Fabrication of a Low-Cost Wireless Intercom Unit

_________________________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Graduate School of
Uniersit! of Saint Louis Tu"ue"arao
Tu"ue"arao Cit!
_________________________
Sherwin #$ Catolos
%&&'
0
Chapter I
The Problem and Its Background
Introduction
In broad sense, the term communication refers to the
sending, receiving and processing of information by
electronic means. Communications started with wire
telegraphy in the eighteen forties, developing with
telephony some decades later and radio at the beginning of
this century (Kennedy, 1995. It became even more widely
used and refined through the invention and use of the
transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor
devices.
!enerally, electronic communication systems have basic
components such as transmitter, a communications channel or
medium, and a receiver. In most systems, a human generates
medium, and a receiver. In most systems, a human generates a
message which contains information, or intelligence, signal.
"his signal is inputted to the transmitter which then
transmits the message over the communication channel. "he
message is pic#up by the receiver and is relayed to another
human ($oddy % Coolen, 1995.
In communication systems, all pieces of communications
e&uipment were individually pac#aged in units based on their
1
function. In general, transmitters and receives were always
separate units. "oday, however, most two way communications
e&uipment is pac#aged so that all the functions are
contained within a single housing. "ypically, both the
transmitter and receiver are in the same pac#age. 'or this
reason, this combination of units is refereed to as a
transceiver. "ransceiver vary in si(e and comple)ity from
very large, high power, des#top units to the very small,
poc#et*si(e, hand*held wal#ie*tal#ies ('ren(el, 1995.
Intercom is an e)ample where the transmitter and
receiver are pac#aged in a single housing that has made it
#nown for its mobility, lower cost, and in some cases,
smaller si(e. It is a private telecommunication system that
allows typically two or more locations to communicate with
each other li#e telephone.
+any productions which needs co*operation of more than
a few people need special intercoms that cover many users.
Intercom systems used in ", and stage productions are
usually headset type intercoms connected to one line using
party line arrangement. "he primary use of this type of
system is in live or media productions where (for e)ample
the video director spea#s to the camera operators, or where
the stage manager spea#s to the stage hands and lighting
operator, etc.
2
Intercom systems, by definition, may be comprised of
many different types of intercoms and subsystems. "he most
basic intercom circuit consists of two intercom stations
lin#ed to each other with a push to tal# (-"" switch. "his
#ind of circuits are simple and generally consist of only
one or two amplifiers and generally use the spea#er as
normal spea#er and microphone (how it is used depends on
tal# switch position. .epending on the circuit design there
could be one -"" switch on one end, or separate -""s on both
stations. /hen one wants to get rid of push to tal# switch
and want full duple), things get more complicated to build.
(http011www.epanorama.et1lin#s1intercom1html2generalin#s,
3ct 45, 4555
/ith the above set*up, limitations and disadvantages
can be encountered. 6sing wire can contribute to costly set*
up and eventually area covered by the system will be
limited. 7lso, its applications can no longer be benefited
when endeavors with mobility are re&uired.
"wo way radios were first to arrive in the mar#et, and
have been used and wor#ed for some applications such as pre*
show setup and post*show teardown. 8ut this did not,
however, do as well for the rigors of line television
production. ("9:9; <andboo#,455 It is operating in half*
duple) communication scheme. +eaning, while there is bi*
3
directional conversation, only one user may communicate at a
time and all other users must listen until the person who is
communicating is finished. -roblems then would seem to be
evident in communicating one from the other, say, during a
show.
"wo*way radios have higher operating power which
affords substantially increased operating range of over a
mile or more in some cases.("9:9; <andboo#,4555 <owever,
power consumption would be increasing as well. +oreover, a
system having high power would mean that battery supplies
are insufficient and mobility of users would be unfitted to
the system.
/ireless intercoms ne)t generation has been a solution
to conventional two*way radios. "here e)ists a wireless
intercom whose transmitter power is low that even dry cell
battery can be used to generate it. :i#ewise, intercom
systems can be designed in a way to get rid of using base
stations which adds up to the comple)ity of the system.
Innovations have been incorporated also to really meet the
satisfaction of users.
"his system, at long last, provided engineers with a
reliable and functional solution to the wireless
communications problem.("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
4
"hus, the need to fabricate a prototype of wireless
intercom unit yet at low cost is conceived.
Project Objectives
"he ob=ectives of the study were0
1. to design and fabricate a wireless intercom unit
4. to test its functionality and performance
>. to determine and assess its interference effect to
e)isting communication systems available in the locale of
the study
?. to compare between the cost of the pro=ect with the
commercially available device.
Scope and Delimitation
"he study was limited in the fabrication of a wireless
intercom system to be used by the !eodetic 9ngineering
students in their field survey activities of the College of
9ngineering, 7rchitecture and 'ine 7rts at 6niversity of
@aint :ouis, "uguegarao City.
"he pro=ect would be operating at the ,<' range,
specifically, in the '+ spectrum, 9?.1 +<(, and at a power
output classified as Class . to conform to the A"C
regulations regarding unlicensed stations. :i#ewise, the
pro=ect would be operating in the half duple) mode and the
5
range that could be covered would be within the vicinity of
the locale of the study.
"he pro=ect would be tested within the campus with
regards to its functionality and its interference effect to
e)isting communication systems within the campus.
Significance of the Study
"he main contribution of this study was to develop a
prototype wireless intercom unit to be used by students.
"he following were benefited in this study0
dministration! "his design would enable the
administration to provide students with state*of*the art
means of communication gadget yet at low cost.
"esearcher! "his pro=ect would provide the researcher
the essential procedures, details and other set*up to
enhance the #nowledge and s#ills of the researcher in the
design of electronic communication systems.
Students. "his pro=ect design would provide students
opportunities to enhance their #nowledge in communication
system.
#uture "esearchers! "his study would serve as basis for
future researchers in the fabrication of similar electronic
devices.
6
Chapter II
"$%T$D %IT$"T&"$ 'D ST&DI$S
7
In this chapter, the &uotations, summaries, discussion
of the principles, theories, concepts, and findings from
those literatures which were found to be significant and
valuable to the study are presented.
"elated %iterature
Development of Communication
Communications between human beings probably begun in
the form of human gestures and facial e)pression, which
gradually evolved in the verbal grunts and groans. ,erbal
communications using sound waves however was limited by how
loud a person could yell. :ong*distance communications
probably began with smo#e signals or tom*tom drums, and that
using electricity began in 1B>C when @amuel 'inley 8reese
+orse invented the first wor#able telegraph. +orse applied
for a patent in 1B>B and was finally granted in 1B?B. <e
used electromagnetic induction to transfer information in
the form of dots, dashes, and spaces between a simple
transmitter and receiver using a transmission line
consisting of a length of metallic wire. In 19CD, 7le)ander
!raham 8ell and "homas 7. /atson were the first to
successfully transfer human conversation over a crude
8
metallic*wire communications system using a device tey
called the telephone. ("omasi, 455?
In 1B9?, +archese !uglielmo +arconi successfully
transmitted the first wireless radio signal through earthEs
atmosphere, and in 195D, :ee .e'orest invented the triode
vacuum tube, which provided the first practical means of
amplifying electrical signals. Commercial radio broadcasting
began in 1945 when radio station K.K7 began broadcasting
amplitude*modulated (7+ signals out of -ittsburgh,
-ennsylvania. In 19>1, +a=or 9dwin <oward 7rmstrong patented
fre&uency*modulation ('+. Commercial broadcasting of
monophonic '+ began in 19>5. ("omasi, 455? /ireless
communications seem to grow rapidly and becoming more
sophisticated due to the state*of*the*art development of
electronic devices and integrated circuits (ICs and also
to the unending desire of human to create and develop
something that suffice their needs of communication
#&'D($'T%S O# CO((&'ICTIO' S)ST$(
"he fundamental re&uirement of a communication system
is to change data between two parties. It consists of an
information source and destination connected by a
communication channel (medium, which transfers message from
transmitter to receiver.
9
In fact telecommunications involve the conversion of
messages may be in the form of words or coded symbols, into
electrical voltage or current which varies with the time and
is used to carry information from sending and to receiving
end. @uch electrical &uantities are termed as signals. "his
conversion process is referred to as encoding. "his encoded
signal is then fed to the modulation where the signal is
mi)ed with the carrier for transmission. "he process of
encoding and modulation ta#es place in the transmitter.
(Kumar and Fagannathan, 455?
In addition to their normal function of message
(information to signal (data conversion, modern encoders
also employ various data processing to protect the data from
channel disturbances so that, the information can be easily
retrieved bac# at the receiver by simple decoding process.
"he communication channel is the path or medium for
electrical or electromagnetic transmission between the
transmitter and the receiver. "his maybe either a guided
transmission line such as a single wire, pair of wires,
waveguides, fiber optic cables and coa)ial lines or a home
10
Tx Source Rx Destination
Medium
guided atmosphere or space channels such as radio wave,
microwave and laser beam.
7t the receiving end, it is re&uired that a
corresponding bac#*mapping is done to reconnect the signal
with the original message. "his process is referred to as
decoding (demodulation. "he associated module with this
process is the receiver. (Kumar and Fagannathan, 455?
*istory of +ireless Intercoms
In the beginning there was wire, and the wire was good.
@oon engineers reali(ed if they could cut the wires and move
the audio, video and communications signals around the
television venue without encumbering cables, they would have
tremendous freedom to accommodate ever*increasing production
challenges. "hey also believed that wireless transmission of
signals would ma#e their =ob easier by not having to run
miles of cable for large remote productions. It turned out
not to be so simple. .eveloping wireless microphones,
wireless cameras and wireless intercom systems would be a
trial and error adventure that has spanned the last >5 years
or more (www.tele).com1intercom1features, 3ctober 45, 4555
"he original Gwireless intercomH consisted of two*way
radios and a headset. "he advantage of the technology was
11
readily available and it was relatively ine)pensive to use.
"wo ways wor#ed well for some applications, such as pre*show
setup and post*show teardown where they are still used today
in much the same way they were >5 years ago. "wo*ways (now
often called <"s or <andie*"al#ies have higher operating
power which affords substantially increased operating power
of over a mile or more in some cases. "his range can be
increased to cover an entire city by the use of repeater
stations located at the top of centrally located buildings
("9:9; <andboo#, 4555.
