Hookes l

W
componen
But, here
system of
deflection
C
consequen
which acc
deflection
quite diffe
we have

w
If
1
F is in
be the com
angle betw

If we keep

w
in a speci
point 2. If

w
applied in
of the ver
equal and

law and the p
We know that
nts at the sam
we consider
f forces acting
ns are propor
Consider that
nce, point 2 u
cording to Ho
n of point 2 m
erent from tha
2
D
where,
21
k is a
ncreased,
2
D
mponent of D
ween
2
D and
2
d D =
p u a constan
2
d a =
where,
21
a is a
ified direction
f
2
d is the ve
2
d a =
where,
21
a is
n the specified
rtical deflectio
d opposite to t
principle of s
t the rectangu
me point throu
Hookes law
g on the body
rtional to the f
a force
1
F is
undergoes a d
ookes law is
may take plac
at of
1
F . If D
1
F or D
a proportional
also increase
2
D in a speci
d
2
d , then
2 2
cos D k u =
nt, i.e. if we k
21 1
a F
a proportiona
n and apply H
ertical compon
21 1
a F
called the in
d direction ( th
on at point 2
the earlier def
superposition
ular stress co
ugh a set of
w as applicabl
to the deform
forces which
s applied at p
deflection or d
proportionate
ce in a direct
2
D is the actu
2 21 1
D k F =
lity constant.
es proportiona
ified direction
21 1
cos F u
keep our atten
ality constant
Hookes law.
nent, then fro
nfluence co-e
hat of
1
F ) at
. If a force eq
flection takes
n
omponents at
linear equatio
le to the elast
mation of the
produce them
oint 1 and in
displacement,
e to
1
F . This
tion which is
al deflection,
ately. Let
2
d
n. If u is the
ntion in a spec
. Therefore o
Let us consi
m Hookes la
efficient for
t point 1. If F
qual and opp
place.
t a point is r
ons known a
tic body as a
body as a wh
m.
n

s
s
,

e
cified directio
one can consi
ider the verti
aw
vertical defle
1
F is a unit for
osite to
1
F is
related to the
as the general
a whole, i.e. r
hole. Accordin
on, then,
der the displa
ical compone
ection at poin
rce, then
21
a
s applied at 1
rectangular
lized Hookes
relate the com
ng to Hooke
acement of p
ent of deflecti
nt 2 due to a
is the actual
1, then a defle
strain
s law.
mplete
s law,
oint 2
ion of
force
value
ection
Principle
If several
produce a
they woul
C
2
d' be the
according

w
deflection
direction
examine i
to two or
different d
L
deflection

w
when
3
F

21
a' may b
apply F

Since the

i.e
e of superpos
forces are ap
at any point in
ld have produ
Consider a for
e vertical com
g to Hookes l
2
d a ' =
where,
23
a is
n at point 2 d
(that of
3
F )
is whether the
r more forces
directions and
Let
1
F be app
n at 2 is
2
d a =
where,
23
a' ma
is applied. N
2
d a '' =
be different f
3
F , the deflect
2
d a '' =
elastic body i
21 1
a F +
e.
21
3
a a
F

ition
pplied simulta
n a specified d
uced if applied
rce
3
F acting
mponent of th
law,
23 3
a F
the influence
due to a force
at point 3. T
e principle of
s, such as F
d at different p
plied first an
21 1 23 3
a F a F ' +
ay be differen
ow apply F
21 1 23 3
a F a F ' +
from
21
a , sin
tion finally be
21 1 23 3
a F a F ' +
is not subject
23 3 21
a F a F ' ' +
23 21
1
a a a
F
'
=
aneously on a
direction will
d separately.
g alone at poin
he deflection
e co-efficient
e applied in th
The question t
f superpositio
1
F and
3
F , w
points.
nd then
3
F . T
nt from
23
a .
1
F . Then
21 1
a F '
nce
3
F is acti
ecomes
21 1 23
a F a F '
ted to any forc
1 23 3
0 F a F =
23
'

