Composites

Inspection and
Repair
Steve Kane Adjunct
BCC Aerospace Technology
In conjunction with SpaceTEC
Topics
Introduction
Composites Review
Characteristics
Materials
Fabrication Techniques
Composites Safety
Shop Safety
Inspection
Damage Identification
Repair Techniques
Outline
Introduction Composites Inspection and Repair
Day 1 PowerPoint Lecture:
Composites Characteristics, Materials, Fabrication
Techniques, Composites Safety, Shop Safety, Inspection,
Damage Identification, Repair Techniques
Lunch
Lab Project 1 Composite Sandwich Construction

Day 2 Review, Project Assessment

Lab Project 2 Damage Inducement, Core Repair, Scarf
Repair Technique
Lunch
Exam, Discussion, Certificate
Introduction
Purpose:
Inspection and Repair Workshop
Follow-on to Introduction to Composites
Provide knowledge of and a practical application for
inspection of composites and repair of damages
Intended to be advisory in nature
Repair data provided by OEM manufacturers, qualified
engineers, and/or regulatory agencies must be consulted
in any inspection and/or repair method
Composites Review
Definition of
Composites
From Introduction to Composites:
What are Composites?
Two or more materials working together
Each contributes its own structural properties
Each retains its unique identity
Two major components:
Reinforcing Fiber ceramic strong but brittle
Matrix (glue) plastic tough yet flexible
How They
Work
How do they work?
Individually:
Fiber reinforcement strong, stiff, but brittle
Matrix tough, elastic, but lacks rigidity
Together = strength, stiffness and toughness, a superior
material!!
+
=
Types
Three Basic Types:
Natural occurs in nature
Wood
Artificial produced from naturally occurring
materials to improve on natural
Adobe
Plywood
Concrete
Synthetic produced from artificial materials to
improve on artificial
Fiberglass
Graphite (Carbon) Fiber
Aramid (Kevlar)
Specific Strength:
Characteristics,
cont.
Specific Stiffness:
Advantages,
cont.
Advantages
Advantages of Composites:
Do not corrode
Smooth surfaces relatively easy to achieve
Many manufacturing methods available:
Hand layup, Vacuum bagging, Resin Transfer Molding
(RTM), Pultrusion, Filament winding, Resin infusion
High strength/stiffness-to-weight ratios
possible
4-10 times that of metals
Structures can be tailored to meet specific
applications
Orienting fibers to carry specific loads
Limitations
What are their limitations?
Fiber reinforcement prone to cracking
Brittle nature means little or no elasticity
Sudden failure at yield point
Matrix mitigates brittleness
Works as stop-drill would in aluminum
Not much chance all cracks will line up
Shear forces bog down
Bicycle Analogy
Solid ground moves freely
Softer ground more resistance
Disadvantages
Disadvantages:
Labor intensive
Special training needed
Raw materials expensive
Manufacturing equipment expensive
Health and safety concerns for materials
Cannot be recycled
Little or no warning before failure
Some materials may not be compatible with
metals
Galvanic Series
Carbon (noble) and aluminum (active)
Weave
Patterns
Plain Weave
One over and one under every other yarn
Provides fabric stability
The least pliable, least strong weave
Basket Weave
Similar to plain but two warp yarns over
and under
More pliable and stronger than plain
Crowfoot (Four-Harness Satin)
More pliable, easier to form on compound
curves
Three yarns over and one yarn under
Five-Harness Satin (5HS)
Similar to Crowfoot but one more filling
yarn, 4 over and 1 under
More pliable than crowfoot
Eight-Harness Satin (8HS)
Similar to 5-harness except one yarn floats
over seven and under one
Very pliable weave and has good drape
Great for compound curve surfaces
