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JSAE 20139102 / SAE 2013-32-9102

Improvement of Powder Metallurgy Gears for Engines and
Transmissions
Paul Skoglund, Ola Litstrm
Hgans China Ltd
Anders Flodin
Hgans AB
Copyright 2013 SAE Japan and Copyright 2013 SAE International
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the progress in Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Gears, including examples of how to combine the
disciplines of materials-, design- and process technology to
push the limits towards increased performance, reduced
weight, energy consumption and total manufacturing cost.
Advancements in materials and manufacturing technology
for PM gears will be presented as well as the result from
simulations and reverse engineering work on existing
automotive transmissions. The results from this work show
that the amount and type of load on the individual gears in
auto transmissions are very different and this gives room for
optimized selection of material and manufacturing process.
PM gears do not have the same geometrical design limits as
conventional gears machined from wrought steel, and in this
paper it is exemplified how modifications of macro- and
micro gear geometries of PM gears can reduce weight,
inertia and stress levels and in such a way contribute to
improved transmissions for cars and motorcycles.
INTRODUCTION
The future in automotive development points in the
direction of lower energy consumption and lower emissions.
There is also a general trend towards Reduced Time to
Market and Total Cost Down that influences the selection of
manufacturing technology.
Powder Metallurgy is a well-established, however not so
well known, environmentally friendly technology for cost
effective mass production of high quality structural
components. It offers unique shaping to complex geometries
with no or very little materials loss. There are many
examples of how PM successfully is used for making
various engine and transmission components.
PM contributes with solutions that help automotive industry
meeting the goals for a challenging now and an even more
challenging future. Examples of parts currently made by PM
are sprockets, pulleys, components for Variable Valve
Timing and Carriers in Automatic Transmissions.
The average content of PM components in a passenger car
ranges from 5 to 25kgs depending on country/continent.
Also in motorcycles PM is used, the primary driven gear is
probably the most common PM application in motorcycles.
Powder metal components are also used in Lawn & Garden
equipment.
Automotive Transmissions are now developing in several
directions at the same time: Automatic (AT), Manual (MT),
Dual Clutch (DCT) and Continuous Transmissions (CVT).
Most new auto transmissions use gears and there is an
increasing number of 7- and 8 speed transmissions. Also
many CVTs use planetary gears. Transmissions with high
efficiency are crucial when it comes to meeting the demands
of lower fuel consumption and lower emissions.
Powder Metal Components typically have 10-20% porosity,
that contributes to lower density and lower strength
compared to wrought steel materials. A challenge for the
PM industry is to make more automotive design engineers
aware of PM and also convincing them that the technology
is good enough for highly loaded components such as
transmission gears. It is beneficial if gears and other
components are designed for PM already from the beginning
rather than being straight conversions from wrought steel.
There are technologies for making PM components with
similar or even higher strength than many wrought steels
and these technologies are developing rapidly.
The interest in PM gears for automotive transmissions is
increasing and as a consequence of this there is also more
research and development in the area, some of it to be
highlighted in this paper:
PM gear manufacturing technology - processes
PM materials for high performance applications
Forming of Helical Gears
Load on Gears in Transmissions
Design and Optimization of Gears
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MATERIAL AND MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY FOR PM GEARS
POWDER MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
The most common way to make PM parts is to compact and
sinter iron-copper-carbon type powder materials (Figure 1.).
Densities of such components are in the range from 6.8-7.1
g/cc. It is common to add a heat treatment operation in order
to increase strength and wear resistance. Typical strength
levels of such materials can be found in various standards,
such as MPIF Standard 35, and they can be enough for
moderately loaded components including some gear
applications.