a linearly elas
l be the result
This is the pr
nt 3, and let
n of 2. Then
for vertical
he specified
that we now
n holds true
which act in
The vertical
This differen
ing when F
3
F
ce now, the fi
0
stic body, the
tant of the def
rinciple of sup
nce, if it exist
1
F is applied.
inal deflection
resultant def
flections in th
perposition.
ts, is due to t
. Only
3
F is
n must be equ
flection which
hat direction w
the presence
acting now.
ual to zero. H
h they
which
of
1
F
If we
Hence,
the differ
function o
therefore,

w

Substituti

The last te
law, unles

The princ
This can b
deflection

Correspo
displacem
C
under the
forces of
considere
displacem
given by

d

If the act
direction
rence
21
a a
of
3
F . Simil
the right-han
21
3
a a
F

where, k is a c
23
a' =
ng this in the
2
d a =
erm on the rig
ss k vanishes
23
a =
ciple of super
be extended b
n at 2 due to a
2
d a =
onding forc
ment)
Consider an el
action of ex
reaction at t
d as applied f
ment
1
d in a
1 11 1 1
d a F a = +
tual displacem
as shown in
21
' , if it exist
larly, if the d
nd side must b
23 21
1
a a a
F
'
=
constant inde
23 1
a kF
above equati
21 1 23 3
a F a F +
ght hand side
s. Hence, k =
23
a' and
rposition is th
by induction
any number of
21 1 22 2
a F a F +
ce and Co
lastic body w
ternal forces
the points of
forces. This i
a specified d
12 2 13 3
F a F + +
ment is
1
D
figure, then
ts, must be d
difference
2
a
be a function
23
k
'
=
pendent of F
ion, we get
1 3
kF F
in the above
0 = and
d
21 2
a a' =
herefore valid
to include a
f forces, inclu
23 3 24
a F a + +
orresponding
which is in eq
1 2 3
, , . . F F F
f support wil
s shown in fi
direction at p
14 4
...... a F + +
and takes p
the compone
due to the ac
23 23
a' exist
of
1
F alone.
1
F and
3
F . He
equation is n
21
'
d for two dif
third or any n
uding force F
4 4
............ F +
g displacem
quilibrium
. . .. The
ll also be
gure. The
point 1 is
......

lace in a
ent of this
ction of
3
F .
s, it must be
Consequently
ence
non-linear, wh
fferent forces
number of ot
2
F at 2 is
.
ment (work
Hence, the l
e due to the
y, the equatio
hich is contra
s acting at tw
ther forces. T
absorbing
left-hand side
action of
1
F
on becomes
adictory to Ho
wo different p
This means th
componen
e is a
1
F and,
ookes
points.
hat the
nt of
displacement in the direction of force
1
F is called the corresponding displacement at point 1. This
corresponding displacement is denoted by
1
o . At every loaded point, a corresponding displacement can
be identified. If the points of support a, b and c do not yield, then at these points, the corresponding
displacements are zero. One can apply Hookes law to these corresponding displacements and obtain
from the above equation

1 11 1 12 2 13 3 14 4
............ a F a F a F a F o = + + + +
2 21 1 22 2 23 3 24 4
............ a F a F a F a F o = + + + + .. (8)
where,
11
a ,
12
a ,
13
a . . . . . . are the influence coefficients of the kind discussed earlier. The
corresponding displacement is also called the work-absorbing component of the displacement.
Work done by forces and elastic strain energy stored
Equation (8) shows that the displacements
1
o ,
2
o ,
3
o ,. . . etc. depend on all the forces
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . etc. If we slowly increase the magnitudes of
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . etc. from zero to their full
magnitudes, the deflections also increase similarly. For example, when the forces
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . etc. are
one half of their full magnitudes, the deflections are

1 11 1 12 2 13 3 14 4
1 1 1 1 1
............
2 2 2 2 2
a F a F a F a F o
| | | | | | | |
= + + + +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .


