Epithermal Gold Deposits: Epithermal Gold Deposits: Epithermal Gold Deposits:

Characteristics, Processes, Products,

Epithermal Gold Deposits:
Characteristics, Processes, Products,
and Interpretation and Interpretation
Noel C. White Noel C. White
Modified by Steve Modified by Steve Garwin Garwin for Southern Arc Minerals for Southern Arc Minerals Modified by Steve Modified by Steve Garwin Garwin for Southern Arc Minerals for Southern Arc Minerals
Selodong Selodong Camp, SW Lombok, Indonesia Camp, SW Lombok, Indonesia
15 15 th th April, 2011 April, 2011
Epithermal Gold Deposits Epithermal Gold Deposits
A very important style of gold deposit y p y g p
Can be very big:
Lihir, PNG 170 Mt @ 3.5 g/t Au , G 0 t @3 5 g/t u
Porgera, PNG 85 Mt @ 5.8 g/t Au, 33 g/t Ag
Can be very rich: y
Cripple Creek, USA 630 t Au in veins grading 15 - 30 g/t
Hishikari, Japan 220 t Au, Honko veins 70 g/t Au, 49 g/t Ag
E ith l ld d it Epithermal gold deposits are
very important economically
Relative Amounts of Gold Relative Amounts of Gold
(>5 Moz deposits, 1997)
50% Witwatersrand
12% Epithermal 12% Epithermal
10% Porphyry (+ intrusion hosted)
12% Sediment hosted (incl. 4% Carlin)
9% Greenstone lode (orogenic)
7% Other (Fe Fm, VHMS, etc.)
Arribas, 2000
Giant Gold Deposits Giant Gold Deposits
(31 >20 Moz deposits)
1 (7) Witwatersrand
7 Porphyry (+ 1 intrusion hosted)
8 Epithermal (3 HS, 2 IS, 1 LS, 2 LSa)
6 Sediment hosted (incl. 2 Carlin)
5 Greenstone lode (orogenic) 5 Greenstone lode ( orogenic )
4 Other (Fe ox, Fe Fm, Archean diss.)
Sillitoe, 2000
Epithermal Gold Deposits: Production + Reserves (~2000)
Inter sulfidation Inter. sulfidation
Alkalic LS subtype a c S subtype
Vi? Vi?
Total Au and Ag
in Low and Intermediate
Sulfidation Epithermal
Deposits
(n=58)
LS
LS (alkalic)
IS
Au Ag Gemmell, 2004
Value of Epithermal Deposits (Au and Ag)
16
Ag $
A $
LS (alkalic)
Au $390 US/oz
Ag $6 US/oz
Low and Intermediate Sulfidation
Epithermal Deposits only
12
14
Au $
Ag $6 US/oz
N=4
10
12
Low sulfidation
Intermediate
sulfidation
n

$

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Gemmell, 2004
Location of Principal Epithermal Gold Deposits
}
Different classes
}
Different classes
of epithermal deposits
What does Epithermal mean? What does Epithermal mean?
Refers to deposits formed at low temperature.
Epizonal refers to deposits formed at shallow depth
The term Epithermal was coined by
Epizonal refers to deposits formed at shallow depth.
Lindgren in 1933 based on
observations of
mineralogy of ores and alteration
textures of ores and alteration
d i f b and inferences about
temperature of deposition
depth of formation
We can recognise epithermal deposits by We can recognise epithermal deposits by
Their characteristic minerals and textures
Their characteristic hydrothermal alteration Their characteristic hydrothermal alteration
mineralogy and zoning
From these we can infer that they From these we can infer that they
Formed at low temperatures
(100
o
-320
o
typically 170
o
-280
o
) (100
o
-320
o
, typically 170
o
-280
o
)
Developed at shallow crustal levels
(typically <1 km below the water table) ( yp y )
There is no SINGLE criterion that allows
t d it i ith l us to say a deposit is epithermal
Classification depends on MULTIPLE features
E ith l d it h i t f Epithermal deposits show a variety of
deposit styles they are not all the same!
The different deposit classes are not fully The different deposit classes are not fully
characterized nor fully understood we
are still learning! g
Not all epithermal deposits contain gold
some are dominated by other metals,
notably Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu, Sn
Some are closely related to intrusions,
some are not. The related intrusions need
not be porphyry copper-related intrusions
T i l i f d! Terminology is very confused!
