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Biology 172L General Biology Lab II

Lab 01: Algae and Fungi
(seaweeds, molds, rusts, yeasts, & mushrooms)

Introduction

The algae are a diverse collection of
photosynthetic organisms that lack specialized
water-conductive (vascular) tissues and other
adaptations that enhance survival in terrestrial
environments. Thus the overwhelming majority
of algae species are limited to living in aquatic
environments.
Some are prokaryotic, while the majority of
conspicuous species are eukaryotic. Some
forms of these eukaryotic algae (e.g., the
diatoms and the dinoflagellates) may be
unicellular forms. Others may consist of
organized aggregations of many cells (e.g.,
Spirogyra and Volvox). In this lab exercise, we
will only study the eukaryotic forms of algae.
The highest level of organization is
exhibited by the multicellular seaweeds which
superficially resemble the higher plants of
Kingdom Plantae. In fact, some classification
schemes place the seaweeds, especially the
green algae, into Kingdom Plantae. However,
we will consider seaweeds as protists because
their level of structural organization is low
compared to mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and
angiosperms, all indisputable members of
Kingdom Plantae.
Seaweeds often exhibit leaf-like structures
called blades, stem-like structures called
stipes, and root-like structures called holdfasts.
However, because these structures lack
vascular tissues and do not function in the
transport of water and the products of
photosynthesis, seaweeds do not possess true
leaves, true stems, nor true roots.
The classification of the eukaryotic algae
is very complex. One out-dated scheme
included them in Kingdom Protista along with
heterotrophic unicellular eukaryotes. However,
the results of molecular studies, along with our
new understanding for the role of endosymbiosis
in evolution, demonstrates that the algae are a
very heterogeneous group in which some types
are different enough to warrant placement in
their own separate kingdoms.
In this lab, we will examine common forms
of unicellar algae and multicellular seaweeds.
The primary objective of these examinations is
to be able to make comparisons to higher plants
when we examine them in upcoming laboratory
sessions. By doing so, we hope to understand
the adaptations that have permitted higher
plants to exploit the terrestrial environment.
Prior to starting this lab, you should read the
corresponding chapter (Chapter 28) in your
BIOL 171/172 textbook (Campbell and Reece,
2008).
The fungi (Domain Eukarya, Kingdom
Fungi) are plant-like organisms that are, in fact,
very different from plants. They are a
heterogeneous group of organisms
characterized by the following characteristics:
composed of eukaryotic cells; usually
multicellular, but a few are unicellular (e.g.,
yeasts); heterotrophic nutrition by absorption
after secretion of digestive enzymes
(saprophytic) rather than by ingestion (as in
animals); cells usually surrounded by a cell wall
typically composed of chitin rather than
cellulose (as in plants); and lack of motility.
Most fungi lack tissue specialization in
their feeding or vegetative structures; but often
exhibit elaborate reproductive structures. The
basic structure of all fungi (except yeasts) is the
hypha (pl. hyphae), filament-like cells, usually
with chitinous cell walls, which form a network
called a mycelium. Hyphae come in two types:
septate or aseptate. Septate fungi have
hyphae with septa, cross-walls that separate
individual cells within the filament. Aseptate
fungi lack these cross-walls and the cells are
continuous, i.e., one large, branched cytoplasm
with many, many nuclei.
Fungi are typically classified into five
phyla: Phylum Chitridiomycota (chytrids;
produce flagellated zoospores), Phylum
Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes; produce
arbuscular micorrhizae), Phylum Zygomycota
(conjugating molds or zygote fungi), Phylum
Ascomycota (sac fungi), and Phylum
Basidiomycota (club fungi). Classification into
these phyla is based primarily on differences in
their sexual reproduction and associated sexual
structures. In this lab activity, we will focus on
the latter three phyla: Zygomycota, Ascomycota,
and Basidiomycota. You should read the
corresponding chapter (Chapter 31) in your
BIOL 171/172 textbook (Campbell and Reece,
2008).
Windward Community College BIOL 172L Dr. Dave Krupp
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Procedures and Assignment


