1

ABSTRACT:

This paper describes a case record that involves a 3 km long upgrading along a major highway in
Ontario, Canada. The associated improvements to the horizontal and vertical highway alignments
require the construction of a new higher and wider embankment on top of and adjacent to the
existing highway embankment. The new embankment, up to about 11 m high, needs to be
constructed with long (85 m and 136 m) culverts to allow stream flow and fish migration beneath
the highway in order to provide a hydraulic connection to existing creeks. The rockfill embankment
would be founded on soft, compressible clay that will settle with time. This required that the
culverts be designed and constructed to account for large anticipated time-dependent settlements in
order to achieve a suitable long-term hydraulic profile and performance of the culverts.

The paper summarizes the geotechnical investigation carried out, the ground conditions
encountered, the settlement analysis performed and the proposed alternative design construction
subgrade profiles along the culvert so that suitable hydraulic grades would be achieved throughout
the service life of the culverts while they undergo settlement.

1 INTRODUCTION
The design and construction of long culverts beneath high embankments need to take into account
the anticipated long-term ground settlement profile along the alignment of the culverts if the
culverts are to perform satisfactorily, from a hydraulic perspective, throughout their design service
life. In most cases, the settlement profile along the culvert is dish-shaped with the maximum
settlement taking place near the centreline of the highway alignment. Special culvert design and
construction methods are required if suitable hydraulic grades are to be provided throughout the
design life of the culvert. Rutledge and Gould (1973) describe the movement of articulated
conduits beneath earth dams and this experience and knowledge can be applied to long culverts
beneath highway embankments.

This paper describes a case record that involves a 3 km long upgrading along a major highway in
Ontario, Canada. The associated improvements to the horizontal and vertical highway alignments
require the construction of a new higher and wider embankment on top of and adjacent to the
Ground Settlement Considerations for the Design of Long
Culverts Beneath High Embankments on Clay
SAIHI Faten
1
and BECKER Dennis
2

1
Institut Suprieur des Technologies de lEnvironnement, de lUrbanisme et du Btiment, Tunisia

2
Principal, Golder Associates Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
International Conference on Geotechnical Engineering. 2008
2
existing highway embankment. The new embankment, up to about 11 m high, needs to be
constructed with long (85 m and 136 m) culverts to allow stream flow and fish migration beneath
the highway to provide a hydraulic connection to existing creeks. The rockfill embankment would
be founded on soft, compressible clay that will settle with time. This required that the culverts be
designed and constructed to account for large anticipated time-dependent settlements in order to
achieve a suitable long-term hydraulic profile and performance of the culverts.

2 INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES
A detailed geotechnical investigation was carried out as part of the final design for the highway
improvement works to obtain information on the ground conditions to better assess the likely long-
term settlement of the ground beneath the embankments. The investigation consisted of sampled
boreholes, piezo-cone penetration tests (CPT), field vane tests and laboratory tests on selected soil
samples. Five (5) boreholes and a CPT were advanced along and in the general vicinity of the
proposed 136 m long culvert alignment (Area 2), and three (3) boreholes and a CPT were advanced
along and in the general vicinity of the proposed 85 m long culvert alignment (Area 7).

The field investigation was carried out using a Bombardier CME 55 auger drill rig, which was also
used to push the CPTs. The boreholes were drilled and sampled to depths ranging from 10.2 m to
16.8 m. In general, all boreholes were advanced to a depth equal to the required height of
embankment fill, or refusal to further penetration by auger. The boreholes were advanced using 208
mm outside diameter (O.D.) continuous flight hollow stem augers. Soils samples were obtained at
regular intervals of depth, ranging from 0.75 m to 1.5 m, using a 50 mm O.D. split-spoon sampler
in accordance with Standard Penetration Test (SPT) procedures. Field vane shear tests were carried
out in clayey deposits. Shelby tube samples were also taken to facilitate specialized laboratory
testing such as oedometer (consolidation) tests. Soil samples underwent detailed visual
examination. Laboratory testing on selected samples from the 2001 investigation included: natural
water content, Atterberg limits and grain size analyses. All field and laboratory testing was
performed in general conformance to relevant ASTM Standards.

