Unit 8: Objectives

E3065/08/1
RECTIFIER AND CHOPPER

OBJECTIVES
General o!e"#$%e & To understand the concept of a rectifier.
S'e"$($" o!e"#$%e) & At the end of the unit you should be able to:
Identify the power of an uncontrolled rectifier, semi-controlled rectifier, controlled
rectifier and chopper.
Identify the uncontrolled rectifier and chopper circuit.
*NIT 8
E3065/08/+
8,1 INTROD*CTION OF RECTIFIER
The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into
pulsating direct current (or pulsating direct voltage) is nown as rectification.
!ectification is accomplished with the help of diodes. "ircuits which provide
rectification are called rectifier circuits. !ectifier circuits can provide either half-wave
rectification or full-wave rectification.
8,+ PRINCIP-E OF RECTIFIER
Assume a half-wave rectifier output is to be used to supply current to a load.
The output of the rectifier gives the e#pected half-cycle of sinusoidal output once
every cycle e#cept that conduction of the rectifier diode is not allowed to begin at the
start of the cycle but after an angular measure of $ radians has occurred. The resulting
current waveform is shown in %ig. &.'(a).
If the angle $ can be varied form ( to )' radiants (or even from ( to
radians) then the mean value of current taen by the load can be varied as can the rms
current to be derived.
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%ig &.'(a) : "ontrol of current to a load by variation of a firing angle $.
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Activity 8A
TEST /O*R *NDERSTANDING *+%,!+ -,. ",/TI/.+ 0IT1 T1+ /+2T
I/3.T45
&.6 7escribe briefly a rectifier.
&.' 7raw the control of current to a load by variation of a firing angle $.
Hii !!!!!..Good Luck and
Try your best .
E3065/08/5
Feedback To Activity 8A
&.6 The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into pulsating
direct current (or pulsating direct voltage) is nown as rectification.
&.' %or this diagram, you should refer to input &.'(a).
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8,3 SE0I1CONTRO--ED RECTIFIER
%or control of electric power or semi control power conditioning, the conversion
of electric power from one form to another is necessary and the switching characteristic
of the power device permit these conversions. The static power converter may be
considered as a switching matri#. The power electronics semi-control rectifier circuits
can classified into two types:
i. 7iode rectifiers
ii. A" - 7" converters (controlled rectifiers)
8,. HA-F12AVE RECTIFICATION
The result of half-wave rectification is illustrated in %ig &.8 (a), and the circuit
which performs the rectification is drawn in %ig &.8 (b). The ground symbol in &.8 (c)
is the reference point for voltages referred to in the discussion which follows.
( a ) ( b )
%ig. &.8 : !ectifying a '( 9p-p sinusoidal waveform yields a : ;.< 9p pulsating dc waveform.
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%ig. &.8 (c) : 1alf-wave rectifier circuit
8,5 F*--12AVE RECTIFICATION
%ull wave rectification can be provided with two diodes and a center-tapped
transformer as shown in %ig. &.= (a) , or it can be accomplished with four diodes and a
nontapped transformer (see %ig. &.= (b) ).
%igure &.=.6(a) shows the direction and path of current flow for the > cycle
when the polarity of the transformer is as mared. /otice that only 76 is conducting
and that only the top half of the transformer is providing power. This is because 7' is
reverse-biased.
7uring the second > cycle (see &.=.6 (b) ), the polarities of the transformer
windings are reversed. Therefore, 76 is now reverse-biased and 7' allows the current
to flow in the indicated direction and path. /otice that current through !6 is in the
same direction for each > cycle.
(a) 7uring one half-cycle, 76 conducts and 7' is cutoff (reverse-biased)
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(b) 7uring the other half-cycle, 7' conducts and 76 is cutoff
%ig, &.= : %ull-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer
%igure &.=(b) shows a full-wave, bridge rectifier circuit. /otice that this circuit
provides twice as much dc voltage as does the previous full-wave circuit when both
circuits use the same transformer. The bridge rectifier circuit does not use the center tap
of the transformer and it re?uires four diodes.
7uring > cycle, two of the diodes in %ig. &.=(c ) conduct and allow the full
secondary voltage to force current through load resistor !6. the remaining two diodes
are reverse-biased and thus prevent the diode bridge from short-circuiting the
transformer secondary.
%ig, &.=(c ) : %ull-wave, bridge rectifier
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Activity 8B
I/3.T45
&.< 7raw a 1alf-wave rectifier circuit.
&.8 7raw a %ull-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
Hii !!!!!..Good Luck ..
E3065/08/10
Feedback To Activity 8B
&.< %or this section, you should refer to diagram half-wave rectifier circuit in figure &.8(c).

