Solar Trainer Manual

Solar Energy Trainer
NV6005
Learning Material
Ver 1.1
Designed & Manufactured by:
141-B, Electronic Complex, Pardesipura, Indore- 452 010 India, Tel.: 91-731- 4211500,
Telefax: 91-731-4202959, Toll free: 1800-103-5050, E-mail: info@nvistech.com
Website: www.nvistech.com
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Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Features 4
3. Technical Specifications 5
4. Theory 6
5. Experiments
Experiment 1
Study of the voltage and current of the solar cells
27
Experiment 2
Study of the voltage and current of the solar cells in series
and parallel combinations
28
Experiment 3
Study of both the currentvoltage characteristic and the power
curve to find the maximum power point (MPP) and efficiency of
a solar cell
32
Experiment 4
To calculate the efficiency () of the solar cell
35
Experiment 5
Study of the application of solar cells of charging Ni-Cd battery
so that the loads can be used even while the module is unexposed
to light
37
Experiment 6
Study of the application of solar cells of providing electrical
energy to the domestic appliances such as lamp, fan and radio
39
6. Warranty 41
7. List of Accessories 41
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Introduction
NV6005 Solar Energy Trainer is a versatile training system used in the laboratories.
With this system students can understand the various characteristics and applications
of solar energy. They will learn how solar cells are put together to generate the
desired voltage and current and how solar energy can be utilized to operate different
electrical and electronic appliances.
This system is provided with a Solar Energy Trainer and Solar Panel. Solar Panel
contains 6 cells each of 2V DC and 150mA DC rating. Solar Energy Trainer contains
three sections : 1. Solar Input Section 2. Measurement Section 3. Application Section
and are represented in such an easy way so that each section can be studied differently
and so easily. The Solar Cell Input Section contains outputs of all 6 cells.
Measurement Section contains Voltmeter, Ammeter and Potentiometer. Students can
easily measure voltage and current of solar cells themselves using voltmeter and
ammeter provided. Application Section contains charging section and other
appliances that can be operated using solar energy. Charging Section charges the
battery directly by solar energy and provides supply to load through amplifier section.
Domestic appliances like lamp, fan and FM radio are provided on board.
Figure 1
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Features
o Complete training system to study the fundamentals of Photovoltaic System
o The system has two modes for study Characteristics and Application Modes
o On board voltmeter and ammeter are provided to measure the voltage and
o current respectively, during various modes of operation
o Charging the battery using solar energy
o Weather proof solar cells
o Portable and light weight
o User friendly manual is provided with theoretical and practical details
o 2 Year Warranty
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Technical Specifications
Solar Panel : Consists of 6 solar cells
Maximum Voltage of each solar cell : 2V DC
Maximum Current of each solar cell : 150mA DC
Voltmeter : 0-10V DC
Ammeter : 0-500mA DC
Potentiometer : 5K
Rechargeable Ni-Cd Battery : 1.2V DC
Bulb : 2.2V, 250mA DC
Fan : 1.5V, 400mA DC
FM Band Radio : 12V DC
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Renewable Energies :
Theory
Renewable energies are energy sources that are continuously being replenished by
natural processes that occur on human timescales. In contrast, fossil fuels (coal,
natural gas, oil) require millions of years of geological processes to form. Our
resources of fossil and nuclear fuels (e.g. uranium) are limited. Regenerative energies,
on the other hand, are virtually in exhaustible.
Examples of renewable energy sources include :
Solar energy (Hydrogen fusion in the Sun ) :
Solar energy surrounds us in different forms and can be used in a variety of ways,
including:
Solar radiation : photovoltaic, solar heat Atmospheric
movement : wind energy Evaporation/precipitation :
hydroelectric energy/water power Biomass: e.g., fiber fuel,
biogas
Todays most widespread applications for using regenerative energies are solar
panels, wind power plants and hydroelectric power plants.
Tidal energy (Gravitational attraction of Sun, Earth and Moon) :
Tidal power plants use the energy provided by high and low tides. Water is stored
during high tide and released during low tide, powering turbines in the process.
Geothermal energy (Radioactivity and primordial heat in Earths Interior)
Geothermal power plants use heat released from the interior through Earths crust.
The heat can be used directly or converted to electricity.
Renewable energy technologies tap into natural cycles and systems, turning the ever-
present energy around us into usable forms. The movement of wind and water, the
heat and light of the sun, heat in the ground, The carbohydrates in plants all are
natural energy sources that can supply our needs in a sustainable way. Because they
are homegrown, renewables can also increase our energy security.
Photovoltaics : From sunlight to electricity :
The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name of
the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells.
Photovoltaic refer to the creation of voltage from light. Solar Photovoltaic System
directly convert sunlight into useful electricity. This process is called photoelectric
effect, discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect describes
the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state when light strikes
its surface.
The energy generator in a PV system is the solar cell.
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History of Photovoltaic Cells :
The development of solar cell technology begins with the 1839 research of French
physicist Antoine-Csar Becquerel. Becquerel observed the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution when he saw a voltage
develop when light fell upon the electrode.
First Solar Cell :
According to Encyclopedia Britannica the first genuine solar cell was built around
1883 by Charles Fritts, who used junctions formed by coating selenium (a
semiconductor) with an extremely thin layer of gold.
Further Work on Solar Cells :
By 1927 another metal- D semiconductor-junction solar cell, in this case made of
copper and the semiconductor copper oxide, had been demonstrated. By the 1930s
both the selenium cell and the copper oxide cell were being employed in light-
sensitive devices, such as photometers, for use in photography.
Silicon Solar Cell :
These early solar cells, however, had energy conversion efficiencies of less than one
percent. This problem was finally was finally overcome with the development of
silicon solar cell.