Origins of Deposits
If we consider the origins of epithermal
deposits we can distinguish three classes
based on the fluids that formed the based on the fluids that formed the
deposits: two formed dominantly from
end-member fluids, and one from a ,
combination:
Magmatic
Magmatic-meteoric
Meteoric
MAGMATI C-METEORI C MAGMATI C METEORI C
1
1
1 1
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
4
k m
4
k m
4
k m
4
k m ?
Textures: restricted
Textures: diverse, modest Textures: diverse,
t l spectacular
LOW SULFIDATION HIGH SULFIDATION
INTERMEDIATE
SULFIDATION
Au-Ag-Cu Au-Ag
What I will describe
Fluids: magmatic dominant in core
MAGMATI C
mixed with meteoric on margins
Metal Associations:
1 I-type: a) Cu-Au-Ag
b) Zn-Pb-Ag
MAGMATI C
b) Zn Pb Ag
2 S-type: Sn-Ag-(Zn-Pb)
3 A-type: Au-Ag
Alteration:
1 b d 2 i l id
1
1a,b and 2: proximal very acid
3 proximal not seen; distal neutral
Examples:
1a) Lepanto, Philippines
2
3
) p , pp
Summitville, USA
Chelopech, Slovakia
El Indio, Chile
1b) Cerro de Pasco Peru
3
4
k 1b) Cerro de Pasco, Peru
San Gregorio, Peru
2 Cerro Rico de Potosi, Bolivia
3 Emperor, Fiji
k m
Porgera, PNG
Fluids: dominantly meteoric, with
MAGMATI C-METEORI C
y ,
high salinity magmatic fluids at depth
Metal Associations:
Ag-Zn-Pb-(Au)
Ag Zn Pb (Cu Sn)
MAGMATI C-METEORI C
Ag-Zn-Pb-(Cu-Sn)
Alteration:
mostly neutral pH
Examples:
1
Fresnillo, Mexico
Comstock, USA
Thames, New Zealand
Cikotok Indonesia
2
3
Cikotok, Indonesia
3
4
kk m
Fl id t i ( ti ?)
METEORI C
Fluids: meteoric (magmatic?)
Metal Associations:
Au-Ag (very minor Zn, Pb)
Alteration: hypogene neutral pH;
METEORI C
yp g p ;
gas condensates acid
Examples:
McLaughlin, USA
Hishikari Japan
1
Hishikari, Japan
Waihi, New Zealand
Gunung Pongkor, Indonesia
2
33
4
k
?
k m
?
Where do they occur?
Neutral pH meteoric Acid pH magmatic Neutral-pH, meteoric
Low- Sulfidation
Acid-pH, magmatic
High-Sulfidation
Calc-alkaline to alkaline
volcanic arcs (tholeiitic rare)
Subaerial environments
Calc-alkaline volcanic arcs
Mostly subaerial environments,
Mostly intermediate to distal
volcanic settings
y ,
rarely submarine
Proximal volcanic settings
g
In volcanic rocks or basement In volcanic rocks, rarely in
basement
White and Hedenquist, 1995
Form of Deposits
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
Open-space veins
dominant
Stockwork ore common
Veins subordinate, locally
dominant
Stockwork ore minor Stockwork ore common
Disseminated ore mostly
minor
R l t i
Stockwork ore minor
Disseminated ore
dominant
R l t Replacement ore minor Replacement ore common
White and Hedenquist, 1995
S k k G ld C Stockwork, Golden Cross
Vein, La Guitarra
Vein, Golden Cross Vein, Hishikari
FORM
Chinkuashih La Coipa
Akeshi Sulfide vein, El Indio
FORM
Characteristic Textures
Neutral-pH, meteoric
Low-Sulfidation
Acid-pH, magmatic
High-Sulfidation
banded veins
breccia veins
d iti
vuggy quartz
massive quartz
i lfid i drusy cavities
crustification
lattice texture
massive sulfide veins
crudely banded veins
lattice texture
White and Hedenquist, 1995
La Guitarra Golden Cross
TEXTURES
Dealul Crucii, Baia Mare Aginsky
Vuggy quartz
TEXTURES
Ore Minerals in Au-rich Ores
f f ( b d ) frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
Pyrite ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant)
Sphalerite common (variable) common (very minor)
Galena common (variable) common (very minor)
Chalcopyrite common (very minor) common (minor) py ( y ) ( )