2 21 1 22 2 23 3 24 4
1 1 1 1 1
............
2 2 2 2 2
a F a F a F a F o
| | | | | | | |
= + + + +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
etc
i.e. the deflections reached are also equal to half their full magnitudes. Similarly, when
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . .
etc. reach two-thirds of their full magnitudes, the deflections reached are also equal to two-thirds of their
full magnitudes. Assuming that the forces are increased in constant proportion and the increase is gradual,
the work done by
1
F at its point of application will be

1 1 1
1
2
W Fo =
( )
1 11 1 12 2 13 3 14 4
1
............
2
F a F a F a F a F = + + + + .. (9)
Similar expressions hold good for other forces also. The total work done by external forces is, therefore
given by
( )
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3
1
............ ............
2
W W W F F F o o o + + + = + + +
If the supports are rigid, then no work is done by the support reactions. When the forces are gradually
reduced to zero, keeping their ratios constant, negative work will be done and the total work will be
recovered. This shows that the work done is stored as potential energy and its magnitude should be
independent of the order in which the forces are applied. If it were not so, it would be possible to store or
extract energy by merely changing the order of loading and unloading. This would be contradictory to the
principle of conservation of energy.
The potential energy that is stored as a consequence of the deformation of any elastic body is
termed as elastic strain energy. If
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . . . are the forces in a particular configuration and
1
o ,
2
o ,
3
o , . . . . etc. are the corresponding displacements, then the elastic strain energy stored is
( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
.................
2
U F F F o o o = + + + (10)
It must be noted that though this expression has been obtained on the assumption that the forces
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . .etc. are increased in constant proportion, the conservation of energy principle and the
superposition principle dictate that this expression for U must hold without restriction on the manner or
order of the application of these forces.
Reciprocal relations
It is very easy to show that the influence co-efficient
12
a in equation (8) is equal to the influence co-
efficient
21
a . In general,
ij ji
a a = . To show this, consider a force
1
F applied at point 1 and let
1
o be the
corresponding displacement. The energy stored is
( )
2
1 1 1 11 1 1 11 1
1 1

2 2
U F a F a F o o = = =
Next, apply force
2
F at point 2. The corresponding deflection at point 2 is
22 2
a F and that at point 1 is
12 2
a F . During this displacement, the force
1
F is fully acting and hence, the additional energy stored is
( ) ( )
2 2 22 2 1 12 2
1

2
U F a F F a F = +
The total elastic strain energy stored is therefore

2 2
1 2 11 1 22 2 12 1 2
1 1

2 2
U U U a F a F a F F = + = + +
Now, if
2
F is applied before
1
F , the elastic strain energy stored is

2 2
22 2 11 1 21 1 2
1 1

2 2
U a F a F a F F ' = + +
Since the elastic strain energy stored is independent of the order of application of
1
F and
2
F , U and U'
must be equal. Consequently,

12 21
a a =
or in general,
ij ji
a a =
The above result has great importance in mechanics of solids.
One can obtain an expression for the elastic strain energy in terms of the applied forces, using the
above reciprocal relationship. From equation (10),
( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
.................
2
n n
U F F F F o o o o = + + + +
( )
( )
1 11 1 12 2 1
2 21 1 22 2 2
1
............
2
1
............
2
.
.
.

n n
n n
F a F a F a F
F a F a F a F
= + + +
+ + + +
( )
1 1 2 2
1
............
2
n n n nn n
F a F a F a F + + + +


( )
( )
2 2 2
11 1 22 12
12 1 2 13 1 3 12 1 2
1
...........
2
........... ..........
nn n
U a F a F a F
a F F a F F a F F
= + + +
+ + + + +