3 GENERAL SITE GEOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY
3.1 Site Geology
From published geologic information, the site is located in the physiographic region known as
Abitibi Uplands that form the easternmost part of the Canadian Precambrian Shield (Geology of
Ontario; OGS Special Volume 4). The terrain is comprised largely of metavolcanic and minor
metasedimentary rocks. Bostock (1970) describes the Abitibi Uplands as a rocky landscape,
scattered with lakes and large areas that are mantled by deposits from Pleistocene glaciation
consisting of the lacustrine clays and former shorelines of proglacial lakes. Landforms typically
include outwash channels, tills and moraines. The local physiography is generally characterized by
variable overburden materials and an irregular, variable bedrock surface with rock outcrops.
3.2 Site Stratigraphy
In general, the ground conditions encountered consists of very soft to stiff clay, silty clay to clayey
silt with varying structure (i.e. interlayered to varved) ranging in thickness from 6 m to 10 m. The
clayey deposit is underlain by a variable deposit of very loose to compact silt, sand, sand and silt
and sand and gravel ranging in thickness from 1 m to 3 m.

3
At borehole locations drilled through the existing roadway embankment, compact to dense sand
and gravel fill containing occasional cobbles and boulders was encountered to depths ranging from
2.7 m to 4.6 m. The embankment fill is generally underlain by the silty clay to clayey silt deposit.
However, organic material was found to be located within the upper silty clay stratum immediately
below the fill materials.

For the purpose of this paper, varved deposits are layered deposits of clay or silty clay with clayey
silt or silt, where the layers of the respective constituents repeat in a regular pattern and are less
than about 50 mm thick. Interlayered deposits are similar to varved deposits in composition and
structure; however, the respective layers are greater then 50 mm in thickness. Seams (less than 1
mm thick) of fine sand, sandy silt and silt were also typically encountered within the cohesive
deposits. Based on the oedometer, CPT and field vane tests results, the silty clay and clayey silt
deposits encountered have a minimum overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of about 2 and are classified
as being overconsolidated.

The results of the field vane tests for undrained shear strength are summarized on Figure 1. Based
on the field vane tests, the shear strength of the clayey deposits varies from about 27 kPa to 80 kPa,
indicating a firm to stiff consistency. The sensitivity of the deposit, as estimated from the field vane
tests, ranges from 2.5 to 7.6 as shown on Figure 2. The majority of the test results range from 3 to
6, implying that the silty clay to clayey silt stratum in this area is medium sensitive to sensitive
based on the classification system provided in Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (CFEM
2006).

Atterberg Limits testing conducted on samples obtained from this stratum show liquid limits (w
L
)
ranging from about 20 to 40 percent and a plasticity index (I
P
) ranging from about 5 to 40 percent.
The lower values of w
L
and I
P
are representative of the more silty interlayers, while the higher
values are representative of the more clayey interlayers. The results of the Limits testing classify
the soil in this stratum as inorganic and of low to intermediate plasticity. The natural water content
measured in selected samples from this stratum range from about 20 to 50 percent. In general, the
water content is at or higher than the liquid limit, corresponding to a liquidity index of one or
higher. Figures 3, 4 and 5 summarize the results of the water content and Atterberg Limits tests.






















Figure 1: Summary of Field Vane Test Results. Figure 2: Summary of Sensitivity.
4
The measurements of mass and dimensions that were conducted to estimate the natural bulk unit
weight of a single carefully trimmed sample from this stratum produced a value of about 16.5
kN/m
3
. The specific gravity measured on the sample produced a value of 2.69.

The results of consolidation tests are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Results of Consolidation Tests

Borehole
(sample)
Elevation
(Depth)
(m)

vo

(kPa)

p
(kPa)
OCR e
0
C
r
C
s
c
v
(cm
2
/s)
Area 2
99-7
245.2
(5.0)
30.5 140 4.6 1.5 0.035 0.90* 3.5x10
-3
Area 7
99-24
252.3
(4.9)
36.2 250 6.9 1.2 0.046 0.39 5x10
-3
Area 7
99-24
249.7
(7.5)
56.1 132 2.4 1.4 0.064 0.60* 5x10
-3
Area 7
99-24
249.1
(8.1)
60.3 238 3.9 1.2 0.036 0.33 5x10
-3
* Note: For stress range of
p

vo
300 kPa

Where:
vo
is the effective overburden pressure in kPa

p
is the pre-consolidation overburden pressure in kPa
OCR is the overconsolidation ratio
e
0
is the initial void ratio
C
r
is the recompression index
C
s
is the compression index
c
v
is the estimated field coefficient of consolidation in recompression index in cm
2
/s


