In 1941, the American Russell Ohl invented a silicon solar cell.
Efficient Solar Cells :
In 1954, three American researchers, Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin,
designed a silicon solar cell capable of a six percent energy conversion efficiency
with direct sunlight.
The three inventors created an array of several strips of silicon (each about the size of
a razorblade), placed them in sunlight, captured the free electrons and turned them
into electrical current. They created the first solar panels. Bell Laboratories in New
York announced the prototype manufacture of a new solar battery. Bell had funded
the research. The first public service trial of the Bell Solar Battery began with a
telephone carrier system (Americus, Georgia) on October 4 1955.
By the late 1980s, silicon cells, as well as those made of gallium arsenide, with
efficiencies of more than 20 percent had been fabricated. In 1989 a concentrator solar
cell, a type of device in which sunlight is concentrated onto the cell surface by means
of lenses, achieved an efficiency of 37 percent due to the increased intensity of the
collected energy. In general, solar cells of widely varying efficiencies and cost are
now available.
Working of Photovoltaic Cells :
Photovoltaic systems convert sunlight directly into electrical energy.
The backbone of this technology is semi-conducting materials such as silicon. A
typical solar cell consists of two differently doped semiconductors. Doping is the
controlled introduction of impurities into the host material. Starting out with a pure
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semiconductor crystal (say, silicon) this is achieved by substituting some of the atoms
in the crystal lattice with elements that have one more or less valence electron than
the host material (valence electrons are the electrons that determine the chemical
behavior of a material, they are located in the outermost orbital shell of the atom).
Semiconducting elements have four valence electrons all of which are used for
bonding in the crystal lattice. If the doping material has five valence electrons there
will be one additional, loosely bound electron per dopant atom. These 'free' atoms can
move about easily in the lattice and are responsible for an increase in conductivity.
Since they have a negative charge the material doped in this way is called as n-type
semiconductor. If, on the other hand, the doping material has only three valence
electrons the lattice structure will be deficient of electrons and there will be one hole,
or positive charge, per dopant atom. Similar to the free electrons above, the holes can
easily move about in the lattice, again causing an increase in conductivity. Since in
this case the free charge carriers are positive this kind of semiconductor is said to be
of p-type.
When a p-type semiconductor is joined to an n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is
created. While each side by itself is electrically neutral (there are as many electrons as
there are protons) this is not the case for certain areas of the combined configuration.
The concentration differences of holes and free electrons between n- and p- regions
produce diffusion current: electrons flow from the n-side and fill holes on the p-side.
This creates a region that is almost devoid of free charge carriers (i.e. free electrons or
holes) and is therefore called the depletion zone. In the depletion zone there is a net
positive charge on the n-side and a net negative charge on the p-side resulting in an
electric field that opposes a further flow of electrons. The more electrons move from
the n- to the p-side the stronger the opposing field will be and eventually an
equilibrium will be reached in which no further electrons are able to move against the
electric field. The potential difference of the equilibrium electric field is called
diffusion voltage. It cannot be used externally. However, when light hits the solar cell
the equilibrium conditions are disturbed and the so-called inner photo effect creates
additional charge carriers that are free to move in the electric field of the depletion
zone.
Holes move towards the p-region and electrons towards the n-region, thus creating an
external voltage (no-load voltage) at the cell. The no-load voltage of a solar cell is
material dependent and does not depend on the cell's surface area. A silicon solar cell
has a no-load voltage of about 0.5 V. Higher voltages can be obtained by connecting
individual cells in series.
The current delivered by a solar cell is proportional to the intensity of the incoming
light. Higher currents can be achieved by connecting cells in parallel.
The power of a solar cell depends not only on the cell itself but also on the connected
electrical load. The maximum power point (MPP) can easily be determined from the
power-voltage characteristic of the cell.
The efficiency of a solar cell is temperature dependent. It will decrease with
increasing temperature.
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Solar Cell Model :
Basic structure of a silicon PV cell
The thickness of solar cell is approximately 0.33 mm.
The thickness of n-type semiconductor is approximately .002mm.
Figure 2
A. Cover glass : The cover glass, made of glass or other clear material such clear
plastic, seals the cell from the external environment.
B. The Antireflective Coating (AR Coating) : Through a combination of a
favorable refractive index, and thickness, this layer serves to guide light into the
PV Cell. Without this layer, much of the light would bounce off the surface of
the cell.
C. Contact Grid : The contact grid is made of a good conductor, such as a metal,
and it serves as a collector of electrons.
D. N-Type Silicon : N-type silicon is created by doping (contaminating) the Si
with compounds that contain one more valance electrons than Si does, such as
with either Phosphorus or Arsenic. Since only four electrons are required to
bond with the four adjacent silicon atoms, the fifth valance electron is available
for conduction.
E. P-Type Silicon : P-type silicon is created by doping with compounds
containing one less valance electrons than Si does, such as with Boron. When
silicon (four valance electrons) is doped with atoms that have one less valance
electrons (three valance electrons), only three electrons are available for
bonding with four adjacent silicon atoms, therefore an incomplete bond (hole)
exists which can attract an electron from a nearby atom. Filling one hole creates
another hole in a different Si atom. This movement of holes is available for
conduction.
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F. Back Contact : The back contact, made out of a metal, covers the entire back
surface and acts as a conductor.
The path of the photon :
After a photon makes it's way through the cover glass it encounters the antireflective
layer. The antireflective layer channels the photon into the lower layers of the solar
cell.
Once the photon passes the AR coating, it will either hit the silicon surface or the
contact grid metallization. The metallization, being opaque, lowers the number of
photons reaching the silicon surface. The contact grid must be large enough to collect
electrons yet cover as little of the solar cell's surface, allowing more photons to
penetrate.