Enargite-Luzonite rare (very minor) ubiquitous (variable)
Tennantite-Tetrahedrite common (very minor) common (variable)
Covellite uncommon (very minor) common (minor) Co e te u co o ( e y o ) co o ( o )
Stibnite uncommon (very minor) rare (very minor)
Orpiment rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Realgar rare (very minor) rare (very minor) Realgar rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Arsenopyrite common (minor) rare (very minor)
Cinnabar uncommon (minor) rare (very minor)
Electrum uncommon (variable common (minor) Electrum uncommon (variable common (minor)
Native Gold common (very minor common (minor)
Tellurides-Selenides common (very minor uncommon (variable)
Mineralogy of Gangue Mineralogy of Gangue
frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation g
Quartz ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant)
Chalcedony common (variable) uncommon (minor)
Calcite common (variable) absent (except overprint) Calcite common (variable) absent (except overprint)
Adularia common (variable) absent
Illite common (abundant) uncommon (minor)
Kaolinite rare (except overprint) common (minor) Kaolinite rare (except overprint) common (minor)
Pyrophyllite-Diaspore absent (except overprint) common (variable)
Alunite absent (except overprint) common (minor)
B it ( i ) ( i ) Barite common (very minor) common (minor)
White and Hedenquist, 1995
Hydrothermal Alteration
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
Associated with near-neutral pH acid (pH <1 to >3)
ores
p (p )
Mineral illite (sericite) alunite, kaolinite,
assemblage
( )
interstratified clays
(illite-smectite)
zoned higher T
lower T
, ,
pyrophyllite, diaspore,
zoned acid neutral pH
lower T
White and Hedenquist, 1995
Geochemical Associations
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
High
Au, Ag,
As, Sb,
Zn Pb Hg
Au, Ag,
As, Sb, Bi,
Cu Pb Hg Zn, Pb, Hg,
Se, K, Ag/Au
Cu, Pb, Hg,
Te, Sn, Mo,
Te/Se Te/Se
Low
Cu, Te/Se (unless alkaline) K, Zn, Ag/Au
White and Hedenquist, 1995
Epithermal Gold Deposits Epithermal Gold Deposits
Key Processes in their Formation Key Processes in their Formation
Noel C. White
SEG SEG- -MGEI Workshop, MGEI Workshop, Mataram Mataram, Indonesia , Indonesia
November, 2010 November, 2010
Boiling of Hydrothermal Fluids g y
Sinter
lithostatic
200
400
p
t
h
,

m
more
gas
more
salt
600
D
e
p
hydrostatic
(water +1wt%CO )
2 2
800
(water + 1 wt% CO )
2 2
Hedenquist et al., 1998
100 200 300
Temperature, oC
Boiling of Hydrothermal Fluids
Boiling is a powerful and complex
mechanism. It is associated with
Lowering of temperature and pressure
It causes It causes
Loss of gases (mostly H
2
O, CO
2
, H
2
S)
Increase in pH Increase in pH
Increase in oxidation state (slight)
Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand
Gold deposition b boiling Gold deposition by boiling
Au(HS)
2
-
+ 2H
+
+ e
-
Au
o
+ 2H
2
S
reduction
Porgera, Zone 7
Papua New Guinea
Sleeper, Nevada
Adularia deposition by boiling p y g
HS
-
+ H
+
H
2
S
HCO
3
-
+ H
+
CO
2
+ H
2
O
Adularia crystals, Mexico
Hedenquist et al., 1998
Calcite deposition by boiling Calcite deposition by boiling
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
CaCO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
Lattice texture
Hedenquist et al., 1998
Silica deposition by cooling p y g
Hedenquist et al., 1998
Silica deposition
is affected by pH
Neutral pH
Quartz, chalcedony
and amorphous silica
deposit
Spectacular textures! Spectacular textures!