Most expensive weave
Weave
Patterns
Weave
Patterns
Weave
Patterns
Warp Direction
Parallel to the Long direction of the roll
Also defined as parallel to the selvage edge
Fill Direction
90 degrees to the Warp direction
Selvage edge to selvage edge
Sometimes called Weft direction
Selvage Edge
Tightly woven edge to prevent edge raveling
Parallel to warp threads
Bias
A 45 degree angle to the warp threads
Fabric can be stretched along the bias but seldom along warp
Textile
Terminology
Textile
Terminology
Textile
Terminology
Advanced Composites are by design
Orientation of fibers is proportional to properties
The more fibers in a given direction, the stronger and
stiffer
Unidirectional (0) degrees for tension, compression, or
bending
Bidirectional (+/- 45s) degrees for shear
Control fiber angles +/- 2 degrees
Sandwich Construction
Enhances performance by placing the load carrying
fibers on the outside of the part
Fiber
Orientation
Symmetry
A laminate in which all of the ply orientations
are symmetrical about the mid-plane of the
laminate
Common
Layup Terms
Balance
A Balanced
laminate has
equal
numbers of +
and angled
plies
Common
Layup Terms
Quasi-
Isotropic
A laminate laid
up with an equal
number of plies
at 0, +45, -45,
and 90 angles
Common
Layup Terms
Nesting vs. Stacking
Placing plies so the fibers of one ply align with the
yarns of the adjacent ply
Only possible with harness-satin weaves
Common
Layup Terms
Shop Safety
Working Environment:
Good housekeeping directly impacts
safety
Keep area neat & orderly
Properly dispose of mixing containers
Keep fabric remnants swept up
Wipe up spills, keep tools clean
Do not block access to safety equipment
Environment
Personal safety while sanding or
drilling:
Respirators must be worn
Wear shop coat to minimize particles
entering pores of skin
Use eye protection
Always shower at the end of the day after
working with composites
Personal
Safety
Shop Safety
Compressed air in the shop area
Moisture is your enemy!
Check moisture traps often
Air Tools
Flexible lines can take on a life of their own if unsecured
Disconnect tools from air supply before changing
cutters, sanding discs and drills
Point the exhaust away from other people
Never blow surfaces with compressed air!
Causes projectiles
Can cause delaminations
Use a brush or vacuum for cleaning parts,
machines, and work tables
Tool Safety
Use Eye Protection
Safety glasses with side shields are a must
Wear dust mask when cutting, drilling, sanding
NIOSH-rated
Cutting
When Cutting:
Keep hands, fingers away from cutting surfaces
Razor Knives
Very sharp, use caution
Tool Safety
Tool Safety, cont.
Drilling
When Drilling:
Back up materials
Dont use your hands!
Always know what is behind
Never force drills!
Will cause breakouts on other side
Can disbond laminate-to-core interface
Use high speed, low pressure
Let the bit do the work!
Tool Safety
Tool Safety, cont.
Sanding
When Sanding:
Wear eye protection/dust masks
Work in a suitable area:
Down-draft tables
Exhaust systems
Clean up debris:
Clean up before tracking around
Wash hands before eating or using the restroom!
Tool Safety
Sandwich
Structures
Sandwich structures:
Combination of strong, thin skins and a
relatively light core material
Very efficient structures with high stiffness-to-
weight ratios
Also called honeycomb
Chief purpose of core:
Passes shear forces between the skin surfaces
Allows substantially improved structural
properties in thicker sections with only slight
increase in weight
Sandwich
Structures
Typical sandwich structures:
Sandwich
Structures
Disadvantages of sandwich construction:
Sandwich structures have thin skins that can be
easily damaged by even minor impacts.