Now, a photon causes the photovoltaic effect.
As shown in the diagram below the region in the solar cell where the n-type and p-
type Si layers meet is called the p-n-junction.
Solar Cell Model
Figure 3
So due to the p-n-junction, a built in electric field (about 0.6 to 0.7 volts) is always
present across the (darkened) solar cell.
When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with holes on the
p-type layer. The p-n-junction, a one-way road, only allows the electrons to move in
one direction. If we provide an external conductive path, electrons will flow through
this path to their original (p-type) side to unite with holes.
The electron flow provides the current ( I ), and the cell's electric field causes a
voltage ( V ). With both current and voltage, we have power ( P ), which is just the
product of the two. Therefore, when an external load (such as an electric lamp) is
connected between the front and back contacts, electricity flows in the cell, working
for us along the way.
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Ph s
Reaction of Photons on Charge Carriers of n- and p-type
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell :
Figure 4
An ideal and the simplest solar cell model consists of diode and current source
connected parallel. Current source current is directly proportional to the solar
radiation. Diode represents PN junction of a solar cell. Equation of ideal solar cell,
which represents the ideal solar cell model, is:
V
D
I = I - I e
mV
T
-1
I
Ph
- Photocurrent (A),
where
I
S
- Reverse saturation current (A) (aproximately range 10
-8
/m
2
),
V
D
- Diode voltage (V),
V
T
- Thermal voltage (see equation below),
V
T
= 25.7 mV at 25C,
m - diode ideality factor = 1...5 x V
T
(-) (m = 1 for ideal diode)
Thermal voltage, V
T
can be calculated with the following equation:
where
V
T
=
k.T
q
k - Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10
-23
J/K,
T - Temperature (K),
q - Charge of electron = 1.6 x 10
-19
As
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Ideal Solar Cell Model
Figure 5
In practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance
component are added to the model.The consequences of resistances are voltage drop
and parasitic currents.
Real Solar cell model with serial and parallel resistance R
s
and R
p
Figure 6
Schematic symbol of a solar cell :
Schematic Representation of a Solar Cell
for use in Circuit Diagrams
Characteristics of a Solar Cell :
Figure 7
The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon
it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on
light radiation, while the current intensity increases with higher luminosit y. A 100
cm silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current intensity of approximately 2
A when radiated by 1000 W/m.
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Current-Voltage Characteristic of a
Silicon Solar Cell
Figure 8
The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature
dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower
efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity of light
is converted into useable electrical energy.
Different Solar Cell Types :
One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of crystal: monocrystalline,
polycrystalline and amorphous.
The most common semiconductor material used in solar cells is silicon. A number of
different degrees in lattice alignment are in use:
1 Monocrystalline Silicon (cell efficiency of approx. 14-17%)
2 Polycrystalline Silicon (cell efficiency of approx. 13-15%)
3 Amorphic Silicon (cell efficiency of approx. 5-7%)
To produce a monocrystalline silicon cell, absolutely pure semiconducting material is
necessary. Monocrystalline rods are extracted from melted silicon and then sawed into
thin plates. This production process guarantees a relatively high level of efficiency.
Single-crystal silicon or monocrystalline silicon cell isn't the only material used in PV
cells. Polycrystalline silicon is also used in an attempt to cut manufacturing costs,
although resulting cells aren't as efficient as single crystal silicon.
The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this process, liquid
silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. During
solidification of the material, crystal structures of varying sizes are formed, at whose
borders defects emerge. As a result of this crystal defect, the solar cell is less efficient.
Amorphous silicon, which has no crystalline structure, is also used, again in an
attempt to reduce production costs.
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If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a so-called
amorphous or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1m (thickness
of a human hair: 50-100 m), so the production costs are lower due to the low
material costs. However, the efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower than that of
the other two cell types. Because of this, they are primarily used in low power
equipment (watches, pocket calculators) or as facade elements.
Material Level of efficiency in %
Lab (Research)
Level of efficiency in %
Production
(Commercial)
Monocrystalline Silicon approx. 24 14 to17
Polycrystalline Silicon approx. 18 13 to15
Amorphous Silicon approx. 13 5 to7
Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the
semiconductor material Silicon (Si). As the second most abundant element in earths
crust, silicon has the advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities, and
additionally processing the material does not burden the environment.
Other materials used include gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide and
cadmium telluride. Since different materials have different band gaps, they seem to be
"tuned" to different wavelengths, or photons of different energies. One way efficiency
has been improved is to use two or more layers of different materials with different
band gaps. The higher band gap material is on the surface, absorbing high-energy
photons while allowing lower-energy photons to be absorbed by the lower band gap
material beneath. This technique can result in much higher efficiencies. Such cells,
called multi-junction cells, can have more than one electric field.
From the Cell to the Panel :
In order to make the appropriate voltages and outputs available for different
applications, single solar cells are interconnected to form larger units. Cells connected
in series have a higher voltage, while those connected in parallel produce more
electric current. The interconnected solar cells are usually embedded in transparent
Ethyl-Vinyl-Acetate, fitted with an aluminum or stainless steel frame and covered
with transparent glass on the front side.
The typical power ratings of such solar modules are between 10 Wpeak and 100
Wpeak. The characteristic data refer to the standard test conditions of 1000 W/m
solar radiation at a cell temperature of 25 Celsius. The manufacturer's standard
warranty of ten or more years is quite long and shows the high quality standards and
life expectancy of today's products.
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Energy Losses in a Solar Cell :
There are various natural limits of efficiency as follows:
1. The different semiconductor materials or combinations are suited only for
specific spectral ranges. Therefore a specific portion of the radiant energy
cannot be used, because the light quanta (photons) do not have enough energy to
"activate" the charge carriers.