&.8 The answer for full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
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8,6 INTROD*CTION OF CHOPPER,
A dc chopper is the e?uipment that can be used as a dc transformer to step up or
step down a fi#ed dc voltage. The chopper can also be used for switching- mode
voltage regulators and for transferring energy between two dc resources. 1owever,
harmonics are generated at the input and load side of the chopper, and these harmonics
can be reduced by input and output filters.
&.@ PRINCIP-E OF CHOPPER,
A chopper can operate on either fi#ed fre?uency chopper or variable fre?uency.
A variable-fre?uency chopper generates harmonics of variable fre?uencies and a filter
design. A fi#ed A fre?uency chopper is normally used. A chopper circuit uses a fast turn
off as a switch and re?uires commutation circuitry to turn it off. The circuits are the
outcome of meeting certain criteria: (6) reduction of minimum on-time limit, (') high
fre?uency of operation, and (<) reliable operation.
8,8 T/PE AND BASIC OPERATION OF CHOPPER F*NCTION CIRC*IT
The development of alternative switching (e.g., power transistors, GTO s), the
applications for type and circuit of choppers are limited to high power levels and
especially, to traction motor control. Bome of chopper type and circuit used by traction
e?uipment manufactures are discussed in this section.
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8,8,1 I0P-*SE1CO00*TATED CHOPPERS
The impulse-commutated chopper is a very common circuit with two
thyristors as shown in figure &.&(a) and is also nown as a classical chopper.
At the beginning of operation, thyristor T2 is fired and this causes the
commutation capacitor C to charge through the voltage Vc , which should be
supply voltage Vs in the fist cycle. The plate A becomes positive with respect to
plate B. The circuit operation can be divided into five modes, and the
e?uivalent circuits under steady-state conditions are shown in %ig. &.&(b). 0e
shall assume that the load current remains constant at a pea value Im during the
commutation process. 0e shall also redefine the time origin, t = 0, at the
beginning of each mode. Code 6 begins with T1 is fired. The load is connected
to the supply. The commutation capacitor C reverses also its charge through the
resonant reversing circuit formed by T1, D1, and Lm.
%ig. &.&(a): Impulse A commutated chopper.
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%ig. &.&(b): Code e?uivalent circuit.
8,8,+, I0P*-SE1CO00*TATED THREE1TH/RISTOR CHOPPERS
The problem of undercharging can be remedied by replacing diode D1
with thyristor T3, as shown in %ig. &.&(c). In good chopper, the commutation
time, tc, should ideally be independent of the load current. tc could be made less
dependent on the load current by adding an antiparallel diode Df across the main
thyristor as shown in %ig. &.&(c) by dashed lines. A modified version of the
circuit is shown in %ig. &.&(d)., where the charge reversal of the capacitor is
E3065/08/1.
done independently of main thyristor T1 by firing T3 . There are four possible
modes and their e?uivalent circuits are shown in %ig. &.&(e).
%ig. &.&(c) : Impulse A commutated three-thyristor chopper.
%ig. &.&(d): Impulse-commutated chopper with independent charge reversal.
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%ig. &.&(e): +?uivalent circuits.
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8,8,3, RESONANT P*-SE CHOPPERS
A resonant pulse chopper is shown in %ig. &.&(f). As soon as the supply
is switched on, the capacitor is charged to a voltage Vc through Lm, D1, and load.
The circuit operation can be divided into si# modes and the e?uivalent circuits
are shown in %ig. &.&(g).
%ig. &.&(f): !esonant pulse chopper.
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%ig &.&(g): +?uivalent circuit for modes.
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A"#$%$#5 8C
I/3.T45
&.= 7escribe briefly the chopper.
&.D 7raw the circuit and e#plain briefly the operation of a chopper type impulse
commutated.
Hii !!!!!..Good Luck and
Try your best .
E3065/08/14
Fee6a"7 To A"#$%$#5 8C
&.= The chopper is the e?uipment that can be used as a dc transformer to step up or step