That is
( ) ( )
2
11 1 12 1 2
1
2
U a F a F F = +

. (12)
Maxwell-Betti-Reyleigh reciprocal theorem
Consider two system of forces
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . . and
1
F
'
,
2
F
'
,
3
F
'
, . . . . , both systems having
the same points of application and the same directions. Let
1
o ,
2
o ,
3
o , . . . . be the corresponding
displacement caused by
1
F ,
2
F ,
3
F , . . . . and
1
o
'
,
2
o
'
,
3
o
'
, . . . . ., the corresponding dispalcements
caused by
1
F
'
,
2
F
'
,
3
F
'
, . . . . Then making use of the reciprocal relation given by equation (11), we have

1 1 2 2
................
n n
F F F o o o
' ' '
+ + +





The symm
shows tha

i.e
In words:
T
displacem
that done
first syste
Generaliz
In the ab
concentra
linear disp
include n
torque. S
angular di
Consider
point 1 an
the corres
correspon
acting alo
(
1
F
'
=


11
a F =

metry of the
at it tis equal t
1 1
Fo
'
+
e.
1 1
F o
'
+
The forces
ments produce
by the second
m of forces.
zed forces an
bove discussi
ated forces an
placements. I
not only a co
imilarly, the
isplacement.
the elastic bo
nd a couple
sponding line
nding angular
one, then
11
a
(
11 1 12 2
a F a F +
(
2 21
F a F
'
+
.......... F + +
1 1 22 2
F F a F F
'
+
( 12 1 2
a F F
'
+
expression b
to
2 2
...... F o
'
+ +
2 2
...... F o
'
+ +
of the first
ed by any sec
d system of fo
This is the re
nd displacem
ions,
1
F ,
2
F
nd
1
o ,
2
o , o
It is possible
oncentrated fo
term displa
ody subjected
2
F M = at p
ear displacem
r rotation at p
gives the li
2
............. + +
1 22 2
... F a F + +
(
1 1 n n
F a F a
'
+
2
............. F
'
+
) 2 2 1
F F a
'
+ +
between the p
...........
n
F o +
...........
n
F o
'
+
system ( F
cond system
(
forces acting t
eciprocal relat
ments
,
3
F , . . .
3
o , . . . etc. t
e to extend th
orce, but also
acement ma
d to a concen
point 2.
1
o n
ment of point
point 2. If F
inear displac
)
1n n
a F +
2
...........
n
a F +
2 2
.........
n
a F +
..
nn n n
a F F
'
+
( 13 1 3 3
a F F F
'
+
primed and u
n
o
'

1 1 n
F F o o
'
= +
1 2 3
, , ,....., F F F
( 1 2 3
, , ,. F F F
' ' '
through the co
tion of Maxw
. etc. represe
the correspon
he term forc
o a moment
y mean linea
ntrated force
now will stan
1 and
2
o fo
1
F is a unit
ement of poi
)
n
F
) .....
nn n
a F +
) 3 1
......... F F
'
+
unprimed qua
2 2
......... F o
'
+
) , . etc acting
)
........., . etc d
orresponding
well, Betti and
ented
nding
ce to
or a
ar or
1
F at
nd for
or the
force
int 1
( 1 1
...
n
a F F
'
+
antities in the
.......
n n
F o
'
+
g through t
do the same a
g displacemen
d Rayleigh.
) 1
.
n n
F F F
'
+ +
e above expre
-------------
the correspo
amount of wo
nts produced b
...
ession
- (14)
onding
ork as
by the
correspon
point 1 ca
point 2 c
The recip
direction
in the dire
First The
Fr

In the abo
forces, i
11 12
, ,.. a a
efficients.
1
U
F
c
c
. Fro


c
c
This is n
Hence, if
or angular

In exactly

nding to the d
aused by a un
caused by a un
procal relation
of
1
F caused
ection of mom
eorem of Cas
rom equation
1
2

U =
ove expressio
i.e. concentr
.... . etc are
. The rate at w
m the above e
11 1
1