Figure 1. Overview of Powder Metallurgy (PM) Manufacturing Route
Strength can be increased by further increasing the density
and also by selecting alternative alloying systems. The
strength and the dimensional tolerances of Sintered Steels
are compared with other manufacturing methods in Figure 2
and Figure 3. Higher density can be achieved by using more
compressible metal powders and also by more extensive
processing, such as double press double sintering. For gears,
the load is usually concentrated to the flank and the root and
it is possible to increase the density locally, just where the
highest strength is needed, by selective surface
densification. More complex manufacturing processes
usually add extra manufacturing cost. In the case of
selective densification by surface rolling there is an extra
benefit from better dimensional tolerances, better surface
finish as well as an opportunity of shaping the gear profile
by crowning all in the same processing step.
Higher strength can also be achieved by adequate selection
of alloying systems (materials composition) and alloying
methods. In Powder metallurgy it can be very easy to tailor
the materials composition because the powder materials can
be made by simply admixing alloying elements to a base
metal powder, usually a pure iron powder or a low alloy
base powder. Final selection is usually a compromise
between mechanical performance, processability and cost.
Here it is important to consider total cost in order to avoid
that an apparent benefit of a cheap low quality material is
consumed by excessive scrap and processing costs.
Alternatives to pure iron powders are Pre-alloyed and
Diffusion Bonded grades, often used when higher
performance is required. Fe-Mo materials are easy to
process and also widely used in high performance
components.

Figure 2.Comparison of Materials Strength

However, fluctuations in raw material prices for Mo and
also Ni contribute to making the future cost predictions
uncertain for some of the popular pre-alloyed grades. Low
alloy Fe-Cr and Fe-Cr-Mo grades offer a unique
combination of high mechanical performance and low cost.
The abundant availability of Cr makes the raw material cost
lower and more stable compared to the case of Mo and Ni.
Fe-Cr alloys are sensitive to oxidation which excludes low
quality protective atmospheres for sintering and heat
treatment of such materials.


Figure 3. Typical tolerance ranges (IT) for various materials and
manufacturing processes

Technologies that can offer high density components with
just one pressing and one sintering step have an obvious cost
advantage. By using Warm Die Compaction and Warm
Compaction in combination with suitable powder mixes it is
possible to reach higher strength by higher density (7.2-
7.4g/cc). An interesting choice for the most high
performance sprockets and gears is to use high density
compaction (7.5-7.6g/cc) of special powder grades. Gears
from such materials can match and exceed the performance
of gears made from common wrought steel grades and they
are also suitable for surface densification by rolling thanks
to high core density. Powder Forging (PF) is used for the
making of almost full density components (7.6-7.8g/cc). The
process comprises compaction and sintering of a pre-form
that is hot-forged to final density. PF is established for
industrial mass production of automotive connecting rods.
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Even if this technology offers very high density and high
strength, the cost of processing and subsequent machining
seems too high for industrial mass production of
transmission gears. (Ref 1)
Designing for PM already from the beginning makes it
possible to get the most out of the opportunities and
therefore it is an advantage if designers of transmission
systems are aware of the choices in powder metallurgy. The
downside with all the options and opportunities is the
complexity and difficulty to get a clear overview of all
materials, processes and design criteria. However, branch
organizations such as MPIF, EPMA and JPMA as well as
major parts manufacturers and materials suppliers offer
training, education and also seminars to increase the
awareness of PM.
TECHNOLOGY FOR COMPACTION OF HELICAL
GEARS
Spur gears are straight forward to produce by PM route and
the making of compaction tools for such applications is
established. In most Automotive Transmissions, however,
helical gears are used in order to reduce noise and the size
(width of gear) of the gear box. PM helical gears for
moderate demanding applications such as power tools are
well established. Now, thanks to advancement in
technologies for compaction tools and tool adapters in
combination with CNC presses, highly efficient compaction
of helical precision gears is possible. (Ref 2)
SURFACE DENSIFICATION OF GEARS BY ROLLING
Selective densification by surface rolling has already been
briefly described. Rolling of PM gears and sprockets with
the purpose of improving dimensional tolerances and
surface finish has been used industrially for decades and
burnishing of wrought steel gears basically utilizes the same
type of equipment. The step to modify the already existing
type of equipment and process for rolling to also include
plastic deformation of the most loaded areas of a gear is not
far. Suppliers of equipment for surface rolling have done
significant advancements and their capabilities in process
simulation/FEA have facilitated the design of tools and the
selection of processing parameters. (Ref 3, 4)
ADVANCEMENT IN SINTERING AND HEAT
TREATMENT
Low Pressure Carburization (LPC) combined with gas
quench is used for industrial heat treatment of automotive
wrought steel gears. Compared to heat treatment processes
using atmosphere with carbon potential and quenching in oil
such processes offer better consistency, cleaner components
and less distortion of the components. With this technology,
Fe-Cr alloyed materials that are sensitive to oxidation can be
processed in a better way. It is also possible to combine
sintering and heat treatment in the same batch process,
reducing the overall number of processing steps. This means
an opportunity for better energy utilization, productivity and
reduced investment. (Ref 5)
SIMULATION AND REVERSE
ENGINEERING OF AN
AUTOMOTIVE TRANSMISSION
Design of Powder Metal (PM) gears should not just be
copied from the steel gear that it may be replacing in an
automotive transmission. The implications of copying the
micro geometry of original steel gear when rebuilding a 6
speed manual transmission (Opel Insignia 4 cylinder
turbocharged 1.6 litre engine - 220hp/320Nm) are shown by
simulation (Ref 6). A different micro geometry of a PM gear
teeth coupled with the lower Youngs modulus can
theoretically enhance performance compared to the solid
steel design. Reverse engineering and redesign have been
done in order to understand and map the performance of the
Solid wrought steel gears versus the PM gears.