down a fi#ed dc voltage. The chopper can also be used for switching- mode voltage
regulators and for transfered energy between two dc resources.
&.D Impulse-commutated choppers circuit operation can be divided into five modes, and
the e?uivalent circuits under steady-state conditions are shown in %ig. &.D(a), (b) and
(c),. 0e shall assume that the load current remains constant at a pea value Im during
the commutation process. 0e shall also redefine the time origin, t = 0, at the beginning
of each mode. Code 6 begins with T1 is fired. The load is connected to the supply.
The commutation capacitor C reverses also its charge through the resonant reversing
circuit formed by T1, D1, and Lm.
E3065/08/+0
%ig. &.D(a): Impulse A commutated three-thyristor chopper.
%ig. &.D(b): Impulse-commutated chopper with independent charge reversal.
%ig. &.D(c ): +?uivalent circuits.
E3065/08/+1
8,4 S8ETCHING C*RRENT AND VO-TAGE 2AVE
There are no fi#ed rules for designing or setching of copper circuit and the
design varies with the types of circuit used. The designer has a wide range of choice
and values of LmC components are influenced by the designerEs choice of pea resonant
reversal current, and pea allowable voltage of the circuit. The voltage and current
ratings LmC components and devices is left to the designer based on the considerations
of price, availability, and safety margin. In general, the following steps are involved in
the design:
a. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.
b. 7etermine the e?uivalent circuits for the various modes.
c. 7etermine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
d. +valuate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the devices.
A chopper with a highly inductive load is shown in %ig. &.;(a). The load current ripple
is negligible (IF(). If the average load current is I
a
, the pea load current is
Im=Ia I= Ia The input current, which is of pulsed shape as shown in %ig &.;(b).
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%ig. &.;(a) : Input current waveform of chopper
The wave forms for currents and voltages are shown in figure &.;(b). In the
following analysis, we shall redefine the time origin t=0 at the beginning of each mode.
%ig. &.;(b) : "hopper waveforms
E3065/08/+3
%ig &.;(c): +?uivalent circuit for modes.
Code 6 begins when main thyristor T1 is fired and the supply is connected to the
load. This mode is valid for t = !T.
Code ' begins when commutation thyristor T2 is fired. The commutation
capacitor reverses its charge through C, Lm, and T2.
Code < begins when T2 is self-commutated and the capacitor discharges due to
resonant oscillation thro"#h $io$e D1 an$ T1. Assuming that the capacitor current rises
linearly from 0 to Im and the current of thyristor T1 falls from Im to ( in time t%.
Code 8 begins when current through T1 falls to Gero. The capacitor continues to
discharge through the load at a rate determined by the pea load current.
Code = begins when the freewheeling diode Dm starts conducting and the load
current decays through Dm. the energy stored in commutation inductance Lm and source
inductance Ls is transferred to capacitor C.
E3065/08/+.
Code D begins when the overcharging is complete and diode 76 turns off. The
load current continues to decay until the main thyristor is refired in the ne#t cycle. In
the stedy-state condition Vc = V%.
8,10 DEFINITION OF 0AR8 SPACE RATIO 9TI0E RATIO CONTRO-:
The se?uence of events within the fre?uency counter is controlled by the time
ratio base, which must provide the timing for the following events: resetting the counter
, opening the count gate, closing the count gate, and storing the counted fre?uency in
the latch. The resetting of the counter and storing the count are not critical events as
long as they occur before and after the gate period, respectively. The opening and
closing of the count gate, on the other hand, determine the accuracy of the fre?uency
counter and are very critical in its timing.
Bince the accuracy of the fre?uency counter depends directly on the accuracy of
the time ratio base signal, the time base is driven from a accurate crystal controlled (e.gH
