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This document provides an overview of English grammar, covering the 8 parts of speech - nouns, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It explains how a word's part of speech depends on its function in a sentence. Specific types of nouns like proper, common, abstract, and collective nouns are defined along with number and countability. Verb tenses like simple present, past, and future are introduced along with formulas. Other parts of speech like adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and articles are also briefly covered, providing definitions and examples.
This document provides an overview of English grammar, covering the 8 parts of speech - nouns, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It explains how a word's part of speech depends on its function in a sentence. Specific types of nouns like proper, common, abstract, and collective nouns are defined along with number and countability. Verb tenses like simple present, past, and future are introduced along with formulas. Other parts of speech like adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and articles are also briefly covered, providing definitions and examples.
This document provides an overview of English grammar, covering the 8 parts of speech - nouns, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It explains how a word's part of speech depends on its function in a sentence. Specific types of nouns like proper, common, abstract, and collective nouns are defined along with number and countability. Verb tenses like simple present, past, and future are introduced along with formulas. Other parts of speech like adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and articles are also briefly covered, providing definitions and examples.
1 2 8 Parts of Speech Nouns Verbs Pronouns Adverbs Adjectives Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections 3 A word is like an actor !!.. and changes its behavior to suit the role it is playing, the same word can be a different part of speech depending on what it does in a sentence!! Please light the candle - VERB This suitcase is very light - ADJECTIVE The light was very bright - NOUN 4 Nouns Proper Nouns Common Nouns Abstract Nouns Singular & Plural nouns Collective Nouns Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns 5 Examples of Each Proper nouns Mumbai, Suresh Common nouns dog, flowers Abstract nouns happiness, beauty, dishonesty, contentment, hatred Singular or Plural nouns cat, cats Collective nouns flock, staff, family Countable nouns chairs, books Uncountable nouns hair, water, luggage, accommodation, advice 6 Some Rules for Nouns Proper nouns always start with the capital letter Collective nouns are treated as a single unit and take the singular verb Eg. The regiment was marching Some nouns are only in the plural form eg. scissors, trousers, clothes Some nouns are only in the singular form eg. luggage, accomodation.They need to be prefaced by words like a an item of a piece of Some nouns are in most cases uncountable Eg milk, water, hair, rice Forms of verbs The Infinitive Simple Present Simple Past Present Participle Past Participle to eat eat ate eating eaten to give give gave giving given to cut cut cut cutting cut to drive drive drove driving driven 7 8 Three Important Verbs TO BE is, am, are, was, were, being, been TO HAVE have, has, had, having TO DO do, does, did, doing, done 9 TO BE is used to. Describe something or someone Eg Aishwarya is a beautiful woman Make a general statement Eg The weather was very hot yesterday. To describe a mood or state of mind Eg I am angry with my daughter As a supporting verb to form the present & past continuous tenses - Eg They were eating 10 TO HAVE is used to. To show ownership or possession Eg She has blue eyes Eg He had a pet Alsatian when he was a small boy While forming the present or past perfect tense Eg I have eaten my lunch Eg He had left by the time I reached home 11 TO DO is used to.. To show that some action is in progress or completed Eg- She does her homework every evening Eg This group is doing very well To form the negative Eg I dont want to go to office today Eg He doesnt like chocolate 12 Tenses Simple Present Tense Present Continuous Tense Present Perfect Tense Simple Past Tense Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Tense Simple Future Tense Future Continuous Tense 13 Simple Present This tense is used to indicate actions that happen generally or regularly. It is also used to state facts Examples I eat an apple everyday The weather is very hot today 