U
a F
F
c
=
c
othing but th
f
1
o stands fo
r) correspond
1

U
F
c
=
c
y the same wa
2

U
F
c
c
direction of F
nit couple
2
F
nit concentrat
n
12 21
a a = c
d by a unit cou
ment
2
F caus
stigliano
n (12), the exp
(
(
2
11 1 22
12 1 2
1
2

a F a
a F F
+
+ +
on,
1 2
, ,.... F F
rated loads,
the corres
which U incr
expression fo
12 2 13
a F a + +
he correspond
or the general
ding to the gen
1
o =
ay, one can sh
2
3
,
U
F
o
c
=
c
1
F . Similarly
2
F applied at p
ted force
1
F a
can also be in
uple acting al
ed by a unit l
pression for el
2
2 12
13 1 3
.........
..
F
a F F
+
+ +
... . etc are the
moments
sponding in
reases with F
or U ,
3
........... F + +
ding displace
lized displace
neralized forc
how that
3
3
, . . .
U
F
o =
12
a stands f
point 2.
21
a
at point 1.
nterpreted as
lone at point
oad acting alo
lastic strain e
)
2
12 1
..
.........
nn n
a F
a F
+
+
e generalized
or torques.
fluence co-
1
F is given by
1n n
a F +
ement at
1
F .
ement (linear
ce
1
F , then
------
. . . . etc
for the corresp
gives the co
s the linear d
2 is equal to
one at point 1
energy is
)
1 2
.......... F F +
d

-
y

r
----------------
ponding linea
rresponding a
displacement
o the angular r
1.
)

-----------------
ar displaceme
angular rotati
at point 1 i
rotation at po
----------------
ent of
ion of
in the
oint 2
- (15)
That is,
displacem
In
i.e. bodies
T
solutions
Expressio
In
subjected
subjected
subjected
force and
moments
elementar
remain co
have oppo
moments
done (sinc
C
tly, the w
by each
forces
moments
determine
individual
added to
determine
elastic
energy s
s A w
undergoes
deformati
shall mak
the
available
elementar
of materia
the partial di
ment correspon
n the form as
s satisfying H
This theorem i
of many stati
ons for strain
n this section
to axial forc
to several f
to three forc
d forces
y
F a

y
M and M
ry length of th
onstant over
osite signs. D
do not work.
ce the deform
Consequen
work done
of these
and
can be
ed
lly and
ogether to
e the total
strain
stored by
while it
s
ion. We
ke use of
formulas
from
ry strength
als.
ifferential co-
nding with F
derived in eq
Hookes law.
is extremely u
ically indeterm
n energy
n, we shall
ce, shear forc
forces. Consid
ces ,
x y
F F an

z
and F are s
z
M are the be
he member; t
s A . At the le
uring the def
Similarly, du
mations are ext
-efficient of
r
F . This is Ca
quation (15),
useful in dete
minate structu
develop expr
e, bending m
der a section

z
nd F and thr
shear forces
ending mome
then when s A
eft hand secti
formation cau
uring the twis
tremely small
the strain en
astiglianos fi
the theorem
ermining the
ures.
ressions for
moment and to
n of the mem
ree moments
across the s
ents about y
s is small, we
ion of this el
used by the ax
st caused by th
l) by the othe
nergy function
irst theorem.
is applicable
displacement
strain energ
orsion. The f
mber at C. I
,
x y
M M and
ection. Mom
y and z axe
e can assume
lementary me
xial force
x
F
he torque T =
er forces and m
n with respec
e only to linea
ts of structure
gy when an
figure shows
In general th

z
d M .the for
ment
x
M is t
es respective
e that these fo
ember, the fo
alone, the rem
x
M = no wor
moments.
ct to
r
F give
arly elastic b
es as well as
elastic memb
an elastic me
his section w
rce
x
F is the
the torque T
ly. Let s A
orces and mom
orces and mom
maining force
rk is assumed
es the
odies,
in the
ber is
ember
will be
e axial
T and
be an
ments
ments
es and
d to be
1. E



