D EVELOPMENT OF M ATHEMATICS IN I NDIA

Lecture - 3

K. Ramasubramanian
IIT Bombay

ATM W ORKSHOP @IIT B OMBAY

February 2013

Lecture 3 Outline

Aryabhat
.ya: Part I

Introduction and Invocation

Names of the notational places

Square and Squaring

Algorithm for finding the square root

Cube and cubing

Algoritm for finding the cube root

Area of a triangle and circle

Approximate value of


Invocatory verse in Aryabhat
.ya
I

Aryabhat
. a commences his work with the following verse wherein
the authorship as well as the place of learning is mentioned.

- -

- -

x +.tya
b.ra: :k
u Za:a.Za bua:Da Bxa:gua .=;a.va k
u +ja gua. k+ea:Na Ba:ga:Na.a:n,a na:ma:~k
A.a:yRa:Ba:f:a.~
/ / / / tva:h
/
;
a.na:ga:d: a.ta k
u +.sua:ma:pua:=e Y:Bya:
a. cRa:tMa a.a:na:m,a

The first word b.ra: does not refer to the creator Brahm
a, but the
primordial entity.

Similarly, the word Ba:ga:Na used here is not .+ a.Q but ya.Ea: a.ga:k i.e., it
does not refer to the number of revolutions but the group of stars.

Commenting on the word ku+.sua:ma:pua.= Bhaskara

observes:
k
u +.sua:ma:pua.=M :pa.a:f:
a.l+pua.Ma

ta.a A:Bya:
a. cRa:tMa a.a:nMa ;
a.na:ga:d: a.ta O;:va:ma:nua:(rUa:ya:tea

A:yMa ;a.h .~va.a:ya:}Bua:va:a.sa.;

d .a:ntaH

k
u +.sua:ma:pua.=;
a.na:va.a:a.sa:a.BaH

.sa:t~va.a:a.pa :pa.Ea:
a.l+Za .=:ea:ma:k va:a.sa: .sa.Ea;=e;Sua .tea:na.a:h

k
u +.sua:ma:pua:=e Y:Bya:
a..cRa:ta:a.ma: a.ta

x +. a.ta:a.BaH
k

:pUa:aja:taH

Names of the notational places and their significance

I

The verse following the invocatory verse, introduces the

notational places with their nomenclature.

O;:k
M
d:Za Za:tMa . ca .sa:h:~:Ma tva:yua:ta:
a.na:yua:tea ta:Ta.a :pra:yua:ta:m,a
k+ea:fa:bRua:dM . ca bxa:ndM .~Ta.a:na.a:t,a .~Ta.a:nMa d:Za:gua:Na:m,a .~ya.a:t,a

Bhaskara
after listing of names of the notational places
9
one (10 ) to trillion (109 ) poses an interesting question:
A.ea:dM :pra::v.ya:m,a

;k
E +.Sa.Ma .~Ta.a:na.a:na.Ma Za: a. H

What potential do these notational places have?

I

And then replies

ya:t,a O;:k
M
.+pMa d:Za Za:tMa .sa:h:~:Ma . ca Ba:va: a.ta .sa:tya.Ma . cEa:ta:~ya.Ma .~Ta.a:na:Za:+Ea

k
+a:ya:k+aH

;a.va:Zea:Sea::k
+.yya:Ba.a.ja:na.aH .~yuaH

The potential that one and the same entity (symbol) can connote
one, ten, hundred or thousand. Once the potential gets establised, it
is easy for the traders to [conveniently] tag prices to their
commodities.

Square and Squaring

I

The following verse defines the term varga to be referring to both

geometrical object as well as the operation
va:gRaH

.sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(raH

:P+lM ..ca .sa:dx:Za:d

:ya:~ya .sMa:va:gRaH

object whose four sides are equal.

.sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(ra:m,a

If we take this literal sense, the word varga can also mean

rhombus. Posing himself this question Bhaskara

observes:
.nEa:va l;ea:k
e O;:va:ma.a:k+a.=;a.va:a.Za::~ya .sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(ra:[ea.a:~ya .sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(ra:sMa:a.a
.sua:a.sa.;
d .a

Based on the usage [of the word] in the world, the term
samacutrasra does not have the potential to convey that kind
of a four sided figure (rhombus).
I

Bhaskara
also lists synonyms of varga as:
ya.a:va:k+=;Na:m,a

(=ya.a:va:taH

va:ga.Ra:k+=;Na:m,a

k+=;Na.a

I+ a.ta :pa:ya.Ra:ya.aH

x +. a.taH
k

va:gRa:Na.a

Algorithm for finding the square root

I

The algorithm for obtaining the square root is succinctly

presented by Aryabhat
. a in the following verse:
Ba.a:gMa h:=e;t,a A:va:ga.Ra:t,a ;
a.na:tyMa ;a.d
:gua:Nea:na va:gRa:mUa:le+na
va:ga.Ra:d
e l+b.DMa .~Ta.a:na.a:nta:=e mUa:l+m,a
:geRa Zua.;d

Bhaskara
in his commentary makes certain clarifying notes that
are quite useful in understanding the content of the above verse.
1. Considering the first word bh
aga which literally means part,
it is said Ba.a:gaH , &+ a.taH , Ba.ja:nMa, A:pa:va:tRa:nMa I+ a.ta :pa:ya.Ra:ya.aH
2. Thus Ba.a:gMa h:=e;t,a means may you divide.
3. He then clarifies that the word varga in this context means
an odd place. A.a ga:a.Na:tea ;a.va:Sa:mMa .~Ta.a:nMa va:gRaH
4. Then obviously avarga is even place. ta:~yEa:va na:Va.a ;a.va:Sa:ma:tvea
:pra: a.ta:a.Sa.;d
e A:va:gRa I+ a.ta .sa:mMa .~Ta.a:na:m,a

Algorithm for finding the square root

Ba.a:gMa h:=e;t,a A:va:ga.Ra:t,a ;
a.na:tyMa ;a.d
:gua:Nea:na va:gRa:mUa:le+na
va:ga.Ra:d
d
e l+b.DMa .~Ta.a:na.a:nta:=e mUa:l+m,a
:geRa Zua.;

The algorithm presented in the verse above essentially consists of three

steps:
1. Starting from the least significant digit, group the digits of the given
number into two. Then from the remaining (1 or 2) most significant
digit(s), which constitutes varga-sth
ana, subtract the square of the max.
no. that is possible.
2. Having done that (va:ga.Ra:d:geRa Zua.;d e ), along with the remainder bring down the
next digit from the avarga place. This has to be divided by twice the
varga-m
ulathat is currently in the sq. root lineand the quotient has
to be taken to that line.
3. Along with the remainder bring down the next digit in the varga place
and subtract from it the square of the previous quotient (va:ga.Ra:t,a
).

va:gRa:Za.ea:Da:na:m,a

Illustrative Example

Aryabhat
. as algorithm for finding the square root
Example 1: Find the square root of 55225.
Starting from the units place, pairs of notational places called varga (V ), and
avarga (A), are to be marked. The digits of the given number are arranged
below them appropriately.

Subtract 22
Divide by 2.2

Subtract 32
Divide 2.23

Subtract 52

4)

V
5
4
1
1

46)

A
5

V
2

5
2
3

(3

2
2

2
9
3
3

A
2

V
5

2
0
2
2

(5
5
5
0

235
(line of square root)

Illustrative Example

Aryabhat
. as algorithm for finding the square root
Example 2: Find the square root of 2989441.