When designing PM gears special attention has to be paid to
the use of the correct material properties, meaning Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio. Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio can be empirically calculated as a function of
density. (Ref 7)

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
In order to investigate how much different the micro gear
design has to be in relation to solid steel design and also
what possibilities for weight reduction that exist, a redesign
of the GM M32 gearbox was performed. Another aim of
this work was to understand how much load the PM gears
have to sustain and from that judge the material and
manufacturing process necessary to fulfill the stress criteria.

A M32 gearbox was purchased, disassembled and reverse
engineered - data was collected and imported to FE software
for system analysis and the information from the system
analysis was carried over to the gear analysis. The output
from the system analysis is gear misalignment and
transmission deflections, which were used as an input to the
gear analysis where the micro geometry was tweaked to give
the best working behaviour of the gears considering the
misalignment and bending from shafts and bearings.

GEAR ANALYSIS
Macro geometry of the gears was created with focus on
surface stress levels and peak-to-peak transmission error.
For 1st, reverse and 2
nd
, the driver member could not be
exchanged since they were cut directly on the shaft - so for
these parts, only modification of idler and driven members
was performed.
Modifying the micro geometry of the gears is an iterative
procedure using the material data, loads and misalignments
with the focus on lowering transmission error and contact
stresses. This is done by changing the gear design
parameters in iterations, such as crowning, reliefs angular
deviations etc. A duty cycle typical European consumer
usage was used to evaluate gear life.
Misalignment data was taken from the system analysis and
has been accounted for in the micro geometry of the tooth
flanks. The working behaviour of the gears in the system has
been modelled for 50%, 100%, 150% and 200% load and
different temperatures in order to assure the functionality
under different conditions.

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All parts are modelled using linear-elastic material
properties. Material properties are based on input from
Hgans AB, see Table 1.

Table 1. Material data for PM
Material Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)
Poissons
Ratio
Thermal
Expansion
(C
-1
)
Fatigue
limit,
Surface
(MPa)
Fatigue
limit,
Root
(MPa)
Powder
Metal
160 0.28 12.510
-6
1100
@510
7

Cycles
650
@10
7

Cycles


RESULT SUMMARY
The peak to peak transmission error (TE) is a parameter that
describes the quality of the mesh cycle of two flanks.
Transmission error is also to some extent related to the noise
of the gears and is generally kept as low as possible. When
working with a material with a lower Youngs modulus
compared to steel, the TE tends to increase if the geometry
is copied from steel. This can be designed away to some
extent and improves the working behavior of the PM design.
Figure 4. shows the maximum TE for 3 different gear
designs during a torque sweep. It is the first gear pair in the
transmission and used for taking off from standstill


Figure 4. Transmission error for first gear in the investigated M32
transmission.