Visible light is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic
radiation is not monochromatic -- it is made up of a range of different
wavelengths, and therefore energy levels.
Light can be separated into different wavelengths, and we can see them in the
form of a rainbow. Since the light that hits our cell has photons of a wide range
of energies, it turns out that some of them won't have enough energy to form an
electron-hole pair. They'll simply pass through the cell as if it were transparent.
Still other photons have too much energy. Only a certain amount of energy,
measured in electron volts (eV) and defined by our cell material (about 1.1 eV
for crystalline silicon), is required to knock an electron loose. We call this the
band gap energy of a material.
2. A certain amount of surplus photon energy is transformed into heat rather than
into electrical energy.
If a photon has more energy than the required amount, then the extra energy is
lost (unless a photon has twice the required energy, and can create more than
one electron-hole pair, but this effect is not significant). These two effects alone
account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy incident on our
cell.
We can't choose a material with a really low band gap, use more of the photons.
Because band gap also determines the strength (voltage) of our electric field,
and if it's too low, then what we make up in extra current (by absorbing more
photons), we lose by having a small voltage. Remember that power is voltage
times current. The optimal band gap, balancing these two effects, is around 1.4
eV for a cell made from a single material.
3. There are optical losses, such as the shadowing of the cell surface through
contact with the glass surface or reflection of incoming rays on the cell surface.
4. Electrons have to flow from one side of the cell to the other through an external
circuit. We can cover the bottom with a metal, allowing for good conduction,
but if we completely cover the top, then photons can't get through the opaque
conductor and we lose all of our current (in some cells, transparent conductors
are used on the top surface, but not in all). If we put contacts only at the sides of
our cell, then the electrons have to travel an extremely long distance (for an
electron) to reach the contacts. Remember, silicon is a semiconductor - it's not
nearly as good as a metal for transporting current. Its internal resistance (called
series resistance) is fairly high, and high resistance means high losses. To
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minimize these losses, our cell is covered by a metallic contact grid that shortens
the distance that electrons have to travel while covering only a small part of the
cell surface. Even so, some photons are blocked by the grid, which can't be too
small or else its own resistance will be too high.
5. Other loss mechanisms are electrical resistance losses in the semiconductor and
the connecting cable. The disrupting influence of material contamination,
surface effects and crystal defects, however, are also significant.
Loss mechanisms such as photons with too little energy are not absorbed, surplus
photon energy is transformed into heat cannot be further improved because of
inherent physical limits imposed by the materials themselves. This leads to a
theoretical maximum level of efficiency, i.e. approximately 24% for crystal silicon.
New Directions :
Surface structuring to reduce reflection loss :
For example, construction of the cell surface in a pyramid structure, so that incoming
light hits the surface several times. New material: for example, gallium arsenide
(GaAs), cadmium telluride (CdTe) or copper indium selenide (CuInSe).
Tandem or stacked cells :
In order to be able to use a wide spectrum of radiation, different semiconductor
materials, which are suited for different spectral ranges, will be arranged one on top of
the other.
Concentrator cells :
A higher light intensity will be focused on the solar cells by the use of mirror and lens
systems. This system tracks the sun, always using direct radiation.
MIS Inversion Layer cells :
The inner electrical field are not produced by a p-n junction, but by the junction of a
thin oxide layer to a semiconductor.
Gratzel cells :
Electrochemical liquid cells with titanium dioxide as electrolytes and dye to improve
light absorption.
Applications of solar cells :
The electricity generated by the photoelectric effect can be either used directly or can
be stored in batteries or can directly fed into an electric utilitys grid system. The
energy stored in the battery (in the form of chemical energy) can be used to operate
any electrical device. If the device operates on DC, then it can be directly connected
to the output load. If the device operates on AC, then an inverter is required to convert
DC into AC.
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1. Rural Electrification :
The provision of electricity to rural areas derives important social and economic
benefits to remote communities throughout the world. Power supply to remote
houses or villages, electrification of the health care facilities, irrigation and
water supply and treatment are just few examples of such applications.
The potential for PV powered rural applications is enormous. The UN estimates
that two million villages within 20 of the equator have neither grid electricity
nor easy access to fossil fuel. It is also estimated that 80% of all people
worldwide do not have electricity, with a large number of these people living in
climates ideally suited to PV applications. Even in Europe, several hundred
thousand houses in permanent occupation (and yet more holiday homes) do not
have access to grid electricity.
The economics of PV systems compares favorably with the usual alternative
forms of rural electricity supply, grid extension and diesel generators. The
extension and subsequent maintenance of transmission lines over long distances
of often a difficult terrain is expensive, particularly if the loads are relatively
small. Regular fuel supply to diesel generators, on the other hand, often present
problems in rural areas, in addition to the maintenance of the generating
equipment.
2. Water Pumping :
More than 10,000 PV powered water pumps are known to be successfully
operating throughout the world. Solar pumps are used principally for two
applications: village water supply (including livestock watering), and irrigation.
Since villages need a steady supply of water, provision has to be made for water
storage for periods of low insolation. In contrast, crops have variable water
requirements during the year which can often be met by supplying water directly
to produce without the need for a storage tank.
Deep well Solar Pump
Figure 9
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3. Lighting :
In terms of the number of installations, lighting is presently the biggest
application of photovoltaics, with tens of thousands of units installed world-
wide. They are mainly used to provide lighting for domestic or community
buildings, such as schools or health centers. PV is also being increasingly used
for lighting streets and tunnels, and for security lighting. Solar power is used for
many lighted highway signs, eliminating the need for diesel generators.