Subtract 12
Divide by 2.1

Subtract 72
Divide 2.17

Subtract 22
Divide 2.172

Subtract 92

2)

V
2
1
1
1

A
9

V
8

9
4
5
4

(7

34)

344)

A
9

V
4

8
9
9
6
3

9
8
1

(2

3
3

1
0

4
4
0
9

A
4

V
1

4
6
8
8

(9
1
1
0

1729
(line of square root)

Cube and Cubing

I

The following verse defines the term ghana to be referring to

both geometrical object as well as the operation
.sa:dx:Za.a:ya:sMa:va:gRaH

;Ga:naH

ta:Ta.a d
.a:d:Za.a:a.(raH

.~ya.a:t,a

First Aryabhat
. a says: .sa:dx:Za.a:ya:sMa:va:gRaH ;Ga:naH product of three
equals. This definition has to do with the process cubing purely
as an arithmetical operation, which is stripped off from the
geometry that can be associated with it.

He then quickly highlights that other aspect too:

d
.a:d:Za.a:a.(raH (;Ga:naH ) The term ghana refers to an object having 12
corners or edges. That is, a cube.

Bhaskara
in his commentary lists synonyms of ghana as:
vxa:nd:m,a .sa:dx:Za.a:ya.a:Bya.a:sa I+ a.ta :pa:ya.Ra:ya.aH

;Ga:na.ea

Algorithm for finding the cube root

I

The algorithm for obtaining the cube root is presented by

Aryabhat
ary
a:
. a in the following
A:Ga:na.a:t,a Ba.jea:t,a ;a.d
:ta.a:ya.a:t,a ;aa:gua:Nea:na ;Ga:na:~ya mUa:l+va:geRa:Na
va:gRa:a.~:a:pU
/ a:vRa:gua:a.Na:taH

Za.ea:DyaH

:pra:Ta:ma.a:t,a ;Ga:na:(
a ;Ga:na.a:t,a

A few observations before we explain the verse above:

1. If a number has n digits, the number of digits in the cube of
that number will be 3n 2 and 3n.

2. With this in mind Aryabhat

. a prescribes to group the number
of digitsstarting from the units place of the given number
whose cube root is to be foundinto three.
3. The groups of the three notational places are called
I
I
I

Ghana (G)
Prathama-Aghana (A1 )
Dvitya-Aghana (A2 )

The prose order is:

(:pra:Ta:ma.a:t,a

A:Ga:na.a:t,a

;a.d
:ta.a:ya.a:t,a

(A:Ga:na.a:t,a

Ba.ja:nea:na l+b.Da:~ya

Za.ea:DyaH ;Ga:na:(
a ;Ga:na.a:t,a Za.ea:DyaH

va:gRaH

;aa:pUa:vRa:gua:a.Na:taH

Algorithm for finding the cube root

A:Ga:na.a:t,a Ba.jea:t,a ;a.d
:ta.a:ya.a:t,a ;aa:gua:Nea:na ;Ga:na:~ya mUa:l+va:geRa:Na
va:gRa:a.~
/:a:pUa:vRa:gua:a.Na:taH Za.ea:DyaH

:pra:Ta:ma.a:t,a ;Ga:na:(
a ;Ga:na.a:t,a

The algorithm presented in the verse above essentially consists of four steps:
1. Starting from the units place, having grouped the digits of the given number into
three, from the remaining (1, 2 or 3) most significant digit(s), which constitutes
ghana-sth
ana, subtract the cube of the max. digit that is possible. This digit
forms the first (most significant) digit of the cube root to be determined.
2. Then, along with the remainder bring down the next digit from the dvitya-agana
place. This has to be divided by thrice the square of the ghana-m
ula obtained so
far. The quotient forms the next digit of the cube root.
3. Along with the remainder bring down the next digit in the prathama-aghana
place and subtract from it the square of the previous quotient multiplied by 3 and
the p
urva, the cuberoot determined previously, that is till now (va:gRa:a.~/:a:pUa:vRa:gua:a.Na:taH ).
4. Then from the successive ghana place we have to subtract the cube of the
quotient that was determined previously (second step), and the whole process
has to be repeated.

Illustrative Example

Aryabhat
. as algorithm for finding the cube root
Example 1: Find the cube root of 17,71,561.