TE is quite high, but since this is the first gear, it is only
used for taking off and a slightly higher TE can be allowed.
More important are the curves; green curve is the PM gear
with the steel flank design. The green curve is higher for all
torques indicating that the TE will be higher for the copied
PM gear which is undesirable. The result from design
iterations in order to improve the TE for the PM gear is
shown in the blue curve where TE is lower for every torque
level and is likely to perform significantly better than the
PM gear with the copied design (green curve).

This pattern with an underperforming copied PM gear can
be seen for all gears in the transmission. It will not always
be better than the steel gear, like in Figure 4, but a gear
designed for PM will always be an improved design
compared to a PM gear with the copied steel design.

In Table 2 the contact and bending stress is listed for 6:th
gear pair in original steel and redesigned PM.

Table 2. Stress comparison 6
th
gear
6th steel 6th PM Diff
Bending
stress
MPa 564 624 616 677 8,4% 7,8%
Contact
stress
MPa 1504 1285 -17,0%

The 6:th gear is presented since the result displays a typical
improvement number, -17%, in contact stress and it is a
good example of a gear suitable for PM from a performance
point of view. The bending stress is intentionally increased
for the PM gears to be able to design a lower contact stress
for the same. Gear design is an iterative tradeoff process,
and for the 6:th gear pair it was judged to be more beneficial
with a lower contact stress and the sacrifice was increased
root stress. The root stress can be further reduced, with up to
30% for 6:th output gear, with PM, technology using the
optimization procedure described later in this paper and also
in [Ref 7,10].

The durability of 6:th gear pair is presented in Figure 5
below, where the duty cycle is taken into account. The red,
blue and black lines are S-n curves for sintered and
casehardened Astaloy85Mo PM gears with a density of
7.25g/cc and a tolerance class of ISO 7 or better. What can
be read from the diagram is that the tooth root bending
fatigue is within the acceptable boundaries but the contact
stress is still a bit too high. So these gears would need a little
higher performance to qualify. The remedy in this case
could be increased density to 7.4g/cc by double pressing and
double sintering or by shifting the material to a higher
performing one. Shot peening to induce higher compressive
stresses and/or superfinishing could be other cost efficient
methods to increase the fatigue limit another 7% that is
necessary to qualify. But without redesign a 25%
performance increase (1200MPa to 1500MPa) would have
been necessary and that would call for significantly more
expensive processes jeopardizing the cost efficiency of PM.

For this particular transmission reverse, 3:rd and 4:th gear
pair can be made with the shortest possible manufacturing
chain that gives 7.25g/cc density. For the 5:th and the 6:th
gear pair some of the earlier mentioned processes would be
necessary to increase performance. First and second gear
pair need densification or more radical redesign with
asymmetric gear teeth or non-involute gear shape.



Figure 5. Loads on 6:th gear pair with correlating S-n curves for case
hardened Astaloy85Mo PM gears with density 7.25g/cc and ISO 7 or
better tolerances.


WEIGHT AND INERTIA REDUCTION
The redesign does not only take micro geometry into
account but also macro geometry in order to reduce weight
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and inertia. Weight and inertia reductions are very important
since that reduces material cost and it lowers the weight of
the transmission. Inertia reduction is also of great
importance since that reduces the losses from accelerating
the gear mass every time the RPM is shifted. A reduced
inertia also decreases the amount of heat that has to be
dissipated in the synchronization of the gears. Less heat
build-up will give a more robust synchronization system and
longer service life. The reduced energy that has to be turned
into friction may also be used to design a simpler and
smaller synchronization package. Table 3 below summarizes
the weight and inertia reduction for the driven gears.


Table 3. Weight and inertia reduction for the redesigned
transmission.

Inertia M32 Steel vs Sinter
(kgm
2
x10
-6
) Mass (kg)
Gear
Steel
M32
Copied
PM
Optimized
PM Diff
Steel
M32 PM Diff
1st 2154 1769 1670 22% 1,097 0,896 18%
2nd 1285 1114 1090 15% 0,953 0,819 14%
3rd 1991 1605 1532 23% 1,159 0,93 20%
4th 983 860 848 14% 0,831 0,73 12%
5th 244 224 224 8% 0,323 0,297 8%
6th 213 196 196 8% 0,387 0,355 8%
R 1336 1140 1109 17% 0,946 0,791 16%


The redesign will in total for this particular transmission
remove 1.1 kg of mass.

