Gasoline

See also Gasoline (disambiguation) or Petrol (disam-

biguation).
Gasoline /slin/, or petrol /ptrl/, is a transpar-
A jar of gasoline
A Shell gasoline station.
ent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a
fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of
organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation
of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives; a 42
gallon barrel of crude oil yields about 19 gallons of gaso-
line, when processed in an oil renery.
The quality of gasoline as a fuel in internal combustion
engines is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is
produced in several grades of octane rating. Lead com-
pounds are no longer used in most areas for octane im-
provement, but many other additives are put into gasoline
to improve its stability and performance. Some gasolines
also contain ethanol as an alternative fuel.
The main concern with gasoline on the environment,
aside from the complications of its extraction and ren-
ing, is the potential eect on the climate. The chief risks
of leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline de-
livery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Be-
cause of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now
have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent
any such leaks, such as monitoring systems. The material
safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15
hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts. Ben-
zene and many antiknocking additives are carcinogenic.
Inhaled (hued) gasoline vapor is a common intoxicant
that has become epidemic in some poorer communi-
ties and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, and some Pacic Islands.
[1]
In response, Opal
fuel has been developed by the BP Kwinana Renery
in Australia, and contains only 5% aromatics (unlike the
usual 25%), which weakens the eects of inhalation.
[2]
1 Octane rating
Main article: Octane rating
Spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in
a controlled process called deagration. In some cases,
however, the unburned mixture can autoignite (detonate
from pressure and heat alone, rather than ignite from
the spark plug at exactly the right time), which causes
rapid pressure rise which can damage the engine. This
phenomenon is often referred to as engine knocking or
end-gas knock. One way to reduce knock in spark ig-
nition engines is to increase the gasolines resistance to
autoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating.
Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane.
There are dierent conventions for expressing octane rat-
1
2 3 ENERGY CONTENT
ings, so a fuel may have several dierent octane rat-
ings based on the measure used. Research octane num-
ber (RON) for commercially-available gasoline varies by
country. In Finland, Sweden, and Norway, 95 RON is
the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is
also available as a more expensive option. In the UK, or-
dinary regular unleaded gasoline is 95 RON (commonly
available), premiumunleaded gasoline is always 97 RON,
and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both
Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RONfor cars with high-
performance engines, and the supermarket chain Tesco
began in 2006 to sell super unleaded gasoline rated at
99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can
vary between 85
[3]
and 87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular,
through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (Euro-
pean regular), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for pre-
mium (European premium).
South Africas largest city is Johannesburg is located on
the Highveld at 1,753 metres (5,751 ft) above sea-level.
So the South African AA recommends 95 octane petrol
(gasoline) as low altitude and 93 octane for use in Johan-
nesburg because The higher the altitude the lower the air
pressure, and the lower the need for a high octane fuel as
there is no real performance gain.
[4]
The octane rating became important as the military
sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s
and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher
compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher
temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher
power output. Some scientists even predicted that a na-
tion with a good supply of high octane gasoline would
have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the Rolls
Royce Merlin aero engine produced 1,320 horsepower
(984 kW) using 100 RONfuel froma modest 27 liter dis-
placement. Towards the end of the second world war, ex-
periments were conducted using 150 RON fuel (100/150
avgas), obtained by adding 2.5% aniline to 100 octane
avgas.
[5]
2 Stability
Quality gasoline should be stable almost indenitely if
stored properly. Such storage should be in an airtight con-
tainer (to prevent oxidation or water vapors mixing) that
can withstand the vapor pressure of the gasoline without
venting ( to prevent the loss of the more volatile frac-
tions) at a stable cool temperature (to reduce the excess
pressure from liquid expansion, and to reduce the rate
of any decomposition reactions). When gasoline is not
stored correctly, gums and solids may be created, which
can corrode system components and accumulate on wet-
ted surfaces, resulting in a condition called stale fuel.
Gasoline containing ethanol is especially subject to ab-
sorbing atmospheric moisture, then forming gums, solids,
or two phases (a hydrocarbon phase oating on top of a
water-alcohol phase).
The presence of these degradation products in fuel tank,
lines, carburetor or fuel injection components makes it
harder to start the engine, or causes reduced engine per-
formance. On resumption of regular engine use, the
buildup is often eventually cleaned out by the ow of
fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gaso-
line can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be
stored properly. Some typical fuel stabilizers are propri-
etary mixtures containing mineral spirits, isopropyl alco-
hol, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene,or other additives. Fuel sta-
bilizer is commonly used for small engines, such as lawn-
mower and tractor engines, especially when their use is
seasonal (low to no use for one or more seasons of the
year). Users have been advised to keep gasoline contain-
ers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air
exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an
engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through
all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at
intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor.
[6]
3 Energy content
Energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by
the conversion of a hydrocarbon to carbon dioxide and
water. The combustion of octane follows this reaction:
2 C
8
H
18
+ 25 O
2
16 CO
2
+ 18 H
2
O
Gasoline contains about 42.4 MJ/kg (120 MJ/US gal,
33.3 kWh/US gal) quoting the lower heating value .
Gasoline blends dier, and therefore actual energy con-
tent varies according to the season and producer by up
to 4% more or less than the average, according to the
US EPA. On average, about 74 L of gasoline (19.5 US
gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of crude oil
(about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude
and grade of gasoline. The remainder are products rang-
ing from tar to naphtha.
[7]
A high-octane-rated fuel, such as liqueed petroleum gas
(LPG) has an overall lower power output at the typi-
cal 10:1 compression ratio of a gasoline engine. How-
ever, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (i.e. via
higher compression ratios, such as 12:1 instead of 10:1),
this lower power output can be eliminated. This is be-
cause higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compres-
sion ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylin-
der temperature, which improves eciency. Also, in-
creased mechanical eciency is created by a higher com-
pression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion
ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater ef-
fect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from
the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process.