Subtract 13
Divide by 3.12

3)

Subtract 3.1.22
Subtract 23
Divide by 3.122

Subtract 3.12.12
Subtract 13

432)

G
1
1
0
0

A2
7

A1
7

7
6
1
1

(2
7
2
5
0
4
4

G
1

1
8
3
3

A2
5

A1
6

5
2
3
3

(1
6
6
0

G
1

1
1
0

121
(line of cube root)


Rationale behind Aryabhat
. as cube root algorithm
I The rationale can be readily seen by grouping the terms together.
I Any three digit number may be represented as,

ax 2 + bx + c,

where a, b, c are integers & x = 10

I The cube of this number may be expressed as:

terms
x 6 (a3 )
+x 5 (3a2 b)
+x 4 (3a2 c + 3ab2 )
+x 3 (6abc + b3 )
+x 2 (3b2 c + 3ac 2 )
+x 1 (3bc 2 )
+x 0 (c 3 )

operation
() a3
() 3a2
() 3ab2
() b3
() 3(a + b)2
() 3(a + b)c 2
() c 3

significance of it
cube of max. digit
to get the value of b
we are left with 3c(a + b)2
to get the value of c
remainder zero perfect cube.

I The algorithm presumes (i) a thorough understanding of decimal place

value system, and (ii) skill in algebraic manipulation.

Area of a triangle
I The formula for the area is presented in half a
ry
a:
;aa:Bua.ja:~ya :P+l+Za.=:a.=M .sa:ma:d:l+k+ea:f.a:Bua.ja.a:DRa:sMa:va:gRaH

I Bhaskara

here provides some edifying notes.

Bua.ja.a ba.a:huH

:pa.a.(;Ra:a.ma: a.ta :pa:ya.Ra:ya.aH ta.a a.a:a.Na [ea.a.a:a.Na

x +.tya
.sa:ma ;a.d
:sa:ma ;a.va:Sa:ma.a:a.Na ;aa:Bua.ja:~yea: a.ta ;aa:Bua.ja:[ea.a.ja.a: a.ta:ma:*:
 ;a:k

O;:k+.va:.ca:na:
a.na:deR:ZaH :P+l+~ya Za.=:a.=M :P+l+Za.=:a.=M :P+l+pra:ma.a:Na:a.ma:tya:TRaH .sa:mea
d:le ya:~ya.aH

.sea:yMa .sa:ma:d:l;a

.sa:ma:d:l;a:.ca.a:sa.Ea k+ea:f.a . ca .sa:ma:d:l+k+ea:f.a: a.ta

va:NRa:ya:a.n
/
ta .tea:Sa.Ma .sa:ma ;a.d
H
:sa:ma:[ea.a:ya.ea;=e;va :P+l+a.sa:
a;d

. . . A:sma.a:kM

:pua:naH

.sa:ma:d:l+k+ea:f.a:tya:nea:na A:va:l+}ba:k+.v.yua:tpa.ya.a a:ya.a:Na.a:ma:a.pa :P+l+na:ya:nMa

;a.sa.;
d
:m,a A:Ta:va.a yea v.yua:tpa:aMa k
u +.vRa:a.n
/
ta .tea:Sa.a:ma:a.pa a:ya.a:Na.Ma :P+l;a:na:ya:nMa
;a.sa.;
d
:mea:va k
u +.taH

? .+Qe;Sua

;a.k
+.ya.a v.yua:tpa:aa:k+.ma.Ra:Ta.Ra na.a:TRa:a.k
+.ya.a

2 I+ a.ta

I Starting with the synonyms for bh

uj
a he classifies the triangles, and then
proceeds to explain how the words sarra and samadalakot (= the
perpendicular dropped from the vertex on the base) have to be understood in
this context by quoting a maxim.