14 FORMULA FOR SIMPLE PRESENT Subject + simple present verb form OR present tense of the verb To Be (Is/Am/Are) = Simple Present Tense Eg I (subject) eat (simple present - verb) an apple everyday stating an action that happens everyday 15 Present Continuous This tense tells us that the action is not completed and is still continuing in the present. It is made up of two part verbs Examples I am eating an apple They are playing football 16 Formula for PRESENT CONTINUOUS Subject + simple present tense of the verb to be (am, is, are) + present participle = Present Continuous Tense *( Note: Present participle is formed by adding ing to the infinitive eg sleep + ing = sleeping) 17 Some Exceptions to be noted.. Note: Certain verbs cannot be used in the continuous tense Verbs of feeling- like, love, hate, prefer, want (X Im loving it !! (Macdonalds) Verbs of thought know, understand, remember, believe, realize The verb have cannot be used to show possession in the continuous tense. 18 Present Perfect This tense is used when speaking about an action/event that has just been completed. This tense is used when one is more concerned about the impact of the action/event on the present that the action/event itself. Its often used with adverbs like just, already, recently etc. Examples o I have just eaten my breakfast o Im sorry I have forgotten your name. 19 FORMULA FOR PRESENT PERFECT Subject + Present tense of the verb have / has + past participle = Present Perfect Tense Eg.- Im sorry I cannot offer you any chocolates the children have eaten them all. Present Perfect Continuous I have been working with Principal for the last 3 years I have been working with Principal since / from July 2007 Have + been + present participle 20 21 Simple Past This tense is used to indicate an action/event that has been completed in the past, or to make a statement about an action/event that was completed in the past Examples o I ate an apple yesterday 22 FORMULA FOR SIMPLE PAST Subject + Past Tense of the verb to be i.e. (was / were) OR past tense form of any verb = Simple Past Tense Eg He died in the second world war She went to Mumbai last month. 23 Past Continuous This tense is usually used to indicate an action that was continuing in the past, when it was interrupted by another action. Example I was sleeping, when the doorbell rang 1 st action- Past Continuous 2 nd action Simple Past 24 FORMULA FOR PAST CONTINUOUS Subject + past tense of verb to be (was / were) + present participle = Past Continuous Tense Eg. They were driving down 25 Past Perfect This tense is used to show the sequence in which two actions/events happened in the past. Example o When we arrived at the party, everyone had left (When we arrived at the party everyone left!!) 1 st action in past perfect 2 nd action in simple past 26 FORMULA FOR PAST PERFECT Subject + Past tense of verb have i.e. had + past participle = Past Perfect Tense Eg. They had finished all the food by the time we reached 27 Simple Future This tense is used to indicate actions/events that have not taken place as yet, but will occur in the future Example - I will meet you tomorrow 28 FORMULA FOR SIMPLE FUTURE Subject + Will + simple present = Simple Future Tense Future Continuous Used in a predictive sense to talk about actions / events that are expected to be happening / taking place in the future Eg This time next week I will be driving down to Mumbai. Next year we will be living in our new house 29 30 FORMULA FOR FUTURE CONTINUOUS Subject + Will + BE + present participle = Future Continuous Tense 31 Some exceptions to the tense rules The Present Tense is sometimes used to indicate Future actions/events This is done when one is referring to timetables, future arrangements, schedules etc. Examples The party starts at 6o clock His train arrives at 10 pm Were leaving for Goa next week 32 Adjectives Adjectives are words that gives us more information about a noun or pronoun He is a handsome man (adj. of Quality) She didnt have much money. (adj. of Quantity) That house is for sale (demonstrative adj.) Mrs. Rao is reading to her son. (Possessive adj.) (The possessor determines both the number and gender of the adjective) 33 Adverbs Words that tell us more about the verb are called adverbs Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ly to them Examples The baby was playing happily (manner) I went to Kashmir recently (time) We meet often (frequency) 34 Degrees of Adverbs and Adjectives Adverbs Soon sooner soonest Angrily less angrily least angrily Anxiously more anxiously most anxiously Adjectives Good better best Old older oldest Bad worse worst Pronouns A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun There are 5 Types of Pronouns Personal Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Emphasizing Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Relative Pronouns 35 Personal Pronouns Subject Pronouns I, we, you, he, she, they, it (doers of the action) Object Pronouns me, us, you, him, her, them, it (receivers of the action) 36 37 Reflexive Pronouns When the action of the subject reflects on the subject itself. Eg. I burnt myself while cooking. 