Nonlinear PSPI PDF

Control of Nonlinear Systems
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Nicolas Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
CNRS Associate researcher
Nicolas.Marchand@grenoble-inp.fr
Control Systems Department, gipsa-lab
Grenoble, France
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Master PSPI 2009-2010
Observers
N. Marchand (gipsa-lab)
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 1 / 174
References
Nonlinear systems Khalil - Prentice-Hall, 2002
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Probably the best book to start with nonlinear control
Nonlinear systems S. Sastry - Springer Verlag, 1999

Good general book, a bit harder than Khalils
Mathematical Control Theory - E.D. Sontag - Springer, 1998

Mathematically oriented,
Can be downloaded at:
http: // www. math. rutgers. edu/ ~ sontag/ FTP_ DIR/ sontag_ mathematical_ control_ theory_ springer98. pdf
Constructive nonlinear control - Sepulchre et al. - Springer, 1997 More

focused on passivity and recursive approaches
Nonlinear control systems - A. Isidori - Springer Verlag, 1995

A reference for geometric approach
Applied Nonlinear control - J.J. Slotine and W. Li - Prentice-Hall, 1991

An interesting reference in particular for sliding mode
Research on Gain Scheduling - W.J. Rugh and J.S. Shamma Automatica, 36 (10):14011425, 2000
Survey of gain scheduling analysis and design - D.J. Leith and W.E.
Leithead - Int. Journal of Control, 73:10011025, 1999
Surveys on Gain Scheduling,
The second reference can be downloaded at:
http: // citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ leith99survey. html
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 2 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
Linear versus nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear control methods for nonlinear systems

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear control methods

Control Lyapunov functions
Sliding mode control
State and output linearization
Backstepping and feedforwarding
Stabilization of the X4 at a position
Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 3 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 4 / 174
Introduction
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Some preliminary vocable and definitions

What is control ?
A very short review of the linear case (properties,
design of control laws, etc.)
Why nonlinear control ?
Formulation of a nonlinear control problem (model,
representation, closed-loop stability, etc.)?
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Some strange possible behaviors of nonlinear systems

Example : The X4 helicopter
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 5 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 6 / 174
Some preliminary vocable

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
We consider a dynamical system:
References
System
Outline
u(t)
Introduction
x(t)
y(t)
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
where:
y is the output: represents what is visible from outside
the system
x is the state of the system: characterizes the state of the
system
u is the control input: makes the system move
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 7 / 174
The 4 steps to control a system

Nonlinear
Control
yd
k(x)
N. Marchand
Controller
References
x^
Outline
Introduction
Observer
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Stability
a simple model to build the control law

a sharp model to check the control law and the observer
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Modelization
To get a mathematical representation of the system
Different kind of model are useful. Often:
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Design the state reconstruction: in order to reconstruct

the variables needed for control
Design the control and test it
Close the loop on the real system
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 8 / 174
Linear dynamical systems

Some properties of linear system (1/2)
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Definition: Systems such that if y1 and y2 are the

outputs corresponding to u1 and u2 , then R:
y1 + y2 is the output corresponding to u1 + u2
Representation near the operating point:
Transfer function:
y (s) = h(s)u(s)
State space representation:

x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx(+Du)
The model can be obtained

physical modelization (eventually coupled with
identification)
identification (black box approach)
both give h(s) or (A, B, C , D) and hence the model.

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 9 / 174
Linear dynamical systems

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Some properties of linear system (2/2)

x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx(+Du)
Nice properties:
Unique and constant equilibrium
Controllability (resp. observability) directly given by
rank(B, AB, . . . , An1 B) (resp. rank(C , CA, . . . , CAn1 ))
Stability directly given by the poles of h(s) or the eigenvalues
of A (asymptotically stable < < 0)
Local properties = global properties (like stability,
stabilizability, etc.)
The time behavior is independent of the initial condition
Frequency analysis is easy
Control is easy: simply take u = Kx with K such that
<(eig(A + BK )) < 0, the closed-loop system x = Ax + BKx will
be asymptotically stable
Mathematical tool: linear algebra

This is a caricature of the reality (of course problems due to
uncertainties, delays, noise, etc.)
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 10 / 174
Why nonlinear control ?

Why nonlinear control if linear control is so easy ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
All physical systems are nonlinear because of

Actuators saturations
Viscosity (proportional to speed2 )
Sine or cosine functions in robotics
Chemical kinetic in exp(temperature)
Friction or hysteresis phenomena
...
More and more the performance specification requires

nonlinear control (eg. automotive)
More and more controlled systems are deeply nonlinear
(eg. -nano systems where hysteresis phenomena, friction,
discontinuous behavior)
Nonlinear control is sometimes necessary (oscillators,
cyclic systems, . . . )
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 11 / 174
Nonlinear dynamical systems

How to get a model ?
Nonlinear
Control
Representation:
State space representation:
N. Marchand
ODE Ordinary differential equation:

References
Outline
In this course, only:
x(t)
y (t)
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
=
=
f (x(t), u(t))
h(x(t), u(t))
PDE Partial differential equation (traffic, flow, etc.):

0
0
=
=
f (x,... )
g (x(t), x(t),
u(t))
x
h(y (t), x(t), u(t))
. . . Algebraic differential equations (implicit), hybrid (with

discrete or event based equations), etc.
The model can be obtained

physical modelization and then nonlinear identification of
the parameters (identifiability problems)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 12 / 174

Open-loop control versus closed-loop control ?
Nonlinear
Control
yd
k(x)
N. Marchand
States: x
Controller
References
x^
Outline
Introduction
Observer
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Open-loop control
find u(t) such that limt ky (t) yd (t)k = 0
Widely used for path planning problems (robotics)
Stability
Closed-loop control
Nonlinear
approaches
find u(x) such that limt ky (t) yd (t)k = 0
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Better because closed loop control can stabilize systems and is robust w.r.t.
perturbation.
In this course
Only closed-loop control problems are treated
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 13 / 174

Aim of control ?
Nonlinear
Control
xd
k(x)
N. Marchand
States: x
Controller
References
x^
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Observer
Tracking problem
find u(x) such that limt kx(t) xd (t)k = 0
Stabilization problem
Stability
find u(x) such that limt kx(t) xd (t)k = 0 for xd (t) = constant
Nonlinear
approaches
Null stabilization problem
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
find u(x) such that limt kx(t) xd (t)k = 0 for xd (t) = 0

In any cases, a null stabilization problem of z(t) = y (t) yd (t)
In this course
Observers
Only the stabilization problem will be treated.

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 14 / 174
Some strange behaviors of nonlinear systems

The undersea vehicle
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Simplified model of the undersea vehicle (in one

direction):
References
v (t) = v |v | + u
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Step answer:
1.5
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
No proportionality
between the input
and the output
u(s) =
2
s
u(s) =
1
s
u(s) =
1
100s
0.5
10
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 15 / 174

The Van der Pol oscillator (1/2)
Nonlinear
Control
Van der Pol oscillator

x 1 = x2
x 2 = x1 h(x1 )x2
N. Marchand
References
Outline
with h(x1 ) = 1 + x12
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Oscillations: tunes the limit cycle
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
= 1, x(0) = (5, 5)
= 0.1, x(0) = (5, 5)
Stability
= 1, x(0) = (5, 5)
= 0.1, x(0) = (5, 5)
2
2
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x2
1
0
0
1
2
3
3
0
10
20
time
30
40
50
4
4
x1
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 16 / 174

The Van der Pol oscillator (2/2)
Nonlinear
Control
Oscillations: stable limit cycles, fast dynamics

6
N. Marchand
= 1, x(0) = (0, 1)
= 1, x(0) = (5, 5)
References
Outline
3
2
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
x2
1
2
5
30
10
20
time 4
40
3
3
50
x1
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
= 1, x(0) = (0, 1)
= 1, x(0) = (5, 5)
1
0
1
= 1, x(0) = (0, 1)
= 1, x(0) = (5, 5)
2
3
0.1
0.2
time
0.3
0.4
0.5
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 17 / 174
Some strange behaviors

of nonlinear systems
2. Representation of non linear systems
The tunnel diode (1/2)
Nonlinear
Control
Example: the tunnel-d
The tunnel diode model
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
dVC
+ iR
dt
E RiL = VC + L
iR
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
= iL
diL
dt
= h(vR )
It gives:
x 1 (t) =
x 2 (t) =
1
(h(x1 ) + x2 )
C
1
(x1 Rx2 + u)
L
with x1 = vC , x2 = iL and u = E
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 18 / 174

The tunnel diode (2/2)
Nonlinear
Control
The tunnel diode behavior: bifurcation

with:
iR = 17.76vR 103.79vR2 + 229.62vR3 226.31vR4 + 83.72vR5
N. Marchand
References
Outline
1.4
1.3
x(0) = (0, 1.23)

x(0) = (0, 1.24)
Introduction
1.2
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
1.1
1
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
1
0.9
0.8
0.8
x2
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.4
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
x(0) = (0, 1.23)

x(0) = (0, 1.24)
1.2
0.5
0.2
0.4
0
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
time
10
0.2
0.4
x1
0.6
0.8
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 19 / 174

The car parking
The car parking simplified model
Nonlinear
Control
x 1 = u1
N. Marchand
References
x 2 = u2
Outline
x 3 = x2 u1
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
System with a misleading simplicity
Theorem (Brockett (83))

There is no (u1 (x), u2 (x)) continuous w.r.t. x such that x is
asymptotically stable
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
In practice:
manoeuvres
discontinuous control
time-varying control
Marchand and Alamir (2003)
Stability
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 20 / 174