"wo*way radios did not, however, do as well for the
rigors of live television production. In live ",, the
restrictive nature of <"s was only too evident. 'irst, <"s
utili(e a half*duple) communication scheme. <alf*duple)
means that while there is bi*directional conversation, only
one user may communicate at a time and all other users must
listen until the person who is communicating is finished.
.uring setup this does not pose a huge problem, but during a
show, when seconds can seem li#e hours, this can be a real
problem. Imagine a cameraman is transmitting over a half*
duple) <" system, while the director is trying to ta#e a new
hot or ma#e some other time*critical change. 3bviously, a
half*duple) system would never do.
12
@oon after it become apparent that a half*duple)
communications system would never satisfy the needs of on*
air production, a vast array of new <"*based system
configurations emerged. "he greatest of these utili(ed two
<"s on each user and multiple base station units in a
comple) repeater configuration. 7n interface bo) allowed
users to wear one headset that fed both radios at once.
/hile achieving some of the functionality of the most basic
modern day wireless intercom, the system was bul#y, heavy
and unreliable due to the numerous wires and comple)ity of
setup. /hile this system was much closer, it still did not
offer communications professionals the robust functionality
and reliability they needed for day*to*day operations.
"he ne)t generation of wireless intercoms to hit the
scene was truly a brea#through. It eliminated much of the
comple) wiring and minimi(ed the e&uipment the user was
forced to wear. "he system consisted of a base station and
multiple user beltpac# pairs. In the base station there was
a single transmitter and multiple receivers (one for each
wireless user. "he audio coming from each receiver was put
on a single intercom channel or audio bus, and was fed to
the transmitter as well as an e)ternal intercom line. "he
transmitter was a low power, always on unit that maintained
constant outgoing information to all wireless users.
13
9ach user station in the system consisted of two
beltpac#s, one for transmitting and one for receiving. "wo
beltpac#s were necessary to combat the phenomenon #nown as
desensing, where a transmitter in close pro)imity to a
receiver causes the receiver to have greatly reduced
sensitivity. 9ach wireless userEs transmitter was on a
uni&ue fre&uency which corresponded to receiverEs fre&uency
in the base station. 7ll of the wireless usersE receivers
were tuned to the same fre&uency which corresponded to the
single base transmitter. 7 single headset with a split feed
cable eliminated the need for an e)ternal headset interface
bo). 8y utili(ing this system, each wireless user could
communicate to both hardwired and wireless intercom users in
a full duple) mode (httIIwww.tele).com, 3ct. 45, 4555
"his system, at long last, provided engineers with a
reliable and functional solution to the wireless
communications problem. 'uture systems would combine receive
and transmit beltpac#s and incorporate numerous interfacing
and operational advantages.
(odern Intercom Systems
14
"odayEs wireless intercom systems are technological
giants compared to their earlier predecessors. "hey allow
users to Gcut the cableH of hardwired party*line systems and
move about freely within the systemEs operational range.
+odern wireless intercoms can be either party*line intercom
systems or individual beltpac# systems that allow users to
operate independently from other wireless users. !ood
&uality systems can be seamlessly attached to e)isting
hardwired communications systems commonly used in broadcast
and other facilities. +odern, high &uality wireless
intercoms offer a distinct advantage over traditional, two*
way radios in that they offer a more natural full*duple)
operation. "his enables all users on the system to spea# and
hear other users simultaneously without GcoveringH other
usersE transmissions.
"he demands of modern broadcast productions ma#e the
full*duple) operation of wireless intercom systems an
absolute necessity for stage managers, lighting and audio
technician, or any professional who has to deal with the
brea#nec# speed and comple)ity of television productions.
"he spread of digital television (.", and the ever*
increasing number of wireless users has made the available
fre&uency spectrum a more difficult place in which to find
available channels for wireless intercoms. "he spectrum has
15
also become a lot smaller, especially considering that four
television channels (4? +<( of spectrum have been
reallocated for public safety use and the upcoming
reallocation of 6<' ", channels D5 through D9 (D5 +<( of
spectrum. 8roadcast professionals now have to consider such
factors as the compatibility of fre&uencies with each other,
as well as, how to best avoid interference with local ",
transmitters. 6nli#e wireless microphones that operate only
in one direction, wireless intercoms have more specific
fre&uency spectrum re&uirements because of the relationship
between the transmitter and receiver fre&uencies. 9ach
intercom (if it is to be full*duple) must have at least one
system transmitter fre&uency that broadcasts to all
beltpac#s and one receiver fre&uency for each individual
beltpac# in the system. 'or a four beltpac# system, also
#nown as a four up, that means it must have a minimum of
five total fre&uencies. 9ach beltpac# must have a receiver
set to the base transmit fre&uency and a transmitter set to
its own uni&ue receiver in the base. .ue to a phenomenon
mentioned earlier called desensing, these two fre&uencies
must have a fairly large fre&uency separation, typically at
least 14 +<( for ,<' systems, and even more for 6<', or the
transmitter will interfere with the receiverEs operation.
16
"he answer to the fre&uency problem is to utili(e a
digitally synthesi(ed, fre&uency agile system. "hat may
sound simple enough in theory, but in reality, designing
such a product is a totally different matter. 7 digitally
synthesi(ed, fre&uency agile system must not only
incorporate a superior design with high*&uality filtering to
withstand the rigors of an overcrowded fre&uency spectrum,
but it must also offer an ergonomically designed user
interface that allows ease of fre&uency selection and
operation. 9nd users must e)perience the same ease of
operation they get from their e)isting two*wire beltpac#s.
"o date, the chief limitation to most wireless
intercoms (other than finding available spectrum has been
inherently one*channel in nature while the most common
hardwired intercom system from $"@ (used in virtually all ",
broadcast truc#s and facilities is two*channel. "wo*channel
operation allows users to switch easily from one intercom
channel to another. "his allows a stage manager, for
instance, to communicate with the producer and then switch
over to the director circuit as necessary. "wo*channel
operation has become the hardwired industry standard and
users who have increasingly relied on wireless intercoms
form without having to deal with huge rac#s full of
e&uipment.
17
/ireless intercom systems that can operate in high $'
environments must not only offer interference resistant
operation, but must utili(e design techni&ues that will not
interfere with other wireless e&uipment li#e wireless
microphones. 7nother #ey to a wireless intercomEs successful
operation and coe)istence with .", is its ability to avoid
strong local ", stations, as well as, coordinate multiple
system fre&uencies. "his holds true whether the system is
,<' or 6<', fi)ed*fre&uency, fre&uency*agile or synthesi(ed.
6tili(ing the minimum power necessary is absolutely critical
if wireless intercoms are to coe)ist with other low*power
wireless e&uipment. "he utili(ation of intelligent systems
that reduce beltpac# transmitter power levels as they get
closer to the base station can greatly decrease the harmful
interference that can be associated with wireless
communications fear.
'uture wireless intercoms will need to provide users
with fre&uency agility, high*end filtering, $' power
management, ease of use, two*channel operation, e)tended
battery life, small lightweight beltpac# and a user
interface that allows operational and fre&uency parameters
to be easily set and chec#ed without the use of e)ternal
e&uipment, such as a laptop computer or special interface
bo).
18
7s wireless intercom applications for broadcast
professionals continue to grow more comple) and challenging,
the need for products that can meet these challenges will
also grow accordingly ("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
Considerations for +ireless Intercoms
/ireless communications have become an integral part of
the total professional communications pac#age. "here are,
however, many factors associated with wireless that need to
be understood and addressed that do not come into play with
hardwired communications systems. In this section, we loo#
at the special considerations that must be considered when
deciding whether or not to implement a wireless system. "he
first area of study is the $' spectrum and how it can be
used to implement a wireless, intercom system.
"raditionally, wireless intercoms have been a function of
broadcast television productions, and as such have used, at
least in part, a spectrum that falls under 'CC Code ?C C'$,
-art C? in addition to itinerant fre&uencies. "he spectrum
most commonly used falls into two areas0 ,<' systems from
appro)imately 15? +<( to 41D +<(, and 6<' systems from
?D5+<( to D5B +<( and D1? J B5D +<(. 7s mentioned, large
chun#s of this spectrum have either been reallocated, or
will soon be reallocated. "he 'CC has found that auctioning
19
spectrum is a good way for the commission to move from an
e)pense center to a profit center, and they are pursuing it
with a passion.
/ireless intercoms, li#e any other wireless system,
re&uire at least one transmitter to function. 6nder 'CC
rules, all transmitters must be licensed prior to operation
(there are some very low power transmitters that can operate
and do not need to be licensed, but that doesnEt apply to
any modern $' intercom systems. "here are different forms
to obtain various types of licenses depending on what area
of the spectrum your system will operate in, who will be
operating the system, and what the system will be used for.
"he law is very clear in that no one is permitted to operate
a transmitter typically used for wireless intercom systems
without first obtaining an 'CC license.
/ireless e&uipment often operates in areas of the $'
spectrum that are designated for ", channels, but are unused
in a given area. In all cases low power transmitters used by
wireless intercoms and wireless microphones must operate on
a secondary, non*interfering basis. "his means that wireless
users must not cause harmful interference to television or
other receivers, and must accept all interference sources.
In #eeping with this, the 'CC rules state that ,<' systems
must not be operated within 55 miles of a television
20
transmitter occupying a similar spectrum. "he rules further
state that 6<' systems must not be operated within C5 miles
of a television transmitter occupying a similar spectrum
("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
Design of +ireless Intercom Systems
"he design, and subse&uent operation, of a wireless
intercom system is, li#e any wireless networ#, highly
dependent on numerous factors. @ome of these factors you
will have control over, but many you will not. "he #ey to
successful wireless system design, whether it is intercoms,
talent audio, or roving camera, is to gather the information
related to all the variables before you get started and then
match the system components and architecture to your
specific re&uirements. "here is no such thing as a one si(e
fits all wireless system.
"he study on $' is one of the basics to understand. "he
defining factor for $' signals is the medium through which
they propagate. 7ll energy that travels in waves propagates
through some medium which allows the wave to move from one
location to another. In the case of sound, the medium is
typically air or water or some other physical mass. $'
signals on the other hand, regardless of fre&uency, always
propagate or move through the electromagnetic spectrum.