I. Microscopic Algae

A. Prepared Slides

To demonstrate algal diversity, your instructor
will provide the class with stained prepared
microscope slides of preserved algae. For each
of these, examine as many individuals on the
slide as possible to develop an understanding
for what you are looking at. Compare these to
the diagrams provided (Fig. 1) and pictures from
your textbook (where applicable). Draw and
label idealized line drawings (separate figures
on separate pages for each slide examined) of a
few cells of each type representing your
observations. Be sure to follow the rules for
presenting figures. Also be sure to indicate to
which kingdom and phylum each organism
belongs (use your textbook as a guide). The
slides to examine are as follows:

Diatoms w.m.
Peridinium w.m.
Ceratium w.m.
Spirogyra Vegetative Single Chloroplasts
w.m.
Chlamydomonas flagella stain
Volvox w.m.

B. Live Cultures

If available, prepare a wet mount of any live
algae cultures provided and examine
microscopically. As with the prepared slides,
draw and label idealized line drawings of a few
cells of each type. Also be sure to indicate to
which kingdom and phylum each organism
belongs.

II. Seaweeds

Examine the specimen of seaweed provided.
Draw and label a diagram that illustrates the
following features: holdfast (a root-like
structure that attaches the seaweed to the
bottom), stipe (a stem-like structure, but not a
true stem because it lacks vascular tissues),
blades (leaf-like structures, but not true leaves
because they lack veins), and pneumatocyst
(an air-filled float). Comment on why seaweeds,
such as the one displayed, do not make good
land plants. How do these structures function in
the seaweeds?

Figure 1. Examples of microscopic algae.

III. Zygote Fungi (Phylum Zygomycota)

This division is represented by the
common bread mold Rhizopus. Its aseptate
hyphae spread out over food from which it
derives its nutrients by absorption. It produces
two kinds of sporangia: diploid zygosporangia
which results from fusion of two haploid mating
types of hyphae; and asexual sporangia
(haploid) which arise from the haploid mycelium.

A. Rhizopus Conjugation

When two different mating types of the
hyphae come in close proximity, each forms a
hyphal extension towards the other and wall off
several haploid nuclei from the main part of the
mycelium (Fig. 2). The two walled off sections
(called gametangia; s. gametangium) fuse to
form the zygosporangium. Examine the slide
labeled Rhizopus Conjugation, w.m. The slide
illustrates the formation of these zygosporangia.
The diploid nuclei in the zygosporangium
eventually undergo meiosis and haploid spores
are produced. From your observations draw
and label diagrams of several of these
zygosporangia to illustrate their typical structure.
Windward Community College BIOL 172L Dr. Dave Krupp
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Figure 2. Conjugation in Rhizopus

B. Rhizopus Sporangia

Occasionally sporangia rise asexually
from the mycelium (Fig. 3). These often appear
as tiny black specks on the surface of the
cotton-like mycelium. From your observations of
the slide (Rhizopus Sporangia, w.m.), draw
and label several sporangia and their associated
mycelia.



Figure 3. Asexual sporangia in Rhizopus.

IV. Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota)

Sac fungi include unicellular yeasts,
minute leaf-spot fungi, elaborate cup fungi,
morels, and truffles. The defining feature of the
Ascomycota is the production of sexual spores
in saclike asci (s. ascus). After union of two
haploid hyphae, an ascocarp is formed. The
ascocarp is a cup-shaped structure containing
many asci. Within each ascus are produced 8
haploid ascospores. The ascospores
germinate into haploid hyphae. Asexual
reproduction of haploid conidiospores from
conidia also occurs.