Everything is possible
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x = f (x, u)
y = h(x, u)
Everything is possible:
Equilibrium can be unique, multiple, infinite or even not exist
Controllability (resp. observability) are very hard to prove (it is
often even not checked)
Stability may be hard to prove
Local properties 6= global properties (like stability,
stabilizability, etc.)
The time behavior is depends upon the initial condition
Frequency analysis is almost impossible
No systematic approach for building a control law: to each
problem corresponds it unique solution
Mathematical tool: Lyapunov and differential tools
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 21 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 22 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
s3
References
s4
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
s2
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
s1
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
4 generated4 forces
forces prop.
Fi
References
F3
F4
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
F2
Linear
approaches
F1
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
4 generated4 forces
forces prop.
Fi
4 counter-rotating
4 couplestorques
prop. i
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
4 generated4 forces
forces prop.
Fi
4 counter-rotating
4 couplestorques
prop. i
Contrlegenerated
:
with a
Roll movement
Roulis :
dissymmetry between
left and right
forces:
F2
1
r = l(F4 F2 )
l
)
F4
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
4 generated4 forces
forces prop.
Fi
F3
4 counter-rotating
4 couplestorques
prop. i
Contrlegenerated
:
with a
Roll movement
Roulis :
dissymmetry between
left and right
Tangage :
forces:
1
r = l(F4 F2 )
l
)
Pitch movement generated with a
F1
dissymmetry between front and rear
forces:
p = l(F1 F3 )
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
How it works ?
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Principe
de fonctionnement
4 fixed rotors
with controlled
rotation
speed si 4 moteurs
4 generated4 forces
forces prop.
Fi
4 counter-rotating
4 couplestorques
prop. i
Contrlegenerated
:
with a
Roll movement
Roulis :
dissymmetry between
left and right
Tangage :
3
forces:
Lacet :
r = l(F4 F2 )
Pitch movement generated with a
dissymmetry between front and rear
2
forces:
p = l(F1 F3 )
Yaw movement generated with a
dissymmetry between front/rear and
left/right torques:
y = 1 + 3 2 4
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 23 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Building a model (1/3)
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Electrical motor: A 2nd order system with friction and saturation

usually approximated by a 1rst order system:
si
2
km
1
km
si load +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
i {1, 2, 3, 4} (1)
si : rotation speed
Ui : voltage applied to the motor; real control variable
load : motor load: load = kgearbox |si | si with drag coefficient
Aerodynamical forces and torques: Very complex models exist
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 24 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Electrical motor: A 2nd order system with friction and saturation

usually approximated by a 1rst order system:
si
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
i {1, 2, 3, 4} (1)
si : rotation speed
Ui : voltage applied to the motor; real control variable
load : motor load: load = kgearbox |si | si with drag coefficient
Aerodynamical forces and torques: Very complex models exist

but overcomplicated for control, better use the simplified model:
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
2
km
1
km
si load +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
Fi
r
p
y
=
=
=
=
bsi2
lb(s42 s22 )
lb(s12 s32 )
(s12 + s32 s22 s42 )
i {1, 2, 3, 4}
(2)
b: thrust coefficient, : drag coefficient
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 24 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
~t3
Two frames
a fixed frame E (~e1 ,~e2 ,~e3 )
a frame attached to the X4
T (~t1 , ~t2 , ~t3 )
~t2
Frame change
a rotation matrix R from T to E
State variables:
Cartesian coordinates (in E )
~t1
~e3
~e2
~e1
position ~p
velocity ~v
Attitude coordinates:
~ in the moving frame T
angular velocity
either: Euler angles three successive rotations about ~t3 , ~t1 and
~t3 of angles angles , and giving R
or: Quaternion representation (q0 , ~q ) = (cos /2, ~u sin /2)
represent a rotation of angle about ~u
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 25 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Cartesian coordinates:

~p = ~v
P
m~v = mg~e3 + R( i Fi (si )~t3 )
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
(3)
Attitude:
Euler angles formalism:

~
R = R
~ =
~ J
~ + tot
J
0
~ = 3
with
2
3
0
1
2
1
0
~ is the skew symmetric tensor associated to

~
Quaternion formalism:

~T
0
~
~q = 12 ()q
~ =
()
~
~

~
= 12 (q)
with
~q T
(q) =
~ =
~ J
~ + tot
J
I33 q0 + ~q
where tot =
~ ~t3 si +pert
Ir
|
{z
}
gyroscopic torque
Nonlinear Control
(4)
(5)
r (s2 , s4 )
+ p (s1 , s3 )
y (s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 )
Master PSPI 2009-2010 26 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Review of the nonlinearities
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
2
k
si = JkrmR si gearbox
|si | si + JkrmR satU i (Ui )
Jr
~p = ~v
m~v = mg~e3 + R
P 0
i Fi (si )
~
R
=
R
0
r (s2 , s4 )
~ =
~ J
~ i Ir
~ 0 + p (s1 , s3 )
y (s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 )
i si
In red: the nonlinearities
In blue: where the control variables act
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 27 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Identification of the parameters
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Electrical motor:
Autonomous Systems
Laboratory
For small
very close to a linear
Winter 2004-2005
CoaX input steps, the system behaves
first order system
Lorsquon bouge laxe, lhlice rpond la perturbation dune manire similaire aux hlices
Hence, use linear identification tools
Proxflyer ce qui nous promet de bons rsultats sur le CoaX. Malheureusement nous navons pas
Ui is found
on the
data-sheet
ofsur
the
motorcontrarotatif
(damagenayant
avoidance)
pu tester le comportement
du systme
avec
les deux hlices
le systme
pas deux hlices disposition avant le montage final.
Aerodynamical parameters: b and
b and measured with specific test beds,

5.5.2 Mcanisme de contra rotation avec hlices blanches
Nous avons fait tourner le module muni dhlices blanches
sur une balance pour avoir quelques chiffres quant la
qualit du systme. Les hlices blanches ne sont pas les plus
optimise pour notre application, mais elle donne dj des
informations utiles pour la suite du projet. Les rsultats sont
reprsents dans un tableau et des graphiques plus loin.
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Figure 36 : Hlices blanches
Figure 35 : Ban de test utilis
Observers
Pour tester les hlices ou les moteurs, nous utilisons, en temps normal, un ban de test
spcialement conu cet effet. La force
de pousse
est transmise la balance via
un levier
(voir
Nonlinear
Control
Master
PSPI
2009-2010 28 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Identification of the parameters
Electrical motor:
Nonlinear
Control
For small input steps, the system behaves very close to a linear
first order system
Hence, use linear identification tools
Ui is found on the data-sheet of the motor (damage avoidance)
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Aerodynamical parameters: b and
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
b and measured with specific test beds, depends upon temperature,

distance from ground, etc.
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
Mechanical parameters:
l
m
J
Ir
length of an arm of the helicopter, easy to measure

total mass of the helicopter, easy to measure
body inertia, hard to have precisely
rotor inertia, hard to have precisely
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 28 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Values of the parameters
Nonlinear
Control
Motor parameters:
parameter
km
Jr
R
kgearbox
i
U
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
parameter
b
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
value
4.3 103
3.4 105
0.67
2.7 103
12
unit
N.m/A
J.g.m2
Aerodynamical parameters:
Linear
approaches
Stability
description
motor constant
rotor inertia
motor resistance
gearbox ratio
maximal voltage
description
thrust coefficient
drag coefficient
value
3.8 106
2.9 105
Body parameters:
parameter
description
inertia matrix
m
l
g
mass of the UAV

radius of the UAV
gravity
value
14.6 103
0
0
0
7.8 103
0
0
0
7.8 103
0.458
22.5
9.81
unit
kg.m2
kg
cm
m/s2
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 29 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Open-loop behavior with roll initial speed
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 30 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Open-loop behavior with pitch initial speed
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 31 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Open-loop behavior with yaw initial speed
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 32 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Open-loop behavior with roll and yaw initial speed
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 33 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Open-loop behavior with pitch and yaw initial speed
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 34 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 35 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 36 / 174
Linear systems with saturated inputs

Impact of input saturations on the control of the X4s rotors (1/4)
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
We go back to the X4 example and focus on the rotors:

k2
1
km
si = m si load +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
If one wants to act on the X4 with desired forces Fid , it

is necessary to be able to set the rotors speeds si to sid
with
r
1 d
d
si =
F
b i
A usual way to control the electrical motor consist in
taking load as un unknown load
i
neglecting the voltage limitations U
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 37 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
The so obtained system is linear
N. Marchand
si (s)
Ui (s)
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
1
km
+ Jkr 2R s
m
Define a PI controller for it:
Linear
approaches
C (s) = Kp +
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
G
1 + s
Taking Ki =
is:
1
CL G
Ki
s
and Kp = Ki , the closed loop system

si (s)
Ui (s)
1
1 + CL s
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 38 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Make a step
the weight, that is such
q that compensates
P d
mg
d
that si =
i Fi = mg
4b so that
Taking CL = 50 ms, one gets with saturations
Outline
600
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
400
si
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
60
40
Ui
20
0
20
time
Observers
80
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
200
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 39 / 174

Saturation may cause instability
Nonlinear
Control
The result could be worse:
N. Marchand
7s+5
References
Pulse
Generator
s-1
Control
Saturation
Transfer Fcn
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
For u [1.2, 1.2], the closed-loop behavior is:

4
3.5
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
with saturation
2.5
2
1.5
without saturation
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
0.5
0
0.5
1
Saturations may lead to instability especially in the

presence of integrators in the loop
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 40 / 174

Key idea of the anti-windup scheme
6. Linear systems with a nonlinearity
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Consider a linear system with a PID controller:
References
Outline
PID controller
Linear system
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Kd
Kp
KI
1/s
The instability comes from the integration of the error

Key idea: soften the integral effect when the control is
saturated
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 41 / 174

6. Linear systems with a nonlinearity
PID controller with anti-windup

Nonlinear
Control
Structure of the PID controller with anti-windup:
N. Marchand
References
Anti Windup
PID controller
Linear system
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Kd
Kp
KI
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
1/s
Ks
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
If u = u, that is if u is not saturated, then the PID

controller with anti-windup is identical to the classical
PID controller
If u is saturated (u 6= u), Ks tunes the reduction of the
integral effect of the PID
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 42 / 174

General controller with anti-windup
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Structure of the general dynamic controller:
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
F
e
1
s
+ +
with dynamics given by:

x c = Fxc + Ge
u = Cxc + De
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 43 / 174

General controller with anti-windup
Nonlinear
Control
Anti-windup structure of the general dynamic controller:
N. Marchand
References
F KC
Outline
Introduction
G KD
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
1
s
Linear
approaches
+ +
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
with dynamics given by:
Stability
x c
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
= Fxc + Ge + K (u Cxc De)