An Atkinson cycle engine uses the timing of the valve
events to produce the benets of a high expansion ratio
without the disadvantages, chiey detonation, of a high
compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of
3
the two key reasons for the eciency of diesel engines,
along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throt-
tling of the intake air ow.
The lower energy content (per liter) of LPG in compari-
son to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. Energy
content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline (higher
hydrogen to carbon ratio, for an example see Standard
enthalpy of formation).
4 Density
The density of gasoline ranges from 0.710.77 kg/L
(719.7 kg/m
3
; 0.026 lb/in
3
; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29
lb/imp gal), higher densities having a greater volume of
aromatics.
[8]
Since gasoline oats on water, water can-
not generally be used to extinguish a gasoline re unless
used in a ne mist. Finished marketable gasoline is traded
with a standard reference of 0.755 kg/L, and its price is
escalated/de-escalated according to its actual density.
5 Chemical analysis and produc-
tion
A pumpjack in the United States
Gasoline is produced in oil reneries. Roughly 19 gallons
of gasoline is derived from a 42 gallon barrel of crude oil.
Material separated from crude oil via distillation, called
virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specica-
tions for modern engines (particularly the octane rating,
see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline blend.
The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons
with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (com-
monly referred to as C4-C12).
[6]
An oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico
Some of the main components of gasoline: isooctane, butane, 3-
ethyltoluene, and the octane enhancer MTBE.
The various renery streams blended to make gasoline
have dierent characteristics. Some important streams
are:
straight-run gasoline, usually also called naphtha
is distilled directly from crude oil. Once the leading
source of fuel, its low octane rating required lead
additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the
grade of crude oil), containing some cycloalkanes
(naphthenes) and no olens. Between 0 and 20% of
this stream is pooled into the nished gasoline, be-
cause the supply of this fraction is insucient and its
RON is too low.. The chemical properties (namely
octane and RVP) of the straight-run gasoline can
be improved through reforming and isomerisation.
However, before feeding those units, the naphtha
needs to be split in light and heavy naphtha. Straight-
run gasoline can be also used as a feedstock into
steam-crackers to produce olens.
reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer has a
high octane rating with high aromatic content, and
relatively lowolens (alkenes). Most of the benzene,
4 6 ADDITIVES
toluene, and xylene (the so-called BTX) are more
valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus re-
moved to some extent.
catalytic cracked gasoline or catalityc cracked
naphtha, produced from a catalytic cracker, with
a moderate octane rating, high olens (alkene) con-
tent, and moderate aromatics level.
hydrocrackate (heavy, mid, and light) produced
from a hydrocracker, with medium to low octane
rating and moderate aromatic levels.
alkylate is produced in an alkylation unit, using as
feedstocks isobutane and alkenes. Alkylate contains
nil aromatics and olens and has high MON.
isomerate is obtained by isomerizing low octane
straight run gasoline to iso-parans (like isooctane).
Isomerate has medium RON and MON, but nil aro-
matics and olens.
The terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry
and terminology varies.
Overall, a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture
of parans (alkanes), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), and
olens (alkenes). The actual ratio depends on:
the oil renery that makes the gasoline, as not all
reneries have the same set of processing units;
crude oil feed used by the renery;
the grade of gasoline, in particular, the octane rating.
Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline
aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olen
(alkene) content. Such regulations led to increasing
preference for high octane pure paran (alkane) com-
ponents, such as alkylate, and is forcing reneries to add
processing units to reduce benzene content. In the EU
the benzene limit is set at 1% volume for all grade of
automotive gasoline.
Gasoline can also contain other organic compounds, such
as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small levels of
contaminants, in particular organosulfur compounds, but
these are usually removed at the renery.
6 Additives
See also: List of gasoline additives
6.1 Antiknock additives
Almost all countries in the world have phased out auto-
motive leaded fuel. In 2011 six countries
[9]
in the world
A plastic container for storing gasoline used in Germany
were still using leaded gasoline: Afghanistan, Myanmar,
North Korea, Algeria, Iraq and Yemen. It was expected
that by the end of 2013 those countries would ban leaded
petrol,
[10]
but actually it will take longer. Algeria will re-
place leaded with unleaded automotive fuel only in 2015.
Dierent additives have replaced the lead compounds.
The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocar-
bons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol).
For technical reasons the use of leaded additives is still
permitted world-wide for the formulation of some grades
of aviation gasoline such as 100LL, because the required
octane rating would be technically infeasible to reach
without the use of leaded additives.
6.1.1 Tetraethyllead
Main article: Tetraethyllead
Gasoline, when used in high-compression internal com-
bustion engines, tends to autoignite (detonate) causing
damaging "engine knocking" (also called pinging or
pinking) noise. To address this problem, tetraethyllead
(TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in
the 1920s. With the discovery of the extent of environ-
mental and health damage caused by the lead, however,
and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters,
leaded gasoline was phased out beginning in 1973. By
1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gaso-
line sales and less than 2000 short tons (1814 t) of lead per
year in the USA. From 1 January 1996, the U.S. Clean
Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road
vehicles in the USA. The use of TEL also necessitated
other additives, such as dibromoethane. First European
countries started replacing lead by the end of the 80s and
by the end of the 90s leaded petrol was banned within the
entire European Union.
6.3 Detergents 5
6.1.2 MMT
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT)
is used in Canada and in Australia to boost octane. It
also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on un-
leaded fuel without need for additives to prevent valve
problems. Its use in the US has been restricted by regu-
lations.
6.2 Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and
metal deactivators)
Substituted phenols and derivatives of phenylenediamine are
common antioxidants used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline
(gasoline).
Gummy, sticky resin deposits result fromoxidative degra-
dation of gasoline upon long term storage. These harm-
ful deposits arise from the oxidation of alkenes and other
minor components in gasoline (see drying oils). Improve-
ments in renery techniques have generally reduced the
susceptibility of gasolines to these problems. Previously,
catalytically or thermally cracked gasolines are most sus-
ceptible to oxidation. The formation of these gums is
accelerated by copper salts, which can be neutralized by
additives called metal deactivators.