4. Domestic Supply :
PV powered Traffic Light System
Figure 10
Stand-alone PV domestic supply systems are commonly encountered in
developing countries and remote locations in industrialized countries. The size
range varies from 50 Wp to 5 kWp (kilowatt-peak) depending on the existing
standard of living. Typically larger systems are used in remote locations or
island communities of developed countries where household appliances include
refrigeration, washing machine, television and lighting. In developing regions
large systems (5 kWp) are typically found for village supply while small
systems (20-200 Wp) are used for lighting, radio and television in individual
houses.
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5. Health Care :
Solar-powered House
Figure 11
Extensive vaccination programmes are in progress throughout the developing
world in the fight against common diseases. To be effective, these programmes
must provide immunization services to rural areas. All vaccines have to be kept
within a strict temperature range throughout transportation and storage. The
provision of refrigeration for this aim is known as the vaccine cold chain.
Mobile Solar Vaccination Cooler
Professional Applications :
Figure 12
For some time, photovoltaic modules have proved to be a good source of power for
high-reliability remote industrial use in inaccessible locations, or where the small
amount of power required is more economically met from a stand-alone PV system
than from mains electricity.
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Some of the most important applications of solar energy are nearly invisible.
Telecommunications, oil companies, and highway safety equipment all rely on solar
power for dependable, constant power, far from any power lines.
Examples of these applications include:
1. Ocean Navigation Aids :
Many lighthouses are now powered by solar cells.
PV-powered Navigation Aid in Saint Lawrence River
2. Telecommunication Systems :
Figure 13
Radio transceivers on mountain tops or telephone boxes in the country can often
be solar powered.
Call Boxes : Roadside call box, are connected with a solar panel. California
standardized on the use of solar power and cellular phones to eliminate the need
for any buried cable connections to these phones. Given the sometimes literally
life-saving nature of these call boxes, dependability is a must.
Telecommunications Installations : When you need a microwave repeater on a
remote mountaintop, the last thing you want to do is run a power line up to it.
For reliable power, many communications repeaters in remote areas use solar.
Siemens Solar alone has shipped over 130 megawatts of modules since its
inception, and the use of solar power is projected to grow at 10-15% per year
from now until the year 2010. This is over three to five times the rate of growth
of the Gross National Product of the United States.
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Solar-powered Telecommunication Tower
3. Remote Monitoring and Control :
Figure 14
Scientific research stations, seismic recording, weather stations, etc. use very
little power which, in combination with a dependable battery, is provided
reliably by a small PV module.
Solar-powered Weather Station
4. Cathodic Protection :
Figure 15
This is a method for shielding metal work from corrosion, for example,
pipelines and other metal structures. A PV system is well suited to this
application since a DC source of power is required in remote locations along the
path of a pipeline.
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Solar-powered Pipeline System
Figure 16
Given this growth, solar power will be a much larger part of our lives in future.
Homes could incorporate solar power at the time that they are built, dramatically
reducing both the cost of buying solar power and the cost of utility bills. New
communications technology may make living in remote areas a practical reality
given the availability of solar power. Mobile uses will undoubtedly increase.
And industrial applications will continue to enjoy the versatility of solar power.
Electric Power Generation in Space :
The energy problem related to spacecraft can be split in two parts. The first major
difficulty is of course to escape from the Earth. The second is to power the spacecraft
once it is in space in the middle of nowhere, or better said in the middle of nothing.
The problem of leaving the Earths surface is usually solved by fuel-powered
launchers like Ariane or by a manned Space Shuttle. The spacecraft is placed as
payload in the launcher. Once it is in orbit around the Earth, the satellite or space
probe is freed. A satellite will then go round the Earth in the chosen orbit while a
space probe will be sent on its path in the solar system. In most cases, the spacecraft
possesses its own engines and a small amount of fuel so that it can be maneuvered if
necessary.
Once in space, the spacecraft (or the space station) must have access to a source of
electricity in order to fulfill its mission. Even the exchange of information between
the spacecraft and the earth uses up energy. The mission would be pointless if the
probe or the satellite could not send images or other forms of data back to Earth.
Electricity will also be needed at one time or another to fire the engines, and to
operate scientific instruments.
In space the issue of providing spacecrafts or space stations with the necessary
electricity to run the equipment on board is usually solved by means of solar panels.
Solar panels convert the light coming from the sun into electricity. The energy
available from the sun is always there but decreases as the probe travels further and
further away from the sun. The amount of electricity produced is proportional to the
surface of the solar panels. Often, the size of the panels is much greater than the size
NV6005
of the spacecraft itself. It is not possible to put the spacecraft and its deployed solar
panels in a launcher like Ariane. The panels can only deployed once the spacecraft
has arrived in orbit and leaves the launcher. This of course can be a source of huge
problems if the solar panels get stuck and refuse to deploy. In the case of a manned
mission, the crew might be able to fix the problem. The panels of the space stations
are actually mounted by the crew in space. Most missions, however, are not manned,
and everything must be done automatically. It is therefore particularly important to
devise a method of deploying solar panels that is safe and reliable. Photovoltaic solar
generators have been and will remain the best choice for providing electrical power to
satellites in an orbit around the Earth. Indeed, the use of solar cells on the U.S.
satellite Vanguard I in 1958 demonstrated beyond doubt the first practical application
of photovoltaics. Since then, the satellite power requirements have evolved from few
Watts to several kiloWatts, with arrays approaching 100 kW being planned for a
future space station.
A space solar array must be extremely reliable in the adverse conditions of space
environment. Since it is very expensive to lift every kilogram of weight into the orbit,
the space array should also have a high power-to-weight ratio.
PV powered Satellite
Figure 17
NV6005
Grid-connected Systems :
1. PV Power Stations :
Two types of grid-connected installations are usually distinguished, centralised
PV power stations, and distributed generation in units located directly at the
customer's premises (PV in buildings).