= (F KC )xc + (G KD)e + Ku
Choice of the antiwindup parameters

Take K such that (F KC ) is stable and |max (F KC )| > |max (F )|
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 44 / 174

A short Lyapunov explanation of the behavior
Nonlinear
Control
Consider a stable closed loop linear system: it is

globally asymptotically stable. A saturation on the input
may:
N. Marchand
References
transform the global stability into local stability. In this

case, the aim of the anti-windup is to increase the radius
of attraction of the closed loop system
keep the global stability property. In this case, the aim
of the anti-windup is to renders the saturated system
closer to its unsaturated equivalent
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
However, there is no formal proof of stability of

anti-windup strategies
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Other approaches for saturated inputs

Optimal control
Nested saturation function (under development)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 45 / 174

Back to the unstable case
Nonlinear
Control
The unstable case:
N. Marchand
7s+5
References
Pulse
Generator
s-1
Control
Saturation
Transfer Fcn
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
The closed-loop behavior is:

4
3.5
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
with saturation
2.5
2
1.5
without saturation
with saturation and anti-windup
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
0.5
0
0.5
1
However, nothing is magic and divergent behavior may occur

because of the level of the step input
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 46 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Make a step
the weight, that is such
q that compensates
P d
mg
d
that si =
i Fi = mg
4b so that
Taking CL = 50 ms, one gets with anti-windup
Outline
600
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
400
si
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
60
40
Ui
20
0
20
time
Observers
80
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
200
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 47 / 174
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 48 / 174
Linearization of nonlinear systems

Impact of the load on the control of the X4s rotors
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Make a step that compensates the weight, that is such that sid =
P
that i Fid = mg
Taking CL = 50 ms, one gets with load
mg
4b
so
References
600
Outline
400
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
si
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
20
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
200
10
0
Ui
10
20
time
The PI controller seems badly tuned: for t > 1.3 s, the control is not saturated
but the convergence is very slow. Whats wrong ?
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 49 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Back to the rotor dynamical equation:

si =
2
kgearbox
km
km
si
|si | si +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
Taking load as unknown implies that the PI control law

was tuned for:
si =
2
km
km
si +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr R
Implicitly, the second order terms were neglected

Unfortunately, these two systems behave
q similarly iff si is
1
d
small, which is not the case for si = mg
4b 544 rad s
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 50 / 174

Linearization at the origin
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Linearization at the origin

Take a nonlinear system

References
Outline
x
y
= f (x, u)
= h(x, u)
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
with f (0, 0) = 0. Then, near the origin, it can be approximated by its

linear Taylor expansion at the first order:

f
f
x =
x+
u
x (x=0,u=0)
u (x=0,u=0)
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
A
B
h
h
x+
u
y h(0, 0) = x

(x=0,u=0)
(x=0,u=0)
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 51 / 174

Linearization at a point
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Linearization at a point

References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x
y
= f (x, u)
= h(x, u)
then, near the equilibrium point (x0 , u0 ), it can be approximated by its

linear Taylor expansion at the first order:

f
f
x
=
(x
x
)
(u u0 )
+
0
|{z}
x (x0 ,u0 ) | {z } u (x0 ,u0 ) | {z }
x
| {z }
| {z }
x
u
A
B

h
h
y h(x0 , u0 ) =
(x x0 ) +
(u u0 )

|
{z
}
| {z }
x
u
(x0 ,u0 )
(x0 ,u0 )
| {z }
| {z }
x
u
C
which is linear in the variables x = x x0 and u = u u0
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 52 / 174

Some properties of the linearization
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Controllability properties
x = f (x, u)
(6)
x = A
x + B u
(7)
References
Outline
and its linearization at (x0 , u0 ):
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
If (7) is controllable then (6) is locally controllable

Nothing can be concluded if (7) is uncontrollable
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Example
The car is controllable but not its linearization

x 1 = u1
x 1
1 0
x 2 = 0 1 u1 u2
x 2 = u2
linearization at the origin
x 3 = x2 u1
x 3
0 0
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 53 / 174

Some properties of the linearization
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Stability properties
References
x = f (x, u)
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
and its linearization at (x0 , u0 ):

x = A
x + B u
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
(8)
(9)
Assume that one can build a feedback law u = k(

x ) so that:
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
(9) is asymptotically stable (< < 0): then (8) is locally

asymptotically stable with u = u0 + k(
x)
(9) is unstable (< > 0): then (8) is locally unstable with
u = u0 + k(
x)
Nothing can be concluded if (9) is simply stable (< 0)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 54 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Back to the rotor dynamical equation:
N. Marchand
si =
References
Outline
2
kgearbox
km
km
si
|si | si +
satU i (Ui )
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
Define Uid , the constant control that keeps the steady state speed:
Introduction
Uid = km sid +
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
The linearization of the rotor dynamics near sid gives:

si =
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Rkgearbox d d
si si
km
with:

2
2kgearbox d
km
km
i )
+
satU i (U
si si +
Jr R
Jr
Jr R
i = Ui U d
U
i
si = si sid
i ) =
U (U
sat
i
i
U
i
U
i
U
i , +U
i ]
if Ui [U
i
if Ui U
i
if Ui U
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 55 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Makeq
a step that compensates the weight, that is such that
P d
sid = mg
i Fi = mg
4b so that
Taking CL = 50 ms and a PI controller tuned at sid on the system

with load, one has:
Outline
600
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
400
si
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
20
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
200
10
0
Ui
10
20
time
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 56 / 174
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 57 / 174
Towards gain scheduling

Impact of a change in the steady state speed of the X4s rotors
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Take again CL = 50 ms and a PI controller tuned at sid

Make speed steps of different level
600
References
400
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
200
si
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
10
20
10
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
0
200
Ui
10
20
time
The controller is well tuned near sid but not very good a large
range of use
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 58 / 174

Local linearization may be inadequate for large excursion
Nonlinear
Control
The result could be worse:
N. Marchand
Take the inverted pendulum
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling

1
mgl sin
m+M
ml cos
=
u + ml 2 sin k y
y
() ml cos I + ml 2
where
I is the inertia of the pendulum
() = (I + ml 2 )(m + M) m2 l 2 cos2
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Linearize it near the upper position

y , y ):
k = 0 and x = (, ,

0 1 0
x 1
x 2 2 0 0
= 3
x 3 0 0 0
x 4
13 0 0
Nonlinear Control
( = 0) with m = M = I = g = 1,

0
0
x1
x2 1
0
+ 3 u
1 x3 0
2
x4
0
3
Master PSPI 2009-2010 59 / 174

Local linearization may be inadequate for large excursion
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Build a linear feedback law that places the poles at -1

Starting from (0) = /5, it converges, from (0) = 1.1 /5, it diverges
15
15
References
Inverted pendulum
Linearization of the
Outline
inverted pendulum
Introduction
Initial condition:
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
x(0) = (/5, 0, 0, 0)
10
10
kxk
x(0) = (1.1/5, 0, 0, 0)
kxk
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
15
10
15
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 60 / 174

For some systems, the radius of attraction of a
stabilized linearization may be very small (less than one
degree on the double inverted pendulum for instance)
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Linearization is not suitable for large range of use of

the closed-loop system
Introduction
For other systems, the controller must be very finely

tuned in order to meet performance requirements (e.g.
automotive with more and more restrictive pollution
standards)
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
Linearization is not suitable for high accuracy closed

loop systems
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Either for stability reasons or performance reasons, it

may be necessary to tune the controller at more than
one operating point
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 61 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Gain scheduling uses the idea of using a collection of

linearization of a nonlinear system at different
operating points
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 62 / 174
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
= f (x, u)
Define a family of equilibrium points
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
s = (xeq , ueq )
such that f (xeq , ueq ) = 0
At each point s, linearize the system assuming s is

constant:
x = A(s)
x + B(s)
u
with x = x xeq and u = u ueq
At each point s, define a feedback law:
u = ueq (s) K (s)(x xeq (s))
with <(Eig(A(s) B(s)K (s))) < 0
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 63 / 174
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
The controller is then obtained by changing s in the a

priori defined collection of points
The change of s can be done discontinuously or continuously
by interpolation
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 64 / 174
Gain scheduling
Drawbacks of gain scheduling :
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
7 Convergence only if s varies slowly

7 The performance within a linearization area may be poor
7 The mapping may be prohibitive if the number of states is
large
7 The stability issues are not clear
Recent evolution of gain scheduling:

Dynamic gain scheduling: improve the transition between
the different controllers, limits the importance of the slow
motion of s
LPV: Linear parameter varying methods considers the
nonlinear system as
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
A((x))x + B((x))u
and, under some conditions, uses LMI to build a feedback.

Improves the performance within a linearization area.
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 65 / 174
Gain scheduling
Handling changes in the steady state speed of the X4s rotors
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Take again CL = 50 ms and a PI controller tuned at si

Make speed steps of different level
600
References
400
Outline
200
Introduction
si
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
0
200
Linear
approaches
10
10
10
Stability
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
20
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear
approaches
Ui
10
20
time
The rotors are now well controlled
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 66 / 174
Stability
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 67 / 174
Stability
Consider the autonomous nonlinear system:
Nonlinear
Control
= f (x, u(x)) = g (x)
(10)
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Stability
System (10) is said to be stable at the origin iff:
R > 0, r (R) > 0 such that x0 B(r (R)), x(t; x0 ), solution
of (10) with x0 as initial condition, remains in B(R) for all
t > 0.
Attractivity
The origin is said to be attractive iff:
limt x(t; x0 ) = 0.
Asymptotic stability
System (10) is said to be asymptotically stable at the origin
iff it is stable and attractive
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 68 / 174
Stability
Graphical interpretation
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
For linear systems: Attractivity Stability
A For nonlinear systems: Attractivity 9 Stability

Stability and attractivity : properties hard to check ?
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 69 / 174
Stability
Using the linearization
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Asymptotic stability and local linearizaton

Consider x = g (x) and its linearization at the origin

x. Then:
x = g
x
x=0
Linearization with eig< 0 Nonlinear system is locally

asymptotically stable
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Linearization with eig> 0 Nonlinear system is locally

unstable
Stability
Linearization with eig= 0: nothing can be concluded on

the nonlinear system (may be stable or unstable)
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Only local conclusions
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 70 / 174
Stability
Lyapunov theory: Lyapunov functions
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Aleksandr Mikhailovich Lyapunov

Markovs school friend, Chebyshevs student
References
Master Thesis : On the stability of ellipsoidal forms of equilibrium of a rotating liquid in 1884
Phd Thesis : The general problem of the stability of motion in 1892
Outline
6 June 1857 - 3 Nov 1918
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Definition: Lyapunov function

Let V : Rn R be a continuous function such that:
Stability
1
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
2
3
(definite) V (x) = 0 x = 0
(positive) x, V (x) 0
(radially unbounded) limkxk V (x) = +
Lyapunov functions are energies
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 71 / 174

Stability
June Lyapunov
1857 - 3 Nov
1918
Lyapunov 6
theory:
theorem
Nonlinear
Control
Aleksandr Mikhailovich Lyapunov
N. Marchand

References
6 June 1857 - 3 Nov 1918
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Theorem: (First) Lyapunov theorem

If a Lyapunov function V : Rn R+ s.t.
(strictly decreasing) V (x(t)) is strictly decreasing for all

x(0) 6= 0
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
then the origin is asymptotically stable.
If a Lyapunov function V : Rn R+ s.t.