Susceptible to moisture intrusion:
Can cause unintentional weight gain
Freezing may cause disbonds (if subjected to lower
temperatures of higher altitudes)
If core becomes contaminated with oil, fuel or
hydraulic fluid, it is virtually impossible to remove
completely and must be replaced
Honeycomb
Form most commonly used in aerospace
Made from Nomex (aramid paper), fiberglass, or
aluminum
Fire retardant, flexible and lightweight
Offers best strength-to-weight ratio
Cell shape
Most common is hexagon, known as Hex
Core
Suitable for flat panels
Difficult to curve
Sandwich
Structures
Sandwich
Structures
Manufactured honeycomb core:
Core direction is important:
L is ribbon, strong direction
W is weak direction
Sandwich
Structures
Over-expanded during manufacture
A flattened hexagon
Easily curved in ribbon ( L ) direction
Sandwich
Structures
Capable of compound curves
Used for radomes and nose cones
More expensive than Hex or Ox-Core
Sandwich
Structures
Foam Core
Offers higher density than honeycomb
Greater crush resistance
Bonds to skin are less strong
Must be cut and shaped to fit
Common types
Polystyrene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Sandwich
Structures
Polystyrene Foam
Used extensively in sail and surf board
manufacture
Light (40kg/m
3
), inexpensive, easy to sand
characteristics
Low mechanical properties
Rarely employed in high performance component
construction
Cannot be used with polyester resin systems
Will be dissolved by the styrene present in the resin
Foam Core
Polyurethane Foam
Moderate mechanical properties
Foam surface at the resin/core interface
tends to deteriorate with age
Leads to skin delamination
Can readily be cut and machined to
required shapes or profiles
Structural applications limited to
formers to create frames or stringers
for stiffening components
Used in lightly loaded sandwich
panels
Thermal insulation
Foam Core
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Foam
Closed-cell construction
Good mechanical properties
One of the most commonly used core materials
for high performance sandwich structures
Good solvent resistance
Will work with most available matrix materials
Can be formed in compound shapes at elevated
temperatures in vacuum mold
Foam Core
Syntactic Foam
Mixture of microspheres (miniature glass
spheres), epoxy resin
Mixture ratio controls strength and density
Can use high-strength microspheres, toughened
resins
Can become heat-resistant with addition of high
temperature resins
Used primarily as a non-structural filler
material
Can be used in foam core repairs
Foam Core
Balsa Wood
Excellent structural core material
Low cost, easy to use
Can have moisture problems
Can burn in a fire
Used less in aviation due to FAA
flammability requirements
Used primarily in marine construction
Inherent floatability
Wood Core
Cutting Foam:
Hot Wire Cutting
Easiest method for foam cores
Care must be taken with smoke
Band saw
Can be used with miter for angled
surfaces
Razor knife
Hand finish, trim work
Shaping
Sanding:
Lightweight material is easy to sand,
shape
Can use belt sanders, hand sanders
Foam core materials can be sanded
with another piece of like foam
Shaping
Machining
Composites
For drilling, cutting, sanding or grinding of
composite materials
Do not use cutting fluids as fibers may absorb
them
Do not use same cutting tools on graphite and
Kevlar
Drilling and countersinking
Delamination, fracture and breakout are
types of failures
Delamination
Peeling away of the bottom layer as the force
of drill pushes the layers apart
Fracture
Occurs when a crack forms along one of the
layers due to the force of the drill
Breakout
Occurs when the bottom layer splinters as drill
completes the hole
Separation
Occurs when gap opens between layers as The
drill passes through successive layers
Machining
Composites
The material being drilled should be
backed with wood whenever
possible to prevent these problems!
When exiting the back side of a hole
with a drill, very light or no pressure
should be used. dont push drill
through, Let It Cut! This will prevent
delaminations.
Machining
Composites
Carbide drill bits will work on all types
of composites.
They also last longer than standard
steel drills.
Drill motor speed is important
High speed works best
Do not use excessive force
Dagger or spade drills can be used.
They reduce the tendency of the
fibers to break rather than be cut
Machining
Composites
Hole Saws
Use special Diamond Dust cutting edges
Band Saws
Special Diamond Dust or carbide blades
12 To 14 TPI
Machining
Composites
Fasteners
Composi-lok
Must be made of titanium or corrosion
resistant steel
Aluminum fasteners must not be used because
of tendency to corrode the aluminum
Machining
Composites
Inspection and
Damage Identification
Why Composites Inspection?
Much larger percentage of Composites in the
world today
Need to detect discontinuities that may lead to
premature failure
Inspection
Boeing 787 fuselage section
Composite
Damage
Composites fail in a different manner than metals:
Catastrophically, with little or no warning!
American Airlines Flight
587; Airbus A300-605R,
November 12, 2001, on a
flight from New Yorks
JFK airport to Santo
Domingo, Dominican
Republic
Composite
Damage
Airbus A-300-308 aircraft
experienced control
difficulties shortly after
takeoff. After returning
to the origin airport, it
was discovered that the
majority of the Airbus'
rudder had torn away
from the vertical
stabilizer.