A PV power station feeds the generated power instantaneously into the utility
distribution network (the 'grid') by means of one or more inverters and
transformers. The first PV power station was built at Hysperia in southern
California in 1982 with nominal power specification 1 MW, using crystalline
silicon modules mounted on a 2 axis tracking system.
PV power stations may be approaching economic viability in locations where
they assist the local grid during periods of peak demand, and obviate the need to
construct a new power station. This is known as peak shaving. It can also be
cheaper to place small PV plants within the transmission system rather than to
upgrade it ('embedded' generation).
2. PV in buildings :
PV Power Station
Figure 18
PV arrays mounted on roof tops or facades offer the possibility of large-scale
power generation in decentralised medium-sized grid-connected units. Studies in
Germany, Switzerland and the UK have shown that the roof and facade area
technically suitable for PV installations is large enough to supply the country's
electricity demand. The size envisaged for each decentralised residential PV
system is typically 1- 5kW, with systems up to a hundred kW or so suitable for
commercial and industrial buildings.
NV6005
Building with Photovoltaic Faade
Figure 19
Manufacturing companies of photovoltaic system have recently introduced
"Sunslates" that can be fitted to existing roofs easily. Photograph of these are shown
below:
Solar Panel Installed on Existing Roofs
Figure 20
NV6005
The main advantages of these distributed systems over large PV plants are as follows:
There is no cost in buying the land and preparing the site.
The transmission losses are much lower because the load is on the same site as the
supply.
The value of the PV electricity is also higher because it is equal to the selling price
of the grid electricity which has been replaced, rather that to the cost of generating it.
However, it should also be noted that the price paid by utility companies for
electricity exported from a decentralised source is a fraction of the utility sale price.
The optimum economic benefit is therefore derived by consuming all PV produced
electricity, with direct reduction of the energy imported from the utilit y. Thus grid
connected PV systems are ideal for loads which vary in proportion to the irradiation.
Typical loads are air-conditioning, refrigeration and pumping. Other significant loads
can be timed to operate when PV power is likely to be available. Examples include
washing machines and clothes dryers which can operate on timing clocks
Advantages of Photovoltaic Power :
1. Photovoltaic solar power is one of the most promising renewable energy sources
in the world. Compared to nonrenewable sources such as coal, gas, oil, and
nuclear, the advantages are clear: it's totally non-polluting, has no moving parts
to break down, and does not require much maintenance. There are no fuel costs
or fuel supply problems.
2. A very important characteristic of photovoltaic power generation is that it does
not require a large scale installation to operate, as different from conventional
power generation stations. Power generators can be installed in a distributed
fashion, on each house or business or school, using area that is already
developed, and allowing individual users to generate their own power, quietly
and safely. The equipment can usually operate unattended.
Rooftop power can be added as more homes or businesses are added to a
community, thereby allowing power generation to keep in step with growing
needs without having to overbuild generation capacity as is often the case with
conventional large scale power systems.
3. When photovoltaic power is compared to other renewable energy sources such
as wind power, water power, and even solar thermal power, there are some
obvious advantages. First, wind and water power rely on turbines to turn
generators to produce electricity. Turbines and generators have moving parts
that can break down, that require maintenance, and are noisy. Even solar thermal
energy needs a turbine or other mechanical device to change the heat energy of
the sun into mechanical energy for a generator to produce electric power.
Photovoltaic power, by contrast, is generated directly from the sun. PV systems
have no moving parts, require virtually no maintenance, and have cells that last
for decades.
NV6005
Objective :
Experiment 1
Study of the voltage and current of the solar cells
Procedure :
1. Take the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 along with Solar Panel.
2. Place the solar panel in the stand and adjust the panel at an angle of about 45
with the ground. Direct the sunlight straight at the solar panel (angle of 90).
Note : If sunlight is not properly available then any source of light like lamp can
be used.
3. With the DB15 connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 with the
Solar Panel. Then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature
fluctuations.
4. Measure the voltage (V1) of S1 solar cell by connecting its output across
voltmeter with the help of patch cords. Similarly, you can measure the voltages
of other solar cells. Record the voltage of all cells (V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6)
respectively in the Observation Table.
5. Measure the current (I
1
) of S1 solar cell by connecting the ammeter across S1
solar cell with the help of patch cords. Similarly, you can measure the current of
other solar cells. Record the current of all cells (I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
, I
5
, I
6
) respectively in
the Observation Table.
Observation Table :
S. No. Solar Cell DC Voltage
(V)
DC Current
(mA)
1. S1
2. S2
3. S3
4. S4
5. S5
6. S6
NV6005
Objective :
Experiment 2
Study of the voltage and current of the solar cells in series and parallel
combinations
Procedure :
2. Place the Solar Panel in the stand and adjust the panel at an angle of about 45
be used.
3. With the DB15 connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 with the
Solar Panel. Then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature
fluctuations.
Series combination of cells :
4. With the patch cords, connect outputs of all cells one by one in series such that
the positive terminal of one connected to the negative terminal of the other as
shown in figure 21.
Solar Cells Connected in Series
Solar cells in series
boost voltage
Figure 21
5. Connect the positive and negative terminal of the series combination across the
voltmeter as shown in figure 22. Record the total voltage of the series
combination in the Observation Table given below.
Voltmeter Connected to the Series Combination of Solar Cells
Figure 22
NV6005
6. Now connect the positive and negative terminal of the series combination across
the ammeter as shown in figure 23. Record the current of the series combination
in the Observation Table given below.
