems for productivity.
We can relate the human interaction with a product to the inputs used in Chap. 6
to describe the function structure of a design. A person provides energy to the system
by applying forces and torques with human muscle power. People also provide signal
information through their senses of sight, hearing, touch, and to a limited degree, with
37. From the Greek words ergon (work) and nomos (study of).

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TA BLE 8 .9

Correspondance Between Human Factors Characteristics and Product Performance

Product Performance

Human Factors Characteristic

Comfortable to use

Good match between product and person in the workspace

Easy to use

Requires minimal human power:clarity of use

Operating condition easily sensed

Human sensing

Product is user-friendly

Control logic is natural to the human

taste and smell. They provide material input when their body must be contained by the
product (the door must be large enough for the shoulders of the body, or the light switch
must be within reach). Thus, it is important to understand more about human factors design to achieve a harmonious interaction with human functions. Products that rate high
in human factors engineering are generally regarded as high-quality products since they
are perceived to work well by the user. Table 8.9 shows how various important product
characteristics can be achieved by focusing on key human factors characteristics.

8.8.1 Human Physical Effort

Measurement of the physical effort that a man could perform in the manual handling
of materials (shoveling coal) and supplies was one of the first studies made in human
factors engineering. Such studies involve not only measurement of the force that can
be applied by ligaments and muscles but also measurement of the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems of the body to assess the physiological distress (energy expenditure) that occurs during sustained work. In todays mechanized workplace this information is less important than knowing the magnitude of forces and torques that can be
applied by the human body, Fig. 8.28.
Figure 8.28 is just one example of information that is available.38 Note that it is
for males who are at the 5th percentile of the strength distribution, meaning that it
represents only the weakest 5 percent of the male population. It is characteristic of
data on human performance that there is a wide deviation from the mean. The data for
females is different from that for men. In addition, the force or torque that can be applied depends on the range of motion and position of the various joints of the human
body. For example, Fig. 8.28 shows that the force that can be applied depends on the
angle that the elbow makes with the shoulder. This gets us into the topic of biomechanics. The force that can be exerted also depends on whether the person is seated,
standing, or lying down. Thus, the references noted here need to be consulted for data
referring to the specific type of action or motion.
Human muscle output is typically applied to a machine at a control interface, like
a brake pedal or a selector switch. These control interfaces can take many forms: a
38. Human Engineering Design Criteria for Military Systems and Facilities, MIL-STD 1472F http://
hfetag.dtic.mil/docs-hfs/mil-std-1472f.pdf; Human Factors Design Guide, DOT/FAA/CT-96/1 www.
asi.org/adb/04/03/14/faa-hf-design-guide.pdf; N. Stanton et al., Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomic Methods, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2004; M.S. Sanders and E. J. McCormick, Human Factors
in Engineering and Design, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993.

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engineer ing design

4

2
1

PULL

PUSH
UP

BOTTOM
8

OUT

10
IN
6

(1)

Arm Strength
(3)
(4)
Push
Up

(2)
Pull

(5)
Down

(6)
In

(7)
Out

Degree of Elbow
Flexion
(deg)

R*

180

50

52

42

50

14

13

17

13

20

14

150

42

56

30

42

15

18

18

20

15

20

15

120

34

42

26

36

17

24

21

26

20

22

10

15

90

32

37

22

36

17

20

21

26

16

18

10

16

60

26

24

22

34

15

20

18

20

17

20

12

17

Hand and Thumb-Fingers Strength (lb)

(8)
(9)
Hand Grip

(10)

Thumb-Finger
Grip (Palmar)

Thumb-Finger
Grip (Tips)

Momentary Hold

56

59

13

13

Sustained Hold

33

35

*L = Left; R = Right

FIGURE 8.28
Muscle strength of the arm, hand, and thumb for males at 5th percentile. From MILSTD-1472F, p. 95
(http://hfetag.dtic.mil/docs-hfs/mil-std-1472f.pds)

cha p ter 8: Embodiment Design

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handwheel, rotary knob, thumbwheel, rollerball, lever, joystick, toggle switch, rocker
switch, pedal, handle, or slide. These devices have been studied39 to determine the
force or moment needed for their operation, and whether they are best suited for onoff control, or more precise control.
In designing control interfaces it is important to avoid awkward and extreme motions for the product user. Controls should not require a large actuation force unless
they are used in emergencies. It is particularly important to design the location of controls so that bending and movements of the spine are not required, particularly if these
motions will be repetitive. This can lead to cumulative trauma disorders, where stresses
cause nerve and other damage. Such situations will lead to operator fatigue and errors.