21
/hereas sound needs some physical mass to move, $' signals
do not. "he electromagnetic spectrum e)ists everywhere and
enables $' signals to move through the vast vacuum of space
where sound waves could never go. ($oddy and Coolen, 1995
"he name electromagnetic is really a combination of two
words, electron (or electronic and magnet (or magnetic.
"he reason for this is that waves that propagate in the
electromagnetic spectrum have two separate and distinct
components, an electrical and magnetic. "hese two components
e)ist at right angles to each other, as well as, to the
direction of propagation. "he electrical component, or field
as it is called, is represented by the letter 9 and the
magnetic field by the letter <. ("9:9; <andboo#,4555
#igure! The electric field and magnetic field
"he 9 and < fields in two separate planes are 95
5
apart
from each other. $' signals at different fre&uencies have
different propagation characteristics and are affected by
e)ternal forces in different ways. "he reason for this is
22
the ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and magnetic
components of an $' wave vary dramatically as fre&uency
changes. !enerally spea#ing, the magnetic component of an $'
wave is much greater than the electrical component at very
low fre&uencies. 7s the fre&uency increases, the electrical
component increases and the magnetic component decreases,
until, at very high fre&uencies, the electrical component is
much greater than the magnetic. "he different ma#eup of $'
waves at different fre&uencies is what allows us to use the
signals for different and sometimes unusual applications.
'or instance, at super low fre&uencies, such as 5 <ert(,
where the magnetic component is e)tremely dominant, the 6@
Aavy has been able to propagate $' signals through the
9arthEs core to communicate wit submarines on the other side
of the world. "ry that at 1> !<(K In a more pertinent
e)ample, at much higher fre&uencies the highly reflective
nature of the mostly electrical component wave can cause
self*interference, #nown as multipath. +ultipath can cause
an $' signal to be unusable at a very short distance from
the transmitter if not properly handled. ("9:9; <andboo#,
4555
23
In its most basic form, an $' system puts information
on an $' signal, sends it to a remora location and retrieves
the information in e)actly the same form as it originally
e)isted. "he transmitter is a device that has an input for
information, audio, data, or some other form of intelligence
called a source signal, that needs to get from here to
there. "he transmitter then ta#es that information and puts
it onto an $' signal. "he $' signal is called a carrier
because it, in effect, carries the source signal as it
propagates. "he process of actually putting the source
signal onto the carrier is called modulating the carrier,
which normally is referred to simply as modulation. "he
carrier which has had the source signal applied is then
broadcast into the air (actually the electromagnetic
spectrum via an antenna. "he antenna is a transducer that
allows the carrier to be efficiently broadcast or received.
24
3nce the signal is broadcast into the air, it
propagates out away from the transmit antenna and eventually
reaches the receive antenna. "he area between the transmit
antenna and the receive antenna is called the propagation
path, or =ust path. 7t the receive antenna, the signal,
which is now much wea#er, is collected and enters into the
receiver. "he receiverEs =ob is to find the one uni&ue
carrier from the transmitter and strip off the source signal
so it e)actly matches the original information. "his process
is called demodulation.
It is #nown that $' propagates or moves from one point
to another, and that propagation can be affected by the
fre&uency of the wave. "he energy carried by the wave moves
away from the original point in all directions e&ually and
each vector that can be drawn from the center point
represents $' energy traveling away from the point of origin
in a straight line. ("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
'igure. /ave -ropagation
In addition, the $' wave continually gets wea#er as it
moves away from the transmit antenna. "he rate at which the
25
wave becomes wea#er can be calculated via the inverse s&uare
law 11. where . L distance traveled by the wave. "his is a
very important concept because it shows why a wave that
travels twice as far as another wave of e&ual magnitude is
not half as strong. 'or instance, two transmitters ";7 and
";8 both emit signals that are e)actly the same at 1 /att of
power. "he signal from ";7 travels 15 units. -ower at that
point can be calculated by1115
4
) 1/ or 5.51 ) 1/. "hat
means there is 5.51/ of the ";7 signal left after it has
traveled 15 units. Aow letEs say that the ";8 signal travels
twice the distance of ";7 or 45 units. -ower at that point
can be calculated by 1145
4
) 1/ or 5.5545 ) 1/. "hat means
there is 5.5545/ of the ";8 signal left after it has
traveled 45 units. "hat is, the signal that traveled twice
as far was not M the power, but N the power of the first
signal. ("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
8ecause of the inverse s&uare law, the effective
radiated power (9$- of a given transmitter must increase by
a factor of four times to achieve twice the operating range.
"his information is important in determining the necessary
power for a wireless system for a given range. It is always
important to use the minimum power necessary to accomplish
the tas# at hand so that e)cess power does not affect other
systems and cause undue harm.
26
"he theoretical range of an $' system is important to
#now, but it is the functional range that must be more
concerned with. "he functional range of a system ta#es into
account a certain cushion factor called fade margin that
will ensure the signal coming from the transmitter to the
receiver will not only be detectable, but will also be
usable. "his is less of a concern in communications systems
as you can tolerate less fade margin than in an on*air
wireless microphone system, because a small momentary
dropout will not critically affect communications as
compared to audio.
$' waves travel away from the source in a straight line
until that path is interrupted or disturbed by some outside
influence. $' waves are being reflected and this changes the
path of some of the $' energy. "his phenomenon is called
reflection.
#igure! "eflection of Signals
27
-olari(ation is the term that describes the orientation
of an $' wave. "here are two components that ma#e up an $'
wave, the electrical and the magnetic. "he 9 field was the
electrical component and that the < field was the magnetic
component. "he polari(ation of an $' signal is determined by
the orientation of the 9 field. If the 9 field is
perpendicular to the plane of the 9arth, the wave is said to
be vertically polari(e. If the 9 filed is parallel to the
plane of the 9arth, the wave is said to be hori(ontally
polari(ed.
"ransmit and receive antennas of the same system must
be oriented in the same direction (plane to have a proper
transfer of the carrier. In theory, if a transmit antenna is
oriented vertically, thus producing a vertically polari(ed
carrier, and the corresponding receive antenna is oriented
hori(ontally, the receive antenna will not be able to see
the vertically polari(ed wave at all. In practice, there
will always be some polari(ation shift in the path and the
receiver will see a very small signal if it is close enough
28
to the transmitter. "o avoid this problem, antennae in a
given $' system should always have similar orientation.
"here are other forms of polari(ation, such as circular
polari(ation, which can be used to help counteract the
effect of multipath, but for now we will use hori(ontal and
vertical polari(ation for our discussion. It is important to
note here the difference between polari(ation and phase, as
the two terms are often confused. -hase refers to the
relationship of the sinusoidal energy of two or more waves,
not to the orientation of the electrical component. "wo
identical waves that are in phase, and are combined, add to
ma#e a larger wave. "wo identical waves that are out of
phase by e)actly 1B5
5
, and are combined, cancel each other
out. /aves that are not e)actly identical in fre&uency,
amplitude, or phase will have a composite sum that may
increase the overall amplitude at some points, and either
reduce or eliminate the overall amplitude at others.
Interference
29
+ultipath can be described as a form of self
interference caused when a reflected $' carrier arrives at
the receive antenna along with an $' carrier that has ta#en
a direct path. "he reason multipath is so detrimental to the
successful operation of an $' system has to do with the
nature of the relationship of the reflected signal to the
direct path signal.
"he direct path carrier ta#es the most direct, and
conse&uently, the shortest path from transmitter to
receiver. "he reflected carrier, on the other hand, ta#es a
longer path, from the transmitter to the reflective surface,
and from the reflective surface to the receiver. "he waves
leaving the transmitter antenna are all in phase, but
because the direct carrier and the reflected carrier travel
different distances, thus ta#ing slightly different lengths
of time, the two carriers are out of phase, and of different
amplitudes (remember the inverse s&uare law, when they
reach the receive antenna. "he two carriers are combined at
the receive antenna and, being out of phase, they cancel
each other out so that little or nothing can be detected by
the receiver. "his causes a momentary interruption in the $'
wave, which is called a dropout. .ropouts are manifested in
audio $' systems by a loud clic# or pop surrounded by noise.
-roper system design and careful antenna placement can go a
30
long way to reducing the effects of multipath on a wireless
communications system.
"he ne)t concept that must be familiari(ed with in the
design of wireless intercom system is receiver
desensiti(ation or desensing. 7s mentioned, desensing
happens when transmitter is in close pro)imity to a
receiver, even if that transmitter is not on or near the
receiverEs operating fre&uency. $eceiver decentrali(ation
happens because receivers must maintain critical voltage and
current levels throughout the front end stages, and a strong
(i.e. close by transmitter can cause these levels to vary
greatly. 7s those levels are changed over a wide range, the
receiver performance will greatly degrade. "he greater the
physical distance between transmitter and receiver, the less
the receiver will be affected. :i#ewise, the greater the
fre&uency separation between the two, the less the receiver
performance will be affected. @electing fre&uencies that are
Gclean,H or free from the effects of intermodulation
products, is essential to good wireless communications.
Intermodulation is often one of the prevalent sources of
system interference. 7s stated, intermodulaton, or I+ as it
is often called, happens when two or more fre&uencies mi) in
a non*linear device and produce a number of related
different fre&uencies #nown as intermodulation products.
31
"hese I+ products can cause severe, harmful interference to
a wireless intercom system if they fall on or near of the
operating fre&uencies of that system ("9:9; <andboo#, 455.
'or intermodulation interference to ta#e place, at
least two transmitters must be broadcasting at the same time
on fre&uencies that have a definite, calculable relationship
with the affected receiver. In many cases of I+ interference
to receiver can detect d demodulate the I+ product almost as
cleanly as if one of the interfering transmitters was on the
operating fre&uency of the receiver. "urning off either one
of the two (or more transmitters will cause the I+
interference to cease.
8ecause there is a fi)ed and calculable relationship
between fre&uencies, intermodulation products can be
calculated and avoided. <ere is an e)ample of some of the
more common I+ products that can be calculated0
, - B . C
4(D51.555 +<( J D55.555 +<( L D5>.555 +<(
- B / C . D
1B?.555 +<( J 195.D55 +<( O 1BB.455 +<( L 1BD.?55 +<(
0 - ,B . C
>(51B.455 +<( J 4(545.555 +<( L 51>.D55 +<(
"here are, of course, many other combinations that can
cause harmful interference. "hese e)amples give you a good
32
idea of how the calculations wor#, but for comprehensive
fre&uency selection, an advanced computer program must be
used.