.+Qe;Sua v.yua:tpa:aa:k+.ma.Ra:Ta.Ra ;a.k

+.ya.a na A:va:ya:va.a:TRa:a.pra:pa.a:d:na.a:Ta.Ra

(Ex.

ga.EaH

A.(;a:k+.NRaH

Area of a triangle
I The formula encoded in the a
ry
a
;aa:Bua.ja:~ya :P+l+Za.=:a.=M .sa:ma:d:l+k+ea:f.a:Bua.ja.a:DRa:sMa:va:gRaH

6a

may be expressed as
phala

Area

bhuj
ardha samadalakot.
1
base altitude
2

I This formula can be employed only when the altitude is known. If altitude is not
known and only three sides are known then we find segments of the base

a
b
adh
a and hence the altitude. Bhakara
gives the formulae for finding them by
quoting a part of the verse A:nta.=;yua:M h.a:nMa d:
a.l+ta:m,a (Gan.ita 24) given by

Aryabhat
. ain a different context.
I The formulae given are:

a
badh
as

altitude

1
bhumi a
badh
antara
2
q
2
karn
badh
a
.a a

Area of a circle
I The formula given in the following a
ry
a
.sa:ma:pa:a=;Na.a:h:~ya.a:Da ;a.va:Sk+.}Ba.a:DRa:h:tamea:va vxa.a:P+l+m,a

7a

may be expressed as
phala

Area

parin
h
ardha vis.kambh
ardha
.a
1
circumference radius
2

I Bhaskara

commenting on why Aryabhat

. a used the word eva observes:
O;:va:k+a.=;k+=;Na:m,a A.a:ya.Ra:pUa.=;Na.a:Ta :pra: a.ta:pa.a:v.ya:m,a A:Ta:va.a O;:va:k+a.=;k+=;Nea:na
o+pa.a:ya:
a.na:ya:maH

;a.k
+.ya:tea .sa:ma:pa:a=;Na.a:h:~ya.a:Da ;a.va:Sk+.}Ba.a:DRa:h:tamea:va vxa.a:P+l+m,a

na.a:ya:d
u :pa.a:ya:nta.=;a.ma: a.ta .nEa:ta:d:a.~
/ /
ta

v.ya.a:sa.a:DRa:kx+. a.ta:a.~/:a:sa:*: u +Na.a

o+pa.a:ya.a:nta:(ra:va:Na.a:d:nya.a

ga:a.Na:ta:m,a

I+ a.ta .nEa:ta:d
u :pa.a:ya.a:nta.=M .sUa:[mMa ;a.k+.ntua

v.ya.a:va:h.a:a=;k+.a.ma: a.ta

. . . Or, [to be more appropriate] the use of the word eva is to indicate
that this is the only means to obtain the area of a circle. . . . there is
no other means. This is not true since 3 r 2 . . . No, this is not an
alternative method for obtaining accurate value . . .

Approximate value of
I

The Sulba-s
utra-s, give the value of close to 3.088.

Aryabhat
. a (499 AD) gives an approximation which is correct to
four decimal places.

..ca:tua.=; a.Da:k
M Za:ta:ma::gua:NMa d
a
.a:Sa:a.:~ta:Ta.a .sa:h:~:a.a:Na.a:m,
A:yua:ta:d
:ya:a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya

=
I

A.a:sa:a.ea

vxa.a:pa:a=;Na.a:hH

(100 + 4) 8 + 62000
62832
=
= 3.1416
20000
20000

The same value has been given in Ll

avat3 by removing a factor
of 8 from the denominator and the numerator.

+;a:h:tea ;a.va:Ba:
e Ka:ba.a:Na:sUa:yERaH
v.ya.a:sea Ba:na:nd.a: a.

e ;a.va:&+teaY:Ta ZEa:lE H
d
.a:a.vMa:Za: a.ta*+

=
3

3927
= 3.1416
1250

:pa:a=; a.DaH

.sua:sUa:[maH

.~TUa:l;eaY:Ta:va.a .~ya.a:d
, v.ya:va:h.a.=;ya.ea:gyaH

thats same as Aryabhat

. as value.

arya,

Ll
avat of Bhaskar
ac
verse 199.