38 Emphasizing Pronouns This pronoun is used to emphasize a point Eg When I went to her house Aishwarya Rai made tea for me herself Possessive Pronouns This pronoun is used to show possession Eg This book is mine This car is theirs, The dog wagged its tail (Important Note: no apostrophes needed before the s in the case of possessive pronouns) 39 Relative Pronouns Time Reason Person Place Thing Subject who, that Where that,which Object when why Who/whom/ that that, which Possessive whose whose 40 41 Articles The three articles are:- A, AN, THE Some important rules for articles:- A & AN are used only for singular objects A & AN are used for indefinite or general articles A is used before words with consonantal sounds AN is used before words with vowel sounds For plural general objects SOME is used. 42 ARTICLES INDEFINITE Singular: a dog (any dog) an apple (any apple) Plural: some dogs (any dogs) some apples (any apples) DEFINITE Singular: the dog (that specific dog) the apple (that specific apple) Plural: the dogs (those specific dogs) the apples (those specific apples) 43 ARTICLES First vs. Subsequent Mention A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun. 44 ARTICLES an egg a broken egg I have an MA in English Language an unusual problem a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi- an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound) 45 ARTICLES The indefinite articles are also used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion. I am a teacher. Brian is an Irishman. Ajays son is a Dentist George is a Christian. 46 ARTICLES The is not used with non countable nouns referring to something in a general sense: [no article] Tea is a popular drink in India. [no article] Marathi is his native language. The is used with non countable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or clause: The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink. The Marathi he speaks is often heard in the villages. 47 ARTICLES The is also used when a noun refers to something unique: the Parliament House the theory of gravity the 1999 union budget 48 ARTICLES Use the before: Names of rivers, oceans & seas (the Nile) Points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole) Geographical areas (the Middle East, the West Mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Andes Deserts, forests etc, (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest). When referring to playing an instrument or even when referring to a musical instrument My daughter is learning to play the key board I like the sound of the tabla 49 Articles Use THE before An adjective in the superlative degree. Eg. - Mohd Ali was the best boxer in his times. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. Before a common noun denoting a class or a category. Eg. The tiger, The Japanese, The rich should help the poor Words that describe a specific title or specifically describe a common noun. Eg - I am waiting to meet THE Chairman 50 USAGE OF THE IN GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXTS Do not use the before: Names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US, UK, UAE Names of cities, towns, continents, or states (Delhi, Mumbai, Moscow) Names of streets (Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, Main Str.) Names of individual mountains / mountain peaks (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) Names of individuals, organisations (Proper Nouns) Names of islands (Easter Island, Iceland, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands, the Andamans, the Lakhwadeep islands etc. Names of sports / games etc. Example - The children were playing cricket. Example - I like playing carrom / table tennis / badminton etc. 51 NO ARTICLES TO BE USED BEFORE.. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Eg We traveled to Mumbai by road (not by the road) Eg we had a lot of guests for dinner (not for the dinner) Eg we reached at night (not at the night) 52 Modifiers Use of modifiers: Modifiers are words or phrases which change or the restrict the meaning of other words in a sentence. Care should be taken to place the modifier nearest to the word/ phrase it modifies, as failing to do this will result in confused and at time funny sounding sentences !! The entire meaning of the sentence can also change because of bad placement of the modifier Eg Only Hari has been granted leave for two days (Lucky fellow!) Hari has been granted leave for only two days (poor fellow!) (Here ONLY is the adverb modifier) 53 Modifiers Eg The man in the office with a long beard is getting married !! (Looks like the office needs a shave !) (Here with a long beard is the prepositional phrase modifier) The man with a long beard in office is getting married. (that makes more sense) 1 st 2 nd , 3 rd Person 1 st personis the person/s talking (I, We) 2 nd personis the person/s being talked to (you) 3 rd personis the person/s being talked about (he, she, it, they) 54 55 Moods of Verbs The mood of a verb expresses the manner/mood in which the action is being done. Some of the moods are Indicative mood Used for statements and questions eg. What are you doing ? Imperative mood Used for commands and requests eg. Come here ! Keep quiet ! Subjunctive mood Used to express a wish/hope/prayer that something may happen eg. May you live to be a hundred. If I were a millionaire I would travel round the world 56 Some important points to be noted Verbs behave differently when used with the 3 rd person singular in the present tenses (simple) Eg I do, you do, they do, he/she/it does I go, you go, they go, he/she/it goes I eat, you eat, they eat, he/she/it eats 3 moods of verbs Indicative What are you doing ? Imperative Keep quiet ! Subjunctive/Conditional If I were a millionaire I would eat off gold plates. 57 THE THREE GENDERS MASCULINE man, boy, lion, bull FEMININE woman, girl, lioness, cow NEUTER doctor, scientist, teacher Use of Pronouns with each gender:- Masculine he, his, him Feminine she, hers, her Neuter it, they, them 58 Conjunctions A word that connects sentences and phrases is called a conjunction Examples She is clever but disorganized She is intelligent and hardworking They won the match because they practised regularly He has been upset since he got his results 59 Interjections An interjection is a word used to show emotions, reactions and exclamations. All interjections have to be followed by an exclamation mark ! Examples How terrible ! The aircraft crashed. Yippee ! Ive won the lottery 60 Direct and Indirect Speech Direct Speech is the speech of a person narrated exactly as spoken by the person and is in the first person and is always enclosed within quotation marks . Examples Jayanta said, I am very fond of chocolates. Indirect speech or Reported speech is a description of the speech of a person, but not the actual words. It is not enclosed within quotation marks. Examples Jayanta said that he was very fond of chocolates. 61 Prepositions English Preposition Rule Rule Without exception - A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb. 62 Prepositions AT - Point IN Enclosed space ON - Surface at the corner at the bus stop at the door at the top of the page at the end of the road at the entrance at the crossroads in the garden in London in France in a box in my pocket in my wallet in a building in a car on the wall on the ceiling on the door on the cover on the floor on the carpet on the menu on a page 63 Prepositions of Time At - PRECISE TIME In -MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS On -DAYS and DATES at 3 o'clock at 10.30am at noon at dinnertime at bedtime at sunrise at sunset at the moment in May in summer in the summer in 1990 in the 1990s in the next century in the Ice Age in the past/future on Sunday on Tuesdays on 6 March on 25 Dec. 2010 on Christmas Day on Independence Day on my birthday on New Year's Eve Prepositions BY is used when one wants to indicate a causative factor/vehicle She was hit BY a bus. He goes to office BY car. (exception foot / cycle) I was bitten BY a dog last week. (Passive speech) WITH is used to show a tool or accompanying person/object/animal etc. She went to the party WITH her friends. I cut the cake WITH a knife. I was angry WITH her. AT is used when showing the direction where attention or action is aimed. It is also used when speaking of time or a specific point of location. He was looking AT the painting. She stopped AT a wayside restaurant, for a cup of tea. I will meet you AT the front gate AT 6 pm. 64 Prepositions IN is used to show that something or someone is already inside and at rest (not moving) it is also used while speaking of large towns/places and enclosed spaces. My boss is