Acid pH
Silica deposition Silica deposition
suppressed
No siliceous veins
Low sulfidation vein texture, McLaughlin, California, USA
Manganese Minerals in
Epithermal Veins
Some epithermal veins contain manganese p g
minerals, mainly rhodochrosite, manganoan
calcite or rhodonite (look for pink colour)
This is a typical feature of intermediate This is a typical feature of intermediate
sulfidation deposits (discussed more later)
They typically contain moderate levels of They typically contain moderate levels of
base metals and commonly have high Ag
Mn minerals weather to black oxides that
cause hydrogen peroxide solution to fizz
Rhodochrosite, Capillitas, Argentina
Significance of Alunite
Its formation requires Its formation requires
1. Acid conditions
2 High sulfate 2. High sulfate
3. Available alkalis
These conditions can occur from
1. magmatic gases (HS)
2. near-surface condensation of boiled off
gases (HS, IS, LS)
3 From supergene oxidation (any sulfide 3. From supergene oxidation (any sulfide
rich rock)
LS settings only
Lithocap ( HS) settings only
(steam-heated blanket possible)
H
2
S + 2O
2
H
2
SO
4
Steam-heated waters,
LS, IS, HS possible
2. STEAM-HEATED
(HCl, SO
2
)
1. MAGMATIC
Any sulfide-rich setting
3 WEATHERING
Sillitoe, 1993
3. WEATHERING
Significance of Pyrophyllite
Its formation requires acid conditions Its formation requires acid conditions
BUT
If at quartz saturation T ~ 300
o
C If at quartz saturation, T ~ 300
o
C
If supersaturated w.r.t. quartz, T low
In practice
Pyrophyllite + dickite/kaolinite means T high Pyrophyllite + dickite/kaolinite means T high
Pyrophyllite + chalcedony or amorphous
silica means T low
Mineral
Alunite
Mineral
100 200 300
pH
Temperature
o
C
Mineral
Mineral
Stability
J arosite
Halloysite
Kaolinite
Dickite
Pyrophyllite
c
i
d
i
c
Stability
y p y
Diaspore
Zunyite, topaz
Anatase
Rutile
Cristobalite
A
c
Mineral assemblages
allow us to estimate
Cristobalite
Quartz
Pyrite
Marcasite
Smectite
Illite/smectite
u
t
r
a
l
temperature and acidity
Sinter
lithostatic
Illite/smectite
Chlorite/smectite
Illite
Chlorite
Epidote
N
e
u
400
200
p
t
h
,

m
Biotite
Adularia
Calcite
Mordenite
Laumontite
A
l
k
a
l
i
n
e
800
600
D
e
p
hydrostatic
(water +1 wt% CO ) 2 2
Hedenquist et al., 1998
after Reyes, 1990
Laumontite
Wairakite
A
Epithermal ore deposition
100 200 300
Temperature, oC
Structure and Epithermal Deposits
All h d th l d it t ll d b All hydrothermal deposits are controlled by
hydrology (i.e., permeability)
M t ith l d it t Most epithermal deposits are not
controlled by major faults
Many show no relationship to faults Many show no relationship to faults
Most attempts to relate epithermal deposits
to classical structural analysis fail to classical structural analysis fail
Think about permeability and fluid flow
Epithermal Vein Deposits Epithermal Vein Deposits
Low- and Intermediate-Sulfidation
N l C Whit Noel C. White
SEG SEG- -MGEI Workshop, MGEI Workshop, Mataram Mataram, Indonesia , Indonesia
November, 2010 November, 2010
Form of Deposits
Low-Sulfidation Intermediate-
Sulfidation
High-Sulfidation
Open space veins Open space veins Veins subordinate Open-space veins
dominant
Open-space veins
dominant
Veins subordinate,
locally dominant
Stockwork ore Stockwork ore Stockwork ore
common common minor
Disseminated ore
mostly minor
Disseminated ore
mostly minor
Disseminated ore
dominant mostly minor mostly minor dominant
Replacement ore
minor
Replacement ore
minor
Replacement ore
common minor minor common
Veins are the commonest form for
epithermal deposits epithermal deposits
There are many variations, including
St k k l i Stockworks complex vein arrays
Vein breccias breccia zones with
the form of veins
Most veins show complex histories
Opening, deposition, sealing, Opening, deposition, sealing,
re-opening, more deposition, etc
Classical
Epithermal Epithermal
Model
Buchanan, 1981
This enduring model was
produced before the
distinction between
different deposit types
i d was recognised.
