A GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEM WITH ACTIVE

POWER INJECTION, REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION AND HARMONIC

FILTERING

Leonardo B. G. Campanhol
2
Srgio A. Oliveira da Silva
1
Leonardo P. Sampaio
1
Azauri A. O. Junior
3

Federal Technological University of Paran UTFPR
1

Av. Alberto Carazzai, 1640, CEP. 86.300-000
Cornlio Procpio PR, Brazil
augus@utfpr.edu.br
1
sampaio@utfpr.edu.br
1

Federal Technological University of Paran UTFPR
2
Av. Monteiro Lobato, s/n - Km 04, CEP. 84016-210
Ponta Grossa PR, Brazil
campanhol@utfpr.edu.br
2

University of So Paulo USP
3

Av. Trabalhador So-carlense, 400, CEP. 13.566-590
So Carlos SP, Brazil
azauri@sc.usp.br
3



Abstract This paper presents a study of a single-
phase photovoltaic system, which is connected to the
utility grid by means of a full-bridge DC/AC converter.
The grid-connected system has active power injection
ability from photovoltaic panels. Simultaneously, it
performs reactive power compensation and harmonic
current suppression generated by nonlinear loads. The
photovoltaic system is implemented utilizing an
equivalent electric model proposed in the literature. The
algorithm adopted to obtain the current reference of the
DC/AC converter is based on the synchronous reference
frame (SRF), which is implemented along with a
maximum power tracking technique. Simulation results
are present to validate the proposed control strategy, as
well as to verify the system feasibility.

Keywords Active Power Injection, Harmonic,
Reactive Power Compensation, Photovoltaic System,
Power Quality.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the last years, researches related to alternative energy
source have been grown significantly at national and global
reach. This is due to the crescent electrical energy demand,
as well as by the constant worry related to reduction or
extinction of the traditional electrical energy source, mainly
the fossil and nuclear sources. The traditional electrical
energy generation, in general, utilizes process that emits
pollutants in the environment, due to fossil and mineral coal
fuel burning. Therefore, significant environment impacts can
be caused. There is also disaster risks on the nuclear
generation systems, as well as large environment impacts
related to hydroelectric power plants.
Therefore, it has been a changing in the scenario of
traditional electrical energy generation, by means of
alternative and renewable electrical source utilization, which
causes minimum ecological and economic impacts. There are
several kinds of alternative and renewable electrical energy
sources, for instance, hydropower, biomass, wind, sea and
photovoltaic.
Concerning to solar energy, it can be used as electrical
energy by the utilization of photovoltaic (PV) panels in the
electrical energy conversion process. The electrical energy
from the PV is actually considered as the most useful of the
natural energy sources [1-2]. Moreover, it is estimated that
incident solar energy on the earth surface is in order of ten
thousand times greater than the global electrical energy
consumption [2]. Brazil has excellent levels of solar
radiation, with solar incidence higher than found in the rest
of the world countries. This fact places the country in
advantage with respect to photovoltaic energy utilization [3].
The PV array is a device that uses the photoelectric effect
to converter the light energy into electrical energy. This
generation energy way is considered clean and
environmental impact is almost null. This happens because
only there are residues in the productive process and discards
[4]. This makes this alternative energy with great increasing
prospect for the next decades.
On the other hand, the injection of energy provided by the
PV into the utility grid, it is needed an adequate energy
conversion stage. In other words, the compliance between the
DC energy from PV and the AC energy of grid is needed.
Normally, it is performed by using two power converters,
i.e., one DC/DC converter to step-up the PV voltage and one
DC/AC converter to convert the DC voltage in AC voltage
[5-7].
Besides, the question related to energy generation from
renewable energies, has been strongly discussed in the last
years. It is related to the power quality (PQ) in the electrical
power systems. Thus, it arises due to the great utilization of
nonlinear loads by industrial and commercial sectors, as well
as residential consumers. These loads drain high contents
harmonics from the utility grid, which contribute to PQ
degradation in electrical power systems [8].
When harmonic currents generated by nonlinear loads
interact with the network line impedance, it results in voltage
harmonic distortion that affects the PQ of all consumers
connected to the same point of common coupling (PCC) in
the electrical system. Additional, effects can be seen through
the excessive heating of transformers and electrical
equipment, increasing noise in the audible frequency, and
electromagnetic torque oscillations in electric motors [8].
One alternative to minimize these PQ problems is the
utilization of shunt Active Power Filters (APF) [9-11], which
have been used to eliminate or mitigate the effects on the
power system caused by the circulation of harmonic currents
created by nonlinear loads.
978-1-4799-0272-9/13/$31.00 2013 IEEE 642