8.8.2 Sensory Input

The human senses of sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell are chiefly used for purposes of controlling devices or systems. They provide signals to the user of the design.
Visual displays are commonly used, Fig. 8.29. In selecting visual displays remember
that individuals differ in their ability to see, so provide sufficient illumination. As
shown in Fig. 8.30, different types of visual displays differ in their ability to provide
just on-off information, or exact values and rate of change information.
The human ear is effective over a frequency range from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Often hearing is the first sense that indicates there may be trouble, as in the repetitive
thumping of a flat tire or the scraping sound of a worn brake. Typical auditory displays
that are used in devices are bells, beeps (to acknowledge an action), buzzers, horns
and sirens (to sound an alarm) and electronic devices to speak a few words.
The human body is especially sensitive to touch. With tactile stimulation we can
feel whether a surface is rough or smooth, hot or cold, sharp or blunt. We also have a
kinesthetic sense that uses receptors to feel joint and muscle motion. This is an ability
that is highly developed in great athletes.
User-Friendly Design
Careful attention to the following design issues will create user-friendly designs:

Simplify tasks: Control operations should have a minimum number of operations and
should be straightforward. The learning effort for users must be minimal. Incorporating microcomputers into the product may be used to simplify operation. The product
should look simple to operate, with a minimum number of controls and indicators.
Make the controls and their functions obvious: Place the controls for a function
adjacent to the device that is controlled. It may look nice to have all the buttons in a
row, but it is not very user-friendly.
Make controls easy to use: Shape knobs and handles of controls differently so they
are distinguishable by look and by touch. Organize and group them to minimize
complexity. There are several strategies for the placement of controls: (1) left to
right in the sequence they are used, (2) key controls located near the operators
right hand, (3) most commonly used controls near the operators hand.

39. G. Salvendy (ed.), Handbook of Human Factors, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987, pp. 58183.

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engineer ing design

Digital counter

Icon, symbol display

110
10
0

0
12

Linear dial
Curved dial
Fixed pointer on moving scale

Indicator light

Linear dial
Circular dial
Moving pointer on a fixed scale

DA

NG

Graphical display

ER
fdgfjk #k
gf
frkg ekfgt
ejxj

Mechanical indicator

f
j

Pictorial display

FIGURE 8.29
Types of visual displays.
(After Ullman.)
Exact
value

Rate of
change

Trend,
direction
of change

Discrete
information

Digital
counter
Moving pointer
on fixed scale
Fixed pointer
on moving scale
Mechanical
indicator
Icon, symbol
display
Indicator
light
Graphical
display
Pictorial
display
Not suitable

Acceptable

FIGURE 8.30
Characteristics of common visual displays.
(After Ullman.)

Recommended

Adjusted to
desired
value

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363

Match the intentions of the human with the actions required by the system: There
should be a clear relationship between the human intent and the action that takes
place on the system. The design should be such that when a person interacts with it
there is only one obviously correct thing to do.
Use mapping: Make the control reflect, or map, the operation of the mechanism.
For example, the seat position control in an automobile could have the shape of a
car seat, and moving it up should move the seat up. The goal should be to make the
operation clear enough that it is not necessary to refer to nameplates, stickers, or the
operators manual.
Displays should be clear, visible, large enough to read easily, and consistent in
direction: Analog displays are preferred for quick reading and to show changing
conditions. Digital displays provide more precise information. Locate the displays
where viewing would be expected.
Provide feedback: The product must provide the user with a clear, immediate response to any actions taken. This feedback can be provided by a light, a sound,
or displayed information. The clicking sound and flashing dashboard light, in response to actuating an automobile turn signal, is a good example.
Utilize constraints to prevent incorrect action: Do not depend on the user always
doing the correct thing. Controls should be designed so that an incorrect movement
or sequence is not possible. An example is the automatic transmission that will not
go into reverse when the car is moving forward.
Standardize: It pays to standardize on the arrangement and operation of controls
because it increases the users knowledge. For example, in early days the placement of the brake, clutch, and accelerator pedals in an automobile was arbitrary,
but once standardized they become part of the user knowledge base and should not
be changed.

Norman contends that in order for a design to be truly user-friendly it must employ
the general knowledge that many people in the population possess.40 For example, a
red light means stop, and the higher values on a dial should be in the clockwise direction. Be sure that you do not presume too much knowledge and skill on the part of the
user.
Reaction Time
The reaction time is the time to initiate a response when a sensory signal has
been received. The reaction time is made up of several actions. We receive information in the form of a sensory signal, interpret it in the form of a set of choices, predict
the outcomes of each choice, evaluate the consequence of each choice, and then select
the best choiceall in about 200 ms. To achieve this the product should very quickly
provide clear visual and auditory signals. To achieve this in simple products, the controls must be intuitive. In complex systems, like a nuclear power plant, the human control interface must be very carefully designed in terms of the concepts mentioned in
Sec. 8.8.2, but in addition, the operators must be disciplined and well trained.
40. D. A. Norman, The Design of Everyday Things, Doubleday, New York, 1988. This book is full of
good and poor ways to practice human factors design.