It is important to note that intermodulation products
are not created in the airP they are the result of the
mi)ing of signals in non*linear devices such as amplifiers
or other usually active elements. "he most common place for
this mi)ing to ta#e place is in the active receiver $'
circuitry. 3nce $' signals get past the receiver front end
and get to the first $' amplifier and beyond, mi)ing of and
get to the first $' amplifier and beyond, mi)ing of those
signals can and will ta#e place. If the intermodulation
products that are generated fall on or near the operating
fre&uency of the receiver, harmful interference will be
heard. !ood &uality receivers have front ends that are
passive, linear devices that limit the range of fre&uencies
that will enter the rest of the receiver circuitry. +a#ing
sure you pic# wireless intercoms with well designed front
ends, is critical to proper operation in hostile $'
environments.
"he ne)t most common place for I+ products to be
generated is in the final amplifier of a transmitter.
8ecause the transmit antenna can and does also act as a
receive antenna, strong $' signals from nearby transmitters
33
can ma#e their way into the non*linear, active, final
amplifier and produce intermodulation products. "hese
products can then be broadcast out with the intended signal
and cause harmful interference. It is important to note that
I+ products do not have to end up e)actly at a receive
fre&uency. @ometimes, they can be of sufficient power at
relatively close fre&uencies to create a desensing
situation. $educing the effect that intermodulation can have
on wireless intercom system comes down to a few important
principles. 'irst, and foremost, one must pic# fre&uencies
that are intermodulation free with each other and with
surrounding transmitters. @econd, pic# wireless intercom
systems that have well designed receivers and transmitters
with appropriate passive filtering. "hird, manage the
positioning of antennas and beltpac#s within the system to
optimi(e operational potential ("9:9; <andboo#, 4555.
Transmitters and "eceivers
"o be able to select the appropriate wireless
communications e&uipment there is a need to understand the
basic operations of transmitters and receivers, and which
aspects are important to proper operation.
"he primary =ob of the transmitter is to ta#e in a
source signal, modulate it onto an $' carrier, and then
34
deliver it to the transmit antenna for broadcast into the
electromagnetic spectrum.
'irst, an audio signal is brought in and any necessary
audio amplification is done via the +ic1:ine Input section.
Ae)t, the signal is sent through a Compressor circuit to
ensure the levels of the input signal are held within
acceptable limits. "he signal is then mi)ed with a reference
fre&uency in the +odulator. "his reference fre&uency can be
the main carrier fre&uency, or (as in most cases it is a
base fre&uency that results in a composite signal. "he
signal is then sent to the 7mplifier1+ultiplier. If the
signal is already on the desired transmit fre&uency, it is
only further amplified. If, however, the signal is only a
composite signal, then it is fre&uency multiplied to reach
the desired operating fre&uency. "he signal is then sent to
a 'inal 7mplifier where it reaches its ma)imum power level.
6sually this is slightly more than the actual output power
as measured at the output connector. "he reason for this is
35
to ma#e up for the losses induced by the 3utput 'ilter and
Impedance +atching circuits.
"he 3utput filter and Impedance +atching circuits are
generally passive and therefore, do not provide any means of
amplification. 7s such, they can only reduce the output
signal levels. "he 3utput 'ilter is a very narrow bandpass
filter that removes any unwanted harmonics from the signal.
"he Impendance +atcher provides the necessary interface
between the transmitter and the 7ntenna1"ransmission :ine to
ensure ma)imum power transfer. If the 7ntenna1"ransmission
:ine are not properly matched, significant loss can occur.
In some situations, it is possible for this to cause damage
to the transmitter, transmission line, and1or antenna.
("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
"he receiver in a wireless system is the e)act
compliment of the transmitter, but is usually much more
sophisticated and comple) in design. Its =ob is to receive
the signal from the receive antenna and e)tract the source
signal so that it matches the original e)actly. In practice,
there will always be some modification or distortion of the
source signal in the course of transmission, but good
&uality wireless systems minimi(e this to a level that is
indistinguishable.
36
"he receiver starts with the front*end filter. "he
front*end filter is e)tremely important to successful
operation in high $' level environments. "he front end
filter is e)tremely important to successful operation in
high $' level environments. "he front end filter is the
first line of defense. Its =ob is to limit the number of
potential interfering fre&uencies that could affect the
receiver. It is usually a passive, linear section and it
must be impedance matched tot eh antenna for proper signal
transfer. :inearity is the most important factor in a front
end, even more so than how tight or narrow the section is. 7
high degree of linearity will ensure that no intermodulation
products are generated in the front end before entraneous $'
signals are filtered out. <aving a front*end that is
relatively tight and that is e)tremely linear is critical if
the system is to wor# properly under worst*case $'
scenarios.
37
"he ne)t section of the receiver is the first $'
amplifier. "he first $' ampEs =ob is to ta#e the e)tremely
low level $' signal coming through from the front end and
bring it up to a usable level. "he incoming $' signal at the
first $' amp can vary dramatically from less than 5.5 , to
almost the value of the transmitter output. "he #ey for the
first $' amp is that is should be able to handle very small,
as well as, relatively large incoming signals within its
linear region of operation. "o maintain a good linear
region, $' amps normally re&uire a high current drain which
can negatively impact battery life. 7 compromise between
linearity and effective battery life must be managed
carefully.
"he ne)t receiver section is the first local oscillator
(:3. "he =ob of the first :3 is to provide a reference
38
signal that is a fi)ed distance from the operating fre&uency
of the system. It is very important the first :3 be stable
over a wide range of temperatures. In fi)ed crystal systems,
one or more crystals cut to a specific relationship of the
operating fre&uency are use to generate this highly accurate
reference signal. 7 different crystal is necessary for each
operating fre&uency. In synthesi(ed units, a single
reference crystal is used in a phase*loc#*loop to provide
the signal for any operating fre&uency needed by the
receiver.
"he 'irst :3 feeds the reference signal to the +i)er
where the incoming $' carrier is mi)ed, or beat with the
reference signal, to produce the 'irst Intermediate
're&uency (I'. "he fre&uency of the 'irst I' is the
difference in fre&uency between the incoming $' carrier and
the 'irst :3 reference signal. 6nfortunately, what comes out
of the +i)er is not a =ust the 'irst I', it is the algebraic
sum and difference of the two signals being mi)ed plus
numerous other harmonic =un#. "o get to the point where a
clean 'irst I' consisting of =ust the desired fre&uency, the
signal is passed through to the 'irst I' 'ilter. "he 'irst
I' 'ilter is e)tremely important to proper receiver
operation. It is a passive, very narrow (often 55 to455
K<(, and precise filter that eliminates the vast ma=ority
39
of unwanted signals so the true 'irst I' can be processed
correctly. It is very important that the 'irst I' 'ilter be
sharp, as well as, very linear. 7ny non*linearity in the
filter will cause unwanted distortion of the demodulated
source signal.
Ae)t, the signal is sent to the second +i)er where a
second I' fre&uency is produced in the same way the 'irst I'
was obtained. "he @econd :3 is the same fre&uency for any $'
carrier fre&uency the receiver is capable of because the
first :3 ta#es care of the fre&uency differences and
produces an always*constant 'irst I' 're&uency differences
and produces an always*constant 'irst I' fre&uency for the
@econd I' to handle. 7gain, the @econd I' signal as it
leaves the @econd +i)er is full of harmonic =un# and needs
to be filtered by the @econd I' 'ilter. "he @econd I' filter
eliminates unwanted harmonic energy and prepared the signal
to be demodulated.
"he ne)t phase of the receiver is the .emodulator.
"here are several types of demodulators used by wireless
manufacturers today and it would be beyond the scope of this
boo# to discuss them all in detail. @uffice to say, through
a type specific process the .emodulator e)tracts the source
signal from the @econd I' carrier. "he &uality of the
.emodulator circuit is critical to good audio &uality. 7ny
40
type of signal distortion or modification that ta#es place
in the demodulation process will cause the final signal to
be a less than perfect reproduction of the original source
signal.
ntenna Considerations
7ntennas and cables (transmission lines are one of the
least thought about aspects of a wireless system among $'
novices. !ood &uality antennas, however, are some of the
most important aspects to establishing and maintaining a
&uality $' lin#. In addition, because antennas are more
easily changed and in general are less e)pensive than other
system components, they can be a G&uic# fi)H for many $'
problems found in common wireless communications systems.
In a transmitter, the antenna ta#es electrical energy
and allows it to be propagated out into the electromagnetic
spectrum. In a receiver the antenna GgathersH the $' signal
and converts it bac# into electrical voltages and currents.
In either case, the antenna acts as a transducer to change
the form of the $' energy.
7ll real world antennas have a pattern or specific
shape with which the $' energy is released or captured.
"here is no such thing as an antenna that sends energy out
e&ually in all directions. "he primary reason for this is
41
that you have to get the signal to the antenna via a
transmission line and that line must be connected to the
antenna some how. "hat connection will always cause a
disruption or altering of $' propagation in some direction.
In theory though, it is nice to tal# about a perfect
antenna. "his perfect antenna radiates e&ually in all
directions and is called an isotropic radiator.
"he isotropic radiator is said to have (ero antenna
gain. 7ntenna gain is an often misunderstood term. 7 passive
antenna is not an amplifier and cannot increase to total $'
energy being emitted or received. <aving said that, an
antenna can and does focus the $' energy in a specific
direction or directions. "his focusing of energy causes
greater $' energy levels in those directions and wea#er
energy levels in the remaining areas. 'or instance is a
water balloon. If we had a water balloon that was a perfect
sphere, it would accurately represent the pattern of an
42
isotropic radiator located in the balloonEs center. 7ll of
the $' energy is e&ually dispersed in all directions. If you
s&uee(ed the balloonEs center with your hands, a
corresponding bulge would appear on either end. "he balloon
is not any larger or smaller than it was, it has only
changed shape. "his is how a real world antenna wor#s. /hen
energy is focused in one direction, it must always be at the
e)pense of energy going in another direction.