IN his cabin at the moment. I was born IN Mumbai. She lives IN a beautiful farmhouse. INTO is used to show entrance. I just saw my boss going INTO his cabin. TO shows a connection/linkage between two persons/objects or actions/events, also used to show comparison Ravi is married TO Rita. I prefer the colour pink TO red. 65 Prepositions FROM is used to show the beginning or a certain fixed point of time and is used with all tenses, it is also used to indicate a place or point of exit or origin. I shall be on leave FROM Monday. I have been on leave FROM Monday SINCE is used in similar situations as FROM but is in most cases used with the perfect tense i.e. with the prefix have been (Since also usually refers to past events/actions while From is used for both past & future actions/events) I have been on leave SINCE Monday FOR is used to indicate the entire period/duration under consideration. I will be on leave FOR 10 days FROM Monday 66 ABOUT is used to indicate exchange of information or querying for information with regards to someone/ something. What do you know ABOUT her ? ON is used to show the position on top of someone or something. The book is on the top shelf in my cupboard ONTO is used to show the action of climbing on top of someone or something. The groom climbed onto the horses back with great difficulty UNDER is used to indicate beneath something/one. OVER is used to indicate above something/one ACROSS indicates on the other side of. I found my pen UNDER the bed. The plane flew OVER the mountains. My best friend lives ACROSS the road. 67 UNLESS is used to show a condition UNTIL is also used to show condition, but a condition related to a time frame. WITHOUT is used to show a lack of someone/ something. BETWEEN is used for two persons, and AMONG is used for more the two persons. I am not going for the party UNLESS you come with me. I will wait here UNTIL he comes home. I went to the party WITHOUT my husband. Please divide the pastry between the two of you. Share the chocolates among the entire class. 68 Asking Questions & saying No! Interrogative & Negative 69 Types of Questions Open Ended Close Ended Also called W questions Uses the words where, what, why, who, when, which, how to ask questions along with supporting verbs to construct the sentences Used when detailed answers are required Eg. Where do you live? Also called Yes/No questions. Uses the supporting verbs to be, to do & to have to as well as defective verbs like - can, could, may, will, shall etc. to ask questions Used when yes/No answers are required Eg. Do you live in Pashan? 70 Leading Questions Not very commonly used A combination of a statement and question Used when one wants to crosscheck something Eg. You are going for a party today, arent you? You dont have to attend that meeting, do you? She is married to your cousin, isnt she? 71 72 FORMING THE INTERROGATIVE Some form their interrogative by the simple method of reversing the order of the subject and verb. This is called INVERSION. They are: Is, am are, was, were, have (has, had), will (would),shall (should), may (might), must, can (could) Constructing close ended questions in various tenses. Negative & Interrogative 73 74 Simple Present Positive / Negative/ Interrogative She eats an apple everyday. She doesnt eat an apple everyday Does she eat an apple everyday? He is an honest man. He isnt an honest man Is he an honest man? They are a nice family. They arent a nice family. Are they a nice family ? 75 Present Continuous Positive / Negative / Interrogative Im eating a chocolate Im not eating a chocolate Shes eating a chocolate She isnt eating a chocolate Is she eating a chocolate ? 76 Present Perfect Positive / Negative / Interrogative I have eaten a chocolate. I havent eaten a chocolate She has eaten a chocolate. She hasnt eaten a chocolate. Has she eaten a chocolate ? 77 Present Perfect Continuous I have been studying all morning. We have been studying all morning. She has been studying all morning. She hasnt been studying all morning Has she been studying all morning ? 78 Simple Past I ate a chocolate yesterday I didnt eat a chocolate yesterday She ate a chocolate yesterday She didnt eat a chocolate yesterday Did she eat a chocolate yesterday ? 79 Past Continuous Tense I was sleeping when the electricity went I wasnt sleeping when the electricity went She was sleeping when the electricity went She wasnt sleeping when the electricity went Was she sleeping when the electricity went? 80 Past Perfect Tense Positive/ Negative / Interrogative Id eaten my lunch by the time the guest arrived I hadnt eaten my lunch by the time the guest arrived They had eaten their lunch by the time the guest arrived. They hadnt eaten their lunch by the time the guest arrived Had they eaten their lunch by the time the guest arrived ? 