This degradation can be prevented through the
addition of 5100 ppm of antioxidants, such as
phenylenediamines and other amines.
[6]
Hydrocarbons
with a bromine number of 10 or above can be protected
with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered
phenols and oil soluble strong amine bases, such as
hindered phenols. Stale gasoline can be detected
by a colorimetric enzymatic test for organic peroxides
produced by oxidation of the gasoline.
[11]
Gasolines are also treated with metal deactivators, which
are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that
otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues.
The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself
or as contaminants in the fuel.
6.3 Detergents
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains addi-
tives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve
combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates.
High levels of detergent can be found in Top Tier De-
tergent Gasolines. The specication for Top Tier Deter-
gent gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM,
Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the bulletin, the
minimal EPA requirement is not sucient to keep en-
gines clean.
[12]
Typical detergents include alkylamines
and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.
[6]
6.4 Ethanol
See also: Ethanol fuel
6.4.1 European Union
In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common
gasoline spec (EN228). Discussions are ongoing to allow
10%blending of ethanol (available in Finnish, French and
German gas stations). In Finland most gasoline stations
sell 95E10, which is 10% of ethanol; and 98E5, which
is 5% ethanol. Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5-15%
ethanol added.
6.4.2 Brazil
In Brazil, the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum,
Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires gasoline for au-
tomobile use to have from 18 to 25% of ethanol added to
its composition.
[13]
6.4.3 Australia
Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing
ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10%of
petrol in Australia. Such petrol is commonly called E10
by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded
petrol.
6.4.4 United States of America
The federal Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) eectively
requires reners and blenders to blend renewable biofuels
(mostly ethanol) with gasoline, sucient to meet a grow-
ing annual target of total gallons blended. Although the
mandate does not require a specic percentage of ethanol,
annual increases in the target combined with declining
gasoline consumption has caused the typical ethanol con-
tent in gasoline to approach 10%. Most fuel pumps dis-
play a sticker that states that the fuel may contain up
to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity that reects the
6 7 SAFETY
varying actual percentage. Until late 2010, fuels retailers
were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 per-
cent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except
for exible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no
more than 10 percent ethanol.
[14]
In parts of the United
States, ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline without an
indication that it is a component.
6.4.5 India
The Government of India in October 2007 decided to
make 5% ethanol blending (with gasoline) mandatory.
Currently, 10% Ethanol blended product (E10) is being
sold in various parts of the country.
[15][16]
6.5 Dye
Main article: Fuel dyes
In Australia, the lowest grade of petrol (RON 91) is dyed
a light shade of red/orange and the medium grade (RON
95) is dyed yellow.
[17]
In the United States, aviation gasoline (avgas) is dyed
to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from
kerosene-based jet fuel, which is clear.
[18]
In Canada the gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed
red and is not subject to road tax .
6.6 Oxygenate blending
Oxygenate blending adds oxygen-bearing compounds
such as MTBE, ETBE and ethanol. The presence of these
oxygenates reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and
unburned fuel in the exhaust gas. In many areas through-
out the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by EPAregu-
lations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For
example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2%
oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol
in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as refor-
mulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline, or in
the case of California, California reformulated gasoline.
The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was
dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had devel-
oped VOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional
oxygen.
[19]
MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to is-
sues with contamination of ground water. In some places,
such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and, to
a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common
replacements. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10%
ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and
an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85%ethanol mixed with gaso-
line is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol
takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from
sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 bil-
lion imp gal/13 million m) of ethanol was produced in
the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and
E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United
States, though many of the relatively few stations vend-
ing E85 are not open to the general public.
[20]
The use of
bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of
such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European
Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels
and other renewable fuels for transport. Since producing
bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves
distillation, though, ordinary people in much of Europe
cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at
present (unlike in the US, where getting a BATF distilla-
tion permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).
7 Safety
HAZMAT Class 3 Gasoline
7.1 Environmental considerations
Combustion of 1 US gallon (3.8 L) of gasoline produces
8,788 grams (19.374 lb) of carbon dioxide (2.3 kg/l), a
greenhouse gas.
[21]
The main concern with gasoline on the environment,
aside from the complications of its extraction and re-
ning, is the potential eect on the climate. Unburnt
gasoline and evaporation from the tank, when in the
atmosphere, react in sunlight to produce photochemical
smog. Vapor pressure initially rises with some addition
of ethanol to gasoline, but the increase is greatest at 10%
by volume. At higher concentrations of ethanol above
10%, the vapor pressure of the blend starts to decrease.
At a 10% ethanol by volume, the rise in vapor pressure
may potentially increase the problem of photochemical
7
smog. This rise in vapor pressure could be mitigated by
increasing the percentage of ethanol in the gasoline mix-
ture.
The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles,
but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from
storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground)
storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to de-
tect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring sys-
tems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).
7.2 Toxicity
The material safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline
shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in var-
ious amounts, including benzene (up to 5% by volume),
toluene (up to 35%by volume), naphthalene (up to 1%by
volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7%by volume), methyl
tert-butyl ether (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some
states) and about ten others.
[22]
Hydrocarbons in gasoline
generally exhibit lowacute toxicities, with LD50 of 700
2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.
[23]
Benzene
and many antiknocking additives are carcinogenic.
7.3 Inhalation
Hued gasoline is a common intoxicant that has become
epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous
groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and some Pa-
cic Islands.
[1]
In response, Opal fuel has been developed
by the BP Kwinana Renery in Australia, and contains
only 5% aromatics (unlike the usual 25%), which weak-
ens the eects of inhalation.
[2]
7.4 Flammability
Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of
soot and carbon monoxide.
Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range
of its vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this
makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition
are present. Gasoline has a lower explosion limit of 1.4%
by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7.6%. If the
concentration is below 1.4%, the air-gasoline mixture is
too lean and does not ignite. If the concentration is above
7.6%, the mixture is too rich and also does not ignite.
However, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with
air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly ammable.
8 Use and pricing
Main articles: gasoline usage and pricing and Peak oil
The United States accounts for about 44% of the worlds
UK gasoline prices
gasoline consumption.
[24]
In 2003 The US consumed 476
gigaliters (126 billion U.S. gallons; 105 billion imperial
gallons),
[25]
which equates to 1.3 gigaliters (340 million
U.S. gallons; 290 million imperial gallons) of gasoline
each day. The US used about 510 gigaliters (130 billion
U.S. gallons; 110 billion imperial gallons) of gasoline in
2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was pre-
mium grade.
[26]
8.1 Europe
Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantial
taxes on fuels such as gasoline. The price of gasoline in
Europe is typically more than twice that in the US. In
Italy, due to the amendments imposed by Montis Gov-
ernment in December 2011, the price of gasoline has
passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1.50 /l (7.48
US$/gal) to 1.75 /l (8.72 US$/gal); on March 17, a
gasoline station located near Ancona has reached the psy-
chological threshold of 2 /l: the price was 2.001/l
(9.97 US$/gal). This chart must be compared to the USA
national average price of gasoline of 0.71 /l.
8.2 United States
From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline uctuated be-
tween $1 and $2 USD per U.S. gallon.
[27]
After 2004, the
8 12 SEE ALSO
price increased until the average gas price reached a high
of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded to ap-
proximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009.
[27]
More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing in gas
prices through 2011,
[28]
and by 1 March 2012, the na-
tional average was $3.74 per gallon.
In the United States, most consumer goods bear pre-tax
prices, but gasoline prices are posted with taxes included.
Taxes are added by federal, state, and local governments.
As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4 per gallon for gasoline
and 24.4 per gallon for diesel (excluding red diesel).
[29]
Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including
the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9/gal),
Hawaii (60.1/gal), and California (60/gal).
[28]
How-
ever, many states taxes are a percentage and thus vary
in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.
About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009
was premium grade, according to the Energy Informa-
tion Administration. Consumer Reports magazine says,
If [your owners manual] says to use regular fuel, do so
theres no advantage to a higher grade.
[30]
The Associ-
ated Press said premium gaswhich is a higher octane
and costs more per gallon than regular unleadedshould
be used only if the manufacturer says it is required.
[31]
Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression
ratios often specify premium gas because higher oc-
tane fuels reduce the incidence of knock, or fuel pre-
detonation.
[32]
If regular fuel is used, the engine computer
usually switches to a less aggressive fuel map to protect
the engine, and performance is decreased.
9 History
The rst automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto
engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th
century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hy-
drocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point
near 85 C (octanes boil about 40 C higher), it was well
suited for early carburetors (evaporators). The devel-
opment of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use
of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in engine
eciency were attempted at higher compression ratios,
but early attempts were blocked by knocking (prema-
ture explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock com-
pounds were introduced by Migley and Boyd, specically
tetraethyllead (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of
improvements in fuel eciency that coincided with the
large-scale development of oil rening to provide more
products in the boiling range of gasolines. In the 1950s oil
reneries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then
detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and
carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the
environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These
considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its re-
placement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently,
low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the
catalysts in modern exhaust systems.
[6]
10 Etymology and terminology
Gasoline is cited (under the spelling gasolene) from
1863 in the Oxford English Dictionary. It was never a
trademark, although it may have been derived from older
trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline.
[33]
Variant spellings of gasoline have been used to re-
fer to raw petroleum since the 16th century.
[33]
Petrol
was rst used as the name of a rened petroleum prod-
uct around 1870 by British wholesaler Carless, Capel
& Leonard, who marketed it as a solvent.
[34]
When the
product later found a new use as a motor fuel, Frederick
Simms, an associate of Gottlieb Daimler, suggested to
Carless that they register the trade mark petrol,
[35]
but
by this time the word was already in general use, possi-
bly inspired by the French ptrole,
[33]
and the registration
was not allowed. Carless registered a number of alterna-
tive names for the product, while their competitors used
the term motor spirit until the 1930s.
[36][37]
In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name de-
rived from that of the chemical benzene (e.g., German
Benzin, Dutch benzine, Italian benzina, Polish benzyna,
Chile bencina, Thai bayn sin , Greek ven-
zini, Romanian benzin, Swedish bensin, Arabic
binzn). Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay use the col-
loquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical
naphtha.
[38]
The terms mogas, short for motor gasoline, or
autogas, short for automobile gasoline, are used
to distinguish automobile fuel from aviation fuel, or
"avgas".
[39][40][41]
11 Comparison with other fuels
See also: Energy content of biofuel
Volumetric and mass energy density of some fuels com-
pared with gasoline (in the rows with gross and net, they
are from
[42]
):
(*) Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane
rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is
the cetane number
12 See also
Aftermarket fuel economy device
Aviation fuel
Biobutanol replacement fuel for use in unmodied
gasoline engines
13.1 Notes 9
Diesel fuel
Filling station
Fuel dispenser
Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing
Gasoline gallon equivalent
Internal combustion engine (ICE)
Jerrycan
List of automotive fuel brands
Natural-gas condensate#Drip gas
Octane rating
Oil price increases since 2003
13 References
13.1 Notes
[1] gasoline Sning Fact File Sheree Cairney, www.abc.net.
au, Published 24th November 2005. Retrieved 13th Oc-
tober 2007, a modied version of the original article, now
archived
[2] Fuel technology www.bp.com. Retrieved 8th June 2007.
[3]
[4] 95/93 What is the Dierence, Really?". Automobile
Association of South Africa (AA). Retrieved September
2014.
[5] Best Gasoline Will Win War of the Future Popular Me-
chanics, April 1935 article at bottom of page 524
[6] Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schtze
and Klaus Reders Automotive Fuels in Ullmanns En-
cyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2007, Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a16_719.pub2
[7] Oil Industry Statistics from Gibson Consulting. Re-
trieved 31 July 2008.