Low-sulfidation schematic
model
Silicified blanket
Illite adularia
Hedenquist et al., 2000
Central Taupo Volcanic Zone New Zealand
Taupo Volcanic Zone
New Zealand New Zealand
Meteoric water
Shallowadvanced
Water table
Silica sinter
Ore body
Shallow advanced
argillic alteration
2
0
0

B t
2
0
0

2
5
0

Basement
3
0
0
Intrusion
1 km
1 km
New Zealand low sulfidation model
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003
Geothermal (and LS) setting
Low-Sulfidation epithermal gold deposits
Form from upwelling deep geothermal Form from upwelling deep geothermal
fluids
Fluids dominantly near-neutral pH y p
meteoric water (possible small magmatic component)
Deposits occur in zones of high
bilit permeability (mostly open fractures)
Characteristic vertical and lateral
alteration zoning alteration zoning
Characteristic textures
Vent area enriched
inAs-Sb-Tl-
Steam-heated alt'n
in As Sb Tl
(HgAu-Ag)
Silicification
Overprint
Quartz-illite
Silicification
Quartz illite
adularia
Quartz-
Au Ag As Sb Tl Hg
Breccia
zones
Quartz
chlorite
Au Ag As Sb Tl Hg
Berger and Eimon, 1983
Depth
m
Temp
o
C
Alteration Vein textures/Mineralogy
sinter
100
m C
100 0
150
Smectite
Illite-
gy
sinter
chalcedony
massive
banded
200
200
smectite
quartz-
chalcedony
banded
300 225
banded
gold
400
500
Illite
quartz
l tti
500
600
calcite
lattice
700
250
adularia
Ohaaki
New Zealand
Early Carboniferous sinter
North Queensland
Rotorua
New Zealand
Silica sinters Silica sinters
Modern and Ancient
vein
sinter
vein
El Salvador
sinter
Lattice texture Lattice texture
Calcite scale, geothermal bore, New Zealand
Quartz after lattice calcite, Bimurra, Queensland
Lattice calcite, Martha, New Zealand
Golden Cross, New Zealand
Sleeper, USA
Gold/electrum
lattice texture
colloform-crustiform banding
500 m
Hishikari, Southern Kyushu
5.5 MT @ 55 g/t Au (1996)
CC SS
500
Il Il--Sm Sm
Qz Qz- -Sm Sm
Cr Cr--Sm Sm
Andesite Andesite
Andesitic Andesitic Pyroclastics Pyroclastics
Dacite Dacite
Mine Section
NW
SE
Regional Section
Izawa et al., 1990
Hishikari Hishikari
Cross-Section B-B
NW
SE
NW
Gravity High
CC SS D i D i
Andesite Andesite
Il Il--Sm Sm
Qz Qz- -Sm Sm
Cr Cr--Sm Sm Dacite Dacite
Il Il--Sm Sm
Ch Ch--Se Se
Izawa et al., 1990
Basement Basement Siliciclastic Siliciclastic Rocks Rocks
Hishikari Hishikari
Honko
vein
system
Greywacke
basement
High > 100 g/t Au
Medium / Low =
confidential
Hishikari, Japan
Intermediate-Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits
S G Silver-Gold-Base metals
e.g., Fresnillo, Pachuca, Comstock Lode, Creede
Ag or Au dominant economic metal; Au minor in
some. Ag/Au commonly X000-X0000
Zn and Pb typically ~1%; Cu and minor Sn may y y y
increase at depth
Veins typically quartz and calcite with minor
chalcedony; some adularia, Mn carbonate, fluorite,
gypsum, anhydrite
Textures diverse, may not be so well developed
Vein strike length variable; can be very long (>20 km) Vein strike length variable; can be very long ( 20 km)
Not likely to have formed in geothermal systems like
todays
Magmatic input probably important Magmatic input probably important
Vein rhodochrosite, Capillitas, Argentina
These can be Giant deposits!