(decreasing) V (x(t)) is decreasing
then the origin is stable.
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 72 / 174
Stability
Lyapunov theorem: a graphical interpretation
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 73 / 174
Stability
Stability and robustness
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Stability holds robustness:
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
V
x = g (x) stable V =
g (x) < 0
x
V
(g (x) + (x)) < 0
x
x = g (x) + (x) stable
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 74 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 75 / 174
The X4 helicopter
The control problems
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
si
~p
m~v
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
=
= ~v
=
=
=
2
km
Jr R s i
kgearbox
Jr
|si | si +
km
Jr R
satU i (Ui )
Position control problem
mg~e3 + R P 0
i Fi (si )
~
R
Attitude
control problem
0
r (s2 , s4 )
P
~ J
~ i Ir
~ 0 + p (s1 , s3 )
P
y (s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 )
i si
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 76 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 77 / 174

Characterizing property (1/3)
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Control Lyapunov functions (CLF) where introduced in the 80s

CLF are for controllability and control what Lyapunov functions
are for stability
Lyapunov: a tool for stability analysis of autonomous
systems
Take
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
x 1
x 2
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
x2
x1 x2
Take the Lyapunov function
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
=
=
V (x)
3 2
x + x1 x2 + x22
2 1
Along the trajectories of the system:

V (x(t))
V (x).f (x) = kxk
hence, V 0 and the system is asymptotically stable

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 78 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Control Lyapunov Functions: a tool for stabilization of

controlled systems
Take now the controlled system
x 1
x 2
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x2
x1 + u

V (x)
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
3 2
x + x1 x2 + x22
2 1

V (x(t), u(t))
= V (x).f (x, u)
= x12 + x1 x2 + x22 + (x1 + 2x2 )u
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 79 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Control Lyapunov Functions: a tool for stabilization of

controlled systems
N. Marchand
References
V (x(t), u(t))
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
hence
Linear
approaches
if x1 + 2x2 6= 0, there exists u such that V

otherwise (if x1 + 2x2 = 0)
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
V (x(t), u(t))
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
= V (x).f (x, u)
= x12 + x1 x2 + x22 + (x1 + 2x2 )u
4x22 2x22 + x22 = 5x22
which is negative unless x2 = 0 = 12 x1 : V
In conclusion: characterizing property of CLF

For any x 6= 0, there exists u such that V (x(t), u(t)) < 0
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 80 / 174

Formal definitions
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Definition: Lyapunov function

A continuous function V : Rn R0 is called a Lyapunov
function if
1
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
[positive definiteness] V (x) 0 for all x and V (0) = 0 if and

only if x = 0
[radially unbounded] limx V (x) = +
or:
1
[positive definiteness] V (x) 0 for all x and V (0) = 0 if and

only if x = 0
[proper] for each a 0, the set {x|V (x) a} is compact
or, alternatively:
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
(, K )
(kxk) V (x) (kxk)
x Rn
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 81 / 174

Formal definitions
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Definition: Control Lyapunov Function

A differentiable control Lyapunov function denotes a
differentiable Lyapunov function being infinitesimally
decreasing, meaning that there exists a positive continuous
definite function W : Rn R0 and such that:
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
sup min V (x)f (x, u) + W (x) 0
m
xRn uR
Roughly speaking a CLF is a Lyapunov function that one

can force to decrease
Extensions to nonsmooth CLF exist and are necessary for
the class of system that can not be stabilized by means of
smooth static feedback
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 82 / 174

Control affine systems
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Definition: Directional Lie derivative

For any f and g with values in appropriate sets, the Lie derivative of g along f is
defined by:
Lf g (x) := g (x) f (x)
Iteratively, one defines:
Lkf g (x) := Lf Lk1
g (x)
f
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Theorem
Consider a control affine system x = g0 (x) +
f (0) = 0. Assume that the set
Pm
i=1 ui gi (x)
with f smooth and

S = x|Lf V (x) = 0 and Lkf Lgi V (x) = 0 for all k N, i {1, . . . , m} = {0}
then, the feedback
k(x) := (V (x) G (x))T = Lg1 V (x)
globally asymptotically stabilizes the system at the origin.
Lgm V (x)
T
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 83 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Theorem: Sontags universal formula (1989)
P
Consider a control affine system x = g0 (x) + m
i=1 ui gi (x) with f smooth and
f (0) = 0. Assume that there exists a differentiable CLF, then the feedback
References
ki (x) = bi (x)(a(x), (x))
Outline
(= 0 for x = 0)
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
a(x) := V (x)f (x) and bi (x)

:= V (x)gi (x) for i = 1, . . . , m
B(x) = b1 (x) b2 (x) and (x) = kB(x)k2
q : R R is any real analytic function with q(0) = 0 and bq(b) > 0 for any
b>0
is the real analytic function:

a+ a2 +bq(b)
if b 6= 0
b
(a, b) =
0
if b = 0
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
is such that k(0) = 0, k smooth on Rn \0 and

sup V (x)f (x, k(x)) + W (x) 0
xRn
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 84 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Definition: Small control property

A CLF V is said to satisfies the small control property if for any ,
there is some so that:
Outline
sup
Introduction
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
min V (x)f (x, u) + W (x) 0
xB() uB()
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
The small control property implicitly means that if is small (hence the
control), the system can still be controlled as long as it is sufficiently close to
the origin
Theorem: Sontags universal formula (1989)
P
Consider an control-affine system x = g0 (x) + i = 1m ui gi (x)
with f smooth and f (0) = 0. Assume that there exists a
differentiable CLF, then the previous feedback k with q(b) = b is
smooth on Rn \0 and continuous at the origin
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 85 / 174

Robustness issues
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Model
x = f (x, u)
u = k(x)
Real system
x = f (x, u)+
u = k(x+)
References
Outline
Definition: Robustness w.r.t. model errors
Introduction
A feedback law k : Rn Rm is said to be robust with respect to model errors if

limt x(t) B(r ()) with lim0 r () = 0 (x(t) denotes the solution of
x = f (x, k(x)) + )
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Definition: Robustness w.r.t. measurement errors

A feedback law k : Rn Rm is said to be robust with respect to measurement
errors if limt x(t) B(r ()) with lim0 r () = 0 (x(t) denotes the solution
of x = f (x, k(x + )))
Theorem: Smooth CLF = robust stability (1999)

The existence of a feedback law robust to measurement errors and model errors
is equivalent to the existence of a smooth CLF
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 86 / 174

Conclusion
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
A CLF is a theoretical tool, not a magical tool

A CLF is not a constructive tool
Finding a stabilizing control law and finding a CLF are at
best the same problems. In all other cases, finding a
stabilizing control law is easier than finding a CLF
Even if one can find a CLF for a system, the universal
formula often gives a feedback with poor performances
However, this is an important field of research in the
control system theory community that proved important
theoretical results, for instance the equivalence between
asymptotic controllability and stabilizability of nonlinear
systems (1997)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 87 / 174
Other structural tools

Passivity
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Definition: Passivity
A system
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
x = f (x, u)
y = h(x, u)
is said to be passive if there exists some function S(x) 0 with

S(0) = 0 such that
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
ZT
S(x(T )) S(x(0))
u T ()y ()d
0
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Roughly speaking, S(x(0)) (called the storage function)

denotes the largest amount of energy which can be extracted
from the system given the initial condition x(0).
Passivity eases the design of control law and is a powerful tool
for interconnected systems
Important literature
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 88 / 174
Other structural tools

Input-to-State Stability (ISS)
Class K A continuous function : R0 R0 is said in K if it is strictly increasing
and (0) = 0
Class KL A continuous function : R0 R0 R0 is said in KL if (, s) K for
each fixed s and (r , ) is decreasing for each fixed r and lims (r , s) = 0
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Definition: Input-to-State Stability
Introduction
A system
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
x = f (x, u)
is said to be input-to-state stable if there exists functions KL and K
such that for each bounded u() and each x(0), the solution x(t) exists and is
bounded by:
kx(t)k (kx(0)k , t) + ( sup ku()k)
0t
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Roughly speaking, ISS characterizes a relation between the norm of the

state and the energy injected in the system: the system can not diverge in
finite time with a bounded control
ISS eases the design of control law
Important literature
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 89 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 90 / 174

An introducing example
Nonlinear
Control
Take again the linear system
N. Marchand
x 1 = x2
x 2 = x1 + u
References
Outline
Assume u is forced to remain in [1, 1]
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
In practical applications, u is always constrained in an interval [u, u]. We will

see later on how to handle it. To begin, we take the above simplified
Linear
approaches
constraint.
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Take the CLF
Stability
3
V (x) = x12 + x1 x2 + x22 = x T
2
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
3
2
1
2
1
2
Goal
Find u in [1, 1] that makes V decrease as fast as possible
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 91 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Making V decrease as fast as possible is equivalent to minimizing V :

u = Argmin V
u[1,1]
Outline

= Argmin x
x 22 + x11 x22 + x2222 + (x11 + 2x22 )u
} |
| 11 {z
{z
}
u[1,1]
Introduction
= sign(x1 + 2x2 )
References
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
can not be changed
minimal for u= sign(x1 +2x2 )
Simulating the closed loop system with initial condition x(0) = (2, 3), it gives:
Linear
approaches
x2
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
x1
Stability
10
10
1.5
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Why does it work ?
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 92 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Define (x) = x1 + 2x2 . The set