"he most basic form of real world antenna is the
dipole. "he dipole has 4.15 d8i of antenna gain over an
isotropic radiator. "hat means there is 4.15 d8 more signal
in the direction that the energy is focused than there would
be if the antenna were an isotropic radiator. 7ntenna gain
is specified in one of two ways0 d8i or d8d. It is very
important to #now which specification is being used when
comparing antennas. d8i, as stated above, is referenced to
the uniform radiation of an isotropic radiator. d8d, on the
other hand, is referenced to a dipole. +ost antenna
manufacturers li#e the d8i spec because the number is bigger
but since there is no real world antenna that represents the
5 d8 mar#, many engineers prefer d8d. In reality, either
specification is fine as long as you are comparing apples to
apples. In the remainder of this boo# all antenna gain
references will be in d8d, referenced to a dipole, unless
43
otherwise specified. Important0 "o convert from d8i to d8d,
simply subtract 4.15 d8 from the d8i number. "o convert from
d8d to d8i, simply add 4.15 db to the d8d number
(http011tele).com1intercoms1features, 3ct. 45, 4555.
"here are two basic groups of antennas, omni
directional and directional antennas. 3mnidirectional
antennas are generally low gain antennas used in the center
of operational areas. 8ecause the $' energy in omni
directional antennas is in >D5
5
and not in one specific
direction, the antenna gain must always be low. "he
isotropic radiator and dipole antennas are both e)amples of
omni directional antennas. Aormally, omni directional
antennas will be fond with antenna gain less that 5 d8d.
!ain in omni directional antennas is achieved by flattening
the vertical angle of the pattern.
'or proper propagation to ta#e place, the length of an
omni directional is critical. "he theoretical minimum length
for an omni directional antenna is M the wavelength of the
$' carrier to be served. In many cases this M wave length is
too long to be practical so a wave antenna is used instead.
It is e)tremely important to note that for a wave antenna to
wor# properly, it must have a corresponding ground plane
that is e&ual to or greater than the length of the antenna
itself. It is for this reason that a wave antenna that wor#s
44
=ust fine when it is attached directly to the bac# of a
wireless receiver has very poor coverage when operated at
the end of a length of coa)ial cable. "he cable does not
provide the necessary ground plane for proper operation as
the receiver does. "his is a very common mista#e made by $'
novices who are trying to improve $' performance and end up
#illing it insteadK ("9:9; <andboo#, 4555
.irectional antennas, on the other hand, see# to focus
the area of coverage to something less than >D5
5
to for a
flashlight li#e coverage pattern. .irectional antennas are
normally used on the edge of a coverage area. "hey can have
very high antenna gain factors in e)cess of 45 d8d. Aormally
though, in conventional wireless communications systems,
si(e and cost limit directional antenna gain to less than 14
d8d. .irectional antennas have the advantage of not only
focusing the $' energy in a given direction, but also
attenuating energy from undesired areas. "his is very
important for receive antennas in areas with high level of
$'. If positioned properly, a directional receive antenna
can increase the desired $' energy while attenuating
unwanted, potentially interfering $' energy from other areas
(Kennedy, 199D.
45
"here are two very commonly used directional antennas
in wireless communications systems today, Qagi and :og
-eriodic antennas. .irectional antennas must be tuned or
GcutH to a specific fre&uency range. "his is all well and
good when there is only one $' fre&uency, but if you are
using a range of fre&uencies through a single antenna, it is
important to ensure that all of the $' signals will be in
the effective range of that antenna. "he primary difference
of Qagi and :og periodic antennas normally handle a
relatively narrow range of $' fre&uencies, while of -eriodic
antennas can achieve much larger effective fre&uency ranges.
3n the surface it would appear the wide fre&uency range of
the :og -eriodic antenna would ma#e it the obvious choice,
especially when one consider that :og -eriodics are
generally also much smaller than Qagis. "his however, is not
always the case. Consider the application where there are
strong off fre&uency interference sources (virtually all
46
high $' level applicationsK. In these situations, the off
fre&uency re=ection of a Qagi antenna can greatly improve
system performance and decrease harmful interference. In
general, it is a good idea to choose an antenna that is =ust
wide enough to handle the desired operating fre&uencies.
3ne more note on directional antennas. 8ecause 'CC
rules concerning transmit power (9ffective $adiated -ower or
9$- ta#e into account the antenna gain of the transmit
antenna, high gain transmit antennas may not be used on
transmitters in most wireless communications applications.
"he good news is that high gain antennas on the receive side
of an $' system are also very effective for increasing
system range and are commonly used.
"here is one more important antenna concept to be
considered. 7s stated earlier, antenna polari(ation is
critical to proper system operation. "ransmit and receive
antennas of the same system must be oriented in the same
direction to have proper transfer of the carrier. In theory,
if a transmit antenna is oriented vertically, thus producing
a vertically polari(ed carrier, and the corresponding
receive antenna is oriented hori(ontally, the receive
antenna will not be able to see the vertically polari(ed
wave at all. In practice, there will always be some
polari(ation shift in the path and the receiver will see a
47
very small signal if it is close enough to the transmitter,
but system range will be greatly reduced. "o avoid this
problem, antennas in a given $' system should always have
similar orientation.
6nless an antenna is attached directly to the receiver
or transmitter in an $' system, coa)ial cable is the usual
means used to span the gap. "he importance of choosing the
right coa)ial cable cannot be over*stressed. /hen choosing
cable to use in your $' system three main factors must be
considered0 (1 "he cable must be properly impedance matched
(correct characteristic impedance. +ost wireless systems
today are 55 ohm impedance system. "hat means the final
amplifier and filters in the transmitter, the front end of
the receiver and both transmit and receive antennas, air
designed to wor# using 55 ohms as the nominal impedance. It
is e)tremely important to choose coa)ial cable that is also
55 ohms. Coa)ial cable that is used in video applications is
normally C5ohms, not 55 ohms. (4 Consider the loss per foot
of coa)ial cable at your systemEs operating fre&uency. In
,<$ system it is usually easy to select cable with
acceptable loss for runs of 155 feet or more. In 6<'
applications however, it gets a little tougher. In general,
it is a good idea to never have more loss in the
transmission cable than you have antenna gain in the system.
48
"his is a good rule of thumb that will #eep out of trouble
most of the time. (> Consider how the system is used. Is
this a fi)ed installation, or a mobile oneR If the system is
being moved fre&uently you want to use coa)ial cable that
has a stranded center conductor. Fust li#e other types of
wire, coa)ial cable with a stranded center conductor will
tolerate being fle)ed repeatedly without degradation in
performance (http011www.tele).com1intercoms, 3ct. 45, 4555
"elated Studies
$adioCom @ingle Channel @ystems ( C55 @eries 6<' and >55
@eries ,<' /ireless Intercom
"hey are single channel wireless intercom systems and
are independent of any wired intercom system. "hese systems
can also be lin#ed with 7udiocom or $"@ -: (-arty*:ine
intercom systems or with $"@ +atri) intercom systems. 6p to
four "$ beltpac# transceivers can be used with the 8"$ base
station with full duple) communications. 7ll "$ beltpac#s
will share a single audio channel with the 8"$ base station.
8oth of these systems offer a cost effective solution for
budget*minded application that do not demand more comple)
capabilities. "he >55 series intercom is provided on fi)ed
fre&uencies while the C55 series is fre&uency*agile in 1B
+<s bands. "he systems are mar#ed for a <igh @chool 'ootball
49
applicationP however, these stand*alone systems can be
applied to churches, schools, auditoriums, or industrial
applications (http011www.tele).com1intercom1features.htm,
3ct. 45, 4555.
8i#e Intercom
"his is wireless intercom prototype that has the
ability to support clear communication at highway speeds.
"he circuit is set up to use a noise*canceling microphone
design. "hat is two electret microphone capsules (can be as
small as match*head si(e are glued into the helmet in
carefully chosen positions. "he general idea is that one of
these microphones can pic# up only the ambient noise in the
helmet, the other pic#s up both the e)act same noise and the
wearerEs speech. "he two resulting signals are
electronically subtracted resulting in a clean voice signal.
In practice, things are not so easy. "he bandwidth re&uired
for clear speech is from about >55<( to >555<(. 7t >555<(
the wavelength of sound reaching both microphones through
the air is about 155mm. "o have the noise signal subtract
e)actly, the signals have to be e)actly in phase so the
microphones have to close together. In use we sacrifice a
bit off the high end of the fre&uency spectrum so that a
microphone spacing of about 55mm can be used but a bit of
50
noise at high fre&uencies is not properly cancelled J itEs
all a compromise. 8i#ers need to wear helmets to have
continuous communications even while bi#ing
(http011www.imagine*it.com.au1ausmoto1bi#ecom.htm, Aov. 5,
4555.
Intercom for <ome
7 wireless intercom system has the advantage of simple
installation, while traditional intercom systems re&uire
wires to connect each intercom placed throughout the
building or home. "he cost of installing wires to run
throughout the walls and ceiling of a building far surpasses
the cost of purchasing the intercom system itself, and a
wireless intercom re&uires no installation.
3nce wireless intercoms are in place, a person in the
basement of a house, for e)ample, can spea# to someone on
the second floor with =ust the push of a button. 6tili(ing
an intercom system prevents the need to shout or run up and
down stairs to communicate. ItEs an instant way to pass a
message, instruction, or to get attention or help. +any
wireless intercom systems have a range of nearly 1,555 feet
(>5?.B meters, ma#ing them ideal for the home or wor#place.
-arents and children*even seniors can benefit from a
wireless intercom system. (www.wisegree#.com, Aov. 4, 4555
51
Theoretical and Conceptual #rame1ork
"he design of wireless intercom spea#s on propagation
of signal in free space by means of an electromagnetic wave
suitable for transmission. 'ree space is space that does not
interfere with the normal radiation and propagation of radio
waves. "hus, it has no magnetic or gravitation fields, no
solid bodies and no ioni(ed particles. 7part from the fact
that free space is unli#ely to e)ist anywhere, it certainly
does not e)ist near the earth. <owever, the concept in free
space is used because it simplifies the approach to wave
propagation, since it is possible to calculate the
conditions if the space were free, and then to predict the
effect of its actual properties. 7lso, propagating
conditions sometimes do appro)imate those of free space,
particularly at fre&uencies in the upper 6<' region.