Ammeter Connected to the Series Combination of Solar Cells
Observation Table :
Figure 23
S. No. Solar Cell Voltage
(V)
Current
(mA)
Voltage of the
series
combination (V)
Current of the
series
combination
(mA)
1. S1
2. S2
3. S3
4. S4
5. S5
6. S6
Sum of the voltages of all solar cells =V
Total
= V
1
+ V
2
+V
3
+ V
4
+ V
5
+ V
6
=

V
Total voltage of series combination =.V
Hence it is clear that the total voltage of the series combination is equal to the sum of
the voltage of all solar cells.
Total current in series combination =.mA
Hence it is clear that the total current of the series combination is equal to the
individual current of each solar cell.
NV6005
30
Parallel combination of cells :
7. Take out all the cords from the trainer.
8. With the patch cords, connect all cells one by one in parallel such that the positive
terminal of one connected to the positive terminal of the other, and also the
negative terminal of one connected to the negative terminal of the other as shown
in figure 24.
Solar Cells Connected in Parallel
Figure 24
9. Connect the positive and negative terminal of the parallel combination across
the voltmeter as shown in figure 25. Record the voltage of the parallel
Voltmeter Connected to the Parallel Combination of Solar Cells
Figure 25
10. Now, connect the positive and negative terminal of the parallel combination
across the ammeter as shown in figure26. Record the total current of the parallel
Ammeter Connected to the Parallel Combination of Solar Cells
Figure 26
Note : To measure current by on board ammeter, do not connect more than 3 solar
cells in parallel. For measuring total current of parallel combination of more than 3
solar cells, arrange a digital multimeter or analog ammeter of 1 Ampere rating in your
laboratory.
NV6005
31
Observation Table :
S. No. Solar Cell Voltage
(V)
Current
(mA)
Voltage of the
parallel
combination
Current of the
parallel
combination
1. S1
2. S2
3. S3
4. S4
5. S5
6. S6
Total voltage of parallel combination =..V
Hence it is clear that the total voltage of the parallel combination is equal to the
individual voltage of each solar cell.
Sum of the current of all solar cells = I
Total
= I
1
+ I
2
+I
3
+ I
4
+ I
5
+ I
6
=
mA
Total current of parallel combination =.mA
Hence it is clear that the total current of the parallel combination is equal to the sum of
the current of all solar cells.
Conclusion :
1. Solar cells in series boost voltage but the current remains the same.
2. Solar cells in parallel boost current rating but the voltage remains same.
NV6005
32
Objective :
Experiment 3
Study of both the currentvoltage characteristic and the power curve to find the
maximum power point (MPP) and efficiency of a solar cell
Procedure :
be used.
3. With the DB15 connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 with Solar
Panel. Then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature fluctuations.
4. Set the potentiometer to maximum resistance i.e. at fully clockwise position and
measure and record its resistance into the Observation Table.
5. Connect the solar cell as shown in the following circuit diagram.
Setup for determining characteristics of a solar cell
Figure 27
a. Connect positive terminal of solar cell to P1 terminal of the potentiometer.
b. Connect other end of potentiometer i.e. P2 to positive terminal of ammeter.
c. Connect negative terminal of ammeter to negative terminal of solar cell.
d. Now connect the positive terminal of voltmeter to P1 and negative terminal
of voltmeter to P2.
6. Record the values of corresponding voltage and current into the Observation
Table.
7. Now gradually move the potentiometer in anticlockwise direction so that the
resistance of the potentiometer decreases. Now measure the resistances at
successively smaller values and record the corresponding values of voltages and
current into the Observation Table below.
NV6005
33
Note : Always to measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first
remove the patch cords from P1 and P2 and measure resistance by multimeter.
Reconnect these connections again for further measurements.
Observation Table :
S. No. Resistance, R
()
Voltage, V
(Volts)
Current, I
(mA)
Power calculated
P = V. I
(Watts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
8. Plot the I- V characteristics from the measurements recorded in the table, to
show how the photoelectric current depends on the photoelectric voltage and to
find maximum power point.
Expected I-V curve is as follows
Current-voltage characteristic of the solar cell
Figure 28
NV6005
34
From V-I characteristics you can easily find the maximum power point (MPP).
Maximum power point (MPP) occurs where the product of voltage and current is
greatest.
9. Plot the curve of power as a function of voltage from the measurements
recorded in the table.
Expected Power-Voltage curve is as follows
Power curve of the solar cell as a function of voltage
Figure 29
The maximum power point (MPP) is the maximum value of power in the above
curve.
The resistance, R
MPP
, at which the output power is at a maximum can be calculated
using the following formula:
NV6005
35
Objective :
Experiment 4
To calculate the efficiency () of solar cell
Theory :
The efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of produced electrical power (P
out
) and the
incident radiant power (Pin).
Efficiency of solar cell, =
P
out
P
in
Where Pout is the electrical power (maximum power point)
P
in
is calculated by multiplying approximated irradiance (irradiance means
radiant power of the light incident per unit area) by the effective area of the
solar cell on the panel.
This method used the fact that the practical value of the current (maximum
photoelectric current measured) is proportional to the photons (radiation) striking the
solar cell. This current is therefore proportional to the incident radiant power of the
light.
The open circuit voltage depends on the semiconductor material of which solar cell is
made. It is not proportional to the incident radiant power and therefore cannot be used
for this measurement.
Procedure :
1. Efficiency of solar cell,
=
P
out
P
in
Where P
out
(Output Electrical Power) = Maximum Power Point (MPP)
P
in
(Incident radiant power) = Approximated Irradiance x Area of solar cell
= (F x I
p
) x A .....(eq.1)
Here A = Area of a solar cell (Length x Breadth) m
2
I
p
= Practical value of current (maximum photoelectric current measured)
indicated on the ammeter
F is a constant and is given by
The maximum irradiance in summer is approx. 1000 W/m
2
. The maximum value of
the current specified by the manufacturer is achieved at this value i.e. 150mA in the
given solar cells. (The parameters of the solar cell/panel is related to the standard test
NV6005
36
conditions of 1000W/m
2
and cell temperature of 25 C.)