{S(x) = {x|(x) = 0}} {|x1 | 0.6, |x2 | 0.3} is attractive:
References
Outline
Introduction
{x
|x
2x
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
0}
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x1
x2
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 93 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Define (x) = x1 + 2x2 . The set

{S(x) = {x|(x) = 0}} {|x1 | 0.6, |x2 | 0.3} is attractive:
References
Outline
{x
|x
Introduction
2x
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
0}
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
S S > 0
S S < 0
Nonlinear
approaches
S S < 0
S S > 0
x1
x2
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 93 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
The set {S(x) = {x|(x) = 0}} {|x1 | 0.6, |x2 | 0.3} is

attractive
Once the set is joined, the control is such that x remains on
S(x), that is:
S(x)
= 0 = x 1 + 2x 2 = x2 x1 + u
Hence, on S(x), u = sign(x1 + 2x2 ) has the same influence
on the system as the control ueq = x1 x2
On S(x), the system behaves like:
x 1 = x2
x 2 = x1 + u = x2
x2 and hence also x1 clearly exponentially go to zero without
leaving {S(x) = {x|x1 + 2x2 = 0}} {|x1 | 0.6, |x2 | 0.3}
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 94 / 174

Principle of sliding mode control
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Principle:
Define a sliding surface S(x) = {x|(x) = 0}
A stabilizing sliding mode control is a control law
References
Outline
Introduction
discontinuous in on S(x)
that insures the attractivity of S(x)
such that, on the surface S(x), the states slides to
the origin
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Main characteristic of sliding mode control:

4 Robust control law
8 Discontinuities may damage actuators (filtered versions
exist)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 95 / 174

Notion of sliding surface and equivalent control
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
With a sliding mode control, the system takes the form:

+
f (x)
if (x) > 0
x =
f (x)
if (x) < 0
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
f + (x)
(x) > 0
Linear
approaches
fn+ (x)
fn (x)
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
f (x)
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
(x) = 0
(x) < 0
What happens for (x) = 0 ?

The solution on (x) = 0 is the solution of x = f + (x) + (1 )f (x)
where satisfies fn+ (x) + (1 )fn (x) = 0 for the normal projections of
f + and f
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 96 / 174

A sliding mode control for a class of affine systems
Nonlinear
Control
Theorem: Sliding mode control for a class of nonlinear systems
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Take the nonlinear system:

f1 (x) + g1 (x)u
x 1
x 2
x1

= f (x) + g (x)u
.. =
..
.
.
xn1
x n
Choose the control law
p T f (x)
T
sign((x))
T
p g (x) p g (x)

with > 0, (x) = p T x and p T = p1 pn is a stable
polynomial (all roots have strictly negative real parts)
Then the origin of the closed loop system is asymptotically
stable
u=
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 97 / 174

Sliding mode control for some affine systems: proof of convergence
Nonlinear
Control
Proof:
N. Marchand

1
V (x) = x T pp T x
2
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Note that V (x) = 2(x)

Along the trajectories of the system, one has:

V (x) = T (x)(x)
= x T p p T f (x) + p T g (x)u
with the chosen control, it gives:
V (x) = (x) sign((x)) = |(x)|

x tends to S = {x|(x) = 0}
tunes how fast the system converges to S = {x|(x) = 0}
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 98 / 174

Sliding mode control for some affine systems: proof of convergence
Nonlinear
Control
On S, the system is such that

(x) = 0 = p1 x1 + + pn1 xn1 + pn xn
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
But:
xn1 = x n
(2)
xn2 = x n1 = xn
..
.
(n1)
x1 = x 2 = = xn
That can be written with zi = xni+1 in the
0
1
0
0
0
1
.
..
z =
.
..
0

pp21 pp31
form:
..
.
..
.
0
Hence, x asymptotically goes to the origin

Nonlinear Control
0
..
.
0 z
1
pn
p1
Master PSPI 2009-2010 99 / 174

Sliding mode control for some affine systems: time to switch
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Consider an initial point x0 such that (x0 ) > 0.

Since
(x)(x)
= (x) sign((x))
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
it follows that as long as (x) > 0
(x)
=
Hence, the instant of the first switch is
ts =
(x0 )
<
Moreover, ts 0 as
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 100 / 174

Robustness issues
Nonlinear
Control
Assume that one knows only a model
N. Marchand
x = f^(x) + g^ (x)u
References
Outline
of the true system
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x = f (x) + g (x)u
The time derivative of the Lyapunov function is:
"
#
pT g
p T (f g^ f^g T )p
V (x) = (x)
T sign((x))
p T g^
p g^
If sign(p T g ) = sign(p T g^ ) and > 0 sufficiently large, V < 0
The closed-loop system is robust against model errors
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 101 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 102 / 174

Introducing examples
Nonlinear
Control
Consider nonlinear the system

x 1 = 2x1 + ax2 + sin(x1 )
N. Marchand
x 2 = x2 cos(x1 ) + u cos(2x1 )
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Take the new set of state variables

z1 = x1
z2 = ax1 + sin(x1 )
x1 = z1
1)
x2 = z2 sin(z
a
The state equations become:

z 1 = 2z1 + z2
z 2 = 2z1 cos(z1 ) + cos(z1 ) sin(z1 ) + au cos(2z1 )
The nonlinearities can then be canceled taking the new control v :
u =
1
(v cos(z1 ) sin(z1 ) + 2z1 cos(z1 ))
a cos(2z1 )
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 103 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
The system then becomes linear:

2 1
0
z =
z+
v
0 0
1
Taking v = 2z2 places the poles of the closed-loop in {2, 2}
Hence, limt z = 0
Looking back to the transformation:
Linear
approaches
x1 = z1
z2 sin(z1 )
x2 =
a
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
one also have limt x = 0

In the original coordinates, the control writes:
u=
1
[2ax2 2 sin(x2 )cos(x1 ) sin(x1 )+2x1 cos(x1 )]
a cos(2x1 )
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 104 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Consider nonlinear the system

x 1 = sin(x2 ) + (x2 + 1)x3
N. Marchand
References
x 2 = x15 + x3
Outline
x 3 = x12 + u
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Take x1 as output: y = x1
When not imposed, the choice of the appropriate output is often delicate
Compute the first time derivative of y :
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
y = x 1 = sin(x2 ) + (x2 + 1)x3

Compute the second time derivative of y :
y = (x2 + 1)u + (x15 + x3 )(x3 + cos(x2 )) + (x2 + 1)x12
|
{z
}
m(x)
Taking u =
v m(x)
x2 +1
gives the linear system:
y = v
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 105 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
8 Potential problem if x2 = 1
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Here again, take the linear feedback v = y + 2y that

places the poles of the closed loop system in {1, 1}
Hence, y and y asymptotically converges to the origin
The state of the system is of dimension 3. Only two
variables have been brought to the origin, what about the
third one ?
Write the system with the new coordinates
(z1 , z2 , z3 ) = (y , y , x3 ):

z 1 = z2
Linearized sub-system:
z 2 = v

z 3 = z12 + u(z)
Internal dynamics:
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 106 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
One has to check that the internal dynamics is stable. For this, we
assume that y = y = 0 (which happens asymptotically):
0
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
z 3
0
z}|{
z }| {
0
z}|{ z}|{
v (( z15 +z3 )(z3 + cos x2 ) + (x2 + 1)z12 )
2
= z1 +
x2 + 1
z3 (z3 + cos x2 )
=
x2 + 1
If x2 and z3 are small enough, z 3 z3 (z3 + 1) z3 : the internal

dynamics is locally asymptotically stable
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
The approach can be applied if and only if the internal dynamics is

stable
If the internal dynamics is unstable, the system is called non-minimum
phase
Change the input
Use additional inputs to stabilize the internal dynamics
Other approach in the literature like approximate linearization
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 107 / 174

Introduction
Nonlinear
Control
Consider again nonlinear systems affine in the control:

x = f (x) + g (x)u
y = h(x)
N. Marchand
References
Outline
The linearization approach tries to find
Introduction
a feedback control law
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
u = (x) + (x)v
Linear
approaches
and a change of variable
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
z = T (x)
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
that transforms the nonlinear systems into:
Input-State linearization
Input-Output linearization
z = Az + Bv
y (r ) = v
8 No systematic approach
4 Systematic approach
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 108 / 174

The SISO case
Nonlinear
Control
Take
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
The time derivative of y is then given by:

h
(f (x) + g (x)u) = Lf h(x) + Lg h(x)u
x
If Lg h(x) 6= 0, the control is
y =
u=
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x = f (x) + g (x)u
y = h(x)
1
(Lf h(x) + v )
Lg h(x)
yielding y = v
Otherwise (that is Lg h(x) 0), differentiate once more:
y =
Lf h
(f (x) + g (x)u) = L2f h(x) + Lg Lf h(x)u
x
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 109 / 174

The SISO case
Nonlinear
Control
If Lg Lf h(x) 6= 0, the control is
N. Marchand
u=
References
yielding to y = v
...
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
1
(L2f h(x) + v )
Lg Lf h(x)
Definition: Relative degree

There exists an integer r n such that Lg Lif h(x) 0 for all
i {1, . . . , r 2} and Lg Lrf 1 h(x) 6= 0 that is called the relative degree of
the system
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
The control law

u=
1
Lg Lrf 1 h(x)
(Lrf h(x) + v )
yields the linear system y (r ) = v

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 110 / 174

The MIMO case
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Take
x = f (x) + g1 (x)u1 + g2 (x)u2

y1 = h1 (x)
y2 = h2 (x)
The relative degree {r1 , r2 } is then given by:

i1
Lg1 Li1
f h1 (x) = Lg2 Lf h1 (x) = 0
i1
i1
Lg1 Lf h2 (x) = Lg2 Lf h2 (x) = 0
i < r1
i < r2
Assume that the Input-Output decoupling condition is

satisfied, that is:

Lg1 Lrf1 1 h1 (x) Lg2 Lrf1 1 h1 (x)
=2
rank
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 111 / 174

The MIMO case
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
One has:
y 1 = Lf h1 (x) + Lg1 h1 (x) u1 + Lg2 h1 (x) u2
| {z }
| {z }
=0
References
Outline
=0
(r )
y1 1
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
=0
..
.
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
=0
y1 = L2f h1 (x) + Lg1 Lf h1 (x) u1 + Lg2 Lf h1 (x) u2

| {z }
| {z }
= Lrf1 h1 (x) + Lg1 Lrf1 1 h1 (x) u1 + Lg2 Lrf1 1 h1 (x) u2

{z
}
|
{z
}
|
either 6=0
or 6=0
Make the same for y2 :

y 2 = Lf h2 (x) + Lg1 h2 (x) u1 + Lg2 h2 (x) u2
| {z }
| {z }
=0
=0
y2 = L2f h2 (x) + Lg1 Lf h2 (x) u1 + Lg2 Lf h2 (x) u2

| {z }
| {z }
=0
=0
..
.
(r )
y2 2
= Lrf2 h2 (x) + Lg1 Lrf2 1 h2 (x) u1 + Lg2 Lrf2 1 h2 (x) u2

|
|
{z
}
{z
}
either 6=0
Nonlinear Control
or 6=0
Master PSPI 2009-2010 112 / 174

The MIMO case
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Hence, one has:

!