Figure 3: Summary of Atterberg Limits and Water Content.
5
Figure 6 summarizes the values of overconsolidation ratio (OCR) in the two studied areas based on
the results of the oedometer test and the interpretation of OCR based on correlations with the
results of the field vane tests. The following correlation relating field vane shear strength to
prconsolidation pressure (Mesri, 1975) was employed.
s
u
=0.22
p
(1)
where s
u
is the in-situ measured undrained shear strength.























Figure 4: Summary of Plasticity Index.























Figure 5: Summary of Liquidity Index.
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4 CULVERT SETTLMENT ASSESSMENT
The alignment of the existing creeks, in relation to the proposed new highway the two areas, results
in a requirement for culverts that are longer than the shortest possible (i.e. perpendicular) distance
from one side of the new embankment to the other. For example, at Area 2, although the new 11 m
high embankment will be about 50 m wide, maintaining the current alignment of the creek
necessitates a culvert length of 136 m. At area 7, a culvert length of 85 m is required.

At the site of the culverts replacements, relatively low embankments support the current highway
alignment. The existing embankments are approximately 3m high with side slope profiles varying
from 2H (horizontal):1V (vertical) to 3H:1V. The new overall embankment was designed with
similar side slopes.
4.1 Estimated Settlement
Analysis was carried out to assess the ground settlement to be induced by the construction of the
new rockfill embankment. The analysis was based on the results of the site geotechnical
investigations.

The settlement analyses were performed using the commercially available program UNISETTLE
(v3.0) produced by Unisoft Limited. The location of the existing highway embankments relative to
the proposed new alignment requires that the new embankments be constructed overtop of the
existing ones. As such, the geometry and loading of the existing highway was included in the
settlement analysis. At Area 2, the obliqueness of the angle between the proposed culvert and new
roadway alignments (i.e. the two are not at right angles) and the varying terrain result in large
variations in the thickness of required embankment rockfill, in the existing ground surface
elevation and in the geometry of the existing highway embankment. The effect of these variations
on the estimated settlement along the culvert centreline was accounted for in the analysis by
analyzing several different cross-sections based on the available survey information.

The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) profile required in the analysis was established using the results
of the oedometer tests as well as correlations with the results of the field vane tests. The following
correlation relating field vane shear strength to pre-consolidation pressure (Mesri, 1975) was
employed.
s
u
=0.22
p
(1)
where s
u
is the in-situ measured undrained shear strength in kPa.


A summary plot showing the estimated values of OCR and the design profile of OCR versus depth
used in the analysis for the clayey stratum are shown on Figure 6. The OCR results from these
tests were consistent with the lower values estimated from the correlation with the field vane shear
strength. Therefore, the design line follows the lower bound of the trend provided by the scatter of
all vane strength correlations. The following additional parameters were used in the analysis.

Table 2: Parameters used in the settlement analyses

Area Initial Void
Ratio
e
0

Recompression
Index
C
r

Compression
Index
C
s

Thickness of
Clayey Stratum
(m)
Unit Weight

(kN/m
3
)
2

1.5

0.035 0.75 8 17.6
7

1.5 0.035 0.75 9 17.6

7






















Figure 6: Summary of Overconsolidation Ratio


The immediate settlement of the silt, sand and gravel layers underlying the clayey deposits was
modelled assuming an estimated elastic compression modulus of 6 MPa. The rockfill for the new
embankment construction and the sand and gravel fill of the existing highway embankments were
both assumed to have a unit weight of 18 kN/m
3
.

The results of the settlement analysis are presented on Figures 7 and 8 showing the estimated
settlement profile along the centreline of the proposed 136 m and the 85 m long culverts,
respectively. The calculated settlements presented in these figures are due to the loading imposed
on the compressible clayey and silt and sand foundation soils by the construction of the new
embankments. As shown on Figures 7 and 8, the maximum ground settlement along the proposed
culvert alignments is estimated to about 0.34 m in Area 2 and about 0.61 m in Area 7.

