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E
ric Stokes commented on the heat of reactions even in the British rule was restored but would have mattered much more
late 20th century to the rebellion of 1857-58. He referred if the British had been thrown out of India. Its material conse-
to the notorious scene of the massacre in Kanpur, the well quences were minor by comparison with its impact on the mind.5
down which victims were stuffed, and the site of a memorial
from which Indians other than Christians were barred until I
independence. It was then replaced by a bronze effigy of Nana
Sahib’s general, Tantia Topi. This “singularly tasteless and vicious In the 1890s H G Keene (of the Indian Civil Service, 1847-
reprisal” was curious evidence of the power of symbols, accord- 1882) wrote a history of India for students and colleges. It was
ing to Stokes. The memory of European dead was desecrated produced by W H Allen and Co, “Publishers to the India Office”.6
while more numerous Indian victims of British atrocities went It blamed the mutiny and revolt on over-ambitious changes
without memorial. For both India and Pakistan, Stokes argued, introduced by Dalhousie, policies that challenged the “two main
the rebellion had become “the formative violence of their national classes of the Natives” (Hindus and Muslims) who though not
history, the proof that colonialism had been withstood even unto uncivilised were “at an earlier stage of human development”
blood”.1 Is this why the revolt is still so prominent in the popular and thus found the “ideas and practices of Christendom
imagination, in India today as it was in Britain in the later 19th …unintelligible”. Hindus objected to attempts to curb the poly-
century? I suggest that the key aspect is that it is regarded not gamy of “certain classes of Brahmins” and feared for the cor-
just as a mutiny in the Indian army and an uprising in regions ruption by English ideas of young babus in Bengal. Muslims were
of India but as an Indian revolt against the British. “Indians rose alarmed at the deposing of the Nawab of Awadh, the threats to
against East India Company rule”, according to one recent Delhi, and the loss of elite employment; they ignored the sage
historian.2 It is said without reflection. The rebellion was thus advice that under Islamic law they were neither required nor
a crucial stage and expression of two nations in making. This permitted to rebel against the British. (This infantilising of Indians
essay is about the characterisation of the revolt. and the listing of their “irrational” prejudices were hackneyed
Definitions matter. States are built from sentiment and loyalty well before the rebellion.) Keene then acknowledged the mul-
as well as from self-interest and force. Of course technological tiplicity of more material motives in 1857. Soldiers objected to
and material changes are important to the creation of nations, their conditions and especially to overseas campaigns. In Awadh,
but they act on the ways people see themselves and their ability Henry Lawrence faced a combination of the high and low,
to combine. Conditions and understanding are shaped by eco- offended by the annexation, injured in their property and privi-
nomic and political power, but the processes are complex. Nations leges, or suffering hardship as a result of discharge from the army
develop (as do labour relations and the mode of production) not or loss of trade after the demise of the court at Lucknow. But
only from the logic of capitalism but also because of resistance, the verdict was that interference had been the problem, unlike
protest and law, which are expressions of ideas and experience. in areas still ruled indirectly through their own chiefs. Keene
Put another way, there is the power of capitalists or politicians then celebrated British military prowess, and the loyalty of the
or generals, but also the power of context, organisation and Sikhs. He cited some benefits of the victory such as an end to
rhetoric. These are distinct forms that interact.3 To return to the the Court of Directors, reorganisation of the army, the final
subject of this paper: the great rebellion of 1857-58 was crucial expulsion of the Mughals. He offered both an historical analysis
largely because of its impact on perceptions and terminology. It and a prospectus for successful British rule. It should be indirect
was – another point from Stokes – one of a wave of revolts from as far as possible but firm and conducive to loyalty.
Europe in 1848 to Taiping and Nien after 1858; but all they had in Keene did recognise the importance of sentiment. As well as
common was failure.4 The Indian uprising mattered greatly because the immediate loss of life, the interruption of business, and the