oscillator). This element of the time base is typically a temperature compensated crystal
oscillator operating at several megahertG. A crystal oven could be used to supply a
similar accuracy, e#cept that the oven re?uire the application of power to provide the
correct fre?uency and is available for use immediately after power-on. %ig. &.6((a)
shows a simplified diagram of temperature-compensated crystal oscillator.
E3065/08/+5
%ig, &.6((a) : *loc diagram of a temperature-compensated crystal oscillator
8,11 CO0PARING STEP1*P AND STEP1DO2N CHOPPER DO2N,
A chopper can be considered as dc e?uivalent to an ac transformer with a
continuously variable turns ratio. Iie a transformer, it can be used to step-down or
step-up a dc voltage source.
8,11,1 PRINCIP-E OF STEP1*P OPERATION
A chopper can be used to step-up a dc voltage and an arrangement for
step-up operation is shown in %ig. &.66(a). 0hen switch B0 is closed for time
t1, the inductor current rises and energy is stored in the indicator, L. if switch is
opened for time t2, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to load
through diode D1 and the inductor current falls. Assuming a continuous current
flow, the waveform for the inductor current is shown in %ig. &.66(b). %or values
of ! tending to unity, the output voltage becomes very large and is very
sensitive to changes in !, as shown in %ig. &.66(c).
(a) Btep-up arrangement
E3065/08/+6
(b) "urrent waveform
(c) ,utput voltage
%ig. &.66: Arrangement for step-up operation
8,11,+ PRINCIP-E OF STEP1DO2N OPERATION
The principle of operation can be e#plained by %ig. &.66(d). 0hen
switch B0 is closed for time t1 , the output voltage 9s appears across the load. If
the switch remains off for a time t' , the voltage across the load is Gero. The
waveforms for the output voltage and load current are also shown in %ig.
&.66(e). The chopper switch can be implemented by using a (6) power *JT, (')
power C,B%+T, (<) KT,, or (8) forced-commutated thyristor. The practical
devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from (.= to = 9, and for the sae of
simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor
devices.
E3065/08/+3
(d) "ircuit
(e) 0aveforms
%ig. &.66: Btep-down chopper with resistive load
E3065/08/+8
A"#$%$#5 8D
I/3.T45
&.@ +#plain the steps involved in chopper circuit design.
&.& +#plain briefly what is the difference between chopper step-up and chopper step-down.
E3065/08/+4
Feedback To Activity 8D
&.@ The following steps are involved in the design:
i. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.
ii. 7etermine the e?uivalent circuits for the various modes.
iii. 7etermine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
iv. +valuate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the
devices.
&.& The different are:
C;o''er S#e'1*'
0hen switch B0 is closed for time t1, the inductor current rises and energy is
stored in the indicator, L. if switch is opened for time t2, the energy stored in the
inductor is transferred to load through diode D1 and the inductor current falls
%igure &.&(a): Btep-up arrangement
E3065/08/30
C;o''er S#e'1Do<n
0hen switch B0 is closed for time t1 , the output voltage 9s appears across the
load. If the switch remains off for a time t' , the voltage across the load is Gero.
%igure &.&(b): Btep-down arrangement
E3065/08/31
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Luestion &-6
a. *riefly describe a rectifier.
b. *riefly describe the principle behind a rectifier.
c. 7raw the control of current to a load by variation of a firing angle $.
d. 7raw the 1alf-wave rectifier circuit and waveform.
e. 7raw the %ull-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
Luestion &-'
a. *riefly describe the type of choppers.
b. *riefly describe the principle behind a choppers.
c. 7raw the control of current to a load by variation of circuit and waveform of one type
of coppers.
d. 7raw the circuit and waveform for step-up chopper.
e. 7raw the circuit and waveform for step-down chopper.
E3065/08/3+
Feedback To Self-Assessment
Answer &-6
a. The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into pulsating
direct current (or pulsating direct voltage) is nown as rectification.
b. "urrent to a load by variation of a firing angle $.