[8] Bell Fuels. Lead-Free gasoline Material Safety Data
Sheet. NOAA. Retrieved 6 July 2008.
[9] List of countries using leaded petrol in 2011.
[10] UN: Leaded fuel to be gone by 2013.
[11] A1 AU 2000/72399 A1 Gasoline test kit
[12] Top Tier Detergent Gasoline (Deposits, Fuel Economy,
No Start, Power, Performance, Stall Concerns), GM Bul-
letin, 04-06-04-047, 06-Engine/Propulsion System, June
2004
[13] http://www.senado.gov.br/atividade/materia/detalhes.
asp?p_cod_mate=100053
[14] [citation needed]
[15] Government to take a call on ethanol price soon. The
Hindu (Chennai, India). 21 Nov 2011. Retrieved 25 May
2012.
[16] India to raise ethanol blending in gasoline to 10%". 22
November 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[17] http://www.aip.com.au/topics/mr_pdf/AIP_media_
release_280912.pdf
[18] Aviation Advocacy | EAA
[19] Removal of Reformulated Gasoline Oxygen Content Re-
quirement (national) and Revision of Commingling Pro-
hibition to Address Non-0xygenated Reformulated Gaso-
line (national)". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
22 February 2006.
[20] Alternative Fueling Station Locator. U.S. Department
of Energy.
[21] HowGasoline Becomes CO2. Slate Magazine. Novem-
ber 1, 2006.
[22] Material safety data sheet Tesoro petroleum Companies,
Inc., U.S., 8 February 2003
[23] Karl Griesbaum et al. Hydrocarbons in Ullmanns En-
cyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a13_227
[24] http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5579 , http://www.eia.
doe.gov/emeu/international/oilconsumption.html
[25] EarthTrends: Energy and Resources Transportation:
Motor gasoline consumption Units: Million liters
[26] U.S. Prime Supplier Sales Volumes of petroleum Prod-
ucts. United States Energy Information Administration.
Retrieved 24 October 2007.
[27] Fuel Economy.gov, FAQ
[28] http://www.taxfoundation.org/UserFiles/Image/Fiscal%
20Facts/gas-tax-690px.jpg
[29] When did the Federal Government begin collecting the
gas tax? Ask the Rambler Highway History
FHWA. Fhwa.dot.gov. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
[30] Car reviews and ratings from Consumer Reports
[31] Associated Press, Gassing up with premium probably a
waste, 19 August 2009.
[32] Fact or Fiction?: Premium Gasoline Delivers Premium
Benets to Your Car - Scientic American
[33] gasoline, n., and gasoline, n., Oxford English Dictionary
online edition
[34] "Carless, Capel & Leonard", vintagegarage.co.uk, ac-
cessed 2012-08-05
[35] "Carless, Capel and Leonard Ltd Records: Administrative
History", The National Archives, accessed 2012-08-05
[36] Online Etymology Dictionary
10 14 EXTERNAL LINKS
[37] Ron Hincks (2004). Our Motoring Heritage: gasoline &
Oil. Chrysler Collector (154): 1620.
[38] Spanish Dict
[39] Federal Aviation Administration (5 April 2000).
Revised Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin
(SAIB) Number CE-00-19R1. Archived from the
original on 12 October 2006. Retrieved 28 October
2006. The FAA highly recommends installing placards
stating the use of 82UL is or is not approved on those
airplanes that specify unleaded autogas as an approved
fuel.
[40] Pew, Glenn (November 2007). Avgas: Group Asks EPA
To Get The Lead Out. Retrieved 18 February 2008.
[41] , Mogas, Alcohol Blend, Octane, Aviation Fuels and Spec-
ications
[42] Appendix B, Transportation Energy Data Book from the
Center for Transportation Analysis of the Oak Ridge Na-
tional Laboratory
[43] Thomas, George: Overview of Storage Development
DOE Hydrogen Program PDF (99.6 KB). Livermore,
CA. Sandia National Laboratories. 2000.
[44] Eyidogan, Muharrem; Ozsezen, Ahmet Necati; Canakci,
Mustafa; Turkcan, Ali (2010). Impact of alcohol
gasoline fuel blends on the performance and combustion
characteristics of an SI engine. Fuel 89 (10): 2713.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.01.032.
[45] Bioenergy Feedstock Development Programs at Oak
Rodge National Laboratory
[46] The National Hydrogen Association FAQs
13.2 Bibliography
Graph of ination-corrected historic prices, 1970
2005. Highest in 2005
The Low-Down on High Octane Gasoline
MMT-US EPA
An introduction to the modern petroleum science,
and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic
petroleum origins.
Whats the dierence between premium and regular
gas? (from The Straight Dope)
Here Comes Winter Gasoline R-Squared Energy
Blog 14 September 2006
International Fuel Prices 2005 with diesel and gaso-
line prices of 172 countries
EIA Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update
World Internet News: Big Oil Looking for Another
Government Handout, April 2006.
Durability of various plastics: Alcohols vs. Gasoline
Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection
for Natural petroleum.