The single-phase grid-tied photovoltaic and active filter
(PV-AF) system discussed in this work is shown in Figure 1.
It is connected to the utility grid by means of a full-bridge
inverter to perform the following functions: active power
injection into the grid, and, simultaneously, to perform active
filtering and reactive compensation. The PWM converter is
current controlled and it is grid-tie through a coupling
inductor.
The PV array is implemented using an equivalent
electrical model proposed in [12]. The photovoltaic
arrangement is formed by ten panels connected in series,
resulting in a DC voltage of approximately 260V at the
output terminators of the arrangement. The voltage is
obtained considering that the PV array operates in the
Maximum Power Point (MPP), under the standard test
conditions (STC). This makes possible the direct connection
of photovoltaic arrangement to full-bridge converter DC link.
Thus, the use of a step-up DC/DC converter is not necessary.
This decreases the costs and increases the overall system
efficiency.
In order to obtain the reference current that is synthesized
by the full-bridge converter, an algorithm based on
synchronous reference frame (SRF) is adopted. Once the
SRF is based originally on balanced three-phase loads, it
must be adapted for using in single-phase systems.
Therefore, a fictitious two-phase system must be created.
A phase-locked loop (PLL) system is implemented for the
utility grid phase-angle detection. It is also used to generate
the coordinates of the synchronous unit vector sin() and
cos() for the SRF algorithm [14].
The maximum power available in the PV panels is
extracted using a technique to guarantee the maximum power
point tracking (MPPT), which is well-known as Hill
Climbing (perturb and observe method - P&O) [13].
Simulation results are shown, in order to verify feasibility
of single-phase grid-tied photovoltaic and active filter (PV-
AF) system and evaluate its performance.
II. POWER STRUCTURE OF THE GRID-TIED AND
ACTIVE FILTER SYSTEM
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the complete system
adopted in this paper. The PV-AF system was implemented
in simulation software.
It was considered a photovoltaic array composed by ten
panels connected in series, adopting the Kyocera KC200GT
PV model. Thus, it was obtained 2000W of total output
power.
The PV array was implemented using the system
described in [12], which is briefly described in the following
subsection. Moreover, in the following sections are described
the current reference generation algorithm, and the current
controller model used in the PV-AF system.
A. PV Model System
As shown in the Figure 1, it was used a photovoltaic array
coupled at the utility grid through a single-phase full-bridge
converter. Thus, by means of simulation software, it was
possible to use an equivalent electrical model that represents
the proposed PV-AF system.



Fig. 1. Scheme of the single-phase grid-tied photovoltaic and active filter system.

*
*
*
643

In this work, it is adopted an equivalent electrical circuit
of a solar cell presented in [12], which is represented by a
current source as shown in Figure 2.


Fig. 2. Block diagram of the PV electrical model.
It is verified that :
p
and i
p
represent the voltage and
current of the PV arrangement; T represents the ambient
temperature, in Kelvin; and P
sum
represents the power
density of the solar radiation [12].
The current i
p
can be derived as:

i
p
= I. H
p
(1)

Where:
H
p
represents the number of photovoltaic modules
connected in parallel.
The quantity I [12] is calculated as:

I = I
ph
- I

. |c
q.(v+I.R
s
)q.k.1
-1] -
I + I. R
s
R
p
(2)
Where I and I represent, respectively, the voltage and
current in the output terminals of the PV cell; I
ph
is the
photocurrent; I

is the reverse saturation current; R

s
and R
p

are the series an parallel resistances, respectively; q is the
electron charge; p is the quality factor of the junction p-n;
and k is the Boltzmann constant.
The PV cell current (2) cannot be algebraically resolved,
due to the nonlinear relation between the current I and the
voltage V. In this case, a numeric method is used to solve this
equation, in order to determine the PV arrangement current
[12]. In the PV system are considered as input parameters
model of the power solar radiation (P
sum
), the radiation
reference of air mass (AM), and ambient temperature (I).
These parameters are obtained for Standard Test Conditions
(STC) [12].
Once performed such considerations, the current i
p