81 Simple Future She will revise her work She wont revise her work. Will she revise her work? 82 AUXILIARY/ DEFECTIVE OR DISOBEDIENT VERBS Concepts and usage of these Special verbs 83 AUXILIARY/ DEFECTIVE VERBS Some verbs that behave differently:- 1. be(am, is, are, were, was, being, been) 2. have (has,have, had) 3. do(did,doing,done) 4. shall (should) 5. will (would) 6. can (could) 7. may(might) 8. must 9. need 10. used to 84 Uses of Auxiliary Verbs To form Negative Ex I do not like bananas To form interrogative Ex - Do you like bananas ? To form various tenses Ex - I have just eaten lunch Ex - We will go for a movie tomorrow To form the passive voice Ex He was bitten by a snake To form the conditional Ex - I would travel round the world if I could 85 AUXILIARY OR HELPING VERBS These are called helping verbs as they help in the following ways:- They help form - the Negative - I DO not eat beef. the Interrogative DO you eat beef ? the Present Perfect Tense She HAS taken her daughter to the dentist, or HAVE you eaten lunch ? the Past Perfect Tense They HAD eaten all the food by the time I reached home the Present Continuous Tense. - She IS cooking lunch. 86 AUXILIARY OR HELPING VERBS the Past Continuous Tense eg He WAS studying when he heard a loud noise. the Future Tense I WILL go to the doctor tomorrow the Passive Voice The man WAS bitten by the snake. the Conditional I WOULD travel round the world if I COULD afford it. 87 Why are they called defective or disobedient ? All other verbs have the following forms: Infinitive - to eat, to sleep, to do Simple present eat, sleep, do Present Participle eating, sleeping, doing Past Participle eaten, slept, done Simple Past ate, slept, did BUT defective verbs DO NOT have all these forms 88 Some important defective or disobedient verbs TO BE Used alone or along with other verbs to the form the Simple Present, Simple Past, Present Continuous, Past Continuous, Future continuous and the Passive voice. Eg The machine is being used in the other OT. (Passive Voice) I have been robbed. (passive voice) We shall be blamed for this mistake. (passive voice) 89 Some important defective or disobedient verbs Can & May Forms Simple Present & Simple Past can & could May & might only Simple Present & Simple Past They do not have an infinitive, present participle or past participle form 90 CAN AND MAY their meanings and usage Can means to be able to Example Can you breathe properly with the mask on ? Could you breathe with the mask on? BUT For other tenses one needs to use be able to in place of can Example Will you be able to breathe with the mask on? (Future tense) Have you been able to breathe with the mask on? 91 CAN AND MAY their meanings and usage May is used to show doubt and to ask for permission Example May I use your toilet? I may go to Mumbai next week For the other tenses we use allow, permit or let in place of may Example She has allowed me to use the toilet (PP) She will permit me to use the toilet (FT) She is permitting me to use the toilet (PC) 92 Some important defective or disobedient verbs Must Only one form i.e. Simple Present Must has two meanings:- A command or compulsion Example You must eat only after washing your hands A conclusion or reasonable assumption Example You must be tired of waiting for so long Negative I mustnt forget to visit my grandmother today 93 Should & Would Should and would in addition to being the past tense form of will and shall are very often used with other verbs to make conditional sentences. Would is also used to make polite conversation Examples You should work hard if you want to see results. I would definitely help you if I could. Geeta would read more if she had the time. I would like to open a bank account. Would you like a cup of coffee? 94 Difference between usage of shall & will Shall In the 1 st person used for routine actions eg. I shall begin the lecture by 9 am. In 2 nd & 3 rd person used to show determination or a promise eg. He shall donate a part of a pocket money to charity. Cannot use shall for 2 nd for 3 rd person interrogative. Eg. Shall he lend some money to me? Will In the 1 st person used to show determination or a promise. Eg. I will not tolerate any disrespectful behaviour from my children In the 2 nd & 3 rd person used for routine actions. Eg. They will bathe the dog today. Cannot use will for 1 st person interrogative eg. Will I make you a cup of tea? *But will can be used in 1 st person interrogative to express doubt Will we reach on time to catch the train? 