Composite
Damage
Space Shuttle RCC Panel Testing,
Southwest Research Institute
(SwRI), San Antonio, TX May, 2003
Before Simulated Foam Strike: After Simulated Foam Strike:
1.7 lb. Bipod Ramp
Composite
Inspection
Two Classifications of Inspection
Nondestructive Inspection
Visual
Ultrasonic
Infrared
Shearography
Thermography
Destructive Testing
Coupon testing
Visual
Simplest nondestructive technique for
inspecting laminates
Identifies surface imperfections:
Impact damage (scuffing, chipping, surface cracking, or
crazing)
Near-surface delaminations (appear as bulges)
Severe disbonding (damage appears white)
With access to back side, illumination will make internal
defects such as delaminations visible as dark or grey
areas
Main tool for visual inspections:
Good light source
Low incident-angle illumination
Visual Guidelines:
1. Become familiarized by examining the applicable
diagram/drawing.
2. If necessary, remove surface coat around damaged area.
3. Examine tactily by running hands over surface of suspect
damage area to feel for surface imperfections and anomalies.
4. Dimple and dent damage is similar in appearance to hail
damage on a metal surface.
5. Delamination and disbonding are more difficult to detect:
Sometimes it is possible to feel this type of damage
by pressing on the area.
May feel soft and movement between the separated
layers may be detected.
Visual
Visual
Visual Guidelines, cont.:
6. Use a back light to reveal internal defects and delaminations.
Examine exposed laminate for stress whitening.
7. If possible, the backside of the suspected area should be
examined.
8. A borescope can be a helpful tool for examining interior
areas. Interior surfaces are usually not painted and damage
to glass-fabric structures will show up as a white area.
9. Use a Sharpie to mark suspect areas to facilitate a coin tap
test.
Note: Paint will generally crack before damage occurs in a
laminate, therefore cracked paint does not indicate the
extent of the damage, only that damage may have occurred.
Acoustic
Manual Coin Tap Test
Primitive
Most common method for hidden damage
Hearing-based, manual test practiced widely in
the aircraft industry
Used to determine laminate damage in a
composite
Acoustic sounds are produced when a small
metal object is tapped on a surface
Looking for clear, sharp sound
Dull thud indicates a void or delamination
CATT
Computer-Aided Tap Test (CATT)
Automated:
Quantitative and imaging capabilities added
Removes " human factor" responsible for
variation
Magnetic cam-action cart provides equally-spaced
uniform taps
Simple encoding method gives imaging capability.
Effective for both composite and metal honeycomb
structures.
Quantitative inspection results in the form of images
that can be archived electronically.
David K. Hsu, dhsu@cnde.iastate.edu.
http://faculty.washington.edu/scottcs/NSF/CNDE_14.pdf
Three main methods of ultrasonic testing:
Pulse Echo:
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Through Transmission
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material by a transmitter on one side and detected by a
receiver on the other.
Pitch/Catch
High frequency ultrasonic energy is transmitted at any
angle to the surface of a material and received as
reflected energy returning at the reflected angle.
Ultrasonic
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
the inspector can visualize a cross section of the
specimen showing the depth of features that reflect
sound.
f
Specimen
flaw
0 2 4 6 8 10
initial
pulse
crack
echo
back surface
echo
Oscilloscope, or flaw detector screen
Pulse-Echo
f
Pulse-Echo
Advantages:
Can be performed with access to one side only
Can detect disbonds and delaminations deeper inside
structure than tap testing
Can give information about defect depth, down to which ply
in many cases
Limitations:
Requires rather expensive portable equipment and a well-
trained operator
Difficult to cover large areas in a reasonable time
More suitable for small areas
Does not work well with core materials
This method is used for nondestructive
testing of multi-layered laminates.
f
Through
Transmission
Couplant
Material
Sound waves
Transmitting
Transducer
Receiving
Transducer
Used primarily for cylindrical tubes and other nonlinear
parallel sided surfaces, the pitch-catch method can
determine depths of flaws in material as well as detect the
location in the X-Y plane.
f
Pitch - Catch
Nondestructive inspection technique using
interferometry to measure the phase difference
between light waves traversing different paths
Laminate disbonds
Voids
Shearography
Basic Principles of Shearography
http://www.shearography.com/
Nondestructive inspection technique using infrared
light and an infrared camera to detect discontinuities
Video image is taken as parts are heated and cooled
Uses thermal differences to gather information about the part
Core to laminate bonds
Ply delamination
Thermography
3-Dimensional Temperature Profile of an
Impact Damage Zone on a Composite
Pressure Vessel as Viewed by Infrared (IR)
Thermography.