2. E
de
un
(f
Fr



Su

O
It
ig
se
un
Energy stored
If
x
o i
U A =
=
Theref
Elastic strain
The sh
epending on
niformly acro
from figure) a
U A =
rom Hookes
A =


ubstituting th
U A =
Or U A =
t will be show
gnored. Henc
ection will be
niform distrib
d due to axial
is the axial ex
1
2
x x
F o =
1
.
2
x
x
F
F s
AE
A
fore, U A
energy due t
hear force
y
F
the shape of
oss the section
and the work
1

2
y
F s = A A
law,
y
F
AG

where, A -
G
his,
1

2
y
y
F
F s
AG
= A
2

2
y
F
s
AG
= A
wn that the str
ce, the error
e very small.
bution, a facto
l force:
xtension due t
s
2
2
x
F
U s
AE
= A
to shear forc
( )
y z
F or F is
f the cross-se
n (which is n
done by
y
F w
- Area of cros
- Shear modu
y
F
G

rain energy du
caused in as
However, to
or k is introd
to
x
F , then
(usin

e:
s distributed a
ection. If we
not strictly cor
will be
ss section
ulus
------
ue to shear de
ssuming unif
o take into ac
duced. With th
ng Hookes la
-----------
across the se
e assume that
rrect), the she
----------------
eformation is
form distribu
ccount the di
his,
aw)
----------------
ection in a co
t the shear f
ear displacem
-----------------
extremely sm
ution of shea
ifferent cross
----------------
omplicated m
force is distri
ment will be A
----------------
mall, which is
ar force acros
-sections and
- (16)
manner
ibuted
s A A
- (17)
s often
ss the
d non-

A
3. E
M
Fr

or


H

Su

A
4. E
th
U A =
A similar expr
Elastic energy
Makin
z
M (or
y
M ),
U A =
rom the elem
z
z
M
I
=
r
1 M
R E
=
where,

Hence,
| A =
ubstituting th
U A =
A similar expr
Elastic energy
Becau
he formula for

p
T
I
=
2


2
y
k F
s
AG
= A
ession is obta
y due to bend
ng reference t
the work don
1

2
z
M | = A
mentary flexur
E
R
=
z
z
M
EI

, R - Radius
z
I - Mome

M s
R EI
A
= =
his,
2

2
z
z
M
s
EI
= A
ession can be
y due to torq
se of torque
r a circular se


G
s
u A
=
A

ained for the s
ding moment
to the figure b
ne is
e formula, we
of curvature
ent of inertia a

z
z
M
s
I
A
e obtained for
ue:
T , the eleme
ection
shear force F
t:
below, if | A
e have
and
about the z a
------
r the moment
entary membe
z
F .
| is the angle
axis.
----------------
y
M .
er rotates thro
e of rotation d
-----------------
ough an angle
due to the mo
----------------
e u A accord
oment
- (18)
ing to
i.e

T

Su

E
le
(i
(i
(i
(i
EXAMPL
Determine
SOLUTIO
The bend
by
e. u A =
where
The work done
U A =
ubstituting fo
u A =
Equations (16
ength s A of t
i) Due to
ii) Due to
iii) Due to
iv) Due to
LE 1
e the deflectio
ON
ing moment a
M P =

p
T
s
GI
= A
p
I - Polar m
e due to this t
1

2
T u = A
or u A from a
2

2
p
T
s
GI
= A
)-(19) give im
the elastic me
o axial force
o shear force
o bending mom
o torque
on at the end
at any section
P x
moment of ine
twist is
above,
mportant exp
mber. The ela
ment
A of the can
n x is given
ertia

pressions for
astic strain en
2
1
0
2
s
x
F
U
AE
=
}
2
0
2
s
y
k F
U
A
=
}
3
0
2
s
z
k F
U
A
=
}
4
0
2
s
y
M
U
EI
=
}
5
0
2
s
z
M
U
EI
=
}
2
6
0
2
s
T
U
GI
=
}
ntilever beam
-----------
the strain en
nergy for the e
2
ds
E