95 SOME EXERCISES In each of the following sentences replace the underlined words with can, could, may, might or must We are able to lift that box My mother said we were allowed to play indoors Grandmother is likely to be tired after the long journey He was so tall he was able to reach the top shelf Mr.Sharma is probably relieved that his illness is not serious He said he wasnt able to come to the meeting 96 SOME EXERCISES You have to stick both sides of the paper Madam says Im permitted to enter the classroom It is necessary for me to ask for a loan Everyone is compelled to obey the law It seems reasonable to suppose that you must be anxious to know the exam results Anisa has to look after her younger sister 97 Going to Going to A way of expressing future action or a deliberate intention or threat. Example - I am going to tell your father what you have done. We are going to drive throughout the night. Also used to express the strong probability that something will happen. Example - The weather experts are sure that the river is going to flood as a result of the continuous heavy rains we have been having during the last two weeks. 98 Constructing Going to sentences Subject + (is, am, are, was, were) + going to + simple present tense of a verb = going to sentence Example I am going to tell your father. They were going to drive to Mumbai 99 Used to Used to : helps to express the state or condition of person, place or object in the past, before a change (either negative or positive) took place. Also expresses certain actions or events of the past. Example When we visited our native village as children, we used to spend the whole day breaking and eating tamrinds and mangoes from the trees. The personality development course has really changed her, she used to be such a shy and quiet person before. 100 Constructing Used to sentences Subject + used to + simple present tense of a verb = used to sentence Example We used to break tamrinds from the neighbours tree when we were young. They used to go for a walk every morning during their holiday 101 PUNCTUATION Apostrophe - () (done in detail later) Quotation Marks () Eg He said, Let us consider the first suggestion. Eg Your interpretation of socialism is different from mine. (here single quotation marks can be used as well) Dash - (_) Eg A similar exercise-you would recall- was done last year Hyphen - (-) Eg Chicken-hearted, cross-examine (compound words) Eg anti-inflation, re-educate (complex words) Eg forty-six (compound numbers) Brackets - ( ) Eg We have already discussed (chapter 7) how to deal with such situations. (to show reference) Eg Immovable property (land and buildings) can be offered as security. (to insert a parenthesis) 102 Apostrophe Contractions I cant find the file. You shouldnt be breaking the rules of the organization. o Hes been unwell since last Monday Possession The Directors secretary has been jailed. The managers file has been stolen. Keats books (single syllable name) Dickens book (multi-syllable name) 103 Apostrophe Plurals The department was set up in the 90s. The trainee got two As in Communication Skills. Incorrect or no usage of apostrophe I wont be able to meet that deadline. Gary computer contains some sensitive information The company was established in the 80s. She got four Bs in her assessment. 104 CAPITALIZATION: Capitals are used for:- 1. Names of persons, places, rivers, oceans, mountains, organizations and designations Example Delhi, Mahesh, Ganga, Bureau of Statistics, Himalaya 2. Names of days and months Example Monday, January 3. Holidays and religious days Example New Year, Diwali, Christmas 4. Adjectives of nationality Example French, Indian, German 105 CAPITALIZATION: Name of trains, aero planes and ships Example Shatabdi, Deccan Queen, Sagar Samrat 6. Abbreviations of degrees, eras and organizations Example B.E., A.D., UNESCO 7. Names and pronouns referring to god Example Our Father in Heaven 8. 9. At the beginning of a direct quotation and a sentence Example Hari said, You have done a great job. 106 ABBREVIATIONS & NUMERALS Abbreviations are commonly used for:- Days of the week & months of the year Example - Mon, Tue, Jan, Feb Titles before names Example - Mr. Smt. Dr. Prof. Maj., Capt., Measurements & weights Example cms., kg, mm, gms. Miscellaneous Example - RSVP, etc., 107 Some more forms of verbs The Present Infinitive: This is one of the non-finite forms of verbs. The usual rule while constructing a sentence with the Present Infinitive is to put a to before it when it comes after another verb or verbs. Eg- I was waiting to cross the road. She tried to start the car. They went to meet their grandmother in the hospital. We all like to watch television. 