Fuel Economy Impact Analysis of RFG i.e. refor-
mulated gasoline. Has lower heating value data, ac-
tual energy content is higher see higher heating value
14 External links
EFOA
CNN/Money: Global gas prices
EEP: European gas prices
Transportation Energy Data Book
Energy Supply Logistics Searchable Directory of US
Terminals
2011 NACS Annual Fuels Report
Denition of basic terms, Graphs of Gas prices. all
in Slovak language
Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review
High octane fuel, leaded and LRP gasoline article
from robotpig.net
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Images
Down the Gasoline Trail Handy Jam Organization,
1935 (Cartoon)
11
15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
15.1 Text
Gasoline Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline?oldid=632107619 Contributors: Derek Ross, Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen,
Robert Merkel, Jeronimo, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, 0, Rmhermen, William Avery, DavidLevinson, Ben-Zin, Maury Markowitz, Heron,
Camembert, Hfastedge, Bdesham, JohnOwens, Polimerek, Norm, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Ronz, Jimfbleak, Docu,
G-Man, Angela, Jdforrester, Glenn, Michael Shields, Gabriel, Andres, Samw, Lukobe, Nertzy, Smack, JidGom, Mulad, TheSeez, Timwi,
Bemoeial, Harris7, Hydnjo, Audin, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, PeterGrecian, Timc, Gestumblindi, Maximus Rex, LMB, SEWilco, Omega-
tron, Shizhao, Topbanana, Dbabbitt, Secretlondon, Proteus, Francs2000, Drxenocide, EdwinHJ, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Josh Cherry, PBS,
Mirv, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Sekicho, Jondel, Bkell, Rebrane, Hadal, Superm401, Jooler, David Gerard, Alexwcovington, Jpo,
Giftlite, DocWatson42, MPF, Yama, ShaneCavanaugh, Fudoreaper, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Frencheigh, Malyctenar, Unconcerned,
Guanaco, Yekrats, Dmmaus, Edsuom, Jorge Stol, BesigedB, Eequor, Solipsist, Darrien, Jackol, Bobblewik, Golbez, Chowbok, Gadum,
Sonjaaa, Quadell, Sendervictorius, Antandrus, Beland, WhiteDragon, Jossi, SimonArlott, MacGyverMagic, H Padleckas, Kevin B12, Ge-
oGreg, Bk0, Mrtrey99, Yossarian, Gscshoyru, Nickptar, Creidieki, Neutrality, DanMatan, Joyous!, Quota, Ukexpat, Andy Christ, Sonett72,
Fabrcio Kury, Deglr6328, Todd Kloos, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, DmitryKo, Metahacker, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Sysy, Plexust, Nary-
athegreat, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Supercoop, Cacycle, AxSkov, Vsmith, Ponder, Zazou, Dbachmann,
GPoss, Andrejj, Violetriga, Evice, Smallbone10, Joel Russ, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Bookofjude,
Coolcaesar, Femto, Perfecto, Lensim, Bastique, Afed, Bobo192, Spalding, Key45, Chtito, Walkiped, Dreish, Mricon, Mtruch, Jerry-
seinfeld, Cavrdg, Kjkolb, Storm Rider, Danski14, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Interiot, Eric Kvaalen, Andrewpmk, Lord Pistachio,
DanilMeijers, Yamla, Calton, Walkerma, Denniss, Snowolf, RPellessier, Sobolewski, Wtshymanski, Stephan Leeds, Danhash, Garzo,
TenOfAllTrades, Vuo, Cmprince, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Yurivict, KelisFan2K5, Cphi, Stephen, Stemonitis, Bobrayner, Marasmu-
sine, Vrymor, Kelly Martin, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Nuggetboy, Before My Ken, Commander Keane, Riumplus, Schzmo, To-
toBaggins, BlaiseFEgan, AndriyK, SDC, Hard Raspy Sci, GraemeLeggett, Rusty2005, Gettingtoit, Ashmoo, Deltabeignet, V8rik, Cuchul-
lain, Teknic, Lifeisunfair, FreplySpang, Csnewton, Whicky1978, Yurik, Jclemens, Edison, Coneslayer, Rjwilmsi, Ctdunstan, T.John.E,
Strait, Tangotango, Guinness2702, SeanMack, The wub, Ian Dunster, Mrfork, Ucucha, Ptdecker, Yamamoto Ichiro, Motorhead, FlaBot,
Da Stressor, Bobtex, SchuminWeb, Bearfoot, RexNL, Kolbasz, Raptor45, Choess, Fresheneesz, TeaDrinker, Psoreilly, Preslethe, Tysto,
Physchim62, Opakapaka, Joetheguy, DVdm, Bgwhite, Digitalme, Adoniscik, WriterHound, Whosasking, Jpfagerback, YurikBot, Jimp,
Phantomsteve, RussBot, Red Slash, Spaully, Rapomon, Ansell, AKADriver, Stephenb, Russoc4, Shaddack, Lavenderbunny, Rsrikanth05,
Pseudomonas, Bisqwit, Salsb, NawlinWiki, DragonHawk, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Grafen, Ptcamn, Welsh, Trovatore, Mmccalpin, Ino5hiro,
Ondenc, Eb Oesch, Paul Maunders, Ezeu, Scs, Misza13, Dbrs, DeadEyeArrow, Everyguy, Caerwine, Brisvegas, Salmanazar, Ke6jjj,
Scheinwerfermann, Keppa, Light current, Zero1328, Mike Serfas, 21655, Lt-wiki-bot, Juanscott, Fang Aili, KGasso, Esprit15d, Liv-
itup, JoanneB, Pavone, A Doon, Garion96, Wjousts, TomHawkey, Katieh5584, Patiwat, Blac0425, Groyolo, DVD R W, ChemGardener,
Bluewave, Vanka5, SmackBot, NuShrike, MrDemeanour, TomGreen, Buf7579, Unschool, Krovisser, Chodges, Slashme, KnowledgeOf-
Self, TestPilot, Bjelleklang, Shoy, BenBurch, Speight, KocjoBot, Davewild, Duivesteyn, Anastrophe, Jrockley, Delldot, Btxtsf, Knuto,
Edgar181, HeartofaDog, KingRaptor, Commander Keane bot, TBrock, IW4, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, OldsVistaCruiser,
Christophernandez, Bluebot, Flurry, Keegan, DavidJField, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets, Silly rabbit, Bazonka, Pomegranite, Ed-