LOAD ON INDIVIDUAL GEARS AND REQUIRED
MATERIALS- AND PROCESSES

The load for all the gears in the M32 transmission was
calculated for maximum torque condition. In the case of
steel gears, materials and design representative for M32s
original gears were used while for PM gears, materials data
for PM was used together with a modified gear design that
reduces the contact stress (on the expense of the bending
stress).



Figure 6. Bending Stress for Driving and Driven Gear 1-6 + R at
Maximum Torque


Figure 7. Contact Stress for Gear Pair 1-6 + R at Maximum Torque

Figure 6. and 7 show that the stress for gears 1-6 is
significantly different. By using a PM friendly gear design it
is possible to reduce the contact stress to levels that better
match the performance of the most cost efficient PM
materials and processes. Gear 1,2 and R are on the input
shaft, their contact stresses are high and the stress
distribution bad (non-uniform). It was not possible to
optimize those for PM at this stage. Gear 1,2 and 6 Driven,
need strength enhancement in order to survive the bending
load. Examples of ways to enhance the bending strength are
to select a stronger alloy or using high density processing.
Also shot peening can be used to increase the gear root
strength. It is possible to convert the least stressed gears by
using conventional PM technology in combination with
optimized gear design.

Most of the gears in the M32 gear box can be converted to
PM if more advanced materials and manufacturing
processes are used. However, there is also a potential
bending stress reduction achievable by further optimization
of the gear design.

DESIGN OF GEARS
Powder metal gear manufacturing allows for a root design
that may be optimized with respect to stress. Conventional
gear cutting using a hob is a balance between tool wear,
kinematics, hob tip geometry and achieved tooth root radius.
With PM manufacturing technology a root design that
reduces stresses from bending, compared to a machined root
design, can be built into the compaction
tool. (Ref 7)

TRADITIONAL GEAR HOBBING AND ITS
LIMITATIONS TO ROOT GEOMETRY
The root of the gear, when hobbed, is often not specified in
the gear drawing. It is indirectly given in the tool drawing
and data. The root is a function of the trochoid movements
of the hob flutes, gear rotation and the geometry of the tip of
the hob. There are also limitations to what hob radius that is
possible to use (Ref 7)





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Figure 8. Example of stress levels for root geometries
obtained with hobbs designed for different pressure angles.
(Image courtesy of Dontyne Systems)
PM gear technology does not suffer from these limitations in
root shape and the root can be actively designed together
with the tool manufacturer in order to achieve what is most
important.
ROOT GEOMETRY OF POWDER METAL GEARS
Since no hobbing action is required when making powder
metal gears, some of the limitations and also ISO
recommendations regarding root shape can be neglected and
a more active design philosophy can be adopted.
In Figure 9. there are different roots depicted, all based on
the so called FZG gear geometry that is used for various
gear performance tests (Ref 7 / FZG) .
Original 1.99mm (given by hob tip radius a0=0.8 mm)
Modified - Full radius (13% reduction)
Optimized - Curve shape (18% reduction)
Asymmetric gear tooth (19% reduction)

Figure 9. Gear Root Geometries
The Optimized Curve shape and similar favorable designs
have been investigated by others (Ref 8, 9) but since the
geometry calculated has been impossible to hob in mass
production; it has not gained widespread use. PM is,
however, well suited for efficient mass production of gears
with an optimized root. The influences of the modifications
calculated by FEA (Calculix) and the results from this work
demonstrate that an optimized root can reduce even the most
optimized machined root with another 5%. Also other root
geometries have been investigated and the improvement was
a 5-30% root stress reduction.

The work showed that it is possible to significantly reduce
root stress in a gear tooth by replacing the cut trochoid root
shape with a curve shape defined by a spline that is
designed, iteratively, to reduce root stress. It is also possible
to manufacture a gear wheel with this root shape in mass
production using PM manufacturing technology. It may not
be possible to manufacture this root shape using
conventional cutting technology at the same speed as is
possible with PM technology.
Asymmetric gear teeth designed for reduced contact
pressure, may be designed in such a way that their root
stress is reduced to levels where they can operate at similar
stress levels as cut gear gears operate. Their increased
stiffness will improve their dynamic properties.