Figure 7: Estimated Settlement along Culvert Centreline, Area 2
8

In Area 2, based on a field coefficient of consolidation (c
v
) of 3.5x10
-3
cm
2
/s, it is estimated that
about 65 percent of the primary consolidation component of the settlement will be complete in
about 6 months and about 95 percent will be complete in about 1.6 years. For the secondary (creep)
consolidation component of the settlement, it is calculated (based on an estimated coefficient of
secondary consolidation c

of 0.32 percent/log cycle time) that approximately 25 mm of

settlement will occur over each log cycle of time. Following completion of primary consolidation,
about 25 mm of creep settlement is expected to occur within about 15 years.

Figure 8: Estimated Settlement along Culvert Centreline, Area 7

In Area 7, based on a field coefficient of consolidation (c
v
) of 5x10
-3
cm
2
/s, it is estimated that
about 70 percent of the primary consolidation component of the settlement will be complete in
about 6 months and about 95 percent will be complete in about 1.4 years. For the secondary
(creep) consolidation component of the settlement, it is calculated (based on an estimated
coefficient of secondary consolidation c

of 0.45 percent/log cycle time) that approximately 40

mm of settlement will occur over each log cycle of time. Following completion of primary
consolidation, about 40 mm of creep settlement is expected to occur within about 15 years.
4.2 Design Culvert Invert Elevation during Construction
The geometry of the proposed embankments and the presence of the existing roadway cause a non-
uniform loading on the subsoils that result in uneven settlement along the culvert centreline. Given
that the culverts are to provide a pathway for stream flow and fish migration from one side of the
new highway embankment to the other, careful consideration is required regarding the initial grade
and final location of the culvert invert elevation during construction. The culvert invert should be
placed such that positive flow is assured following completion of construction and after post-
construction settlements have occurred. Table 3 lists the required upstream and downstream culvert
invert/bottom elevations as provided by the client.

As a result of the long culverts and relatively small change in grade between the upstream and
downstream sides, maintaining a positive downstream gradient at all times (i.e. during construction
and following post-construction settlements) may not be possible. Two alternative construction
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profiles of culvert invert were considered as follows. Figures 9 and 10 show schematically the
different culvert installation alternatives in Areas 2 and 7, respectively.

Table 3: Required Upstream and Downstream Culvert Invert/Bottom Elevations

Location
(Culvert Length)
Culvert Station Required Invert/Bottom
Elevation
(m)
Overall Change in
Invert Elevation and
Average Culvert Grade
Area 2
(136 m)
9+932 248.15 -
10+068 247.80 0.35 m / 0.26%
Area 7
(85 m)
9+958.5 256.10 -
10+043.5 255.25 0.85 m / 1.0%

If a positive (or zero) downstream gradient is to be maintained during construction (Alternative 1),
it is estimated that some ponding (i.e. possible accumulation of standing water) will occur over the
central sections of the culverts at the completion of the long-term settlements (Figures 9 and 10).

If a positive downstream gradient is to be achieved over the entire length of each culvert following
the completion of the long-term settlements (Alternative 2), the culvert invert must be initially
placed during construction such that some upstream ponding will occur (Figures 9 and 10).

Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 summarize possible culvert invert elevations for the two different alternatives
(for each culvert location) based on the results of the settlement analysis. The impact of each option
on the local hydraulics of the stream system is also identified.

Table 4: Area 2 Alternative 1

Station Distance From
Left /Upstream
End (m)
Initial Construction Final Condition
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
9+932 0.0 248.150 - 248.126 -
9+956.5 24.5 248.150 0.00 248.044 -0.33
9+987.5 55.5 248.150 0.00 247.811 -0.75
10+018.5 86.5 248.016 -0.43 247.933* 0.39
10+049.5 117.5 247.882 -0.43 247.869 -0.21
10+068 136.0 247.800 -0.44 247.800 -0.37

Notes - ve implies downstream gradient
* Approximately 0.12 m deep pool (maximum) is calculated to occur over a 31 m
long section of culvert at end of long-term settlement

Table 5: Area 2 Alternative 2

Station Distance From
Left /Upstream
End (m)
Initial Construction Final Condition
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
9+932 0.0 248.150 - 248.126 -
9+956.5 24.5 248.150 0.00 248.044 -0.33
9+987.5 55.5 248.350* 0.65 248.011 -0.11
10+018.5 86.5 248.016 -1.08 247.933 -0.25
10+049.5 117.5 247.882 -0.43 247.869 -0.21
10+068 136.0 247.800 -0.44 247.800 -0.37
Notes - ve implies downstream gradient * Approximately 0.20 m deep upstream ponding is
calculated to occur at initial construction.
10






















Figure 9: Culvert Installation Schematic, Area 2.