(Figure 2) is obtained by the calculation routine implemented
in PV array system block [12]. Thereby, the current source
that simulates the behavior of the photovoltaic arrangement
can be obtained. In the simulations, it was used the
polycrystalline module KC200GT, of Kyocera. Each module
has 54 interconnected photovoltaic cells, and provides 200W
at MPPT, in STC mode. Table I shows the main information
of this module.
TABLE I
Parameters of the PV KC200GT (STC)
Maximum power Pmax = 200W (+10%/-5%)
Maximum power point voltage Vmpp = 26.3 V
Maximum power point current Impp = 7.61 A
Open circuit voltage Voc = 32.9 V
Short-circuit current Isc = 8.21 A
Temperature coefficient of Isc 3.18x10
-3
A/C
Temperature coefficient of Voc -1.23x10
-1
V/C
B. MPPT and DC-bus Voltage Regulation
In order to extract the maximum power from the PV array,
the P&O algorithm was implemented as shown in Figure 3
[13]. It is employed to generate the PV array reference
current (i
Pv
-
), which composes part of the total PV-AF
system reference current (i
s
-
) used in the current loop control
(Figure 6).
Moreover, along with MPPT, an algorithm is used to
regulate the DC-bus voltage of the PV-AF system, as
illustrated by the DC-bus voltage regulation diagram shown
in Figure 4. The DC-bus voltage is regulated according to the
available power of the PV array, i.e., when the environmental
conditions (solar irradiation and temperature) are favorable,
and the PV array produces enough electrical energy, the DC-
bus reference voltage is set to be equal to the PV array output
voltage, which is obtained by means of the MPPT, such as
(I
dc
-
= V
PV
). In this case, the current drained from PV is
provided to the load and its surplus is injected into the grid.
On the other hand, for an unfavorable environmental
condition, such that the PV array has been disconnected or its
electrical energy is not enough to ensure the maintenance of
the DC-bus voltage, the algorithm will set the DC-bus
reference voltage to a constant value (I
dc
-
= 230V), i.e., the
algorithm will set the voltage reference to a minimum value,
in order to guarantee the active filtering operation. At this
moment, the DC-bus voltage is controlled by the energy
drained from the grid and the PV-AF system operates as a
conventional shunt APF, while all of the active energy
consumed by the load is drained from the grid.
As can be noted, the active energy of the load is shared
between the PV-AF system and the utility grid, while the
PV-AF system performs continuously the shunt APF
function.


Fig. 3. P&O for the MPPT Algorithm.

Fig. 4. DC-bus voltage regulation diagram.
1
z
z
1
z
z
644

C. Reference Current Generation
Several methods and theories have been proposed in the
literature to generate the compensation reference current for
shunt-APF. In this work, for this purpose, it was used an
algorithm based on synchronous reference frame. In the
SRF-based algorithm the fundamental terms of voltage
and/or current of the abc-phase stationary reference frame
are transformed into continuous quantities into the dq
synchronous axes, in which they spin at a synchronous speed
in relation to the spatial vectors of voltage and/or current. In
the dq-axes, the harmonic parcels of voltage and/or current
can be represented by alternate parcels, which are
superimposed to the continuous term. Therefore, the
fundamental component can be easily obtained by means of
low-pass filters (LPFs). A phase-locked loop (PLL)
algorithm is used to estimate the utility grid phase-angle,
allowing the generation of the coordinates sin0 and cos0,
that define the synchronous unit vector used in the SRF-
based algorithm, where 0 is the estimated utility grid phase-
angle.
Once the SRF-based algorithm was conceived to be used
in three-phase systems, some modifications should be made
to allow its application in single-phase systems. Thereby,
considering the modified SRF-based algorithm showed in
Figure 5, the fictitious three-phase currents can be
represented by the fictitious two-phase currents (i
u
= i
L
, i
[
).
Thus, is possible to adapt the SRF algorithm to be used in
single-phase system.
The algorithm shown in Figure 5 consists in measuring of
the load current (i
L
= i
u
). Thus, the measured current is
considered the fictitious current i
u
(axis-). Subsequently, i
u

is delayed by /2, producing the fictitious coordinate (i
[
).
Therefore, the fictitious two-phase stationary reference frame
(-axis) can be represented by (3).