c. 1alf-wave rectifier circuit.
( a ) ( b )
E3065/08/33

( c)
!ectifying a '( 9p-p sinusoidal waveform yields a : ;.< 9p pulsating dc waveform.

d. %ull-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer
E3065/08/3.
e. %ull-wave, bridge rectifier
Answer &-'
a. Type of "hoppersH
i. Impluse-commutated choppers
ii. Impulse-commutated three-thyristor choppers
iii. !esonant pulse choppers
b. 3rinciple of choppersH
i. Impluse-commutated "hoppers
The impulse-commutated chopper is a very common circuit with two
thyristors as shown in figure &.'(a) attached, and is also nown as a classical
chopper. At the beginning of operation, thyristor T2 is fired and this causes the
commutation capacitor C to charge through the voltage Vc , which should be
supply voltage Vs in the fist cycle. The plate A becomes positive with respect to
plate B. The circuit operation can be divided into five modes, and the
e?uivalent circuits under steady-state conditions are shown in %ig. input &.&(b).
E3065/08/35
0e shall assume that the load current remains constant at a pea value Im during
the commutation process. 0e shall also redefine the time origin, t = 0, at the
beginning of each mode. Code 6 begins with T1 is fired. The load is connected
to the supply. The commutation capacitor C reverses also its charge through the
resonant reversing circuit formed by T1, D1, and Lm.
%ig. &.'(a): Impulse A commutated chopper.
ii. Impulse-commutated three-thyristor choppers
The problem of undercharging can be remedied by replacing diode D1
with thyristor T3. In good chopper, the commutation time, tc, should ideally be
independent of the load current. tc could be made less dependent on the load
current by adding an antiparallel diode Df across the main thyristor. A modified
version of the will charge reversal of the capacitor is done independently of
main thyristor T1 by firing T3 .
iii. !esonant pulse choppers
A resonant pulse chopper as soon as the supply. It is switched on, the
capacitor charges to a voltage Vc through Lm, D1, and load. The circuit
operation can be divided into si# modes and the e?uivalent circuits are shown in
e#planation input at figure &.&,(e) and (f): !esonant pulse chopper and
e?uivalent circuit for modes.
E3065/08/36
c. "urrent and waveform of chopper
The voltage and current ratings LmC components and devices is left to the
designer based on the considerations of price, availability, and safety margin. In
general, the following steps are involved in the design:
i. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.
ii. 7etermine the e?uivalent circuits for the various modes.
iii. 7etermine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
iv. +valuate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the devices.
A chopper with a highly inductive load is shown in %ig. &.;.6a. The load current ripple
is negligible (IF(). If the average load current is Ia, the pea load current is
Im=Ia I= Ia The input current, which is of pulsed shape as shown in %ig &.;.6b.
%ig. &.;.6: Input current waveform of chopper
E3065/08/33
%or the reference of the copper waveform, you can see figure &.&.(g) and consider as
that figure in the e#planation below.
Code 6 begins when main thyristor T1 is fired and the supply is connected to the
load. This mode is valid for t = !T.
Code ' begins when commutation thyristor T2 is fired. The commutation
capacitor reverses its charge thgrough C, Lm, and T2.
Code < begins when T2 is self-commutated and the capacitor discharges due to
resonant oscillation thro"#h $io$e D1 an$ T1. Assuming that the capacitor current rises
linearly from 0 to Im and the current of thyristor T1 falls from Im to ( in time t%.
Code 8 begins when current through T1 falls to Gero. The capacitor continues to
discharge through the load at a rate determined by the pea load current.
Code = begins when the freewheeling diode Dm starts conducting and the load
current decays through Dm. the energy stored in commutation inductance Lm and source
inductance Ls is transferred to capacitor C.
Code D begins when the overcharging is complete and diode 76 turns off. The load
current continues to decay until the main thyristor is refired in the ne#t cycle
d. 3rinciple of step-up operation
A chopper can be used to step-up a dc voltage and an arrangement for step-up
operation is shown in %ig. &.66.6(a). 0hen switch B0 is closed for time t1, the inductor
current rises and energy is stored in the indicator, L. if switch is opened for time t2, the
energy stored in the inductor is transferred to load through diode D1 and the inductor
current falls. Assuming a continuous current flow, the waveform for the inductor
current is shown in %ig. &.66.6(b). %or values of ! tending to unity, the output voltage
becomes very large and is very sensitive to changes in !, as shown in %ig. &.66.6(c).
E3065/08/38
(b) Btep-up arrangement
(b) "urrent waveform
(c) ,utput voltage
%ig. &.66.6: Arrangement for step-up operation
E3065/08/34
e. 3rinciple of step-down operation
The principle of operation can be e#plained by %ig. &.66.'(a). 0hen
switch B0 is closed for time t1 , the output voltage 9s appears across the load. If
the switch remains off for a time t' , the voltage across the load is Gero. The
waveforms for the output voltage and load current are also shown in %ig.
&.66.'(b). The chopper switch can be implemented by using a (6) power *JT,
(') power C,B%+T, (<) KT,, or (8) forced-commutated thyristor. The practical
devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from (.= to = 9, and for the sae of
simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor
devices.
(a) "ircuit
(b) 0aveforms
%ig. &.66.': Btep-down chopper with resistive load

Unit 8: Objectives

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RECTIFIER AND CHOPPER

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