geOfEpsilon, DHN-bot, Ericcj, Tomsteele, Nintendude, Stinkoman, Royboycrashfan, Rogermw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Shalom
Yechiel, Tamfang, DHeyward, MJCdetroit, Rrburke, Xyzzyplugh, Chcknwnm, Midnightcomm, Kyle sb, Grover cleveland, Masalai, Fly-
guy649, Kinsler33, Cybercobra, Downwards, Bowlhover, Akulkis, RandomP, Smokefoot, Dantadd, JephSullivan, Capasc, DMacks, Meta-
magician3000, Fatla00, Acdx, Mion, Pilotguy, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius, Paul 012, Ojophoyimbo, Swatjester, T-dot, Kuru, John,
CorvetteZ51, JackLumber, Zaphraud, Agent11345a, ER MD, Jaganath, Eikern, Mbeychok, Evan Robidoux, Accurizer, Dtunnicli, Jof-
felo, Catstail, Ckatz, SimonasWikiBotLT, Svippong, Cserlajos, 16@r, Slakr, Special-T, Benkeboy, Beetstra, Waggers, Poemich, Tuspm,
Arstchnca, EEPROM Eagle, Petrolmaps, Johnny 0, Pjrm, DabMachine, Levineps, OnBeyondZebrax, Nehrams2020, Wizard191, Iri-
descent, Thewrxman, Mrchickenn, Hugomango, Joseph Solis in Australia, Pegasus1138, Ivysaur, Cbrown1023, CapitalR, DavidOaks,
CP\M, Supertigerman, Woodshed, Edward Sides, Jr., Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, EdwinD, DKqwerty, Emote, Kingoomieiii, JForget,
Mapsax, Chippla, Anon user, CmdrObot, FireFrie, Teeka, Ibadibam, N2e, Fired Again, Vic0, WHATaintNOcountryIeverHEARDof-
DOtheySPEAKenglishINwhat, WeggeBot, Phatom87, User6985, Slazenger, Cydebot, Nbound, Brecon, Samuell, Kairotic, Valentimd,
Altaphon, Stilwebm, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, D666D, Puchscooter, Crocodileman, Studerby, Tkynerd, Djescalera, Allrod, Q43, Michael
C Price, Quibik, Teratornis, Jaerik, C2r, UberScienceNerd, Click23, BetacommandBot, Epbr123, VixenMage, Ph.D.Nikki, Hit bull,
win steak, Marvinglenn, Ajwt2, Nachdenklich, Iansimcox, Headbomb, Marek69, John254, Adrianfogge, NorwegianBlue, Electron9, Big-
bill2303, Horologium, Rhrad, Leon7, Reswobslc, Philippe, Pcbene, Jacobzcoool, Thala, LachlanA, Kiphinton, Ania Occupy, Grandonia,
AntiVandalBot, Angry mob mulls options, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Just Chilling, Quintote, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, Tangerines, RapidR, Jj137,
IndianGeneralist, Bridgeplayer, Echo5Joker, Storkk, Cbrodersen, Leuqarte, Prot, Kangor44, MikeLynch, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, Deective,
Leuko, Kigali1, MER-C, Arch dude, Philp the Moose, Greensburger, J Greb, Jay1279, Acroterion, Casmith 789, Magioladitis, Exerda,
Canjth, Crushfo, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Drcampbell, Db1944, Ronstew, Harryjohnston, JamesBWatson, Albmont, Johnny d, J.P.Lon,
Sarahj2107, Conteordeo, Nyttend, Rich257, Picklebob, Localoptimum, Mtd2006, Adacus12, LorenzoB, Fang 23, Retroneo, Spellmas-
ter, NiN, DerHexer, JaGa, Jayco, Laubz83, Wikianon, Buzz66, Atarr, HuntClubJoe, Hdt83, MartinBot, Sawblade5, Ultraviolet scissor
ame, Mark.logan, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Pekaje, Lilac Soul, Francis Tyers, Drfoop, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Love Krittaya,
Numbo3, Hans Dunkelberg, VAcharon, Colincbn, Qatter, OttoMkel, AtholM, HELLO989, Dispenser, McSly, Jeepday, DarwinPeacock,
Skier Dude, Neilleeds, HiLo48, NewEnglandYankee, Hennessey, Patrick, Mike.wiese, DadaNeem, Mufka, Student7, Neonpower, 2help,
Bennelliott, KylieTastic, Cometstyles, Tiggerjay, Ssault, Redrocket, Eddieebo, Inwind, Squids and Chips, Jphilp, MkClark, CardinalDan,
John Norris99, Chromancer, Nigel Ish, Lights, Vranak, Annavasr, Hellno2, King Lopez, VolkovBot, ABF, Mrh30, DSRH, Jennavecia,
Quartrmster007, LeilaniLad, Jutulen, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, AlfonZ42, Andage01, A4bot, Fxhomie, Olinga, Anonymous
Dissident, Chazamazalion, Midlandstoday, Durkalurks, Someguy1221, JustN5:12, Olly150, Piperh, Retiono Virginian, Jacob.sumith,
Lradrama, Ggenellina, LeaveSleaves, ^demonBot2, Raymondwinn, PDFbot, Waycool27, Ashlandchemist, Thewestizbacc, Billinghurst,
Y, Enviroboy, BluejacketT, Typ932, Root Beers, Temporaluser, Patterson57, Brianga, Symane, Sssprkrao, Allen Info, NHRHS2010,
Aqwfyj, Theoneintraining, Hello369, SieBot, VK35, Chinese3126, WereSpielChequers, Dawn Bard, Yintan, Audrius u, Vanished User
8a9b4725f8376, Garbeld, Niyazam, Grimey109, Aruton, Faradayplank, Ddnile, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, Radzewicz, KathrynLy-
barger, Andy Maybury, Deejaye6, Fratrep, Nancy, Svick, Reginmund, MitchCallison, Anchor Link Bot, Yitscar, Thermodude, Tree
Kittens, Denisarona, Jons63, Chem-awb, Gderbysh, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Plastikspork,
Saddhiyama, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tractordaddy, DanielDeibler, Prosecreator, CadillacDTS, Niceguyedc, Kathleen11215, LonelyBeacon,
Yaki-gaijin, Auntof6, PMDrive1061, Mspraveen, Sv1xv, Excirial, Henreyy, Alexbot, Jusdafax, John Nevard, Winston365, Megiddo1013,
12 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
The Founders Intent, Frvernchanezzz, Xequae, Werson, Nukeless, Carriearchdale, C628, John Paul Parks, ArthurPicoHydro, Thingg,
Aitias, Versus22, Ferike333, SoxBot III, Bcherwrmlein, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, Skunkboy74, XLinkBot, Wageless, Saeed.Veradi,
Rreagan007, Facts707, Nomsen, TNArules, NellieBly, Mifter, Hermanoere, Andriesvdl, LizGere, Siripswich, Addbot, Power.corrupts,