_
i
u
i
[
_ = _
i
L
(t)
i
L
(t -n2)
_ (3)

After that, the currents i
u
and i
[
are transformed from the
two-phase stationary reference frame into a two-phase
synchronous rotating reference frame dq. The direct current
iJ is obtained by means of (4). Now, it is possible to extract
the DC component (iJ
dc
) using a LPF, which represents the
peak amplitude of the fundamental parcel of the load current.
Therefore, the fundamental reference current (i
s
-
) can be
obtained by (5). Finally, the compensation current reference
(i
c
-
) is given (6).

iJ = i
u
.cos(0) + i
[
. sin(0) (4)

i
s
-
= (iJ
dc
+ i
dc
-i
p
-
).cos(0) (5)
i
c
-
= i
L
-i
s
-
(6)
As can be noted by (5), two currents (i
p
-
and i
dc
) will
contribute to impose the active power flow through the PV-
AF system. Thus, the algorithm will determine if the PV-AF
system will absorb or furnish energy into the utility grid.
The component i
dc
(Figure 6) is the output signal of the
DC-bus controller (PI controller), which represents the
compensation of the losses related to the inductances and
switching devices. In other words, the PI output signal i
dc

represents the total active power demanded by the PV-AF
system to regulate the DC-link voltage. This quantity is
important mainly when the PV-AF system is working only as
shunt-APF.


Fig. 5. Block diagram of the single-phase SRF based algorithm.
On the other hand, the current i
p
-
represents the active
current available in the PV array, which can be used to
supply the energy for the load and/or injected into the utility
grid.
D. Current Control Loop of the PV-AF system
The block diagram of the current controller model used in
the single-phase full-bridge converter is shown in the Figure
6, where the current reference i
c
-
is obtained by SRF
algorithm showed in the Figure 5. In the block diagram of
Figure 5, KP

and KI

represent, respectively, the

proportional and integral gains of the current PI controller;
KP

and KI

represent, respectively, the proportional and

integral gains of the DC-bus PI controller; K
PwM
is the PWM
gain; I
]
and R
L]
are, respectively, the inductance and
resistance of the output filter of PV-AF system.


Fig. 6. Block diagram of the current control loop.
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The complete scheme of the PV-AF system implemented
in this work is shown in the Figure 1. As can be seen, the
SRF and PLL algorithms, the MPPT system, the current and
DC-bus voltage controllers, as well as the full-bridge
converter of the PV-AF system were implemented by
numeric simulation using the MATLAB/Simulink tools.
Additionally, in order to perform the simulation tests as close
as possible to a real system, all parts of the system were
discretized, including the algorithms, data acquisition signals
and controllers. Besides, the acquisition delays, introduced
by the anti-aliasing filter, were considered, as well as the
dead-time of the power switches [17]. Table II resumes the
parameters implemented in the simulations, where the PI
controller gains were obtained taking into account the design
procedure presented in [17].
dq

id
dc
id

i
dq
s
i
*
c
i
*
L
i
L
i
*

dc
i
*
*
L
i
c
i
c
i
pv
i
*
645

Figure 7 shows the voltage source (:
s
), current source (i
s
),
the compensation current synthesized by the PV-AF system
(i
c
), and the load current (i
L
), for three different operation
modes of the PV-AF system, as follows: 1. reactive power
compensation and harmonic currents suppression, with
nonlinear load connected to the grid; 2. reactive power
compensation, harmonic currents suppression and grid active
power injection, also for nonlinear load connected; 3. Grid
active power injection, without nonlinear load connected to
the grid.
TABLE II
Parameters adopted in the simulations
Nominal utility voltage (rms) Vs = 127V
Nominal utility frequency f = 60Hz
Inductance filter Lf = 2.5mH
Resistance of Inductance filter RLf = 0.48 u
Commutation inductance LL = 1.2mH
DC-bus voltage Vdc = 260V
DC-bus capacitor Cdc = 2300F
Switching frequency fsw = 20kHz
Sampling frequency of the A/D converter fs = 60kHz
PWM gain KPWM = 5.33x10
-4