Table 6: Area 7 Alternative 1

Station Distance From
Left /Upstream
End (m)
Initial Construction Final Condition
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
9+958.5 0.0 256.100 - 256.081 -
9+972.4 13.9 256.056 -0.32 255.944 -0.99
9+995.0 36.5 255.984 -0.32 255.375 -2.52
10+010.3 51.8 255.752 -1.52 255.538* 1.07
10+034.4 75.9 255.388 -1.51 255.333 -0.85
10+043.5 85.0 255.250 -1.52 255.244 -0.98

Notes - ve implies downstream gradient
* Approximately 0.16 m deep pool (maximum) is calculated to occur over a 15 m
long section of culvert at end of long-term settlement

Table 7: Area 7 Alternative 2

Station Distance From
Left /Upstream
End (m)
Initial Construction Final Condition
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
Elevation
(m)
Interval Grade
(%)
9+958.5 0.0 256.100 - 256.081 -
9+972.4 13.9 256.100 -0.00 255.988 -0.67
9+995.0 36.5 256.200* 0.44 255.591 -1.76
10+010.3 51.8 255.752 -2.93 255.538 -0.35
10+034.4 75.9 255.388 -1.51 255.333 -0.85
10+043.5 85.0 255.250 -1.52 255.244 -0.98

Notes - ve implies downstream gradient
* Approximately 0.10 m deep upstream ponding is calculated to occur at initial
construction
11























Figure 10: Culvert installation schematic, Area 7


If Alternative 1 is adopted as the method of construction (i.e. maintain a zero or downstream
gradient over all sections of culvert during construction), potential problems associated with the
possibility of standing water (or very shallow areas) over a central section of the culvert could be
partially mitigated by decreasing the thickness of the granular substrate over this section following
the completion of all settlements. A localized thinning of the substrate would decrease the invert
elevation as required and could reinstate a downstream gradient over the affected section.

If Alternative 2 is adopted as the method of construction (i.e. maintain a downstream gradient over
all sections of culvert at end of long-term consolidation settlement), potential problems associated
with initial upstream ponding are expected to be relatively short-lived. Based on the oedometer
(consolidation) test data obtained at the sites, it is estimated that 0.10 m to 0.20 m of consolidation
settlement should occur in about one month or less following the placement of the embankment fill.
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper presents a case record that identifies and discusses the importance of considering long-
term settlements in the design and construction of long culverts beneath high embankments on
clay. Special culvert design and construction methods are required if suitable hydraulic grades and
performance are to be provided throughout the design life of the culvert. Two alternative
construction culvert invert profiles are identified to accommodate anticipated long-term settlement
profiles. The hydraulic advantages and limitations of each alternative are also discussed.

The project will need to be completed and the culvert performance observed over time before the
success of the settlement mitigation measures described in this paper can be assessed. This may be
the topic of a future paper as a supplement to the current paper.

12
REFERENCES
Bostock, H.S. 1970. Physiographic subdivisions of Canada; in Geology and Economic Minerals of Canada,
Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report No. 1: 11-30.
Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (CFEM). 2006. Fourth Edition. Edited by D.E. Becker and I.D.
Moore. Published by the Canadian Geotechnical Society through Bi-Tech Publishers, Richmond, BC.
Geology of Ontario.1991. Ontario Geological Society, Special Volume 4, Part 1. Eds. P.C. Thurston, H.R.
Williams, R.H. Sutcliffe and G.M. Stott. Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, Ontario.
Handbook of Steel Drainage & Highway Construction Products. 1984. First Canadian Edition. American Iron
and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
Mesri, G. 1975. Discussion on new design procedure for stability of soft clays. ASCE J ournal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, 101 (GT4): 409-412.
Rutledge, P.C. and Gould, J .P. 1973. Movements of Articulated Conduits Under Earth Dams on
Compressible Foundations, In: Embankment Dam Engineering Casagrande Volume. Eds. Hirschfeld,
R.C. and Poulos, S.J . J ohn Wiley & Sons, New York.