Acupan, Baguio, Philippines
~ 8 Moz Au mined from Acupan veins
between 1931 and 1993
~ 3 Moz bulk minable resource defined in
mid 1990s
Diatreme volcanism around 1 Ma
>460 IS epithermal Au-Ag-(Te) veins
formed after 0.7 Ma (av. 1 m width)
Quartz-carbonate-base metal veins hosted
in granodiorite, diatreme and andesite
Modified from Cooke and Bloom(1990)
Modified from Cooke et al (1996)
Balatoc Diatreme
Virac Granodiorite
Ampucao Dacite Porphyry
Zig-Zag Formation
Baguio, Philippines
Weak surface expression of ea su ace e p ess o o
veins mined below in Acupan
mine. Outcrop 200 m below
surrounding hills, 200 m
above major ore development above major ore development.
Acupan Epithermal Au Veins
Colloform bands of quartz, calcite, rhodochrosite and base metal sulfides Clast of Au-rich grey quartz breccia overgrown by colloform calcite
Potassic and propylitic-altered Virac Granodiorite Brecciated qz-pyrite vein
Fresnillo, Mexico
Santo Nio vein
425 m Level
Siliceous vein
Zacatecas, Mexico
Rhodochrosite vein with sphalerite
Capillitas, Argentina
LS IS
Creede IS
10 km
HS IS
Simmons et al., 2005
HS w/ IS to N IS w/ lithocap HS
Simmons et al 2005
LS
LS
Simmons et al., 2005
LS
IS /
LS
1 km
IS w/ adv arg
1 km
LSa, VII
LS
E ith l V i D it G t Epithermal Vein Deposit Geometry
and Mineralization Styles
- Exploration Implications Exploration Implications
Fresnillo, Mexico
Major IS deposit, Ag-Au veins 3,600 t Ag, 22 t Au
Ore outcrops only at Co. Proao p y
Co. Proao San Luis shaft
Fresnillo, Mexico
Surface expression of major veins at depth
Fresnillo, Mexico
Santo Nio vein
425 m Level
Gosowong Kencana Vein System
Gosowong Kencana Vein System
Kencana Longitudinal Section
Kencana Deposit
Kencana Mineralization Stages
Kencana Mineralization Stages
Kencana: Vein Types and Zoning
50 - 100
1000 - 3000
100 - 1000
Au (g x m)
0 - 10
10 - 50
50 100
Kencana: Distal Calcite Veins
Kencana: Distal Quartz Veins
Kencana: Proximal Quartz Kencana: Proximal Quartz
Stockworks and Breccia
Kencana: High-grade Banded Quartz / Kencana: High-grade Banded Quartz /
Breccia Veins and Sulphide Zones
Kencana: Deep Quartz Stockworks Kencana: Deep Quartz Stockworks
and Sheeted Veins
Way Lingo Longitudinal Section
N40
o
W S40
o
E
y g g
Augxm:
20
50
100
1065mRL
VeinA
Dacite
Andesite
200
Predicted
oreshoot
1020mRL
70
o
?
45
o
?
?
VeinB
?
100m
Way Lingo Longitudinal Section
N40
o
W S40
o
E
Way Lingo Longitudinal Section
1065mRL
VeinA
Ag/Au:
20
15
10
?
Dacite
Andesite
1020mRL
5
?
?
open
?
open
VeinB
?
?
100m
?
open
Ag/Au~1500(valuesupto3390Agand2.0AuinDDHLL05)
Exploration p
Arc or back-arc volcanic belt subaerial (marine)
Not deeply eroded; subsidence favourable Not deeply eroded; subsidence favourable
Low preservation potential rocks preserved
Regional magnetics can help (demagnetisation) Regional magnetics can help (demagnetisation)
Geochemistry (Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Zn, Pb, Cu)
Look for alteration ( b i ) Look for alteration (remember zoning)
Look for mineralisation (remember textures, float!)
B f t h t d lt ti ! Beware of steam-heated alteration zones!
But dont expect to find nuggets!
Exploration / Drilling Strategy
E ith l V i S t Epithermal Vein Systems
Establish vein / fracture zones and orientation from
reconnaissance work
Ridge-spur and line soil surveys with nominal 10m
spacing (composite soils) spacing (composite soils)
Mapping along soil lines (1:500 - 1:2000 scale; focus
on veins, fractures, faults, alteration)
Selective sampling of veins and fracture zones
Consider PIMA analysis of clays at field-camp
Determine applicability of geophysics (mag / CSAMT)
Drill-test veins at depth of 100-150m and analyse
core fromfirst-phase with multi-element approach core from first phase with multi element approach