108 Active and Passive Voice In sentences that have a subject and an object one needs to have a transitive verb as the action of the subject travels to or affects the object. Example - The dog bit the man the dog (subject) is the doer and the man (object) is the receiver of the action being done by the dog (i.e. biting) But sometimes by shifting the words around in the sentence one can make it such that the subject is no longer the doer of the action as in this example The man was bitten by the dog. In the above sentence the man who was actually the object in the original version of this sentence now becomes the subject of the sentence 109 Active and Passive Voice The Passive voice can only be made from sentences which have transitive verbs. A transitive verbs ensures that an action is travelling from the subject to the object. If there is no receiver of an action the passive voice cannot be created The purpose of passive voice is in cases where the receiver of the action (object) is more important than the doer of the action (subject) Places where Passive Voice is used When the Subject is unknown When the Object is more important than the Subject Eg The dog (subject) bit the man (obj) The man (obj) was bitten by the dog (sub) The xxx robbed the jewelry store The jewelry store was robbed 110 111 Constructing the Passive Voice Simple Present - Babies drink milk (Active) - Milk is drunk by babies (Passive) Object + present tense of the to be verb + Past Participle = Passive voice (Simple Present) 112 Constructing the Passive Voice Simple Past - Meena & Ratan made a sand castle (Active) - A sand castle was made by Meena and Ratan (Passive) Object + past tense of the to be verb + Past Participle = Passive voice (Simple Past) 113 Constructing the Passive Voice Simple Future - Meena & Ratan will make a sand castle (Active) - A sand castle will be made by Meena and Ratan (Passive) Object + will + be + Past Participle = Passive voice (Simple Future) 114 Constructing the Passive Voice Present / Past Continuous - Meena & Ratan are making a sand castle (Active) - A sand castle is being made by Meena and Ratan (Passive) Object + Present / Past tense of to be verb + being + Past Participle = Passive voice (Present / Past Continuous) 115 Constructing the Passive Voice Present / Past Perfect - Meena & Ratan have made a sand castle (Active) - A sand castle has been made by Meena and Ratan (Passive) Object + have / has / had + been + Past Participle = Passive voice (Present / Past Continuous) 116 Active & Passive Voice Examples Tigers eat deer. Deer are eaten by tigers (Simple Present) Ravi completed the project within 10 days The project was completed (by Ravi) within 10 days. (Simple Past) The Police will arrest the thief by tomorrow The thief will be arrested by tomorrow - (Simple Future) The cats have eaten all the fish bones. All the fish bones have been eaten by the cats. (Present Perfect) Sunil had broken the window last week. The window had been broken by Sunil last week. (Past Perfect) The office is expecting the director to reach by 10 am . The director is expected to reach by 10 am (Present Continuous). The thieves were robbing the house, when the burglar alarm rang . The house was being robbed, when the burglar alarm rang. (Past Continuous) 117 Active & Passive Voice 118 Keeping Time in English Half Past two Quarter past three Quarter to four Five thirty Six fifteen Ten to six Twenty to eight Five past two Ten past seven Twelve noon Twelve mid-night 119 SOME EXAMPLES My mother shouted ---- me We came ----- foot I stopped ---- the caf She sliced ----- the cake with a knife The cake was ---- an airtight box The vultures hovered ----- the dead body I go to school ----- my bicycle She is angry ------ me The children laughed ------ her He was born ----- Mumbai 120 Punctuation Some punctuation marks Comma - (,) Eg Hari, the son of Ramesh Anil said, This must be completed today. Semicolon - (;) Eg Health means happiness; illness means misery Colon - (:) Eg Please send the following: 21 pins, 36 boxes of paper Punctuation Full Stop - (.) Eg - B.E. / M.B.B.S. / Mr. Mrs. Prof. (abbreviations) Eg - The meeting will be held at 7 p.m. (Note: only one period for both the abbreviation and end of the sentence) Question Mark - (?) Eg - Whats the time? Eg The report written in August 1986 (?) has not been processed yet. (used within brackets to indicate doubt) 121 122 THE END THANK YOU