FUTURE
The first and second gear pair are exposed to the highest
load and a next step is redesign using more advanced design
such as non-involute gearing and asymmetric gear teeth to
be able to prototype the gear box without using any
performance enhancing high density technologies. A few
transmissions will be built utilizing optimized design but
with different PM technologies built in and then put into a
car for everyday driving as a proof of concept. The
transmissions will also be put in test rigs to test durability,
noise and efficiency according to specified drive cycles to
more scientifically prove the possibilities with PM in
automotive transmissions.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
Technology for Powder Metal Transmission Gears is
developing rapidly. Gears are better designed for PM
already from the beginning rather than being straight
conversions from machined wrought steel gears. There is a
wide range of materials and processes that are suitable and
ready for industrial mass production of PM gears. The
understanding of transmission load conditions and the use of
more aggressive design strategy for PM gears facilitate the
making of well-engineered cost competitive transmissions
for passenger cars and motorcycles.
REFERENCES
1. Forging and Hot Pressing, ASM Handbook Volume 7,
Powder Metal Technologies and Applications (ASM
International) 1990 pp 632-637
2. Gutowski, E, Alvier AG PM-Technology, Switzerland,
Compaction of Helical Gears PMAI2013 Plenary
session 5, February 8 2013, Pune, India
3. Engstrm U., Opportunities for High Performance PM
Gears in Automotive Applications, Presented at PM
Asia2007 Shanghai, China, on April 4, 2007
4. Takemasu, T. Analysis and Durability Test of Surface
Rolled 1P1S 1.5Cr-0.2Mo Very High Density Gear,
Presented at World PM2010 in Florence, Italy on
October 13, 2010
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5. Dennis Beauchesne, D., Goldsteinas A.,Vacuum
Furnace Technology in Gear Heat Treatment's Future,
Industrial Heating March 4, 2005
6. Flodin, A., Karlsson, P. Automotive transmission design
using full potential of powder metal World PM 2012
Yokohama, Japan
7. Flodin, A., Andersson, M. Tooth Root Optimization Of
Powder Metal Gears Reducing Stress From Bending
And Transient Loads World PM 2012 Yokohama,
Japan
8. Kapelevich, A., Shekhtman, Y., Tooth Fillet Profile
Optimization for Gears with Symmetric and Asymmetric
Teeth. (2009) Gear Technology September/October, pp.
73-79.
9. Sanders, A. An experimental investigation of the
influence of elliptical root shapes and asymmetric teeth
on root stresses and bending fatigue. (2010) Master of
Science Thesis, Ohio State University.
10. Andersson, M. Flodin, A. Optimizing the tooth root
strength of sintered gears for a manual automotive
transmission. (Sept. 2013) Proceedings from EuroPM
2013.

CONTACT INFORMATION
Mr. Paul Skoglund, Hgans China Ltd, Shanghai, PRC
MSc. Mechanical Engineering, Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden 1980. R&D experience
includes product-, process- and application development in
the field of Powder Metallurgy, resulting in new products,
processes and several patents.
paul.skoglund@hoganas.com

Mr. Ola Litstrm, Hgans China Ltd, Shanghai, PRC
MSc. Physical Metallurgy, Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden 1994. R&D activities include product
and process development in the field of Powder Metallurgy,
resulting in new products and several patents.
ola.litstrom@hoganas.com

Dr. Anders Flodin, Hgans AB, Hgans, Sweden
PhD. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
PhD on gear wear and failure modelling - continues to work
in powder metal gear technology at Hgans AB.
anders.flodin@hoganas.com
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
MPIF: Metal Powder Metallurgy Association
EPMA: European Powder Metallurgy Association
JPMA: Japan Powder Metallurgy Association

FZG: Forschungsstelle fr Zahnrder und Getriebebau,
(German: Research Centre for Gears and Gear; University
of Munich; Munich, Germany)

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