2

y
F
ds
AG

2

z
F
ds
G

2

y
y
ds
I

2

z
z
ds
I

2

p
ds
I

as shown in
----------------
nergy stored
entire membe
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
figure
----------------
in the eleme
er is therefore
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
- (19)
entary
e
- (20)
- (21)
- (22)
- (23)
- (24)
- (25)
Therefore

The elasti

We now c
then

Substituti


For a me
sectional
shear ener

According

EXAMPL
For the ca
energy.
SOLUTIO
The bendi
e the elastic en
1
0
L
U =
}
ic strain energ
2
U =
can show that
A b =
ng these
2
1

U
U
=

ember to be d
dimensions.
rgy as compa
6
P
U =
g to Castiglia

U
P
c
=
c
LE 2
antilever of to
ON
ing energy is
nergy due to b
( )
2
0
2
L
Px dx
EI
=
}
gy due to shea
2
0

2
L
P dx
AG
= =
}
t
2
U is very
d , I =
2
6

2 12
P L
bdG
=
2
2
2
d
L
=
designated as
Hence L d >
ared to the ben
2 3
6
P L
EI

nos first theo
3

3
PL
EI
o = =
otal length L
given by
bending mom
2 3
6
P L
EI

ar force is giv
2
2
P L
AG

small as com
3
12
bd
=
3
2 3
6
2
2
bd
G
P L

s a beam, the
d and the ab
nding energy.
orem
A
o
as shown in
ment is given b
ven by (assum
mpared to
1
U
and E =
e length mus
bove ratio is e
. Therefore th
n figure, deter
by
ming the value
. If the beam
2G =
st be fairly l
extremely sm
he total elastic
rmine the defl
e of 1 k = )
m is made of r
arge as comp
mall. Hence w
c strain energy
flection at end
rectangular se
pared to its c
we can negle
y
d A. Neglect
ection,
cross-
ct the
shear


Therefore
Theorem
C
etc. Let
absorbing
shown in
L
displacem
forces ma
imposed m
manner th
A hypoth
displacem
applicatio
direction)
1 1
F o A p
in
1
F . Th
Hence

or
an
U =

e,
m of virtual w
Consider an el
1 2
, ,. . . . . o o
g components
figure.
Let one of the
ment, all other
ay be necess
must be cons
hat it can mov
hetical displac
ment, the forc
on do not mo
. The only fo
plus a fraction
his additional
U A =
r
1

U
o
A
A
nd
1
0
lim
o A
A
A
( )
1
2
0

2
L
Px
dx
EI
}
2 3
1
1

6
P L
EI
=

A
U
P
o
c
=
c
work
lastic system
etc. be the
(linear and a
e displacemen
r displacemen
sary to maint
istent with th
ve only in a pa
cement of su
ces
1 2
, ,... F F
ove (at least
orce doing w
n of
1 1
F o A A
work is store
1 1
F k o = A +
1
F k F = + A
1 1

U U
o o
A c
=
A c
( )
1
2

2
L
L
Px
d
EI
+
}
(
3
2
+
6
P
L
EI

3
1
1

2
PL U
P EI
=
subjected to a
correspondi
angular displa
nts
1
o be inc
nts where forc
tain such a c
he constraints
articular direc
uch a kind is
........., . etc (
in the work
ork is
1
F by
, caused by
ed as strain en
1 1
k F o A A
1
F
1
F =
dx
)
3
1
L
(
3
2

3
P
L
EI
+
a number of f
ng displacem
acements) in t
creased by a
ces are acting
condition. Fu
s acting. For
ction, then o A
s called a vir
(except
1
F ) d
k absorbing
an amount
the change
nergy U A .
)
3 3
1
L L
forces (includ
ments. Remem
the correspon
small quanti
g are held fixe
urther, the sm
example, if p
1
o must be co
rtual displace
do not work
ding moment
mber that th
nding directio
ity
1
o A . Dur
ed, which me
mall displace
point 1 is con
onsistent with
ement. In ap
k at all becau
s)
1 2
, ,. . . F F
hese are the
ons of the forc
ring this addi
eans that addi
ement
1
o A th
nstrained in s
h such a const
pplying this v
use their poin
. . . .
work
ces as
itional
itional
hat is
such a
traint.
virtual
nts of
th
terms of o
terms of F
it
material i
linear or n
materials.
Second T
T
framewor