Current PI controller gains
KPi = 226.49
KIi = 6.61x10
5
/s
DC-bus PI controller gains
KPv = 0.275
KIv = 1.42/s
MPPT PI controller gains
KPmppt = 0.16
KImppt = 0.53 /s


In Figure 7 (a) is shown the voltage and currents
quantities when the PV-AF system is operating only as
shunt-APF. In this operation mode, the filter is compensating
the load reactive power and suppressing the harmonic
currents of the load. It is verified that the compensated
sinusoidal source current is in phase with respect to the grid
voltage source.
The voltage and currents of the PV-AF system performing
injection of active power into the grid and, simultaneously,
performing reactive power compensation, as well as
harmonic suppression are shown in Figure 7 (b). For this
operation mode, all of the involved power quantities (active,
harmonic and reactive) are been provided to the load by the
PV-AF system, while the additional power produced by the
PV array is injected into the grid.
Figure 7 (c) shows the PV-AF system injecting into the
grid all of the active power produced by the PV array. For
this operation mode the load was disconnected. As can be
noted, the sinusoidal source current is in opposite phase with
the voltage source. However, all off the power produced by
the PV array is injected into the grid.
Table III presents the total harmonic distortion (THD) of
the compensated source current for the three operation modes
of the PV-AF system shown in Figure 7. The THD of the
source current is lower than 5% for the case 1, and it agree
with the IEEE recommendation [15]. The operation modes 1
and 2 obtained the THD lower that established by the
standard of NBR [16], which recommends that the THD of
the current injected into the grid must be lower than 5%.
TABLE III
THD of the source and load currents for full-bridge diode
rectifier followed by R-L load
Operation modes
(THD %)
iL is
1. Reactive and harmonic power injection, with
nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=0)
27.3 4.6
2. Active, reactive and harmonic power injection,
with nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
27.3 4.1
3. Active power injection, without nonlinear load
connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
---- 2.1

Figure 8 shows the behavior of the system for different
levels of the solar irradiation, taking into account the single-
phase system feeding a nonlinear load composed by a full-
bridge diode rectifier, followed by R-L load. Figure 8 (a)
shows the ideal PV active power out (P
p
), obtained from the
model, and the real power (P
o
) extracted from the
photovoltaic array by the MPPT algorithm. Figure 8 (b)
shows the RMS values of the currents i
s
(source current) and
i
c
(compensation current). As can be seen, for the increasing
of the solar radiation (up to 500 W), there is a reduction of
the RMS source current, because the PV system helps to
provide energy to the load current. However, when the
available power of the photovoltaic system is greater than
500W, the surplus PV current is injected into the grid. Thus,
the RMS injected current into the grid will increase. The
Figure 8 (c) shows the DC-bus voltage.


(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system, considering a rectifier with inductive filter as load: (a) Case 1. Reactive
power compensation and harmonic filtering; (b) Case 2. Active power injection, reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering;
(c) Case 3. Utility grid active power injection.
-10
0
10
-10
0
10
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-10
0
10
-20
0
20
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-20
0
20
-20
0
20
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
646


(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 8. PV-AF system for different levels of solar radiation, considering a rectifier with inductive filter as load: (a) PV array output powers
(P
p
and P
o
); (b) RMS values of the i
s
and i
c
currents; (c) PV array DC-bus voltages (I
dc
-
and I
dc
).