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) of
Composite Structures
NASA-White Sands Test Facility
http://www.wstf.nasa.gov/Enable/Composites/NDE.htm
High frequency, short wavelength radiant
energy
Excellent for metallic inclusions
Effective for finding water trapped in honeycomb
Not good for delaminations parallel to the plane of
the X-ray image
Expensive equipment and training
Safety requirements
Radiography
Damage Classification
Types of
Damage
Damage classifications:
Cosmetic damage - a defect on the outer surface that does
not involve the structural reinforcement (fibers). Usually only
chips or scratches
Impact damage - occurs if struck by a foreign object or
from careless handling during transportation or storage.
Penetrating - includes fractures and penetration through
the laminate.
Non-penetrating - includes abrasions, delaminations,
surface impact, or gouges through one laminate surface.
Damage classifications, cont.:
Solid laminate damage - structural or non-structural
damage which extends beneath the surface protection and
affects the solid laminate structure underneath. Three
types:
Delamination - separation of layers of material in a
laminate.
Cracks - can occur in advanced composite structures,
just as in metallic ones.
Hole Damage - may occur from improper drilling
techniques, over torqueing fasteners, or as a result of
pull-through.
Types of
Damage, cont.
Types of
Damage, cont.
Damage classifications, cont.:
Secondary bond damage - occurs between two pre-
cured components. Could be structural or non-structural in
nature.
Sandwich structure damage - damage to composite
sandwich structures. Three types:
Laminate only - damage to one side of the sandwich
structure only with no core damage. Can be identified
using the solid laminate damage classifications.
Laminate and core - damage to one side of the
sandwich construction and damage to the core. No
damage to the opposite laminate surface.
Sandwich penetration - damage to both sides of the
sandwich construction. Both laminate surfaces are
punctured and the foam core is exposed.
Repair Techniques
Preparation
Once extent of damage is known:
Prepare Environment:
Make sure the repair area has adequate ventilation.
The area must be completely enclosed.
Control temperature and humidity.
Min temp: 60 F (16 C); relative humidity > than 46%
Max temp: 75 F (24 C); relative humidity < than 71%
Isolate area from machining or other processes that
generate dust, oil vapors, or other contaminants.
Isolate adjacent surfaces that may come in contact with
adhesives prior to application.
Repairs
To ensure a sound repair:
Know the ply lay-up information such as ply
count and warp clocks
If you dont know the ply count, measure the thickness
(one ply is generally between 0.008 and 0.010 inch) and
divide by 0.009
Remove surface contaminants with solvent
Remove surface coatings (paint/gel coat)
mechanically.
NEVER USE PAINT STRIPPERS!
Repairs, cont.
Removal of core damage
If damage has occurred to core material, it must
be removed first, using a hole saw
Step-cutting (Scarfing)
To accomplish the proper step-cuts in the
laminate, each successive layer of fiber must
be removed. Great care must be exercised to
avoid further damage
Cleaning
All Repairs Must Be Cleaned After Sanding.
Use Vacuum And Solvent.
DO NOT USE COMPRESSED AIR!
Sanding technique using vacuum source
http://www.cirrusdesign.com/downloads/pdf/mc/mc20060801.pdf
Repairs, cont.
Summary
Weve talked about:
What Composites Are
Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages
Materials
Composites and Shop Safety
Composite Damage, Inspection, and Repair
Any Questions?
Acknowledgements:
Maria Clinton and Gary Eisenberg, Antelope Valley Community College,
Lancaster, CA
David K. Hsu, dhsu@cnde.iastate.edu.
Joe Escobar, Composites: Tips for working on Cirrus composite structures.
www.amtonline.com/publication/article.jsp
Ultrasonic Testing of Aerospace Materials
http://www.nasa.gov/offices/oce/llis/0765.html
Lee T. Ostrom, Ph.D., CSP, CPE, Cheryl A. Wilhelmsen, MS; Detectability of Dents
in Composite Materials, http://www.airlines.org/NR/rdonlyres/A6DADE79-6D14-
40F8-8403-BB1AA43B699A/0/Wed1130a_LeeOstrom.pdf