@ince radiation and propagation of radio waves cannot
be seen, all descriptions must be based on theory which is
acceptable only to the e)tent that it has measurable and
predictable value. "he theory of electromagnetic radiation
propounded by the 8ritish physicist Fames Clar# +a)well in
1B5C and finali(ed in 1BC>. It is the fundamental
mathematical e)planation of the electromagnetic waves
(Kennedy and .avis, 199>
52
$lectromagnetic 1aves are energy propagated through
free space at the velocity of light, which is appro)imately
three hundred meters per second. "he energy created is
converted into both vertical and hori(ontal components. "he
energy level of these components varies inversely to the
distance and spreads the total energy generated over this
e)panding wavefront e)pands and moves away from the point of
contact.
"his action can be related to the term po1er density!
If the power density is defined as the radiated power per
unit area, it follows that power density is reduced to one*
&uarter of its value when distance from the source is
doubled.
7lso, the direction of the electric field2 the magnetic
field and propagation are mutually perpendicular in
electromagnetic waves. "his is a theoretical assumption
which cannot be Gchec#edH, since the waves are invisible. It
maybe used to predict the behavior of electromagnetic waves
in all circumstances such as reflection, refraction and
diffraction.
/hen propagation near the earth is e)amined, several
factors which did not e)ist in free space must be
considered. "hese can be reflected by the ground, mountains,
and buildings. "hey can be refracted as they pass through
53
layers of the atmosphere which have differing densities or
differing degrees of ioni(ation. 7lso, electromagnetic waves
maybe diffracted around tall, massive ob=ects. "hey may even
interfere with each other, when two waves from the same
source meet after having traveled by different paths.
"here is similarity between the reflection of light by
a mirror and the reflection of electromagnetic waves by a
conducting medium. In both instances, the angle of
reflection is e&ual to the angle of incidence. "he proof of
the e&uality of the angels of reflection and incidence
follows the corresponding proof of what is #nown as the
second law of reflection of light. If the reflecting surface
is rough, reflection will be much the same as from a smooth
surface, provided that the angle of incidence is in e)cess
of the so*called "ayleigh criterion!
7s with light, refraction ta#es place when
electromagnetic waves passed from one propagating medium
having a different density. "his situation caused the
wavefront to ac&uire a new direction in the second medium
and is brought about by a change in wave velocity. "his is
being proven by the special law of optics which is the
Snell3s la1!
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal
is very wea# when it reaches the receiver, particularly if
54
it has traveled any distance. 'urther, the signal has had to
share the free space transmission media with thousands of
other radio signals. ,arious #inds of noise also get added
to the signal. "he =ob of the radio receiver then is to have
selectivity and sensitivity to fully reproduce the
modulating signal at its output. "he #ind of receiver that
best sited to this tas# is shown as the superheterodyne
receiver! "he superheterodyne receiver was conceived in the
early 1995Es, and today virtually every communications
receiver is of that design. ('ren(el, 1995 8ut sometimes
there are other systems that utili(e the so*called Tuned
"adio #re4uency ("$' receivers that offer simplicity of the
receiver but offer disadvantages.
.uring the design process, it is anticipated that this
theoretical basis must be applied to better understand and
appro)imate the capability and limitation of a design
pro=ect. 7ctual testing of the pro=ect will signify that
other aspects are to be considered when signals are to be
propagated through free space.
"esearch Paradigm
Input Process Output
55

"he flow chart represents the general electronic design
process. "his chart can apply to an entire subsystem, or to
an individual circuit. 7 set of specifications is developed
for each electronic system, and then each system is divided
into many smaller circuits. Initial design approaches are
considered and a circuit configuration is proposed, based on
the e)perience and creativity of the researcher.
In proposing the initial circuit configuration and
component values, the designer may used an intuitive
approach based to the large e)tent on e)perience. <owever,
once this initial design is completed, the design must be
verified by a mathematical analysis or computer simulation.
56
Develop
Specifcations
Performance
Simulation
Prototype
Testing
Low-Cost
Wireless
Intercom
Units
Electronic
evices an
materials
Feedback
Prototype
construction
"o validate the final design, it is necessary to
simulate as much as possible, the performance of the
discrete devices and ICs used in the design. @imulation
models are re&uired for each circuit component in order to
predict the operation and characteristics of the designed
circuits. 8ased on these simulation models, trade*offs
between technologies and devices may be evaluated to obtain
optimum performance.
"he prototype circuit is then tested and evaluated. 7t
this point, a minor redesign may only involve selecting
slightly different component values. 7 more e)tensive
redesign may re&uire selecting an entirely different circuit
configuration in order to meet the system re&uirements.
57
Chapter III
"esearch (ethodology
"his chapter presents the design processes, the
procedures in the actual propagation, and formulation of the
specifications of a wireless intercom unit such as output
power, spurious emissions and range.
Design of the Intercom &nit
Basic Block Diagram of the Design
T5
6
T5
,
"5
6
"5
,
"he prototype consists of two sets of identical
transmitter and receiver pair. 8y means of a radio signal,
transmitter 1 (")
1
transmits and to be received by receiver
4 ($)
4
. In the same way, transmitter 4 (")
4
will be
communicating with receiver 1 ($)
1
.
"he communication through radio will be direct.
+eaning, there will be no intermediate base station to cater
the communication between the two units. "he researcher
intended to operate at the ,<' (,ery <igh 're&uency range,
specifically, at the '+ ('re&uency +odulation band. "he
use of a carrier fre&uency from this band is permitted to
operate without license unless it is categori(ed as class ..
58
"his class is used for educational purposes as stated in the
K8- (Kapisanan ng mga 8rod#aster sa -ilipinas manual.
+oreover, the use of a single carrier fre&uency is preferred
to conserve the spectrum. In this case, the unit cannot get
rid of using the -ush*to*"al# (-"" scheme.
'ollowing the standards stated in the K8- manual
regarding channel separation for stations operating in the
same locality, the researcher selected for a channel that
has a minimum separation of B55 #<( below and above e)isting
stations.
#( Transmitter Design
Basic Transmitter Block Diagram
input udio
mplifier
(odulation
Stage
#inal
mplifier

"he audio amplifier amplifies the audio signal to the
level needed to operate the '+ +odulator.
7t the modulation stage, an '+ modulator modulates the
$' signal using the signal from the audio amplifierP causes
the fre&uency of the $' oscillator to change in accordance
with the fre&uency and amplitude of the audio signal.
59
Pre-em(hasis
#etwor)
Fre*uenc!
+ulti(lier
"he last stage is the final amplifier that brings the
resultant '+ signal from the previous circuit up to the
re&uired power for transmission.
If a problem occurs such as drifting of the $'
oscillatorEs fre&uency, particularly at higher fre&uencies
(BB J 15B +<(, a high fre4uency multiplier can be used so
that the oscillatorEs fre&uency can be operated at a lower
fre&uency. 're&uency multiplier is a circuit that causes
the output fre&uency of the circuit to be a multiple of the
input fre&uency.
In '+, noise increases linearly with fre&uency. "his
#ind of '+ noise causes fre&uency distortion of the '+
signal. If a pre7emphasis net1ork is used, the modulation
inde) for higher fre&uencies is increased and fre&uency
distortion due to '+ noise is greatly reduced. Aote that
using a pre*emphasis networ# at the transmitter end re&uires
a de*emphasis networ# for the '+ receiver.
In the design of the intercom, the designer intended
not to include the pre*emphasis networ# and the fre&uency
multiplier section since the signal to be propagated are
=ust audio signals coming from the parties communicating
with each other. It does not involve fullness of music.
Selection of udio mplifier
60
In this stage of the design process, the researcher
designed for an appropriate audio amplifier for the
amplification of signal coming out of the microphone. "he
situation regarding the amplification of the signal falls
under small*signal analysis. <ence, the appropriate
amplifier for this is a class 7 amplifier, for this applies
to low power application.
"he primary considerations on what type of amplifier
configuration by temperature stability and the gain it
offers. 7mplifiers are affected in changes in temperature.
"hat is, the beta (S of the 8F" (8ipolar*Function
"ransistor increases with increase in temperature that
would affect the operating point of the amplifier.
"he researcher selected the collector*feedbac#
configuration of 8F" amplifiers. "his amplifier has an
improved level of stability by introducing a feedbac# path
from collector to base of the transistor. @ee 'igure 1.
61
'igure 1. 8asic 7mplifier .esign
"he collector*feedbac# circuit comprises of $
1
, $
4
, T
1
and
a supply voltage. /ith the intention to ma#e the gadget
handy, 9 volt supply is selected. $
1
and $
4
determine the
operating point (T*point of the amplifier. $
1
, which is
called the base resistor sets up the level of the base
current (I
8
. 6sually, I
8
is in micro*amperes. "he
researcher selected then 1+U for $
1
. $
4
can be calculated as
follows0
I
csat
L 15m7 (from product specification
I
csat
L ,
cc
1 $
4,
with ,
cc
L 9,, then $
4
L 955U.
62
R1
1M
R2
900
VCC
9V
VCC
Q1
BC547A
2
0
1
"he operating point (T*point is0
I
CT
L (114I
csat
, therefore I
CT
L 5m7
,
C9T
L ,
CC
* I
C
$
4,
therefore ,
C9T
L ?.5 ,.
/hich means that the T*point lies in the middle of the load*
line which is &uite the characteristic of a class*7
amplifier. "he complete circuit is shown below.
"he 15n'*capacitor at the base of the transistor acts
as coupling capacitor which tends to bloc# the passage of .C
voltage. "he two additional components, the ?.C#U*resistor
and 15n'*capacitor act as a filter to limit the input
fre&uency to voice fre&uency only and disregard other
fre&uencies.
63
R3
4.7k
Mic
C1
10nF
C2
10nF
R1
1M
R2
900
Q1
BC547A
3
1
4
VCC
9V
0
5
VCC
L1
1.3uH
C3
1nF
C4
12pF
C5
2.7F
R3
330
Q1
BC547A
VCC
9V
4
0
VCC
1
5
modulating signal
Selection of the (odulation Stage
@ince $C feedbac# are generally suitable for
fre&uencies up to about 1 +<(, it can not be chosen in
application to the design of the intercom unit since it
operates at higher fre&uency. :C feedbac# elements are
normally used in oscillators that re&uire high fre&uency of
oscillation.