A. Yeast

Yeast are unicellular fungi that reproduce
by budding (Fig. 4). Place a small drop of liquid
yeast culture on a slide and add a drop of 0.01%
neutral red stain. Cover with a coverglass and
examine with your compound microscope.
Identify individual yeast cells and locate a
budding cell. Can you see the dividing nucleus?
Can one yeast cell have more than one bud at a
time? From your observations of you
microscope preparation, draw a labeled diagram
of budding yeast cells.


Figure 4. Budding yeast cells.

B. Penicillium conidium

The fungi from which the antibiotic
penicillin is derived from a type of sac fungi
called Penicillium. Observe the prepared slide
of Penicillium conidia (Fig. 5). From your
observations of the slide, draw and label a
diagram of several of these conidia.


Figure 5. Penicillium conidia.
Windward Community College BIOL 172L Dr. Dave Krupp
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C. Lichen ascocarp

A few of the Ascomycota exhibit symbiotic
relationships with algae. The algae provide
organic nutrients for the fungus and the fungus
provides the algae with a protected place to live.
Examine the prepared slide of a lichen (Lichen
Thallus, sec.) and identify the symbiotic algal
cells among the hyphae (Fig. 6). Also note the
ascocarp on the same slide. Draw and label
diagrams that illustrate the algal cells among the
hyphae and the structure of the ascocarp.


Figure 6. Thin section through a lichen
illustrating symbiotic algae.

D. Lichen Thalli

Observe the specimens of lichens on
display. Note that there are three basic types of
lichens: crustose (thin coatings, often on bare
rock), foliose (leaf-like), and fruiticose (net-like;
found at higher altitudes). For each of the three
labeled (A, B, and C) specimens on display,
determine its growth form.

V. The Common Mushroom - A
Basidiomycota

Basidiomycota derives its name from the
basidium, a transient diploid stage in the
organisms life cycle. The basidia are produced
by the basidiocarp, or fruiting body, which rises
from the mycelium, usually a diffuse network
below the surface of the soil (Fig. 7). The
basidia, which may be observed on the gills of a
mushroom, each bear four haploid
basidiospores.

A. Mushroom Life Cycle

Examine the display of the mushroom life
cycle. Draw and label a diagram that illustrates
the structure of a typical fruiting body of a
mushroom


Figure 7. Typical mushroom.

B. Coprinus mushroom

Examine the prepare slide of Coprinus
(Coprinus Mushroom, c.s.). This preparation
represents a thin section through the top of a
mushroom. At high magnification you should be
able to observe the basidia and their
basidiospores on the gills (Fig. 8). Draw a
diagram to illustrate these.


Figure 8. Thin section through the gill of a
mushroom illustrating basidia
Windward Community College BIOL 172L Dr. Dave Krupp
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VOCABULARY

diatom
dinoflagellate
algae
seaweed
holdfast
stipe
blade
pneumatocyst
saprophytic
chitin
heterotrophic
hypha
mycelium
septate/aseptate
zygote fungi
sac fungi
club fungi
zygosporangium
gametangium
sporangium
ascus
ascocarp
ascospores
conididospore
conidium
crustose lichen
foliose lichen
fruiticose lichen
basidium
basidiocarp
basidiospore

Lab Summary

Your lab summary should consist of the
following:

1. Descriptive title
2. Short introduction identifying main
objectives of the lab activity.
3. Brief description of methods employed.
4. Results section including labeled
diagrams as described in the
Procedures and Assignment section
above and following the appropriate
protocols for presenting figures in a
laboratory report. Be sure to follow all of
the rules from producing figures for lab
reports. One figure per page. Be sure
the descriptive title for each figure
incudes appropriate taxonomic
information. Corresponding to each
figure, there should be a short
paragraph that describes the significant
features of the figure.
5. Discussion: for this lab summary, your
discussion should address the following:
a. Functions of the seaweed structures
identified.
b. Similarities and differences among
Zygomycota, Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota.
6. Short conclusion summarizing what was
learned.