(r )
y1 1
Lrf1 h1 (x)
u1
+
=
r2
r2 1
r2 1
(r2 )
L
h
(x)
u2
Lg L
h2 (x) Lg2 Lf h2 (x)
2
y2
} | 1 f
| f {z
{z
} | {z }
b(x)
A(x)
Thanks to the decoupling condition, one can take:

u = A(x)1 b(x) + A(x)1 v
which gives two chains of integrators:
(r )
y1 1 = v1
(r )
y2 2 = v2
This approach can be extended to any output and input sizes
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 113 / 174

A block diagram representation
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Linearization techniques can be interpreted as:
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Linear
control
Nonlinear
system
Linearizing
feedback
Linear loop
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 114 / 174

The general case
Nonlinear
Control
The internal dynamics or zero-dynamics is then of dimension

n r ; its stability has to be checked
For linear systems r =number of poles-number of zeros
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
This approach took a rapid development in the 80s

Maybe the only general approach for nonlinear system with
predictive control
Can be extended to MIMO systems with a decoupling
condition
Many extensions in particular with the notion of flatness
Power tool for path generation
Non robust approach since it is based on coordinate changes
that can be stiff
The control may take too large values
Kills nonlinearities even if they are good
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 115 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 116 / 174
Backstepping
Main results
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Theorem: backstepping design

Assume that the system = f (, v ) with f (0, 0) = 0 can asymptotically be stabilized with
v = k(). Let V denote a C 1 Lyapunov function (definite, positive and radially
unbounded) such that V
f (, k()) < 0 for all 6= 0. Then, the system
= f (, )
= h(, ) + u
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
with h(0, 0) = 0 is also asymptotically stabilizable with the control:
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
u(, ) = h(, ) +

T
k
V
f (, ) + k()
G (, k())
with
Stability
Z1
G (, ) =
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
f
(, k() + )d
The Lyapunov function

W (, ) = V () +
1
k k()k2
2
is then strictly decreasing for any (, ) 6= (0, 0)
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 117 / 174
Backstepping
Main results
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
The theorem can recursively be applied to
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
1
2
n1
n
f (, 1 )
a1 (, 1 ) + b1 (, 1 )2
=
..
.
a2 (, 1 , 2 ) + b2 (, 1 , 2 )3
an1 (, 1 , 2 , . . . , n2 ) + bn1 (, 1 , 2 , . . . , n2 )n1
an (, 1 , 2 , . . . , n1 ) + bn (, 1 , 2 , . . . , n1 )u
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 118 / 174
Forwarding
Strict-feedforward systems
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Consider the class of strict-feedforward systems:
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
x 1 = x2 + f1 (x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , u)
x 2 = x3 + f2 (x3 , . . . , xn , u)
..
.
x n1 = xn + fn1 (xn , u)
x n = u
Strict-feedforward systems are in general no feedback
linearizable
Backstepping is not applicable
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 119 / 174
Forwarding
Forwarding procedure
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
At step 0: Begin with stabilizing the system x n = un .

Take e.g. un = xn and the corresponding Lyapunov function Vn = 12 xn2
At step 1: Augment the control law
un1 (xn1 , xn ) = un (xn ) + vn1 (xn1 , xn )
such that un1 stabilizes the cascade
Introduction
x n1 = xn + fn1 (xn , un1 )
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
x n = un1
At step k: Augment the control law
unk (xnk , . . . , xn ) = unk+1 (xnk+1 , . . . , xn ) + vnk (xnk , . . . , xn )
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
such that unk stabilizes the cascade

nk
= xnk+1 + fnk (xnk+1 , . . . , xn , unk )

..
.
x n1 = xn + fn1 (xn , unk )

x n = unk
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 120 / 174
Forwarding
Forwarding procedure
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
The control law unk always exists for all

k {1, . . . , n 1}
The Lyapunov function at step k can be given by:

Z
1 2
Vk = Vk+1 + xk +
xk ()fk (xk+1 (), . . . , xn ())d
2
0
To avoid computations of the integrals, low-gain control
can be used. It gave rise to an important litterature on
bounded feedback control (Teel (91), Sussmann et al.
(94))
Various extensions for more general system exist but are
still based on the same recursive construction
Forwarding can be interpreted with passivity, ISS or
optimal control
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 121 / 174
Backstepping/Forwarding
An interpretation of the names
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 122 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 123 / 174
The X4 helicopter
X4 position stabilization
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
The aim is now to apply nonlinear control techniques to the stabilization

problem of an X4 helicopter at a point
Input-Ouput Linearization techniques can not be applied since the system
is non minimum phase
The backstepping approach is inspired from
S. Bouabdallah and R. Siegwart, Backstepping and sliding-mode
techniques applied to an indoor micro quadrotor, at the EPFL
(Lausanne, Switzerland) presented at the International Conference on
Robotics and Automation 2005 (ICRA05, Barcelonna, Spain)
The PVTOL control strategy comes from

A. Hably, F. Kendoul, N. Marchand and P. Castillo, Positive Systems,
chapter:
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
"Further results on global stabilization of the PVTOL
aircraft", pp 303-310, Springer Verlag , 2006
The saturated control law is taken in:

N. Marchand and A. Hably, "Nonlinear stabilization of multiple
integrators with bounded controls", Automatica, vol.
41, no.
12, pp
2147-2152, 2005.
Revealing example of what often happens in nonlinear: a solution comes

from the combination of different methods
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 124 / 174
The X4 helicopter
A two steps approach
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
si
~p
m~v
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
=
= ~v
=
=
=
2
km
Jr R s i
kgearbox
Jr
|si | si +
km
Jr R
satU i (Ui )
Position control problem
mg~e3 + R P 0
i Fi (si )
~
R
Attitude
control problem
0
r (s2 , s4 )
P
~ J
~ i Ir
~ 0 + p (s1 , s3 )
P
y (s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 )
i si
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 125 / 174
The X4 helicopter: attitude stabilization

A backstepping approach
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
The aim of this first step is to be able to bring (, , ) to

any desired configuration (d , d , d )
Attitude equations (with an appropriate choice of Euler
angles):
x 1 = x2
2 = a1 x4 x6 + b1 r
x
x 3 = x4
x 4 = a2 x2 x6 + b2 p
x = x6
5
x 6 = a3 x2 x4 + b3 y
, ,
, ),
a1 = J2 J3 , a2 = J3 J1 ,
with (x1 , . . . , x6 ) = (, ,
J1
J2
1
1
1
2
a3 = J1JJ
,
b
=
,
b
=
and
b
=
1
2
3
J1
J2
J3
3
The system would be trivial to control if (x2 , x4 , x6 ) was the
control instead of (r , p , y )
This is precisely the philosophy of backstepping
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 126 / 174

Recall of backstepping main result
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References

Assume that the system = f (, v ) with f (0, 0) = 0 can asymptotically be stabilized with
v = k(). Let V denote a C 1 Lyapunov function (definite, positive and radially
unbounded) such that V
f (, k()) < 0 for all 6= 0. Then, the system
= f (, )
= h(, ) + u
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
with h(0, 0) = 0 is also asymptotically stabilizable with the control:
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
u(, ) = h(, ) +

T
k
V
f (, ) + k()
G (, k())
with
Stability
Z1
G (, ) =
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
f
(, k() + )d
The Lyapunov function

W (, ) = V () +
1
k k()k2
2
is then strictly decreasing for any (, ) 6= (0, 0)
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 127 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Define first the tracking error:
z1 = x1 x1d
z2 = x3 x3d
z3 = x5 x5d
It gives the subsystem
z 1
z 2
z 3
= d
= d
= d
= x2 x 1d
= x4 x 3d
= x6 x 5d
where, at this step, (x2 , x4 , x6 ) is the control vector

Take first V1 = 12 z12 .
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 128 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Along the trajectories of the system, the Lyapunov

function gives:
V 1 = z1 (x2 x 1d )
Hence taking as fictive control x2 = x 1d 1 z1 with
1 > 0 insures the decrease of V1 :
V 1 = 1 z12
x1 will asymptotically converge to x1d ... unfortunately x2
is not the control and we have to build thanks to
backstepping approach the r that will force x2 to make
x1 converge to x1d
For this, define the tracking error for x2 :
z2 = x2 (x 1d 1 z1 )
|
{z
}
input of subsystem in z1
we would like to put
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 129 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
One has
z 2 = a1 x4 x6 + b1 r
x + x x
|
{z
} 1d | 1 2 {z 1 1}d
N. Marchand
x 2
References
1 z 1
Recall we have to build the r that will force x2 to make x1 converge

to x1d . For this, we use the formula of the backstepping theorem:
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example

..
.
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
u(, ) = h(, ) +
Stability
..
.
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers

T
V
k
f (, ) + k()
G (, k())
with in our case:

= z1
= z2
h = a1 x4 x6 x1d + 1 x2 1 x 1d
Nonlinear Control
k = x 1d 1 z1
f = x2 x 1d
V = 12 z12
Master PSPI 2009-2010 130 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Or more simply, we construct it:
N. Marchand
W (z1 , z2 ) = V (z1 ) +
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
z}|{
= z1 (x2 x 1 ) + z2 a1 x4 x6 + b1 r
W
x1d + 1 x2 1 x 1d
d
control
Taking v as new control variable:
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
1
1
kx2 (x 1d 1 z1 )k2 = (z12 + z22 )
2
2
b1 r
gives:
= a1 x4 x6 + b1 r x1d + 1 x2 1 x 1d
= v a1 x4 x6 + x1d 1 x2 + 1 x 1d
= z1 (x2 x 1 ) + z2 v
W
d
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 131 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Trying to write
x2 x 1d
N. Marchand
References
z +? (x2 x 1d + 1 z1 )
| {z1 }1
|
{z
}
ideal case
difference between real

and ideal cases
= 1 z1 + x2 x 1d + 1 z1
|
{z
}
Outline
Introduction
z2
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Hence, it gives:
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
= 1 z 2 + z1 z2 +z2 v
W
1
|{z}
can be compensated with v
Taking:
v = z1 2 z2
where 2 > 0 in order to insure
= 1 z 2 2 z 2 < 0
W
1
2
Repeating this for and gives the wanted control law
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 132 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Attitude stabilization
The control law given by
b1 r = z1 2 z2 a1 x4 x6 + x1d 1 x2 + 1 x 1d
b2 p = z3 4 z4 a2 x2 x6 + x3d 3 x4 + 3 x 3d
b3 y = z5 6 z6 a3 x2 x4 + x5d 5 x6 + 5 x 5d
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
with z1 = x1 x1d , z2 = x2 x 1d + 1 z1 , z3 = x3 x3d ,

z4 = x4 x 3d + 3 z3 , z5 = x5 x5d and z6 = x6 x 5d + 5 z5
asymptotically stabilizes (x1 , x3 , x5 ) to their desired position
(x1d , x3d , x5d )
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
This kind of approach appeared in the literature in the last

90s
Now better approach based on forwarding are appearing
taking into account practical saturation of the control torques
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 133 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Simulations: apply successive steps of 45 in roll, pitch and

yaw
60
40
20
0
20
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
40
20
0
20
60
40
20
0
20
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 134 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Adjusting the s: with i = 0.2
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
60
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0.5
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
0.5
1
40
20
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Roll, pitch and yaw answers
r , p and y controls
8 Too many oscillations
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 135 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Adjusting the s: with i = 2
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
60
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
20
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
2
2
40
0
0
20
Nonlinear
approaches
40
20
Stability
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
4 Seems to be a good choice
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 136 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Adjusting the s: with i = 10
References
60
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
100
40
20
0
20
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
50
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
50
50
40
20
0
20
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
50
8 The controls are too large, may be two fast to consider

the rotors as instantaneous
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 137 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Successive steps of 45 in roll, pitch and yaw with i = 2

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 138 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
The saturation of the possible control torques r , p , y

may be problematic
On the X4 system, the maximum speed of the rotors is
given by the solution of:
2
km
smax + kgearbox Rsmax2 km U = 0
which gives: smax = 604 rad.s1

The maximum roll and pitch torques are when one rotor is
at rest, the other one at is maximum speed (we assume
that the rotation is in only one direction):
2
rmax
,p = lbsmax = 0.31 N.m
The maximum yaw torque is obtained when two opposite

rotors turn at the smax the two others are at rest:
2
ymax = 2smax
= 21.2 N.m
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 139 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Adapt the parameters to the saturation:

Take larger 5,6 than the 1,...,4
Take small enough i to fulfill the saturation constraint
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 140 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Adjusting the s: with 1,...,4 = 0.4 and 5,6 = 8
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
60
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
20
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
0.5
50
40
0
0
20
Nonlinear
approaches
0.5
40
20
Stability
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
50
8 The controls are still too large
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 141 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Adjusting the s: with 1,...,4 = 0.2 and 5,6 = 8
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
60
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
20
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
0.5
50
40
0
0
20
Nonlinear
approaches
0.5
40
20
Stability
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
50
8 Oscillations are now present
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 142 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Taking 1,...,4 = 0.2 and 5,6 = 8 and applying it on the

system with saturations, it gives:
References
Outline
60
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
0.5
40
20
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
20
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0.5
50
40
20
Nonlinear
approaches
0.5
40
60
Stability
0.5
0
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
50
4 Seems to work
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 143 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
The control law with the saturated system

Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 144 / 174
The X4 helicopter: position control

Simplification of the problem
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
First use the attitude control to adjust the X4 in the right

direction:
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 145 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
There exists a relation between (, , ) and (, , ) (a

rotation about the yaw axis)
Use the attitude control to drive and keep and to the
origin
Take now the system in the plane:
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 146 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
This problem is referred in the literature as the PVTOL

aircraft stabilization problem (Planar Vertical Take Off
and Landing aircraft)
The generic equations are:
x = sin()u
y = cos()u 1
= v
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
where -1 represent the normalized gravity, v represents

the equivalent control torque.
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 147 / 174

A saturation based control
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
T
y , y , , )
Define z , (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , z5 , z6 )T , (x, x,
The system becomes:
Translational part:
z 1 = z2
Rotational part:
z 2 = u sin(z5 )
z 5 = z6
z 3 = z4
z 6 = v
z 4 = u cos(z5 ) 1
The idea is to use v to drive z5 to z5d such that:
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
z5d , arctan(
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
with <
1
2
r1
)
r2 + 1
(tuning parameter) and () = max(min(, 1), 1):

r1 = (z2 ) 2 (z1 + z2 )
r2 = (z4 ) 2 (z3 + z4 )
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 148 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
When z5 reaches z5d and applying the thrust control input u

q
u = r12 + (r2 + 1)2
the translational subsystem takes the form of two independent

second
order chain of integrators

z1 = z2
z3 = z4
z2 = r1
z4 = r2
If we could prove that
Stability
r1 = (z2 ) 2 (z1 + z2 )
Nonlinear
approaches
r2 = (z4 ) 2 (z3 + z4 )
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
insures (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) 0
Then, it will follow that once (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = 0, z5d = 0 and
z 5d = z6d = 0 hence also (z5 , z6 ) 0
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 149 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Remain two problems:
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Prove that
r1 = (z2 ) 2 (z1 + z2 )
r2 = (z4 ) 2 (z3 + z4 )
Stability
brings (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) to zero
Nonlinear
approaches
Build a control so that (z5 , z6 ) tends to (z5d , z 5d = z6d )
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 150 / 174

A saturated control law for linear systems
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
An integrator chain is defined by:
0
..
.
x = ...
..
.
|
1
..
.
0 ...
0
1
..
.
...
{z
=:A
...
..
.
..
.
..
.
...

0
0
..
..
.
.

.
x +
0
.. u
0
1
1
0
| {z }
}
(11)
=:B
Problem: stabilizing (11) with
u u u
and u is a positive constant
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 151 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
First compute
n
Y
N. Marchand
References
i=1
( + i ) = p0 + p1 + + pn1 n1 + n
Outline
Introduction
Apply the coordinate change
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
y :=
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
with
T1
= (An1 + pn1 An2 + + p1 I )B
n1
The system becomes normalized in
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Tn2
= B
= (A + pn1 I )B
= (A2 + pn1 A + pn2 I )B
..
.
i
i=1
Tx
u
Nonlinear
approaches
Observers
TT
Pn
with
Pn
i=1
0 n1 n2 . . .
0
0
n2 . . .
..
..
..
.
.
.
0 . . .
...
0
0 ...
...
0
Pn
.. y
.

1
..
.

.
.. v

..
.
1
i
i=1
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 152 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Theorem: An efficient saturated control
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Let (n) denote the only root of n 2 + 1 = 0 in ]0, 1[.

Then for all with 0 < < (n),
u
u = Pn
i
i=1
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
n
X
ni+1 sat1 (yi )
i=1
globally asymptotically stabilizes the integrator chain.
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 153 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Sketch of the proof:

Assume that |yn | > 1 and take Vn := 12 yn2
Then

V n = yn sat1 (yn ) yn 2 sat1 (yn1 ) + + n sat1 (y1 )
| {z }
|
{z
}
=
||<2 ++n
So V is decreasing if
> 2 + + n 1 2 + n > 0 < (n)
yn joins [1, 1] in finite time and remains there
During that time, yn1 to y1 can not blow up
Repeating this scheme for yn1 to y1 gives y B(1) after
some time
In B(1), the system is linear and stable GAS
The construction of this feedback law is based on feedforward
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 154 / 174

Nonlinear
Control
Remain two problems:
N. Marchand
Prove that
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
r1 = (z2 ) 2 (z1 + z2 )
r2 = (z4 ) 2 (z3 + z4 )
brings (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) to zero
direct application of the saturated control law
Build a control so that (z5 , z6 ) tends to (z5d , z 5d = z6d )
take:
v = (
z5d ) (z6 z 5d ) 2 ((z5 z5d ) + (z6 z 5d ))
that work applying the saturated control law on the
variables z5 z5d and z6 z 5d
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 155 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Second step: position control
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
(, , , x, y , z) = ( pi2 , pi2 , pi4 , 5, 5, 5)

,
,
x,
y , z)
= (0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 0)
(,
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 156 / 174
The X4 helicopter
Second step: position control
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Zoom on the 10 first seconds with a snapshot every second

Initial conditions:
Observers
(, , , x, y , z) = ( pi2 , pi2 , pi4 , 5, 5, 5)

,
,
x,
y , z)
= (0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 0)
(,
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 157 / 174
Outline
1
Introduction
The X4 example

Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability

Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 158 / 174
Nonlinear observers
Nonlinear
Control
yd
k(x)
N. Marchand
Controller
References
x^
Outline
Introduction
Observer
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
a simple model to build the control law

a sharp model to check the control law and the observer
Stability
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Modelization
To get a mathematical representation of the system
Different kind of model are useful. Often:
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear
approaches
Observers
Design the state reconstruction: in order to reconstruct

the variables needed for control
Design the control and test it
Close the loop
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 159 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Linear systems: Simple observer

x(t)
= Ax(t) + Bu(t)
y (t) = Cx(t)
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Observability given by rank(C , CA, . . . , CAn1 )

Once the observability has been checked, define the
observer:

x^ (t) = A^
x + Bu(t) + L(^
y (t) y (t))
y^ (t) = C x^(t)
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
with L such that <(eig(A + LC )) < 0.