"he researcher selected the Colpitts 3scillator.
'igure >. +odulation @tage
64
"he fre&uency of resonance of this #ind of oscillator
is e)pressed as0
'
c
L 1 1 (4Vs&rt(:C
"

/here0
C
"
L (C
?
C
5
1 (C
?
O C
5

"he modulating signal is applied to the modulator

circuit. "his signal will vary the base voltage and current
of T
4
according to the amplitude of the intelligence to be
transmitted. It is the voltage from across the capacitor C
>
that is applied to the base of the transistor. "his voltage
lags the oscillator voltage by 95
5
. /ith this arrangement,
the reactance modulator acts li#e an inductor. "he
e&uivalent inductance changes as the modulating signal is
applied. <ence, the oscillator fre&uency is varied in
proportion to the amplitude of the intelligence signal.
('ren(el, 1995
"he fre&uency of operation (center fre&uency is chosen
to be at 9?.1 +<(. C? and C5 are selected to have values of
14 p' and 4.Cp' respectively. "he value of : can be
computed from the above stated formula. $earranging the
e&uation gives
: L (1 1 4V'
c

4
1 C
"
L 1.>W<
"he addition of a gimmic# capacitor is connected across
the 14 p' tuning capacitor to lower and higher the fre&uency
65
of the transmitter. +a#e the capacitor by twisting two
lengths of single core insulated hoo#*up wire, about 4cm
long. "his will reduce fre&uency to the bottom end of the
band. Cut short the capacitor to increase the fre&uency to
the desired final fre&uency. If you cut it a few #<( high
then =ust twist the gimmic# a little higher.
Selection of the #inal mplifier Stage
"he researcher still chooses a collector feedbac#
configuration of 8F" amplifiers. 8ut now rather than to use
A-A*type transistor, the amplifier has -A-*type transistor.
"he same effect with regards to amplification, only that
there is a total reversal of output current driving the load
66
C6
1nF
R4
47k
R5
820
Q3
BC557A
VCC
9V
VCC
1
0
2
3
Modulated signal
(antenna. @ee 'igure ? for the output circuit of the 'inal
7mplifier @tage.
#igure 8! #inal mplifier Stage
Capacitor C
D
is used as coupling capacitor to the base
of the amplifier. 7 value of 1n' is safe to be chosen. "he
value does not severely affect the intended amplification
function of the amplifier.
"he researcher has limited the output current to
conform to the output power which falls under the unlicensed
class of '+ stations (class .. :i#ewise, choosing a low
output power permits the researcher to select from the list
of !eneral*-urpose "ransistors which are &uite cheaper
compared to -ower "ransistors.
"he computation and selection of the components,
specifically, $
?,
$
5
, T
>
, is as follows.
Choose $
?
L ?C #X and S L 55. "he value of beta(S is
the nominal value at room temperature.
67
R3
4.7k
Mic
C1
10nF
R2
900
R1
1M
Q1
BC547A
C2
10nF
0
2
4
Q2
BC547A
C3
1nF
3
R4
330
L1
1.3H
C4
12pF
C5
2.7pF
7
6
C6
1nF
R5
47k
Q3
BC557A
R6
820
9
11
10
8
V1
9 V
1
Title:
Designed by:
Checked by:
Approved by:
Date:
Sheet of
Size: 2!"#"$2
$ $
A
Elc!"#nic$ %#"k&nc'
801(111 )!" *!"!
+#"#n!#, -. M5V 2H1
/4160 977(5550
Engr. Sherwin N. Catolos
Complete Transmitter Circuit Design
5
I
8T
, I
CT
, and $
1
are calculated as0
I
8T
L
k 47
7 0 9
L 1CD.DY7
I
CT
L ZI
8
L B.B> m7
$
1
L
m 300
! 47 " 100 7 0 9
$
1
L B51.D4

"he output power is calculated as0

I
Cpea#
L ZI
8pea#
L 55(5.5m7 L 45m7
-
o(ac
L
2
1
2
! "
Rc I
peak c
-
o(ac
L 45D.45m/
'rom the list of !eneral*purpose transistors, 8C55C is
suited for this output current and output power.
Presentation of Overall Transmitter Circuit Design
68
"his circuit presents the interconnection of all the
circuits representing each of the bloc# diagrams in the
transmitter. "his circuit provides an '+ modulated signal
with an output power of around 455 m/. "he input mic preamp
is built around a 8C5?C transistor. "he oscillator is a
Colpitts stage, fre&uency of oscillation governed by the
tan# circuit made from two capacitors (4.Cp' and 14p' and
an inductor. "uning can be done by putting a gimmic#
capacitor across the 14p' capacitor. "he fre&uency of
3scillation is around 9?.1 +<( which can be used as
fre&uency of operation since it has a separation of B55#<(
from the nearest e)isting '+ station in the locality.
$stimating Transmitter Distance
"he computation presented for estimating the
transmitter distance applies to low power radio transmitters
for line*of*sight communications. It does not ta#e into
account propagation conditions or other limiting factors.
69
"he general e&uation for estimating transmitter field
strength is calculated as0
9 L
d
Pt 30
/here0 -t L total power from the transmitter
9 L field strength in ,1m
. L distance in meters
"his e&uation is elicited in www.geocities.com19ure#a.
$earranging the e&uation gives0
d L
E
Pt 30
'rom the transmitter design process, -t has been already
calculated and is e&ual to 455m/. "he 9 un#nown value is
related to the sensitivity of the radio receiver. 7n
estimated value of 45Y,1m sensitivity is regarded to the
intended receiver to be used which gives
d L
01 0
10 20
! 250 30 "
6
x
x
mw x

d L 1.> #m (theoretical
"he 5.51 factor compensates for the losses of a telescopic
antenna which is intended to be used as an antenna for the
transmitter design. "he computed distance varies depending
on the sensitivity of the receiver to be designed.
The "eceiver Design
70
Basic Processes in a "eceiver
7ll radio receivers perform these three basic
functions0
Selection J It allows the receiver to select one
fre&uency while re=ecting other fre&uencies. "his is
done by tuning the receiver to the fre&uency of the
desired carrier. "his function is performed through
combinations of inductances and capacitances where the
oscillating fre&uency can be determined by0
'o L (114 s&rt(:C
'o L 8/ ) T
/here0 : L inductance value
C L capacitance value
8/ L bandwidth of operation
T L Tuality 'actor
Detection J "he purpose of a detector or discriminator in
the receiver is to remove the desired information from
the carrier and convert it into a form that will actuate
the output device such as the spea#er for the case of
this study that deals with the transmission and reception
of audio signals.
mplification J the incoming signal may be wea#. 7s such,
amplification must ta#e place between the input of the
71
receiver and its output. "his is usually called the gain
of the receiver.
Block Diagram of the "eceiver Design
"he researcher selected an '+ @uperheterodyne receiver.
"his is chosen in a way to get rid of encountering problems
regarding selectivity.
ntenna
"#
mp
(i5er I#
mplifier
Discriminator
#
and
Po1er
mp
%ocal
Oscillator
To
Speaker
"he "# amplifier stage increases the gain of the
received signal. Coupled with the $' amplifier is the
circuit for tuning. @electing the intended fre&uency to be
received is set in the tuning stage. 6sually, the capacitor
in the tuned circuit is made variable by rotating a #nob,
the capacitance is varied, thereby changing the resonant
fre&uency.
"he mi5er and the oscillator stages perform the actual
heterodyning (mi)ing function. "he oscillator stage is a
generator of an unmodulated $' signal necessary to convert
72
the received signal to an intermediate fre&uency. "he
standard I' for '+ receiver is 15.C +<(. "he mi)er is where
both $' and oscillator signals are heterodyned to produce a
new set of signals. "he output of the mi)er consists of two
original signals and the two new signals J the sum and
difference of the $' and oscillator signals. 7s the
receiver is tuned throughout the band, one of these
fre&uencies remains constant. It is the difference of the
two signals which is always 15.C +<( and contains the same
audio modulation of the original $' signal at the antenna.
"his will be fed at the input of the I' amplifier stage.
"he I# 9Intermediate #re4uency: amplifier is fi)ed*
tuned to accept and amplify only the 15.C +<( difference
signal. "he high gain provided by this stage remains
constant over the entire broadcast fre&uencies.
"he detector which can be called a discriminator
removes the intelligence from the carrier. "hus, the
remaining information will be the original transmitted audo
information. "his output will be amplified by the audio
amplifier!
In the case of the design, the researcher selected
headphones as the load in order not to have much
amplification. 7lso that in using headphones, ease of
communication can be attained.
73
Selection of T,60,BP Integrated Circuit
In an attempt to come up with the circuits for the
aforementioned bloc#s of the '+ receiver, it has been found
out that all active components in ma#ing an '+ receiver is
already pac#aged in a single integrated circuit (IC chip.
It comes from many variations depending on the manufacturer.
"he "741>48- IC has been chosen because it is
commercially available. "his consists of the basic stages
in the receiving of '+ signals such as the $' amplifier,
+i)er, I' amplifier, 7utomatic gain control stage, and the
detection stage.
7ctually, IC of this #ind is for 7+1'+ reception. 8ut
the concentration of the design is for '+ reception only.
/ith this IC, the tas# now of the researcher is to select
for few e)ternal components to tune to the fre&uency of
operation of the transmitter, which is at 9?.1 +<(.
In addition, this receiver part of the intercom unit
has been patterned from the e)isting design elicited from
7le)an 9lectronics.
74
Block Diagram of T,60,BP IC
Selection of T;0<=P IC
"a#ing into consideration that the "741>48- involves
only the reception of '+ signals up to the demodulation
75
process, there is a need to include the last stage which has
a function for audio amplification. "o complete the stages
of the receiver design, the researcher selected an audio
amplifier that is pac#aged also in an IC chip, specifically
"7C>DB-. "his is appropriate since it has only low power
output which is &uite good to drive the headphone.
Block Diagram of T0<=P
"he audio amplifier is also ready for use in the
amplification of the demodulated 7' signal from the "741>48-
'+ receiver. 3nly three e)ternal capacitors are needed.