Castiglian
T
minimum
T
elastic stra

This is als

his is the theo
1 2
, ,.......... o o
1 2
, ,.......... F F
is important
s linearly ela
non-linear, w

Theorem of C
This theorem
rk consists of

nos second th
The forces dev
m.
Thus, if
1
, F F
ain energy, th

so called the p
orem of virtua
. etc whereas
. . etc
t to observe
astic, i.e. that
hereas Castig
Castigliano or
is of great i
m number o

heorem (also
veloped in a
2

r
F and F are
hen
1
0,
U
F
c c
=
c c
principle of le
al work. Note
in the applic
that in obtain
it obeys Hoo
glianos first t
r Menabrea
importance in
of members an
3 m j >
known as Me
redundant fra
e the forces i
2
0,. . . .
U
F
c
=
c
east work and
e that in this
cation of Cast
ning the abov
okes law. Th
theorem is str
s Theorem
n the solution
nd j number
6
enabreas theo
amework are
in the redund
. . . . ,
r
U
F
c
=
c
d can be prove
case, the stra
tiglianos theo
ve equation,
he theorem is
rictly applica
n of redunda
r of joints. Th
orem) can be
such that the
dant members
0 =
en as follows
ain energy mu
orem U had
we have not
applicable to
able to linear
ant structures
hen, if
stated as foll
e total elastic
s of s framew
:
ust be express
to be express
t assumed th
o any elastic
elastic or Hoo
s or frames.
lows:
c strain energ
work and U
sed in
sed in
at the
body,
okean
Let a
gy is a
is the
Let r be the number of redundant members. Remove the latter and replace their actions by their
respective forces, as shown in figure. Assuming that the values of these redundant forces
1 2
, , . . . . . . .,
r
F F F are known, the framework will have become statically determinate and the elastic
strain energy of the remaining members can be determined. Let
s
U be the strain energy of these
members. Then by Castiglianos first theorem, the increase in the distance between the joints a and b is
given as

s
ab
i
U
F
o
c
' =
c
------------------------------------------- (26)
The negative sign appears because of the direction of
i
F . The reactive force on the redundant member
ab being
i
F , its length will increase by




i i
ab
i i
F l
A E
o = ------------------------------------------- (27)
where,
i
l is the length and
i
A is the area of cross section of the member. The increase in distance
is given by equation (26) must be equal to the increase in length of the member ab given by equation
(27). Hence

s i i
i i i
U F l
F A E
c
=
c
------------------------------------------- (28)
The elastic strain energies of the redundant members are

2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2

, ,..........,
2 2 2
r r
r
r r
F l F l F l
U U U
A E A E A E
= = =
Hence the total elastic strain energy of all redundant members is

2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2

........... ..................
2 2 2
r r
r
r r
F l F l F l
U U U
A E A E A E
+ + + = + + +
( )
2
1 2
...........
2
i i
r
i i i
F l
U U U
F A E
c
+ + + =
c

since all terms, other than the i th term on the right hand side, will vanish when
differentiated with respect to
i
F . Substituting this in equation (28)
( )
1 2
...........
s
r
i i
U
U U U
F F
c c
= + + +
c c

or
( )
1 2
........... 0
r s
i
U U U U
F
c
+ + + + =
c

the sum of the terms inside the parentheses is the total energy of the entire framework including the
redundant members. If U is the total energy
0
i
U
F
c
=
c

Similarly, by considering the redundant members one by one, we get

1 2
0, 0,. . . . . . . , 0
r
U U U
F F F
c c c
= = =
c c c

This is the principle of least work.