Litezor, Bloodbath 87, Cantaloupe2, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Private Sweety, Frathier, DaughterofSun, 7castle,
Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Choice777, KorinoChikara, Matt5091, Fluernutter, Skyezx, Jim10701, Skitter.rusty, Morning277, Lev-
entdnmz1, Glane23, Glass Sword, Atheismrocks, Roux, Di99, Tassedethe, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Shop247queen, Myk60640, Tide rolls,
Undeadx, Ajwt22, Avono, QuadrivialMind, Gail, Water4fuelnow, HerculeBot, Bermicourt, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Frag-
gle81, Batalo, The Earwig, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, ElementR, Max, EnTerr, IBstupid, Bbb23, Synchronism, Stentorian roar,
AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Darrell Smith1010, Jim1138, Galoubet, Accuruss, Spadeseatdirt, Whitespade, DeniseGreen, Materialscientist, Im-
peratorExercitus, E2eamon, Tresinnoctem, GB fan, Frankenpuppy, V35b, Xqbot, Milfy, Poopoo321, Frogulis, Ponticalibus, Ann arbor
street, Nickkid5, Grim23, BritishWatcher, Ricosenna, Pokieebs, Frosted14, PerLundberg, Zyido, JhanCRUSH, Amaury, Michal.feix, Bru-
taldeluxe, NightEye87, Geimeris, Edgar Meyer, Shadowjams, WaysToEscape, Astatine-210, Gcjblack, A.amitkumar, Prari, FrescoBot,
Sky Attacker, Majopius, Wazzup80, Cbellovary, Citation bot 1, Wicker1, Pinethicket, Michellecornelison, Rameshngbot, Tinton5, Yofoot-
ball127, Jschnur, SgtJulian, Monkeymanman, White Shadows, FoxBot, TobeBot, Blinx100, Dsmerritt, KHughes2009, TsukiToHoshiboshi,
Vrenator, Clarkcj12, Theamazingandy, Diannaa, Some Wiki Editor, Nascar1996, RobertMfromLI, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Whisky drinker, RjwilmsiBot, Jackehammond, Humanist Geek, Hajatvrc, Bambam32123, WildBot, CanadianPenguin, EmausBot, San-
tamoly, Acather96, I have a reference question, Immunize, Haon 2.0, Nickbmx95, Dewritech, RA0808, K102, I.C. Rivers, Solarra,
Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Amigomodular, Evanh2008, Johnnymartins, Ronk01, John Cline, Systemofadown44, Jenks24, Emily
Jensen, AOC25, Eve26, Smartdave, Jonathansammy, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, JTor, Thine Antique Pen, Cit helper, L1A1 FAL, Ocean
Shores, GeorgeBarnick, IAMGOOMBA, Anthinyandy, Brandondidthis, jk, ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31, Teh klev, Corychurch83,
Cloak&Dagger, Ghgugi, Targaryen, Brother Bulldog, CharlieEchoTango, Ebehn, Sonicyouth86, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-
Jones, Jeder91, DarkreII2, Chester Markel, Dgjesquire, GoldenGlory84, Omega2498, Cntras, AgniKalpa, T.R.N., Xenophonix, Awe-
somerampage, Widr, Aabbtt1515, Dasharath santra, Dougmcdonell, Kae907, Magallon17, Osamabinsleepin, Calabe1992, Oneirodyne,
Aland38, BG19bot, Iamnotspam, Nen, Futuregus, Amp71, Dancarblog, TomBrodshaw, Mark Arsten, Bigsean0300, Atomician, Ethel-
frithas, Srsdanimal, CitationCleanerBot, Gadosalod, Gadosalod1, Zedshort, Tara1717, Silvio1973, Rlouhimo, Inloglgoin, Ps3 and
xbox360, Justincheng12345-bot, Pratyya Ghosh, Edo 241289, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisvelnet, MAndresier, Qxukhgiels, Mo-
gism, JZNIOSH, Radiotrefoil, Saehry, Calebgilbertlming, Meskun, Jason1219, Graphium, Ljyeah, Reatlas, PinkAmpersand, Svnti fav,
JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Eyesnore, Je M PA, Hoppeduppeanut, DavidLeighEllis, Rohitag23, Spyglasses, , Ginsuloft, Koolslamsz, To-
days Clubs, Jianhui67, Jonno232, Esd37, MeteorShowerJMC, ZzXxXzZ, Tittiesnbutts, Elephantsofearth, Monkbot, Tanay23, Zachmessi,
Mobsdarkby, Gello222, TranquilHope, Lizchickie, Bimal Bhattarai, Java1245 and Anonymous: 1361
15.2 Images
File:Antioxidant.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Antioxidant.png License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Smokefoot
File:Benzinepomp002.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Benzinepomp002.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors:
Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhateld
File:Gasoline-fire.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gasoline-fire.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: [1] Original artist: U.S. Departement of Justice
File:GasolineComp.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/GasolineComp.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Smokefoot
File:Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Burger
File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: Flickr.com - image description page Original artist: Chad Teer from Coquitlam, France
File:HAZMAT_Class_3_Gasoline.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/HAZMAT_Class_3_Gasoline.
png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:aboalbiss. Original
artist: Original uploader was Nickersonl at en.wikipedia
File:Nodding_donkey.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Nodding_donkey.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. Original artist:
File:Pricegraph.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Pricegraph.gif License: ? Contributors:
http://www.whatgas.com Original artist:
Alastair Taylor
File:Reservekanister.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Reservekanister.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: joho345
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
15.3 Content license
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0