"he capacitor in the supply acts as supply decoupling, the
capacitor in series with the load is
regarded as bypass capacitor for ripple filter and a
capacitor to prevent oscillation for the power amplifier.
76
Overall "eceiver 'et1ork
"his has been adopted from e)isting available circuit.
"his of similar function as the receiver intended to be
constructed by the designer.
Procedures in #abrication>
"he procedure indicated below was religiously followed
by the researcher to come up with a fabricated version of
the Intercom 6nits.
77
1. -rovide a chec#list for all the electronic
components with their corresponding values and the number of
pieces re&uired. "his is for both "ransmitter and $eceiver
circuits of the Intercom 6nit.
"eceiver Parts %ist
Semiconductors Capacitors
IC1 "741>48- C1 5.5?Y'
IC4 "7C>DB- C4 5.555Y'
"esistors (7ll are N*watt,
carbon film type
C> 1B['
C? ?['
C5 45['
,$1 55#U CD 4n'
$1,$4 155#U CC,C1B 5.?CY'115,
$> 51#U CB 155Y'115,
$? >>5U C9 5.51Y'
$5 155U C15 44['
$D 15U C11,C14 >.5['
$C 4#U C1> 44Y'115,
#ilter Capacitors C1? 5.54Y'
C'1 @'915.C+@4 C15 5.55?CY'
C'4 @'6?55Q C1C >>Y'115,
C'> C.715.C+C1 C1B,C19 44'115,
Coils C45 5.5544Y'
:1 '+ $' (?.5)> M C41 5.1Y'
:> '+ 3sc.(>.B)> M C44 >>['
:? '+ $' (?)> M ,C1 7+1'+ -,C 4 :<"*:@
I'"1 I'" (9>5>
Others
91 "elescopic 7nt.
Transmitter Parts %ist
Transistors> Coils
T1,T4 8C5?C :1 >.45turns
T> 8C55C "esistors
Capacitors $1 1+U
C1,C4 15n' $4 955#U
C>,CD 1n' $> ?.C#U
C? 14[' $? >>5#U
C5 4.C[' $5 ?C#U
CC 44p'1 15, $D B45U
78
,oltage @upply0 9*, 8attery 7ntenna0 "elescopic 7ntenna
4. -repare and purchase the necessary materials and
instruments needed in the fabrication.
>. Chec# the materials and instruments prepared to
determine whether the materials and instruments wor#
properly and in good condition and &uality.
?. !et and study the given schematic diagram in order
to understand the flow of its circuits and the proper place
of its components to avoid confusion.
5. "race it in a -rinted Circuit 8oard (-C8 the design
circuit made.
D. $emove the unnecessary part or circuit of the -C8,
the copper portion of the -C8 by a -heric Chloride in order
to come up with the design layout. -hoto etching is
recommended.
C. +a#e the necessary holes for the proper placement of
its components and smoothly grind it with a sand paper in
order to have good circuit conductivity.
B. @older the components with the copper lead for the
components to get in place their re&uired locations in the
-C8. Fust ma#e it sure that no other shorted connections
occur other than what is set in the -C8.
79
PCB %ayout for Transmitter
PCB %ayout for "eceiver
9. -lan the overall layout of the pro=ect in the chosen
enclosure. -repare the needed hoo# up wire as designed in
the component layout guide.
80
Transmitter Components
"eceiver Components
15. +ount into the desired enclosure the pro=ect. "a#e
into consideration the location of each parts of the design
in the enclosure to find no problems regarding
connections of one part to another.
81
Testing
8efore switching the pro=ect 3A, chec# first all the
connections made, comparing them directly with the schematic
diagram. In particular, chec# the power supply. If all
connections are connected yet the circuit does not wor#,
then testing of the functionality of suspected electronic
components is re&uired most especially ICEs, transistors and
capacitors.
82
#i5ing and Testing Components
"he two units must receive signals (audio coming from
each other when operated. "hen one unit is relocated to
compute for the ma)imum distance where the units can have a
clear reception of signal coming from each other. .uring
the communication between the two units, an observation is
done regarding its interference to e)isting ad=acent active
stations.
Complete &nits Set7up
83
Chapter I?
Presentation of Data
"his chapter presents the results of the wor# of the
researcher regarding the fabrication of Intercom 6nits. "his
includes the deviceE specifications, its performance, and
its comparison in terms of cost to similar e)isting device.
Device Specifications
@pecifications :evel 6nit
1. @upply ,oltage 9 (dual ,
4. -ower 3utput 455 (appro)imate m/
>. 're&uency of 3peration 9?.1 +<(
?. 're&uency $esponse up to 45 #<(
?. $eceiver !ain ?5 (typ. d8
5. @purious 9mission 5 *
D. -ropagation .istance 45 * 455 meters
"he spurious emission relates to the interference
effect of the units (during communication to the e)isting
broadcast stations in the locality most especially to the
ad=acent active broadcast stations. 7s the two units were
active in communication, other receiver type was tuned to
the fre&uency of the e)isting stations and found to have no
reception of alien fre&uency, that is, the fre&uencies
coming from the two units.
Device Performance
84
"he received signal from the two units would be mono
since the transmitter is operating at mono mode, meaning,
transmission of only a single channel. "his has been
intended by the designer since the signal to be transmitted
will only be audio signals and not music. @implicity of the
pro=ect attained one of the ob=ectives, that is, the
intercom unit to be at low cost.
"he two units found to be functional and can deliver
intelligible signal one from the other. @ince the fre&uency
of operation is at ,<' (,ery*<igh 're&uency range, the
communication is at its best when there are no obstructions
in between the two units, that is, the communication must be
at line of sight. "his is actually the behavior of the
signal at ,<' range.
'urthermore, the communication is also affected by the
polari(ation of each of the signals transmitted by the two
units. /hen one slants the antenna of the receiver, fading
of the received signal is actually e)perienced. "a#e note
that the orientation of the antenna with the surface of the
earth depicts the polari(ation of the antenna. :i#ewise,
for a good reception, ideally, the polari(ation of the
transmitting antenna must be the same with the polari(ation
of the receiving antenna.
85
"he receiver of each unit e)perienced crosstal# from
the built*in transmitter. "his was when the designer
attempted to ma#e the communication full*duple). "his was
due to the very close pro)imity between the transmitter and
the receiver. "he solution was to ma#e the communication
half*duple).
Cost Comparison
Cost Incurred by the -ro=ect
Parts Price
1. "ransmitter Circuit - 1C?.55
4. $eceiver Circuit - ?55.55
>. 7ntenna - >55.55
?. <eadset - D55.55
Total - 1,?C?.55
"he total price indicated already includes e)penses
incurred for the two intercom units.
Comparison to 3ther @imilar 6nits
Price
"he -ro=ect - 1,?C?.55
3ther similar devices
+otorola ',C55
+otorola "B555$
- 4,599.D
- >,119.D
"he commercially available similar products indicated
are two way radios similar with the operation of the
86
fabricated unit. 8ut the commercially available products do
not in them a headset.
Chapter ?
Summary2 Conclusions and "ecommendations
87
Summary
"he design of intercom unit comprises of the following0
"he transmitter circuits operating at 9?.1 +h( with an
output power appro)imately 455 m/
"he receiver circuits are tuned to the same fre&uency
for reception delivering a power of 955m/ to the
headphone.
T5
6
T5
,
"5
6
"5
,
"he communication is made half*duple). @ome serious
problems were encountered when there was an attempt to ma#e
the communication full*duple).
"he completed design for the intercom units has been
fabricated and tested and has been further developed to meet
re&uired specifications.
Conclusions
"he intercom unit is a good device as a communication
tool to the !eodetic 9ngineering @tudents in their 'ield
@urvey activities.
88
941 M$%
"he intercom unit is made functional li#ely as the
other similar gadgets commercially available yet at low
cost.
"ecommendations
"he following are some of the recommendations
formulated by the researcher.
1. It is recommended that in order for the two units to
have better communication, the user must be aware of the
orientation of the unitEs antenna in relation to the
orientation of the other antenna.
4. Chec# always the condition of the battery supply, for
this affects the transmitted power and offers not &uite good
reception of signal. "ype of battery such as the
rechargeable one is advised to lengthen the time of
operation of the units.
>. "he prototype was obviously made bul#y. In a way to get
rid in coming up with the same si(e, future designers need
to consider their layout in the -C8. "he smaller si(e, the
better, ma#ing the gadget compact and can be put in smaller
enclosure. It is also recommended to use state*of*the*art
techni&ue in ma#ing the -C8
?. 'or future designers of similar design, find ways and
means to get for a counterpart of a telescopic antenna that
89
will effectively shorten the length but does not affect the
&uality of communication. /ire*wound antenna is
recommended.
5. @ome Cellphones have the capability to receive '+
signals. <ence, inorder to receive the signal transmitted
by the intercom units, =ust tune the cellphone to the #nown
operating fre&uency of the unit. "his is one way to
increase the number of recipients with the one transmitting
information.
Bibliography
1. Kennedy, !eorge. $lectronic Communications Systems,
D
th
9d., @ingapore0 +c!raw*<ill 8oo# Co., c. 199D
90
4. 'ren(el, :ouis 9. Communication $lectronics, 4
nd
9d., @ingapore0 +c+illan1 +c!raw*<ill 8oo# Co., c. 1995
>. $oddy, .ennis and Coolen, Fohn. $lectronic
Communications , ?
th
9d., @ingapore0 @imon % @chuster (7sia
-te :td., c. 1995
?. *andbook of Intercom System $ngineering, 4
nd
9d.
8urnsville, +innesota0 "ele) Communications, Inc., c. 4555
5. <ayt Fr., /illiam. $ngineering $lectromagnetics2 5
th
9d., Aew Qor# 0 +c!raw*<ill 8oo# Co., c. 19B9
D. Kapisanan ng mga 8rod#aster sa -ilipinas +anual
C. http011www.tele).com1intercom1features.htm
B. http011www.imagine*it.com.au1ausmoto1bi#ecom.htm
9. http011 www.wisegree#.com
15. http011www.sciencelobby.com1bloc#*diagrams1'+
11. http011www.electronics*lab.com1pro=ects1rf
14. http011semiconductors.philips.com1pip
1>. http011electronic*circuits*diagram.com1radio
1?. http011data sheetcatalog.com

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