2. Multiplying the practical value of current (Ip) indicated on the ammeter by the
factor gives an approximation of the radiant power per unit area (irradiance)
striking the solar cell.
Approximation of the radiant power per unit area =.
3. Now measure the area in m
2
and put the values in the formula given in eq. 1.
Pin =
Now, we can calculate the efficiency of solar cell with
=
P
out
P
in
where P
out
or MPP =.. (As calculated in the experiment 3)
=..
The efficiencies of solar cells lie between 12 to 15 %.
If efficiency is slightly less than determined value then it is due to measuring errors
and inaccuracies in determining the incident radiant power. Furthermore, the
efficiency of solar panel is less than that of their separate constituent cells. This is
caused by losses that arise in matching solar cells that do not all have exactly the same
properties. If the solar cells are connected in series to generate desired voltage, the
maximum power point may not be same for all cells.
Solar cell losses arise as not all photons striking the solar cell can be converted into
charge carriers. Part of the light is reflected as soon as it hits the surface and the metal
contacts cast shadows. Since the photon energy does not correspond to the energy
gap, less than half of the incident energy is used. Recombination of charge carriers
(atomic rebinding of electrons) and electrical losses caused by internal resistances
(ohmic losses in the semiconductor) of the solar cell and its contacts also arise.
NV6005
37
Objective :
Experiment 5
Study of the application of solar cells of charging the Ni-Cd battery so that the
loads can be used even while the module is unexposed to light
Procedure :
be used.
Panel NV6005. Then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature
fluctuations.
4. Connect rechargeable Ni-Cd Battery in the holder provided in Charging Section.
Battery needs voltage of 1.5-2 V for standard charging at 80mA about 15 hours.
Some batteries are provided with facility of quick charging at 210mA about 3-4
hrs. So connect the solar cells in series or parallel combination as per the
required rating.
5. Now with the help of patch cords, connect the positive terminal of the solar cell
to the positive terminal of diode and negative terminal of solar cell to negative
terminal of battery Section.
6. Now connect the terminal T1 to positive terminal of battery.
7. Connect the voltmeter across battery terminals with patch cord. You can observe
the voltage variations.
8. Now to operate the load connect the positive terminal of battery to terminal T2
of amplifier section and T3 to positive terminal of Load with patch cords. Now
connect negative terminal of battery to negative terminal of Load with patch
cord.
9. Observe that the group of LED glows. Here load is operating with the solar
energy and battery is charging with the solar energy.
NV6005
38
For direct operation of load with charged batteries i.e. when module is
unexposed to light :
1. Remove the connections of the solar cells to Charging Section.
2. The charged nickel cadmium battery provides electricity to the load even the
panel is unexposed to light and when battery will discharged then you can
reconnect previous connections for charging the battery.
NV6005
39
Objective :
Experiment 6
Study of the application of solar cells of providing electrical energy to the
domestic appliances such as lamp, fan and radio
Procedure for Lamp :
be used.
Panel NV6005. Then wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature
fluctuations.
4. Measure the voltage and current of the solar cells and connect the number of
solar cells in parallel as per the desired voltage of around 2.2V and 250mA of
current rating for lamp.
5. Now connect the positive and negative terminals of solar cellss parallel
combination across the lamp with patch cords. Observe that the lamp is glowing
with solar energy.
6. Perform a comparative study between intensity of the lamp and recommended
voltage/current rating.
7. If you insert any obstacle in between sunlight and solar panel you can see the
effect of change of intensity of the lamp. If you insert a fully opaque obstacle
then lamp will stop glowing and when you remove the obstacle lamp will again
start glowing.
Procedure for Fan :
1. Repeat steps 1 to 3 from procedure for lamp.
solar cells in parallel as per the desired voltage of around 1.5V and 400mA of
current rating for fan.
3. Now connect the positive and negative terminals of solar cellss parallel
combination across the fan with patch cords. Observe that the fan is rotating
with solar energy.
Note : Clockwise or anticlockwise rotation of fan depends on polarity of solar
cell inserted across fan terminals.
4. Perform a comparative study between speed of fan and recommended
voltage/current rating.
NV6005
change in speed of the fan. If you insert a fully opaque obstacle then fan will
stop rotating and when you remove the obstacle fan will again start rotating.
Procedure for FM Receiver :
1. Repeat steps 1 to 3 from procedure for lamp.
solar cells in series as per the desired voltage of around 5V-6V minimum to 12V
maximum.
3. Set the Volume Control knob to full clockwise rotation for maximum volume
and adjust the Frequency Selector knob to tune any FM Radio Station.
4. Now with the help of patch cords, connect the positive and negative terminals of
solar cells series combination to the positive and negative terminals of FM
Receiver respectively. Observe that the radio is working with solar energy.
5. Perform a comparative study between volume of FM Receiver and
recommended voltage/current rating.
change in volume of the FM Receiver. If you insert a fully opaque obstacle then
FM Receiver will stop working and when you remove the obstacle, FM
Receiver will again start working.
NV6005
Warranty
1) We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.
2) The guarantee will become void, if
a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the l earni ng
manual.
b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) The customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
3) The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
4) The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.
List of Accessories
1. Solar Panel .................................................................................................1 No.
2. Panel Stand with Stand ...............................................................................1 No.
3. 15 Pin Cable (5 Meter) ..............................................................................1 No.
4. 12 Patch Cord (2 mm)........................................................................... 15 Nos.
5. Rechargeable Battery .................................................................................1 No.
6. Fan Blade................................................................................................1 No.
7. Learning Material CD..................................................................................1 No.

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