Then x^ tends to x asymptotically with a speed
related to eig(A + LC )
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 160 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Linear systems (cntd.):

convergence of the observer
Define the error e(t) := x^(t) x(t). Then:
e(t)
= Ae(t) + L(^
y (t) y (t)) = (A + KC )e(t)
Hence, if <(eig(A + LC )) < 0, limt x^(t) = x(t)
Separation principle: the controller and the observer can
be designed separately, if each are stable, their association
will be stable
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 161 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
Linear systems (cntd.): Kalman filter

x^ (t) = A^
x (t) + Bu(t) + L(^
y (t) y (t))
y^ (t) = C x^(t)
N. Marchand
References
The way to chose L proposed by Kalman is:
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
AP + PAT PC T W 1 CP + V + P = 0
W = WT > 0
L = PC T W 1
with > 2 kAk or V = V T > 0.
enables to tunes the speed of convergence of the
observer
The observer can also be computed as L = S 1 C T W 1
where
AT S + SA C T W 1 C + SVS + S = 0
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 162 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
Time-varying linear systems:

x(t)
= A(t)x(t) + B(t)u(t)
y (t) = C (t)x(t)
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Kalman filter:

x^ = A(t)^
x (t) + B(t)u(t) + L(t)(^
y (t) y (t))
y^ (t) = C (t)^
x (t)
with:
P = AP + PAT PC T W 1 CP + V + P
P(0) = P0 = P0T > 0
Stability
W = WT > 0
Nonlinear
approaches
L = PC T W 1
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
> 2 kAk or V = V T > 0

enables to tunes the speed of convergence of the
observer
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 163 / 174
The observer can also be computed as L = S 1 C T W 1

where
Nonlinear
Control
S = AT S + SA C T W 1 C + SVS + S
N. Marchand
S(0) = S0 = S0T > 0
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
The observer is optimal in the sense that it minimizes

Zt
[C ()z() y ()]T W 1 [C ()z() y ()] +
0
[B()u()]T V 1 [B()u()] d +
(x0 x^0 )T P01 (x0 x^0 )
The observer is also optimal for
x is affected by a white noise wx of variance V
y is affected by a white noise wy of variance W
wx and wy are uncorrelated
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 164 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Nonlinear systems:

x(t)
= f (x(t), u(t))
y (t) = h(x(t))
Observability
Linked with the notion that for two trajectories of the
system x1 and x2 defined on [0, t], we must have
Zt
0
kh(x1 ()) h(x2 ())k d > 0 if x1 6= x2
Linked with the input:

0 u
x =
x
0 0
y= 1

0 x
is observable for any u(t) 6= 0 but not for u(t) = 0
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 165 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
Extended Kalman filter (EKF):

x^ = f (x(t), u(t)) L(t)(^
y (t) y (t))
N. Marchand
y^ (t) = h(^
x (t))
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
with
P = AP + PAT PC T W 1 CP + V + P
P(0) = P0 = P0T > 0
W = WT > 0
L = PC T W 1
> 2 kAk or V = V T > 0
h
f
(^
x (t), u(t)) C =
(^
x (t))
A=
x
x
No guarantee of convergence (except for specific

structure conditions)
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 166 / 174
Luenberger-Like observers
Nonlinear
Control
For a system of the form:

x(t)
= Ax(t) + (Cx(t), u)
y (t) = Cx(t)
N. Marchand
with (A, C ) observable, if A KC is stable, an observer is:

References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
x^ (t) = A^
x (t) + (y (t), u(t)) K (C x^(t) y (t))

x(t)
= A0 x(t) + (x(t), u(t))
y (t) = C0 x(t)
with (A0 , C0 ) are in canonical form, if A0 K0 C0 is stable,
sufficiently large, global lipschitz and
i
(x, u) = 0 for j i + 1
xj
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
an observer is:
x^ (t) = A0 x^(t) + (^
x (t), u(t)) diag(, 2 , . . . , n )K0 (C0 x^(t) y (t))
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 167 / 174
Kalman-Like observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization

x(t)
= A(u(t))x(t) + B(u(t))
y (t) = Cx(t)
an observer is:
x^ (t) = A(u(t))^
x (t) + B(u(t)) K (t)(C x^(t) y (t))
with
P = A(u(t))P + PAT (u(t)) PC T W 1 CP + V + P
P(0) = P0 = P0T > 0, W = W T > 0
> 2 kA(u(t))k or V = V T > 0
L = PC T W 1
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 168 / 174
Kalman-Like observers (cntd.)

Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand

x(t)
= A0 (u(t), y (t))x(t) + (x(t), u(t))
y (t) = C0 x(t)
with:
References
Outline
Introduction
A0 (u, y )
C0
i
(x, u)
xj
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
0
1
a12 (u, y )
0
..

0
bounded
an1n (u, y )
0
0 for j i + 1
an observer is:
x^ = A(u, y )^
x + (^
x , u) diag(, 2 , . . . , n )K0 (t)(C0 x^ y )

with P = A(u(t))P + PAT (u(t)) PC T W 1 CP + P
P(0) = P0 = P0T > 0, W = W T > 0
> 2 kA(u(t))k and large enough
L = PC T W 1
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 169 / 174
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
Not mentionned:
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Optimal observers (robust, very efficient and easy to

tune but costly)
Based on something like:
Z t1
kh(x()) y ())k d
x^ = Arg min
x()
t0
Sliding mode observers
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 170 / 174
Observers
Application to the attitude estimation
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Application: attitude estimation

9 sensors:
3 triax accelerometers
3 triax gyrometers
3 triax magnetometers
The accelerometers give:

~bacc = C (q)(
~a
|{z}
acceleration
+ ~g ) + acc
|{z}
|{z}
gravity
noise
where C (q) = (q02 ~q T ~q )I3 + 2(~q~q T q0~q ) is called the

Rodrigues matrix, that is the rotation from the fixed frame to the
mobile one.
The magnetometers give:
~bmag = C (q)~hmag + mag
| {z }
noise
where ~hmag are the coordinates of the magnetic field in the fixed
frame.
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 171 / 174
Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
The gyrometers give:

~bgyr = + gyr + gyr
|{z}1 |{z}1
noise
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
bias
where ~hmag are the coordinates of the magnetic field in

the fixed frame.
The bias drift is the main error and it deteriorates the
accuracy of the rate gyros on the low frequency band.
We take:
~bgyr = + gyr1 + gyr1
= 1 gyr1 + gyr2
gyr1
|{z}
noise
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 172 / 174
Observers
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Nonlinear observer for attitude estimation

An observer of the attitude can be:

q^ = 12 (~bgyr
^ gyr1 + K1 )^
q
^ = T 1
^ K2
where T is a diagonal matrix of time constant, Ki are positive
definite matrices, is given by:
Stability
= ~qe sign(qe0 )
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
where qe = (qe0 , ~qe ) is the quaternion error between the

estimate q^ and a direct projection obtained with ~bmag and ~bacc
Observers
Nonlinear Control
Master PSPI 2009-2010 173 / 174
1
qe = qObservers
(t) qms
(t) = [qe0 ~qe ]T
Application to
the~
=
qeattitude
sign(qeestimation
)
o
Nonlinear
Control
N. Marchand
References
(28)
(29)
It is possible to demonstrate that the error model for (25) and

(26) has the equilibrium state [qeT bT ] = [1 0 0 0 0 0 0]T
and is exponentially stable [19].
Block diagram of the observer
Outline
Introduction
Linear/Nonlinear
The X4 example
Fig.
Eule
chan
rate
obse
Linear
approaches
Antiwindup
Linearization
Gain scheduling
Stability
Nonlinear
approaches
CLF
Sliding mode
Geometric
control
Recursive
techniques
X4 stabilization
Observers
Fig. 3.
Block diagram showing the attitude estimation
The complet schema of the attitude observer is given in

Fig. 3.
Remark 2: suppose
that the rigid body Master
has aPSPI
slow
angular
Nonlinear Control
2009-2010
174 / 174

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Control of Nonlinear Systems

CNRS Associate researcher

Master PSPI 2009-2010

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Probably the best book to start with nonlinear control

Nonlinear systems S. Sastry - Springer Verlag, 1999

Mathematical Control Theory - E.D. Sontag - Springer, 1998

Can be downloaded at:

Constructive nonlinear control - Sepulchre et al. - Springer, 1997 More

Nonlinear control systems - A. Isidori - Springer Verlag, 1995

Applied Nonlinear control - J.J. Slotine and W. Li - Prentice-Hall, 1991

The second reference can be downloaded at:

http: // citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ leith99survey. html

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Linear control methods for nonlinear systems

Nonlinear control methods

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Linear control methods for nonlinear systems

Nonlinear control methods

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Some preliminary vocable and definitions

Some strange possible behaviors of nonlinear systems

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Linear control methods for nonlinear systems

Nonlinear control methods

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Some preliminary vocable

We consider a dynamical system:

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The 4 steps to control a system

a simple model to build the control law

Design the state reconstruction: in order to reconstruct

Design the control and test it

Close the loop on the real system

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Linear dynamical systems

Definition: Systems such that if y1 and y2 are the

The model can be obtained

both give h(s) or (A, B, C , D) and hence the model.

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Linear dynamical systems

Some properties of linear system (2/2)

Mathematical tool: linear algebra

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Why nonlinear control ?

All physical systems are nonlinear because of

More and more the performance specification requires

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Nonlinear dynamical systems

ODE Ordinary differential equation:

In this course, only:

PDE Partial differential equation (traffic, flow, etc.):

. . . Algebraic differential equations (implicit), hybrid (with

The model can be obtained

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Nonlinear dynamical systems

find u(x) such that limt ky (t) yd (t)k = 0

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Nonlinear dynamical systems

Null stabilization problem

find u(x) such that limt kx(t) xd (t)k = 0 for xd (t) = 0

Only the stabilization problem will be treated.