In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
PV-AF system, it was tested in presence of loads that drain
from the utility, currents with high THD. The tests were
performed when the PV-AF system was working only as
shunt-APF as shown in Figure 9 (a). The nonlinear load
chosen for the tests was composed by a full-bridge diode
rectifier, followed by R-C load. In this case, the TDH of the
load current was around 96.4%. Thus, with the PV-AF
system operating as filter, the TDH of the compensated grid
current was reduced to 8.5%, i.e., a great decreasing of the
harmonics present in the grid current was obtained.
Figure 9(b) shows the voltage and currents for the PV-AF
system performing injection of active power into the grid
and, simultaneously, performing load reactive power
compensation, as well as load harmonic suppression. It was
also considered the load used in the tests shown in Figure 9
(a).
Table IV shows the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the
compensated source current for the two tests. Despite the
THD of the source current is slightly greater than 5%, it must
consider that the THD was strongly reduced demonstrating
the robustness of the proposed control.
Figure 10 shows the behavior of the system for different
levels of the solar irradiation, taking into account the single-
phase system feeding a nonlinear load composed by a full-
bridge diode rectifier, followed by R-L load. Figure 10 (a)
shows the ideal PV active power out (P
p
), obtained from the
model, and the real power (P
o
) extracted from the
photovoltaic array by the MPPT algorithm. Figure 10 (b)
shows the RMS values of the currents i
s
(source current) and
i
c
(compensation current). As can be seen, for the increasing
of the solar radiation (up to 500 W), there is a reduction of
the RMS source current, because the PV system helps to
provide energy to the load current. However, when the
available power of the photovoltaic system is greater than
500W, the surplus PV current is injected into the grid. Thus,
the RMS injected current into the grid will increase. The
Figure 10 (c) shows the DC-bus voltage.
TABLE IV
THD of the source and load currents for full-bridge diode
rectifier followed by R-C load
Operation modes
(THD %)
iL is
1. Reactive and harmonic power injection, with
nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=0)
96.4 8.5
2. Active, reactive and harmonic power injection,
with nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
96.4 7.0



(a)

(b)
Fig. 9. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system, considering a Rectifier with Capacitive Filter as load: (a) Case 1. Reactive
power compensation and harmonic filtering; (b) Case 2. Active power injection, reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering.
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
200
220
240
260
280
300
Time [s]
-10
0
10
-10
0
10
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-10
0
10
-40
-20
0
20
40
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
i
s
v
s
i
c
i
L
647


(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 10. PV-AF system for different levels of solar radiation, considering a rectifier with capacitive filter as load: (a) PV array output powers
(P
p
and P
o
); (b) RMS values of the i
s
and i
c
currents; (c) PV DC-bus voltages (I
dc
-
and I
dc
).

Figure 11 shows the voltage and currents of the PV-AF
system when occurs a transient in the load (power rate
varying from 50% to 100%). Figure 11 (a) shows the results
when the load is composed by a Full-bridge diode rectifier
followed by R-C load, while Fig, 11 (b) the load is composed
by a full-bridge diode rectifier followed by R-C load.

VI. CONCLUSION
This work presented the implementation of a single-phase
grid-tied photovoltaic and active filter system. It was applied
to a single-phase AC power system for active power
injection, as well as harmonic current suppression and
reactive power compensation. The photovoltaic system was
connected to the utility grid by means of a DC/AC full-
bridge converter. The photovoltaic arrangement was
implemented by means of an equivalent model, representing
ten panels connected in series. Thus, it was possible to
connect the photovoltaic arrangement directly to the DC-bus
converter, without the necessity of the usage of any DC-DC
converter for voltage step-up.
The current reference synthesized by the full-bridge
converter was obtained by means of a SRF algorithm,
adapted for applications in single-phase systems. The MPPT,
P&O algorithm was used in order to extract the maximum
PV array power.
By means of the results, it was possible to verify the
performance of the system carrying out the active power
injection and/or performing the compensation of reactive
power and suppression of current harmonics. The appropriate
dynamic behavior of the PV-AF system for different levels
of solar radiation was also verified.
The effectiveness of the PV-AF system was verified
considering two different loads draining currents from the
utility with distinct THDs. The PV-AF system was capable
to suppress high amount of harmonic currents and,
simultaneously, inject active power into the utility grid with
low-current THD. The fast response was also verified by
means of load transients.



(a)

(b)
Fig. 11. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system considering load transient: (a) Full-bridge diode rectifier followed by
R-C load; (b) Full-bridge diode rectifier followed by R-L load.


0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Time [s]
P
pv
P
o
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
200
220
240
260
280
300
Time [s]
V
dc
*
V
dc
-20
0
20
-20
0
20
1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1
-40
-20
0
20
40
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-20
0
20
-10
0
10
1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
648

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